THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST SECOND THIRD FOURTH FIFTH SIXTH SEVENTH EIGHTH NINTH TENTH ELEVENTH edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771. ten „ 1777 — 1784. eighteen „ 1788 — 1797. twenty „ 1801 — 1810. twenty „ 1815 — 1817. twenty „ 1823 — 1824. twenty-one „ 1830 — 1842. twenty-two „ j853 — 1860, twenty-five „ 1875 — 1889. ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. publUhed in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Cbnvention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME I A to ANDROPHAGI New York Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. 342 Madison Avenue Copyright, in the United States of America, igio, Hie Encyclopaedia Britannica Company DEDICATED BY PERMISSION TO HIS MAJESTY GEORGE THE FIFTH KING OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND AND OF THE BRITISH DOMINIONS BEYOND THE SEAS EMPEROR OF INDIA AND TO WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA PREFATORY NOTE THE Encyclopedia Britannica, of which the Eleventh Edition is now issued by the University of Cambridge, has a history extending over 140 years. The First Edition, in three quarto volumes, was issued in weekly numbers (price 6d. each) from 1768 to 1771 by "a Society of Gentlemen in Scotland." The proprietors were Colin MacFarquhar, an Edinburgh printer, and Andrew Bell, the principal Scottish engraver of that day. It seems that MacFarquhar, a man of wide knowledge and excellent judgment, was the real originator of the work, though his want of capital prevented his undertaking it by himself. The work was edited and in great part written by William Smellie, another Edinburgh printer, who was bold enough to undertake "fifteen capital sciences" for his own share. The numerous plates were engraved by Bell so admirably that some of them have been reproduced in every edition down to the present one. The plan of the work differed from all preceding " dictionaries of arts and sciences," as encyclopaedias were usually called until then in Great Britain; it combined the plan of Dennis de Coetlogon (17^5) with that in common use — on the one hand keeping important subjects together, and on the other facilitating reference by numerous and short separate articles arranged in alphabetical order. Though the infant Encyclopedia Britannica omitted the whole field of history and biography as beneath the dignity of encyclopaedias, it speedily acquired sufficient popularity to justify the preparation of a new edition on a much larger scale. The decision to include history and biography caused the secession of Smellie; but MacFarquhar himself edited the work, with the assistance of James Tytler, famous as the first Scottish aeronaut, and for the first time produced an encyclopaedia which covered the whole field of human knowledge. This Second Edition was issued in numbers from June 1777 to September 1784, and was afterwards bound up in ten quarto volumes, containing (8595 pages and 340 plates) more than three times as much material as the first Edition. These earliest editions of the Encyclopedia Britannica consisted mainly of what may be described as compilation; like all their predecessors, from the time of Alsted to that of Ephraim Chambers, they had been put together by one or two men who were still able to take the whole of human knowledge for their province. It was with the Third Edition that the plan of drawing on specialist learning, which has since given the Encyclopedia Britannica its high reputation, was first adopted. This edition, which was begun in 1788 and completed, in eighteen volumes, in 1797, was edited by MacFarquhar until his death in 1793, when about two-thirds of the work were completed. Bell, the surviving proprietor, then appointed George Gleig — afterwards Bishop of Brechin— -as vii Vlll PREFATORY NOTE editor, and it was he who enlisted the assistance, as contributors, of the most eminent men of science then living in Scotland. Professors Robison, Thomas Thomson and Playfair were the most notable of these new specialist contributors, and a Supplement in two volumes was issued in 1801 to allow them to extend their work to those earlier letters of the alphabet which had already been issued by MacFarquhar. It was their labours which first gave the Encyclopedia Britannica its pre-eminent standing among works of reference, and prepared the way for it to become, as a later editor claimed, not merely a register but an instrument of research, since thereafter the leading specialists in all departments were invited to contribute their unpublished results to its pages. In the Fourth Edition, published by Andrew Bqll in twenty volumes from 1801 to 1810, the principle of specialist contributions was considerably extended, but it was only brought to such degree of perfection as was possible at the time by Archibald Constable, "the great Napoleon of the realms of print," who purchased the copyright of the Encyclopedia Britannica soon after Bell's death in 1809. Constable lavished his energy and his money on the famous "Supplement to the Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Editions," which in 1813 he commissioned Macvey Napier to edit. It was with the appearance of this Supplement that the Encyclopedia Britannica ceased to be a purely Scottish undertaking, and blossomed out into that great cosmopolitan or international enterprise which it has since become. The most eminent writers, scholars and men of science in England and on the continent of Europe, as well as in Scotland itself, were enlisted in the work: Sir Walter Scott, Jeffrey, Leslie, Playfair and Sir Humphry Davy, Dugald Stewart — who received the then unpre- cedented sum of ^1000 for a single contribution — Ricardo, Malthus and Thomas Young, with foreign men of science like Arago and Biot. From this time onward, indeed, a list of the contributors to successive editions of the Encyclopedia Britannica would be a list of the most eminent British and American writers and thinkers of each generation; the work had become the product of the organized co-operation of acknowledged leaders of the world's thought, in every department of human knowledge. For this advance the credit is mainly due to Constable. The Fifth and Sixth Editions, each in twenty volumes, issued by Constable between 1815 and 1824, were practically reprints of the Fourth, the Supplement — issued in six volumes from 18 16 to 1824 — being considered adequate'to supply their deficiencies. The Seventh Edition, edited by Macvey Napier on the same lines as the Supplement, of which it incorporated a great part, was brought out by a new publisher, Adam Black, who had bought the copyright on.Constable's failure. This edition was issued from 1830 to 1842, and was comprised in twenty-one volumes, which included a general index to the whole work. The Eighth Edition, under the editorship of T. Stewart Traill, was issued by the firm of A. & C. Black, from 1853 to i860, in twenty-one volumes, with a separate index volume. The Ninth Edition was then undertaken by the same firm on a scale which Adam Black con- sidered so hazardous that he refused to have any part in the undertaking, and he accordingly advertised his retirement from the firm. This Edition began to appear in 1875, under the editor- ship of Thomas Spencer Baynes, and was completed in 1889 by William Robertson Smith. It consisted of twenty-four volumes, containing 21,572 pages and 302 plates, with a separate index volume. Adam Black's prognostications of failure were signally. falsified by the success of the work, of which nearly half a million sets— including American pirated and mutilated editions — were ultimately sold. The great possibilities of popularity for the Encyclopedia Britannica in Great PREFATORY NOTE ix Britain were only realized, however, when in 1898 The Times undertook tosell a verbatim reprint of the Ninth Edition at about half the price originally asked for it by the publishers. The success of this reprint led to the publication by The Times in 1992 of an elaborate supplement in eleven New Volumes (one containing new maps and one a comprehensive index to the whole work), constituting, with the previous twenty-four volumes, the Tenth Edition. The Eleventh Edition, which super- sedes both Ninth and Tenth, and represents in an entirely new and original form a fresh survey of the whole field of human thought and achievement, written by some 1500 eminent specialists drawn from nearly every country of the civilized world, incorporating the results of research and the progress of events up to the middle of 19 10, is now published by the University of Cambridge, where it is hoped that the Encyclopedia Britannica has at length found a permanent home. It will be seen from this brief survey of the history of the Encyclopedia Britannica that, while the literary and scholarly success of the work has been uniform and continuous, its commercial career has naturally. been subject to vicissitudes. Six different publishing firms have been at various times associated with its production; and the increasing magnitude of the work, con- sequent on the steady growth of knowledge, made this wellnigh inevitable. The Encyclopedia Britannica has to-day become something more than a commercial venture, or even a national enterprise. It is a vast cosmopolitan work of learning, which can find no home so appropriate as an ancient university. The present publication of the new Encyclopedia Britannica by the University of Cambridge is a natural step in the evolution of the university as an educational institution and a home of research. The medieval University of Cambridge began its educational labours as an institution intended almost exclusively for the instruction of the clergy, to whose needs its system of studies was necessarily in a large measure accommodated. The Revival of Learning, the Renaissance and the Reformation widened its sphere of intellectual work and its interests, as well as its actual curriculum. The 19th century saw the complete abolition of the various tests which formerly shut the gates of the English universities against a large part of the people. The early establishment in Cambridge of special colleges for women was also a sign of expanding activities. About the same time the University Extension movement, first advocated at Cambridge in 187 1 on the ground that the ancient universities were not mere clusters of private establishments but national institutions, led to a wider conception of the possibilities of utilizing the intellectual resources of the universities for the general diffusion of knowledge and culture; and the system of Local Examinations brought the university into close contact with secondary education throughout the country. But the public to which the University of Cambridge thus appealed, though wider than that of the college lecture-rooms, was still necessarily limited. Practically it is only through the medium of the University Press that Cambridge can enter into and maintain direct relations with the whole of the English-speaking world. The present time seems appropriate for an effort towards thus signally extending the intellectual and educational influence of the university. To this end, the University of Cambridge has undertaken the publication of the Encyclopedia Britannica, and now issues the Eleventh Edition of that work. These twenty-eight volumes and index aim at achieving the high ambition of bringing all extant knowledge within the reach of every class of readers While the work, in its present form, is to some extent based on the * PREFATORY NOTE preceding edition, the whole field has been re-surveyed with the guidance of the most eminent specialists. The editors early decided that the new edition should be planned and written as a whole, and refused to content themselves with the old-fashioned plan of regarding each volume as a separate unit, to be compiled and published by itself. They were thus able to arrange their material so as to give an organic unity to the wh6le work and to place all the various subjects under their natural headings, in the form which experience has shown to be the most convenient for a work of universal reference. An important consequence of this method of editing is that the twenty-eight volumes are now ready for publication at the same time, and that the complete work can be offered to the public in its entirety. Although the work has been reduced to the smallest compass consistent with lucidity — bibliographies of all subjects which call for assistance of this nature being provided in aid of more detailed study — the aim throughout has been to maintain the highest standard of scholarly authority, and to provide a thorough elucidation of important scientific problems for which the modern inquirer has no adequate text-books. This Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica is now, therefore, offered to the public by the University of Cambridge in the hope and belief that it will be found to be a trustworthy guide to sound learning, and an, instrument of culture of world-wide influence. Cambridge, November I, igio. EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION ELSEWHERE in these volumes, under the heading of Encyclopaedia (vol. ix. p. 369), an account is given in detail of the particular form of literature to which that name applies. It is no longer necessary, as was done in some of the earlier editions of the Encyclopedia Britannica, to defend in a Preface the main principle of the system by which subjects are divided for treatment on a dictionary plan under the headings most directly suggesting explanation or discussion. The convenience of an arrangement of material based on a single alphabetization of subject words and proper t ih b k names has established itself in the common sense of mankind, and in recent years has led to the multiplication of analogous works of reference. There are, however, certain points in the execution of the Eleventh Edition to which, in a preliminary survey, attention may profitably be drawn. The Eleventh Edition and its Predecessors. It is important to deal first with the relationship of the Eleventh Edition to its predecessors, iu addition to providing a digest of general information, such as is required in a reference-book pure and simple, the object of the Encyclopedia Britannica has always been to give reasoned dis- _ „ • ,1 .1 \- r .i 1 \- ■ . \ ±- ^ Debt to earlier cussions on all the great questions of practical or speculative interest, presenting the edit i 0ns results of accumulated knowledge and original inquiry in the form of articles which are themselves authoritative contributions to the literature of their subjects, adapted for the purpose of systematic reading and study. In this way its successive editions have been among the actual sources through which progressive improvements have been attained in the exposition of many important branches of learning. The Ninth Edition in particular, to which the Eleventh is the lineal successor — for the name of the Tenth was used only to indicate the incorporation of supplementary vol- umes which left the main fabric untouched — was universally recognized as giving the va j ue most scholarly contemporary expression to this constructive ideal. The reputation thus gained by the Encyclopedia Britannica as a comprehensive embodiment of accurate scholarship— the word being used here for authoritative exposition in all departments of knowledge — carries with it a responsibility which can only be fulfilled by periodical revision in the light of later research. Yet in any complete new edition, and certainly in that which is here presented, due acknowledgment must be made to the impulse given by those who kept the sacred fire burning in earlier days. In this respect, if a special debt is owing to the editors of the Ninth Edition, and particularly to the great services of Robertson Smith, it must not be forgotten that long before their time the Encyclopedia Britannica had enlisted among its contributors many eminent writers, whose articles, substantially car- ried forward at each revision, became closely associated with the name and tradition of the work. 1 To ' In earlier days the reverence due to deceased authority was perhaps carried to extreme lengths. The following footnote, attached in the Eighth Edition to Sir Walter Scott's article Drama, may be cited: — "It is proper to state here . . . that this article is reprinted as it originally appeared in the supplement to the fourth, fifth and sixth editions of this work without any of those adaptations which the course of time and change XI xii EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION preserve the continuity of its historic associations, so far as might be consistent with the public interest, and with what was due to progress in knowledge, was one of the first duties of those responsible for a new edition; and just as the Ninth Edition carried forward, with notable additions or substitutions, work contributed to the Eighth and earlier editions, so it provided matter for utilization in the Eleventh, which in its turn had to accommodate the new knowledge of a later generation. In considering the treatment, however, of the mass of material thus handed down, the editor of the Eleventh Edition had an entirely new situation to deal with. It is necessary here to explain why it is that the Eleventh Edition is much more than a revision — is, indeed, a new edifice as com- . . pared with the structure of the Ninth Edition. In the whole architecture of the latter departure. c there was a serious flaw, due to no want of ability in editors or contributors, but to the conditions imposed upon them in the system of publication. The economic and mechanical obstacles to the production of a great encyclopaedia otherwise than in a series of volumes separately issued at intervals during a number of years were formerly considered prohibitive. Thus the Ninth Edition, the first volume of which was published in 1875 f C ° d ^ anc * ^ e twenty-fifth in 1889, was incomplete for some sixteen years after its real incep- tion. Not only does such a long interval between the start and the finish involve the possibility of a change in editorial direction and conception such as happened in 1881 when Spencer Baynes was compelled by ill-health to hand over the reins to Robertson Smith; but even if the same editorial policy remained to dominate the work, the continual progress of time was constantly chang- ing the conditions under which it was exercised. With such a system of publication an encyclopaedia can have no proper unity of conception or uniformity of treatment. It cannot be planned from the beginning so as to present at its completion a satisfactory synoptic view of any department of knowledge. The historical record is restricted by the accident of the dates at which the separate vol- umes are published, in such a way that the facts included in one volume may contradict those in another. Individual volumes, the contents of which are arbitrarily determined by the alphabetical order of headings, may indeed be abreast of the learning and accomplishments of their day, but each time a later volume appears the circumstances have altered," and there is every J f f C . ° _. chance that some integral portion of what had previously been published may be division under ,..,_, , ° L .. , . , . . , ,.... . _ ,, . / . different dates stultified. Those who were responsible' for the execution 01 the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopedia Brilannica did their best under an impossible system. They made it a collection of detached monographs of the highest authority and value. In their day the demand of a modern public for " up-to-date-ness " had not come into existence, and it seemed perfectly reason- able in 1879 to bring the article on the history of England no further than the accession of Queen Victoria. But it was not their failure to appreciate the importance of dealing with the latest events in history that made so much of the Ninth Edition useless in preparing its successor. When only this was in question, later history could be added. It was the fact that, owing to its system of publication, its arrangement was not encyclopaedic, and that in preparing an edition which for the first time had the advantage of being systematic in the distribution of its material, there was no way of adapting to its needs what had been written originally on a faulty principle. Until the year 1902, when, within nine months, nine supplementary volumes of text were issued by The Times, no publisher had cared or dared to attempt to produce at one time the whole of any work of similar magnitude. It was the regular practice to issue volume by volume. . . On this system the public has been furnished with the Oxford New English Diction- method now . ... . , . , , ■ , , . . , 1 1 ■ • 1 1 r employed ar y ^ stl " mcom Pl e te m 1910, though work had begun in the early sixties and the first volume appeared in 1888) and with the Dictionary of National Biography, while the French La Grande Encyclopedic, which took even longer than the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopaedia Brilannica to complete, was coming out in its thirty-one volumes between 1885 and 1902. But the proof obtained in 1902 of the practicability of simultaneous production in the case of the supplementary volumes which of circumstances render necessary in ordinary cases, ■ We have deemed this homage due to the genius and fame of the illustrious author, whose splendid view of the origin and progress of the dramatic art we have accordingly presented to the reader exactly as.it proceeded from his own hand, leaving every contemporaneous allusion and illustration untouched." It may be remarked that this footnote, which was reprinted from the Seventh Edition, was itself carried forward without being brought up to date, apparently in the same spirit; and in another footnote, also reprinted from the Seventh Edition, a reference is made to allusions "on p. 147," which were indeed on p. 147 of the Seventh Edition, but are on p. 137 of the Eighth! EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xiii converted the Ninth into the Tenth Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, made it imperative to extend this limited experiment to the making of an entirely new edition. By this means a new value might be given to a work which aimed not merely at providing a storehouse of facts, but expounding all knowledge as part of an ordered system. For the problem here was bound up with the question of the date of publication to a unique degree. In some other sorts of book the fact that successive volumes appear at certain intervals of time only affects the convenience of the purchaser — as, for instance, in the case of the Cambridge Modern History; the various volumes do not cover the same field or touch the same materials. But in an ency- clopaedia it is only the alphabetization of the headings which causes them to fall in distinct volumes, and the accident of position separates the treatment of the same or closely related subjects in such a way that, if they are discussed from the point of view of widely different dates, the organic unity of the work is entirely lost. Thanks to the enterprising provision of capital, and the co-operation of a far-sighted business management, it was possible to start the preparation of the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica with the portance to knowledge that it would be published as a whole at one date. The separate volumes, such a wor ^ whatever their number, would no longer represent so many lapses of time and so many distinct units in executive conception, but merely mechanical divisions for convenience in handling. And arrangements were made so that the printing of the whole edition should eventually take hardly more time than had been required for the printing and correcting of a single volume under the old system. The opportunity thus provided was in many ways more appropriate to the making of an entirely new work than to the revision of an old one. For the Ninth Edition was wanting in pre- cisely that character of interdependence in all its parts which could now be given to the various related articles. Moreover, experience had shown that, as compared . with other encyclopaedias of less ambitious scope, not intended for systematic study poss jbi e , or continuous reading, its arrangement as a work of reference had defects which resulted in some injustice being done to its merits as a series of individual contributions to learning. There was no reason why both these purposes should not be served, and attention be paid to distributing the material under the much larger number of headings which are required for rapid and easy reference, when once it was possible to ignore the particular order in which the subjects were treated. Since none of the work was printed or published until the whole of it was ready, new headings could always be introduced with their appropriate matter, according as the examination of what was written under another heading revealed omissions which showed that some related subject required explanation on its own account, or according as the progress of time up to the year of publication involved the emergence of new issues, to which previously no separate reference would have been expected. The execution of the Eleventh Edition, planned on uniform lines as a single organism, and thus admitting of continual improvement in detail, irrespectively of the distribution of matter under this or that letter of the alphabet, could proceed in all its parts pari passu, the various articles being kept open for revision or rewriting, so as to represent the collective knowledge and the contemporary standpoint of the date at which the whole was issued. This new design involved the maintenance, during all the years of preparation, of an active collabora- tion among a vast body of contributors. The formal structure of the Ninth Edition necessarily dis- appeared, leaving only its component parts as building material for incorporation in the new edifice to such degree as examination might prove its adaptability. The site — in this f he field of case the whole field of knowledge — was mapped out afresh under the advice of special- knowledge. ist departmental advisers, who, in providing for the occupation of the different areas, co-operated with a central editorial staff, comprising many members, each of whom was responsi- ble to the Editor-in-Chief for a particular section of the work. In this manner what, it is hoped, is a more complete articulation of subjects was effected, while co-operation between the contributors who dealt with each homogeneous department of knowledge was combined with the concentration in editorial direction, which alone could make the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica an organic unit. xiv EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION The result of the new survey was a distribution of material under a far larger number of headings than had been included in the Ninth Edition — some 40,000 instead of some 17,000; and the method of simul- taneous construction enabled the co-ordination which is of such peculiar importance in .. a work of reference to be applied systematically by the editorial staff. The authority which attaches to the names of individual contributors remains, as before, an important feature of the Eleventh Edition, but by these means, it is hoped, the authority which attaches to the Encyclopedia Britannica itself is more firmly established. When Robertson Smith finally wrote his preface to the Index volume of the Ninth Edition, he said: — "The use of initials (as signatures to articles) was not designed to lighten the responsibility of the editors. No editor can possess the knowledge which would enable him to control the work of his contributors in all the subjects treated The two sources of th It °^ * n t ^ ie E nc yd°P *" J^i "t^ 6 * as to where convenience rather than philological correctness should rule has been made i anguag e S . all the more difficult, especially with names representing Arabic or other Oriental originals, by the strong views of individual scholars, who from time to time attempt in their own writ- ings to impose their own transliterations upon others, in the face of well-established convention. In the course of the preparation of the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, various eminent Arabic scholars have given strong expression to their view as to the English form of the name of the Prophet of Islam, preference being given to that of Muhammad. But the old form Mahomet is a well- established English equivalent; and it is here retained for convenience in identification where the Prophet himself is referred to, the form Mahommed being generally used in distinction for other per- sons of this name. Purists may be dissatisfied with this concession to popular usage; our choice is, we believe, in the interest of the general public. If only the "correct" forms of many Oriental nanies had been employed, they would be unrecognizable except to scholars. On the other hand, while the retention of Mahomet is a typical instance of the preference given to a vernacular spelling when there is one, and customary forms are adopted for Arabic and other names' in the headings and for ordinary use through- out the work, in every case the more accurate scientific spelling is also given in the appropriate article. While deference has naturally been paid to the opinion of individual scholars, as far as possible, in connex- ion with articles contributed by them, uniformity throughout the work (a necessity for the purpose of Index-making, if for no other) has been secured by transliterating on the basis of schemes which have been specially prepared for each language; for this purpose the best linguistic opinions have been consulted, but due weight has been given to intelligibility on the part of a public already more or less accustomed to a stereotyped spelling. In the case of Babylonian names, a section of the general article Babylonia is specially devoted to an elucidation of 'the divergences between the renderings given by individual Assyriologists. While the Encyclopedia Britannica has aimed, in this matter of local and personal nomenclature, at conciliating the opinion of scholars with public usage and convenience, and the present edition makes an attempt to solve the problem on reasonable lines, it should be understood that the whole question of the uniform representation in English of foreign place and „ . personal names is still in a highly unsatisfactory condition. Scholars will never get £he public to adopt the very peculiar renderings, obscured by complicated accents, which do service in purely learned circles and have a scientific justification as part of a quasi-mathematical device for accurate pronunciation. Any attempt to transliterate into English on a phonetic basis has, moreover, a radical weakness which is too often ignored. So long as pronunciation is not itself standardized, and so long as the human ear does not uniformly carry to a standardized human brain the sound that is uniformly pronounced — and it will be long before these conditions cart be fulfilled — even a phonetic system of spell- ing must adopt some convention; and in that case it is surely best, if a well-recognized convention already exists and is in use among the public at large, to adopt it rather than, to invent a new one. The point is, indeed, of more than formal importance. So long as scholars and the public are at issue on the very xviii EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION essentials of the comprehension of scholarly books, which are made unreadable by the use of diacritical signs and unpronounceable spellings, culture cannot advance except within the narrowest of sects. This incompatibility is bad for the public, but it is also bad for scholarship. While the general reader is repelled, the Orientalist is neglected, — to the loss of both. This criticism, which sub- ee o cm- s j. an ^j a r]y a ppij es to many other formal aspects of modern learning, may be unwelcome to the professors, but it is the result of an extended experience in the attempt to bring accurate knowledge into digestible shape for the wide public for whom the Encyclopedia Britannica is intended. It is indeed partly because of the tendency of modern science and modern scholarship to put the artificial obstacles of a technical jargon in the path of people even of fairly high education, that it becomes imperative to bring both parties upon a common ground, where the world at large may discover the meaning of the learned research to which otherwise it is apt to be a stranger. With regard to the various departments of natural science, there was a tendency in previous editions of the Encyclopedia Britannica to make inclusive treatises of the longer articles, and to incorporate under the one general heading of the science itself matter which . i would more naturally, form a separate, if subordinate, subject. An attempt has now been made to arrange the material, rather according to the heading under which, in an encyclopaedia, students would expect to find it. In any text-book on Light, for instance, the technical aspects of aberration, refraction, reflection, interference, phosphorescence, &c, would be discussed concurrently as part of the whole science, in so many chapters' of a continuous treatise. But each such chapter or subdivision in a treatise becomes in an encyclopaedia arranged on the dictionary plan, matter to be explained where the appropriate word occurs in the alpha- , ., betical order of headings. Under the name of the common subject of the science as a encyclopaedia ° ' method. whole, its history and general aspects are discussed, but the details concerned with the separate scientific questions which fall within its subject-matter — on each of which often a single specialist has unique authority — are relegated to distinct articles, to the headings of which the general account becomes, if required, a key or pointer. This arrangement of the scientific material — a general article acting as pointer to subsidiary articles, and the latter relieving the general account of details which would overload it — has been adopted throughout the Eleventh Edition; and in the result it is believed that a more complete and at the same time more authoritative survey has been attained, within the limits possible to such a work, than ever before. The single-treatise plan, which was characteristic of the Ninth Edition, is not only cumbrous in a work of reference, but lent itself to the omission altogether, under the general heading, of specific issues which consequently received no proper treatment at all that of a s//iWe an ^ w ^ iere * n ^ e D0 °^! whereas the dictionary plan, by automatically providing treatise. headings throughout the work, under which, where appropriate, articles of more or less length may be put, enables every subject to be treated, comprehensively or in detail, yet as part of an organic whole, by means of careful articulation adapted to the requirements of an intelligent reader. In preparing the Eleventh Edition a useful check on the possibility of such accidental omissions as are apt to occur when the treatise plan is pursued, was provided by the decision, arrived at - independently of any question of subdivision, to revert more closely to the original headings form of the Encyclopedia Britannica, and to make separate headings of any words which, purely as words, had any substantial interest either for historical or philological reasons, or as requiring explanation even for English-speaking readers. 1 The labours of Sir James Murray and his colleagues on the Oxford New English Dictionary, which has only become accessible since the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica was published, have enabled a precise examination to be made of all the possible headings of this kind. Such words, or groups of words, together with proper names, personal, geographical, zoological, etc., obviously exhaust the headings 1 Though, in pursuance of the ideal of making the whole book self-explanatory, a great many purely technical terms have been given their interpretation only in the course of the article on the science or art in which they are used, even these are included, with the correct references, among the headings in the Index. Similarly, biographical accounts are given of far more persons than have separate biographies. The Index in all such cases must be consulted, whether for word or name. EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xix under which the subject matter of an encyclopaedia can be subdivided; and thus the dictionary plan, combined with a complete logical analysis of the contents of the various arts and sciences, forms a comprehensive basis for ensuring that no question of any substantial interest can be omitted. As a rule the headings suggested by a logical subdivision of subject, as approved by the professional or scientific expert, follow the usage of words which is natural to any one speaking the English language ; but where, owing to the existence of some accepted terminology in j m P° rta " ce of any particular line of inquiry, it departs from this ordinary usage, the dictionary plan accuraC y. . still enables a cross-reference to guide the reader, and at the same time to impart instruc- tion in the history or technical niceties of a vocabulary which is daily outgrowing the range even of the educated classes. It is highly and increasingly important that mere words should be correctly evaluated, and connected with the facts for which properly they stand. Some Points as to Substance. In considering the substance, rather than the form, of the Eleventh Edition, it may be remarked first that, as a work of reference no less than as a work for reading and study, its preparation has been dominated throughout by the historical point of xiew. Any account which purports to describe what actually goes on to-day, whether in the realm of mind or in the f l i stQr j an that of matter, is inevitably subject to change as years or even months pass by; but what has been, if accurately recorded, remains permanently true as such. In the larger sense the historian has here to deal not only with ancient and modern political history, as ordinarily under- stood, but with past doings in every field, and thus with the steps by which existing conditions have been reached. Geography and exploration, religion and philosophy, pure and applied science, art and literature, commerce and industry, law and economics, war and peace, sport and games, — all subjects are treated in these volumes not only on their merits, but as in continual evolution, the successive stages in which are of intrinsic interest on their own account, but also throw light on what goes before and after. The whole range of history, thus considered, has, however, been immensely widened in the Eleventh Edition as compared with the Ninth. The record of the past, thrown farther and farther back by the triumphs of modern archaeology, is limited on its nearer confines only by the date at which the Encyclopcedia Britannica is published. Any contemporary description is indeed liable to become inadequate almost as soon as it is in the hands of the reader; but the available resources have been utilized here to the utmost, so that the salient facts up to the autumn of the year 1910 might be included throughout, not merely as isolated events, but as part of a con- sistent whole, conceived in the spirit of the historian. Thus only can the fleeting present be true to its relation with later developments, which it is no part of the task of an encyclopaedia to prophesy. In this connexion it is advisable to explain that while the most recent statistics have been incorporated when they really represented conditions of historic value, the notion that economic development can be truly shown merely by giving statistics for the last year available is entirely false, and for this reason in many cases there has been no attempt merely statistics. to be "up-to-date" by inserting them. Statistics are used here as an illustration of the substantial existing conditions and of real progress. For the statistics of one year, and especially for those of the latest year, the inquirer must necessarily go to annual publications, not to an encyclopaedia which attempts to show the representative conditions of abiding importance. In such a work statistics are only one useful method of expressing historic evolution; their value varies con- siderably according to the nature of the subject dealt with; and the figures of the year which by accident is the last before publication would often be entirely misleading, owing to their being subject to some purely temporary influence. In general, far less tabular matter has been included in the Eleventh Edition than in the Ninth. Where it is used, it is not as a substitute for descriptive accounts, which can put the facts in readable form much better, but more appropriately as showing concisely and clearly the differences between the conditions at different periods. As years pass by, xx EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION and new statistics on all subjects become accessible, those which have been given here for their historical value are, as such, unaffected by the lapse of time; but if they had been slavishly inserted simply because they were the latest in the series of years immediately preceding publication, their precarious connexion with any continuous evolution would soon have made them futile. So much has been done in the Eleventh Edition to bring the record of events, whether in political history or in other articles, down to the latest available date, and thus to complete the picture of the world as it was in 1910, that it is necessary to deprecate any misconception which might otherwise arise from the fact that statistics are' inserted not as events in themselves — this they may or may not be, according to the subject-matter — but as a method of expressing the substantial results of human activity; for that purpose they must be given comparatively, selected as representative, and weighed in the balance of the judicious historian. While every individual article in an encyclopaedia which aims at authoritative exposition must be informed by the spirit of history, it is no less essential that the spirit of science should move over The spirit of ^ e const ruction of the work as a whole. Whatever may be the deficiencies of its science. execution, the Eleventh Edition has at any rate this advantage to those who use it, that the method of simultaneous preparation, already referred to, has enabled every subject to be treated systematically. Not only in the case of "science" itself, but in history, law, or any other kind of knowledge, its contributors were all assisting to carry out a preconcerted scheme, each aware of the relation of his or her contribution to others in the same field; and the inter- dependence of the related parts must be remembered by any reader who desires to do justice to the treatment of any large subject. Cross-references and other indications in the text are guides to the system employed, which are supplemented in greater detail by the elaborate Index. But the scientific spirit not only affects the scheme of construction as a whole: it has modified the individual treatment. Attention may perhaps be drawn to two particular points in this connexion, — the increased employment of the comparative method, and the attempt to treat opinion and controversy objectively, without partisanship or sectarianism. The title of the Encyclopedia Britannica has never meant that it is restricted in its accounts of natural science, law, religion, art, or other subjects, to what goes on in the British dominions; but a The compara- cons iderable extension has been given in the Eleventh Edition to the amount cf tive method, information it contains concerning the corresponding activities in other countries. By approaching each subject, as far as possible, on its merits, the contributors in every department aim at appraising the achievements of civilization from whatever source they have arisen, and at the same time, by inserting special sections on different countries when this course is appropriate, they show the variations in practice under different systems of government or custom. But the subjects are not only arranged comparatively in this sense : new branches of study have arisen which are of chief importance mainly for the results attained by the comparative method. The impetus given to comparative sociology by Herbert Spencer, the modern interest in comparative law, religion, folklore, anthropology, psychology and philology, have resulted in the accumulation of a mass of detail which it becomes the task of an encyclopaedia produced on the plan of organized co-operation to reduce to manageable proportions and intelligible perspective. Comparative bibliography, so much fostered of late years by the growth of great library organizations, undergoes in its turn the same process; and expert selection makes the references to the best books a guide to the student without overwhelming him. To deal here with all the lines of new research which have benefited by the comparative method in recent years would trench unnecessarily upon the scope of the contents of the work, where sufficient is already written. One illustration must suffice of a science in which the new treatment affects both the substance and the form of the articles in the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. Com- parative Anatomy, as a branch of Zoology, can no longer be scientifically separated from Human Anatomy. The various parts of the human body are therefore systematically treated under separate headings, in connexion not only with the arts of medicine and surgery, which depend on a knowledge of each particular structure, but with the corresponding features in the rest of the animal kingdom, the study of which continually leads to a better understanding of the human organism. Thus comparative anatomy and human anatomy take their places, with physiology and pathology, as interdependent and inter- EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xxi connected branches of the wider science of Zoology, in which all the lines of experimental inquiry and progressive knowledge lead up to a more efficient service of man and society. In stating "the position taken by the Encyclopedia Britannica in relation to the active con- troversies of the time," Spencer Baynes, in his Preface to the first volume of the Ninth Edition (1875), referred to the conflict of opinion then raging in regard to religion and , science. "In this conflict," he said, "a work like the Encyclopedia is not called upon . / to take any direct part. It has to do with knowledge, rather than opinion, and to leal with all subjects from a critical and historical rather than a dogmatic point of view. It cannot be the organ of any sect or party in science, religion or philosophy." The same policy has in- spired the Eleventh Edition. The Encyclopedia Britannica itself has no side or party; it attempts to give representation to all parties, sects and sides. In a work indeed which deals with opinion and controversy at all, it is manifestly impossible for criticism to be colourless; its value as a source of authoritative exposition would be very different from what it is if individual contributors were not able to state their views fully and fearlessly. But every effort has been made to obtain, impar- tially, such statements of doctrine and belief in matters of religion and similar questions as are sat- isfactory to those who hold them, and to deal with these questions, so far as criticism is concerned, in such a way that the controversial points may be understood and appreciated, without prejudice to the argument. The easy way to what is sometimes considered impartiality is to leave controversy out altogether; .that would be to avoid responsibility at the cost of perpetuating ignorance, for it is only in the light of the controversies about them that the importance of these questions of doctrine and opinion can be realized. The object of the present work is to furnish accounts of all sub- jects which shall really explain their meaning to those who desire accurate information. Amid the variety of beliefs which are held with sincere conviction by one set of people or another, impartiality does not consist in concealing criticism, or in withholding the knowledge of divergent opinion, but in an attitude of scientific respect which is precise in stating a belief in the terms, and according to the interpretation, accepted by those who hold it. In order to give the fullest expression to this objective treatment of questions which in their essence are dogmatic, con- tributors of all shades of opinion have co-operated in the work of the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. They have been ; selected as representative after the most careful con- sideration and under the highest sense of editorial responsibility. The proportion of space devoted to these subjects is necessarily large, because they bulk largely in the minds of thinking people; and while they are treated more comprehensively than before, individual judgments as to their relative claims may naturally vary. The general estimates which prevail among the countries which repre- sent Western civilization are, however, in practical agreement on this point, and this consensus is the only ultimate criterion. In one respect the Eleventh Edition is fortunate in the time of its appearance. Since the completion of the Ninth Edition the controversies which at -that time raged round the application of historical and scientific criticism to religion have become less acute, and an objective statement of the problems, for instance, connected with the literary history of the Bible is now less encumbered with the doubts as to the effect on personal religidn which formerly prevailed. Science and theology have learnt to dwell together; and a reverent attitude towards religion, and indeed towards all the great religions, may be combined, without arriere-pensee, with a scientific comparative study of the phenomena of their institutions and development. Modern scientific progress has naturally affected other aspects of the Eleventh Edition no less than the literary text; and a word may be added here as to the illustrations and maps. Photography and reproductive processes generally now combine to enable much more to be done than was possible a generation ago to assist verbal explanations and descriptions by an appeal to the eye, and to make this appeal scientifically accurate both in form and colour- The older pictorial material in the Ninth Edition has undergone the same critical survey as the text ; and a large proportion of what now appears in the Eleventh Edition is not only new, but illustration represents more adequately the modern principles of the art of illustration. The microscope on the one hand, and the museum on the other, have become in an increasing degree the xxii EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION instruments for attaining a scientific presentment in pictorial form of the realities of science and art. Whether for elucidating the technicalities of zoology or engineering machinery, or for showing concrete examples of ancient or modern statuary or painting, the draughtsman or the photographer has co-operated in the Eleventh Edition with the writers of the various articles, so that as far as possible their work may be accurately illustrated, in the correct sense, as distinct from any object of beautifying the book itself by pictures which might merely be interesting on their own account. Similarly the maps are not collected in an atlas, but accompany the topographical articles to which they are appropriate. Whether plate-maps or text-maps, they were all laid out with the scope, orthographical system, and other requirements of the text in view; either the cartographers have worked with the text before them — often representing new geographical authority, on the part of the contributors — or they have been directed by the geographical department of the editorial staff as to the sources on which they should draw; and the maps have been indexed as an atlas is, so that any topographical article not accompanied by a map has its appropriate map-reference in the general index. The more important coloured maps have been specially prepared by Messrs Justus Perthes of Gotha, the publishers of Stieler's Atlas, which in some instances has served as their basis; and the others have been made under the direction of Mr Emery Walker of London, in collaboration with the editorial staff. Mr Emery Walker's great knowledge and experience in the work of illustration has throughout been put ungrudgingly at the service of the Eleventh Edition. Conclusion. In expressing, on behalf of the editorial staff and the publishers, their indebtedness to the large number of contributors who have assisted in carrying the work to its completion, the Editor would be glad to refer to many individuals among the eminent writers who have given of their best. But the list is so long that he must content himself with a word of general thanks. It is more important to give public credit here to those who, without actually being members of the editorial staff, have taken an intimate part with them in planning and organizing the Eleventh Edition. It was necessary for the Editor to be able to rely on authoritative specialists for advice and guidance in regard to particular sciences. Foremost among these stand the subjects of Zoology and . Botany, which were under the charge respectively of Dr P. Chalmers Mitchell, Secretary of the Zoological Society of London, and Dr A. B. Rendle, Keeper of the department of Botany, British Museum. Dr Chalmers Mitchell's Advisers oa assistance in regard to Zoology extended also to the connected aspects of Comparative special Anatomy (in association with Mr F. G. Parsons), Physiology and Palaeontology. The subjects. whole field of Biology was covered by the joint labours of Dr Chalmers Mitchell and Dr Rendle; and their supervision, in' all stages of the work, gave unity to the co-operation of the numer- ous contributors of zoological and botanical articles. The treatment of Geology was planned by Mr H. B. Woodward; and with him were associated Dr J. A. Howe, who took charge of the department of Topographical Geology, Dr J. S. Flett, who covered that of Petrology, and Mr L. J. Spencer and Mr F. W. Rudler, who dealt comprehensively with Mineralogy and Crystallography. The late Dr Simon Newcomb planned and largely helped to carry out the articles dealing with Astronomy. Prof. J. A. Fleming acted in a similar capacity as regards Electricity and Magnetism. Prof. Hugh Callendar was responsible for the treatment of Heat; Prof. Poynting for that of Sound; and the late Prof. C. J. Joly, Royal Astronomer in Ireland, planned the articles dealing with Light and Optics. On literary subjects the Editor had the sympathetic collaboration of Mr Edmund Gosse, Librarian to the House of Lords; and Mr Marion H. Spielmann, on artistic subjects, also gave valuable help. Among those whose association with the editorial staff was particularly close were the Rev. E. M. Walker of Oxford, as regards subjects of ancient Greek history; Mr Stanley Cook of Cambridge, who was the Editor's chief adviser on questions of Old Testament criticism and Semitic learning generally; Dr T. Ashby, Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome, who dealt with Italian topography and art; and Mr Israel Abrahams, who was consulted ' on Jewish subjects. Dr Peter Giles of Cambridge undertook the survey of Comparative Philology, and Sir Thomas EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION xxiii Barclay that of International Law. Others who gave valuable advice and assistance in regard to their various subjects were — Lord Rayleigh and Mr W. C. D. Whetham (Physical Science), Sir Archibald Geikie (Geology), Sir E. Maunde Thompson (Palaeography and Bibliology), Mr J. H. Round (History and Genealogy), Mr Phene Spiers (Architecture), Mr W. Burton (Ceramics), Mr T. M. Young of Manchester (Textile Industries), Prof. W. E. Dalby (Engineering), Dr G. A. Grierson (Indian Languages), the Rev. G. W. Thatcher (Arabic), Mr H. Stuart Jones (Roman History and Art), Dr D. G. Hogarth and Prof. Ernest Gardner (Hellenic Archaeology), the late Dr W. Fream (Agriculture), Mr W. F. Sheppard (Mathematics), Mr Arthur H. Smith (Classical Art), Dr Postgate (Latin Literature), Mr Fitzmaurice Kelly (Spanish Literature), Prof. J. G. Robertson (German Literature), Mr J. S. Cotton (India), Mr Edmund Owen (Surgery), Mr Donald Tovey (Music), Prof. H. M. Howe of Columbia University (Mining), Prof. W. M. Davis and Prof. D. W. Johnson of Harvard (American Physiography). These names may be some indication of the amount of expert assistance and advice on which the editorial staff were able to draw, first when they were engaged in making preparations for the Eleventh Edition, then in organizing the whole body of contributors, and finally in combining their united resources in revising the work so as to present it in the finished state in which suooort it is given to the public. Constituting as they did a college of research, a centre which drew to itself constant suggestions from all who were interested in the dissemination of accurate information, its members had the advantage of communication with many other leaders of opinion, to whose help, whether in Europe or America, it is impossible to do adequate justice here. The interest shown in the undertaking may be illustrated by the fact that his late Majesty King Edward VII. graciously permitted his own unique collection of British and foreign orders to be used for the purpose of making the coloured plates which accompany the article Knighthood. Makers of history like Lord Cromer and Sir George Goldie added their authority to the work by assisting its contributors, even while not becoming contributors themselves. Custodians of official records, presidents and secretaries of institutions, societies and colleges, relatives or descendants of the subjects of biographies, governmental or municipal officers, librarians, divines, editors, manufacturers, — from many such quarters answers have been freely given to applications for. information which is now embodied in the Encyclopedia Britannica. In the principal Assistant-Editor, Mr Walter Alison Phillips, the Editor had throughout as his chief ally a scholarly historian of wide interests and great literary capacity. Prof. J. T. Shotwell, of Columbia University, U.S.A., in the earlier years of preparation, acted as joint _. „ „ Assistant-Editor; and Mr Ronald McNeill did important work as additional Assistant- Editor while the later stages were in progress. To Mr Charles Crawford Whinery was entrusted the direction of a separate office in New York for the purpose of dealing with American contributors and with articles on American subjects; to his loyal and efficient co-operation, both on the special subjects assigned to the American office, and in the final revision of the whole work, too high a tribute cannot be paid. The other principal members of the editorial staff in London, responsible for different depart- ments, were Mr J. Malcolm Mitchell, Dr T. A. Ingram, Mr H. M. Ross, Mr Charles Everitt, Mr O. J. R. Howarth, Mr F. R. Cana, Mr C. O. Weatherly, Mr J. H. Freese, Mr K. G. Jayne, Mr Roland Truslove, Mr C. F. Atkinson, Mr A. W. Holland, the Rev. A. J. Grieve, Mr. W. E. Garrett Fisher and Mr Arthur B. Atkins, to the last of whom, as private secretary to the Editor-in-Chief, the present writer owes a special debt of gratitude for unfailing assistance in dealing with all the problems of editorial control. On the New York staff Mr Whinery had the efficient help of Mr R. Webster, Dr N. D. Mereness, Dr F. S. Philbrick, Dr W. K. Boyd, Dr W. O. Scroggs, Mr W. T. Arndt, Mr W. L. Corbin and Mr G. Gladden. A word must be added concerning a somewhat original feature in the editorial mechanism, the Indexing department. This department was organized from the first so that it might serve a double purpose. By indexing the articles as they came in, preparation could gradually be ~. . . made for compiling the Index which would eventually be published; and as the reference- cards gradually accumulated under systematic index-headings, the comparison of work done by different writers might assist the editing of the text itself by discovering inconsistencies or inaccuracies in points of detail or suggesting the incorporation of additional material. The text of the Eleventh Edition owes xxiv EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION much in this "way to suggestions originating among the staff of ladies concerned, among whom particular mention may be made of Miss Griffiths, Miss Tyler, and Miss Edmonds. The actual Index, as published, represents a concentration and sifting of the work of the Indexing department; and in order to put it into shape a further stage in the organization was necessary, which was carried through under the able direction of Miss Janet Hogarth. The completion of the Index volume, which all those who wish to make full use ; of the Eleventh Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica should regard as the real guide to its contents, brought finally into play all parts of the editorial machinery which had been engaged in the making of the work itself, — a vast engine of co-operative effort, dedicated to the service of the public. HUGH CHISHOLM. London, December io, iqio. A. A. R. A. C. L. A. D. A, E. S. A. F. B. A. F. P. A. M. C. A. M. CI. A. R. W. A. Si. A. W.* A. W. H.* B. M.* C. B.* C. E.* INITIALS USED IN VOLUME I. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,! WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. Arthur Alcock Rambaut, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. f Radcliffe Observer, Oxford. Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin | Airy. and Royal Astronomer of Ireland, 1892-1897. I Sir Alfred Comyn Lyall, K.C.B. S Abdur Rahman; See the biographical article: Lyall, Sir A. C. I Afghanistan: History. Austin Dobson, LL.D. {Addison (in part). See the biographical article : Dobson, Henry Austin. I Arthur Everett Shipley, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. f Fellow and Tutor of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology in Cam- "j Acanthocephala. bridge University. Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. I Aldred Farrer Barker, M.Sc. f Alpaca. Professor of Textile Industries at Bradford Technical College. • \ Albert Frederick Pollard, M.A., F.R.Hist.Soc. f Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford ; Professor of English History in the University -j Aconcio. of London. Assistant-editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-1901. [ A. Glr. Arthur Girault. f . . Professor of Political Economy at the University of Poitiers. Member of the i Algeria: History. International Colonial Institute. Author of Principes de Colonisation (1907-1908). I A. G. H. A. G. Hadcock (late R.A.) . J Ammunition {in part). Manager of the Gun Department, Elswick Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne. I A. H. J. G. Abel Hendy Jones Greenidge, M.A., D.Litt. (Oxon.) (d. 1905). f ,. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Hertford College, Oxford, and of St John's | Agrarian Laws Kin part). College, Oxford. Author of Infamia in Roman Law; &c. I A. J. B. Alfred Joshua Butler, M.A., D.Litt. { Abyssinian Church. Fellow and Bursar of Brasenose College, Oxford. Fellow of Eton College. I A. J. G. Rev. Alexander J. Grieve, M.A., B.D. J Adoptianism; Alford; Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent! .1... w . a—v.-.. ct College, Bradford. I A1S ° P ' V- ' Aml,rose » st - A. Mw. Allen Mawer M.A. „ „ „ J" JEthelflaed; ffithelred I.; Professor of English Language and Literature, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on- -\ jE-*h„| c * a _. 2ir*i,oii»<»Qrrt Tyne; formerly Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. I /amelslan » Z&ineiweara. Agnes Mary Clerke. f Algol. See the biographical article : Clerke, A. M. \ Agnes Muriel Clay (Mrs Edward Wilde) . f Late Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-editor of Sources of -\ Agrarian Laws (in part). Roman History, 133-70 B.C. L Alfred Russel Wallace, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S; J" Acclimatization. See the biographical article: Wallace, A. R. \ Arthur Sidgwick, M. A., LL.D. (Glasgow). f . . . Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford ; formerly Reader in Greek, Oxford Uni- 1 Aeschylus. versity. I Arthur Willey, D.Sc, F.R.S. {Amphioxus. Director of Colombo Museum, Ceylon. L Arthur William Holland. { Aberdeen, 4th Earl of. Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. (. Budgett Meakin (d. 1906), ' f Almohades (in part); Author of Tlie Moors; The Land of the Moors; The Moorish Empire; &c. \ Almoravides (in part). Charles Behont, D. es L., Litt.D. (Oxon.). f A„ ena j S See the biographical article: Bemont, C. \ s Charles Everitt, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. J Algebra: History. Magdalen College, Oxford. t C.F.A. Charles Francis Atkinson. J Alexandria: Battle Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal 1 American Civil War; Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. [ Ammunition (in part). 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final voluma. XXV XXVI c. F. R. c. L. c. Mi. c. Pf. c. PI. c. R. B. c. S. P.* c. We. D B. Ma D G. H. E. Ch. E. C. B, E. G. E. Gr. E. He. E. H. M. E. J. R. E. M. W E.O.* INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Charles F. Richardson, Ph.D. f Alcott, A. B.; Professor of English, Dartmouth College, U.S.A. I Alcott L. M. H. Caldwell Lipsett. J .. .... . Formerly Editor of the Civil and Military Gazette, Lahore, India. "j Ainui; Agra. Chedomille Mijatovich. i Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- J ■■. ..j , nf cnrwin potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, 1 895-1900, and 1 Aiexanaer 01 oervia. I 902- 1 903. I Christian Pfister, D. es L. , f Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of -j Alcuin. Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux. Rev. Charles Plummer, M.A. f Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Author of Life and Times of Alfred the -j Alfred the Great. Great; &c. Ford's Lecturer, 1 90 1. L Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Litt. r Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow of J Andrew Of Longjumeau. Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. 1 Author of Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. I Rev. Charles Stanley Phillips. f jgthelred II. King's College, Cambridge. Gladstone Memorial Prize, 1904. "^ Cecil Weatherly. f , . ■ ,. . ,. . .-, Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. \ Advertisement Km part). Duncan Black Macdonald, M.A. , D.D. rAbu Hanifa; Professor t>f Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. j Ahmad Ibn Hanbal. David George Hogarth, M.A. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 1899 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. D. H. David Hannay. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal Navy, . 1 2 17-1688 ; Life of Emilio Castelar ; &c. Adalia; Adana; Aegean Civilization; Aintab; Aleppo; Alexandria; Alexandretta; Alexandria Troas; . Amasia; Anazarbus. Abbadides; Abd-Ar-Rahman; Admiral; Agreda; Almogavares; Almohades; Almoravides; Alphonso; America: History; American War of Inde- pendence: Naval Operations; American War of 1812. D. M. Rev. D. Meiklejohn. j Adams, John Couch. D.Mn. Rev. Dugald Macfadyen, M.A. ' f Alexander, W. L.; AUon, H. Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. . ^ D. M. W. Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O. r Alexander II of Russia'' " Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign J , '' . . ' Department of The Times, 1891-1899. Author of Russia. [ Alexander III., Of Russia. E. B.* Ernest C. F. Babelon. f Professor at the College de France. Keeper of the Dept. of Medals and Antiquities -I Africa, Roman. at the Bibliotheque Nationale. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. E. Br. Ernest Barker, M.A. f Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History, St John's College, Oxford. Formerly -{ Amalric. Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. L _ _ _ _ r Adams, John; Edward Channing, Ph.D. *j„^„ ..l. „„.•._,, Professor of History, Harvard University. ] A * amS ' 3 ° hn ? UinC¥ ' L Adams, Samuel. Right Rev. Edward Cuthbert Butler, O.S.B., D.Litt. r »„„-„„.«« Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. J acoemeu. Edmund Gosse, LL.D. f Aasen; Almqvist; See the biographical article : Gosse, Edmund. < Anacreontics; [Andersen, Hans Christian. Ernest Arthur Gardner, M.A. Abae; Acarnania; See the biographical article: Gardner, Percy. J A e cjna Edward Heawood, M.A. f Africa: Geography, Economics, Librarian to Royal Geographical Society, London. Author of Geography of Africa ; &c. J, Biblioerabhv Ellis Hovell Minns, M.A. r Lecturer and Assistant Librarian, and formerly Fellow, Pembroke College, Cam- J Alani. bridge. University Lecturer in Palaeography. | Emanuel Joseph Ristori, Ph.D., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. r Member of Council, Institute of Metals. « Aluminium. Rev. Edward Mewburn Walker, M.A. r . . . „. . Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford. | Aegina. History. Edmund Owen, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc r Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, J Abdomen; Great Ormond Street. Late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, 1 Abscess" Adenoids. Durham and London. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. [ INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xivii E. Pr. Edgar Prestage. f , Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester ; J Alcoforado. Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Com- mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. *■ Edwyn Robert Bevan, M.A. 4 Alexander the Great. New College, Oxford. Author of The House of Seleucus. t- Rev. Ethelred Leonard Taunton (d. 1907). J" Acolyte; Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict; History of the Jesuits in England. \ Allen William. Rev. Edmund Venables, M.A., D.D. (1810-1895). \ Abbey; Canon and Precentor of Lincoln. Author of Episcopal Palaces of England. I Abbot. Edgar Whitaker (d. 1905). _ ( Ahmed Veflk Formerly Times correspondent at Constantinople. I Fred A. Eaton (Academy, Royal. Secretary to the Royal Academy. I Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare, M.A., D.Th. (Giessen). [ Ablution; Agape; Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. 1 Anabaptists; Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals; &c. I Ancestor- Worship. Frank Finn, F.Z.S. f a„„ii_,_*: T(1 «„„ Late Assistant Director of the Indian Museum, Calcutta. \ Accumauzanon. „ „ ■ ■», titita r .SSthelbald; ffithelberht; Frederick George Meeson Beck, M.A. I mhemth ' Weired; Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. 1 "- """"»•"» 111. J. B. B. James David Bourchier, M.A., F.R.G.S. f Albania- Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. Officer of the Order of \ *J oanii *> St Alexander of Bulgaria. [ Alexander of Bulgaria. J. D. Pr. John Dyneley Prince, Ph.D. ■ f Professor of Semitic Languages at Columbia University, N.Y. Took part in the -j Akkad. Expedition to Southern Babylonia, 1888-89. t J. P.-K. James Fitzmaurice- Kelly, Litt.D., F.R.Hist.S. r Acosta, J. de; Fellow of the British Academy. Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Alarcon J R de* Literature in the University of Liverpool. Norman MaeColf Lecturer in' the -\ .. ' _" ." , ' University of Cambridge. Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. Alarcon, P. A. fle; Author of A History of Spanish Literature. I Aleman; Amadis de Gaula. James Ford Rhodes, LL.D. f AHftma). The earliest authority for this, as for the names of the 1 other Greek letters, is the grammatical drama {ypafj.ixari.Ki] Qecopia) of Callias, an earlier contemporary of Euripides, from whose works four trimeters, containing the names of all the Greek letters, are preserved in Athenaeus x. 453 d. The form of the letter has varied considerably. In the earliest of the Phoenician, Aramaic and Greek inscriptions (the oldest Phoenician dating about 1000 B.C., the oldest Aramaic from the 8th, and the oldest Greek from the 8th or 7th century B.C.) A rests upon its side thus — ^f- \ <£. In the Greek alphabet of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter, but many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set — \ /\ fa ft ft, &c. From the Greeks of the west the alphabet was borrowed by the Romans and from them has passed to the other nations of western Europe. In the earliest Latin inscriptions, such as the inscription found in the excavation of the Roman Forum in 1899, or that on a golden fibula found at Praeneste in 1886 (see Alphabet), the letters are still identical in form with those of the western Greeks. Latin develops early various forms, which are compara- tively rare in Greek, as i\, or unknown, as ^- Except possibly Faliscan, the other dialects of Italy did not borrow their alphabet directly from the western Greeks as the Romans did, but received it at second hand through the Etruscans. In Oscan, where the writing of early inscriptions is no less careful than in Latin, the A takes the form ^, to which the nearest parallels are found in north Greece (Boebtia, Locris and Thessaly, and there only sporadically). I. 1 In Greek the symbol was used for both the long and the short sound, as in English father (a) and German Ratte (&); English, except in dialects, has no sound corresponding precisely to the Greek short a, which, so far as can be ascertained, was a mid-back-wide sound, according to the terminology of H. Sweet {Primer of Phonetics, p. 107). Throughout the history of Greek the short sound remained practically unchanged. On the other hand, the long sound of_a in the Attic and Ionic dialects passed into an open e-sound, which in the Ionic alphabet was represented by the same symbol as the original e-sound (see Alphabet : Greek) . The vowel sounds vary from language to language, and the a symbol has, in consequence, to represent in many cases sounds which are not identical with the Greek a whether long or short, and also to represent several different vowel sounds in the same language. Thus the New English Dictionary distinguishes about twelve separate vowel sounds, which are represented by a in English. In general it may be said that the chief changes which affect the a-sound in different languages arise from (1) rounding, (2) fronting, i.e. changing from a sound produced far back in the mouth to a sound produced farther forward. The rounding is often produced by combination with rounded consonants (as in English was, wall, &c), the rounding of the preceding consonant being continued into the formation of the vowel sound. Rounding has also been produced by a following /-sound, as in the English fall, small, bald, &c. (see Sweet's History of English Sounds, 2nd ed., §§ 906, 784). The effect of fronting is seen in the Ionic and Attic dialects of Greek, where the original name of the Medes, Mddoi, with a in' the first syllable (which survives in Cyprian Greek as MS.S01), is changed into Medoi {MrjSoi), with an open e-sound instead of the earlier a. In the later history of Greek this sound is steadily narrowed till it becomes identical with I (as in English seed). The first part of the process has been almost repeated by literary English, a {ah) passing into e {eh), though in present-day pronunciation the sound has developed further into a diphthongal ei except before r, as in hare (Sweet, op. cit. § 783). In English a represents unaccented forms of several words, e.g. an (one), of, have, he, and 01 various prefixes the history of which is given in detail in the New English Dictionary (Oxford, : 1888) r vol. i. p. 4. (P. Gi,) 11 AA— AAR As a symbol the letter is used in various connexions and for various technical purposes, e.g. for a note in music, for the first of the seven dominical letters (this use is derived from its being the first of the litter ae nundinales at Rome), and generally as a sign of priority. In Logic, the letter A is used as a symbol for the universal affirmative proposition in the general form " all x is y." The letters I, E and O are used respectively for the particular affirm- ative " some x is y," the universal negative " no x is y," and the particular negative " some x is not y." The use of these letters is generally derived from the vowels of the two Latin verbs Ajflrmo (or Aid), "I assert," and nEgO, "I deny." The use of the symbols dates from the 13th century, though some authorities trace their origin to the Greek logicians. A is also used largely in abbreviations (q.v.). In Shipping, Ai is a symbol used to denote quality, of con- struction and material. In the various shipping registers ships are classed and given a rating after an official examination, and assigned a classification mark, which appears in addition to other particulars in those registers after the name of the ship. See Shipbuilding. It is popularly used to indicate the highest degree of excellence. AA, the name of a large number of small European rivers. The word is derived from the Old German aha, cognate to the Latin aqua, water (cf. Ger. -ach; Scand. a, aa, pronounced 0). The following are the more important streams of this name: — Two rivers in the west of Russia, both falling into the Gulf of Riga, near Riga, which is situated between them; a river in the north of France, falling into the sea below Gravelines, and navi- gable as far as St Omer; and a river of Switzerland, in the can- tons of Lucerne and Aargau, which carries the waters of Lakes Baldegger and Hallwiler into the Aar. In Germany there are the Westphalian Aa, rising in the Teutoburger Wald, and joining the Werre at Herford, the Munster Aa, a tributary of the Ems, and others. AAGESEN, ANDREW (1826-1879), Danish jurist, was educated for the law at Kristianshavn and Copenhagen, and interrupted his studies in 1848 to take partin the first Schleswig war, in which he served as the leader of a reserve battalion. In 1855 he became professor of jurisprudence at the university of Copen- hagen. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the commission for drawing up a maritime and commercial code, and the navigation law of 1882 is mainly his work. In 1879 he was elected a member of the Landsthing; but it is as a teacher at the university that he won his reputation. Among his numerous juridical works may be mentioned: Bidrag til Laeren om Overdragelse af Ejendomsret, Betnaerkinger om Rettigheder over Ting (Copenhagen, 1866, 1871- 1872); Fortegnelse over Retssamlinger, Retslitteratur i Danmark, Norge, Sverige (Copenhagen, 1876). Aagesen was Hall's suc- cessor as lecturer on Roman law at the university, and in this department his researches were epoch-making. All his pupils were profoundly impressed by his exhaustive examination of the sources, his energetic demonstration of his subject and his stringent search after truth. His noble, imposing, and yet most . amiable personality won for him, moreover, universal affection and respect. See C. F. Bricka, Dansk. Biog. Lex. vol. i. (Copenhagen, 1887); Samlade Skrifter, edited by F. C. Bornemann (Copenhagen, 1863). (R. N. B.) AAL, also known as A'l, Ach, or Aich, the Hindustani names for the Morinda tinctoria and Morinda citrifolia, plants exten- sively cultivated in India on account of the reddish dye-stuff which their roots contain. The name is also applied to the dye, but the common trade name is Suranji. Its properties are due to the presence of a glucoside known as Morindin, which is com- pounded from glucose and probably a trioxy-methyl-anthra- quinone. AALBORG, a city and seaport of Denmark, the seat of a bishop; and chief town of the ami (county) of its name, on the south bank of the Limf jord, which connects the North Sea and the Cattegat. Pop. (1901) 31,457. The situation is typical of the north of Jutland. To the west the Limfjord broadens into an irregular lake, with low, marshy shores and many islands. North-west is the Store Vildmose, a swamp where the mirage is seen in summer. South-east lies the similar Lille Vildmose. A railway connects Aalborg with Hjorring, Frederikshavn and Skagen to the north, and with Aarhus and the lines from Germany to the south. The harbour is good and safe, though difficult of access. Aalborg is a growing industrial and commercial centre, exporting grain and fish. An old castle and some picturesque houses of the 17th cen- tury remain. The Budolphi church dates mostly from the mid- dle of the 1 8th century, while the Frue church was partially burnt in 1894, but the foundation of both is of the 14th century or earlier. There are also an ancient hospital and a museum of art and antiquities. On the north side of the fjord is Norre Sundby, connected with Aalborg by a pontoon and also by an iron rail- way bridge, one of the finest engineering works in the kingdom. Aalborg received town-privileges in 1342, and the bishopric dates from 1554. AALEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, pleasantly situated on the Kocher, at the foot of the Swabian Alps, about 50 m. E. of Stuttgart, and with direct railway com- munication with Ulm and Cannstatt. Pop. 10,000. Woollen and linen goods are manufactured, and there are ribbon looms and tanneries in the town, and large iron works in the neighbourhood. There are several schools and churches, and a statue of the poet Christian Schubart. Aalen was a free imperial city from 1360 to 1802, when it was annexed to Wurttemberg. AALESUND, a seaport of Norway, in Romsdal ami (county), 145 m. N. by E. from Bergen. Pop. (1900) 11,672. It occupies two of the outer islands of the west coast, Aspo and Norvfi, which enclose the picturesque harbour. Founded in 1824, it is the principal shipping-place of Sondmore district, and one of the chief stations of the herring fishery. Aalesund is adjacent to the Jorund and Geiranger fjords, frequented by tourists. From Oje at the head of Jorund a driving-route strikes south to the Nord- fjord, and from Merok on Geiranger another strikes inland to Otta, on the railway to Lillehammer and Christiania. Aalesund is a port of call for steamers between Bergen, Hull, Newcastle and Hamburg, and Trondhjem. A little to the south of the town are the ruins of the reputed castle of Rollo, the founder, in the 9 th century, of the dynasty of the dukes of Normandy. On the 23rd of January 1904, Aalesund was the scene of one of the. most terrible of the many conflagrations to which Norwegian towns, built largely of wood, have been subject. Practically the whole town was destroyed, a gale aiding the flames, and the population had to leave the place in the night at the notice of a few minutes. Hardly any lives were lost, but the sufferings of the people were so terrible that assistance was sent from all parts of the kingdom, and by the German government, while the British government also offered it. AALI, MEHEMET, Pasha (1815-1871), Turkish statesman, was born at Constantinople in 1815, the son of a government official. Entering the diplomatic service of his country soon after reaching manhood, he became successively secretary of the Em- bassy in Vienna, minister in London, and foreign minister under Reshid Pasha. In 1852 he was promoted to the post of grand vizier, but after a short time retired into private life. During the Crimean War he was recalled in order to take the portfolio. of foreign affairs for a second time under Reshid Pasha, and in this capacity took part in 1855 in the conference of Vienna. Again becoming in that year grand vizier, an office he filled no less than five times, he represented Turkey at the congress of Paris in 1856. In 1867 he was appointed regent of Turkey during the sultan's visit to the Paris Exhibition. Aali Pasha was one of the most zeal- ous advocates of the introduction of Western reforms under the sultans Abdul Mejid and Abdul Aziz. A scholar and a linguist, he was a match for the diplomats of the Christian powers, against whom he successfully defended the interests of his country. He died at Erenkeni in Asia Minor on the 6th of September 1871. AAR, or Aare, the most considerable river which both rises and ends entirely within Switzerland. ■ Its total length (including all bends) from its source to its junction with the Rhine is about 181 m., during which distance it descends 5135 ft., while its AARAU— AARHUS drainage area is 6804 sq. m. It rises in the great Aar glaciers, in the canton of Bern, and W. of the Grimsel Pass. It runs E. to the Grimsel Hospice, and then N.W. through the Hasli valley, form- ing on the way the magnificent waterfall of the Handegg (151 ft.), past Guttannen, and pierces the limestone barrier of the Kirchet by a grand gorge, before reaching Meiringen, situated in a plain. A little beyond, near Brienz, the river expands into the lake of Brienz, where it becomes navigable. Near the west end of that lake it receives its first important affluent, the Lutschine (left), and then runs across the swampy plain of the Bodeli, between Interlaken (left) and Unterseen (right), before again expanding in order to form the Lake of Thun. Near the west end of that lake it receives on the left the Kander, which has just before been joined by the Simme; on flowing out of the lake it passes Thun, and then circles the lofty bluff on which the town of Bern is built. It soon changes its north-westerly for a due westerly direction, but after receiving the Saane or Sarine (left) turns N. till near Aarberg its stream is diverted W. by the Hagneck Canal into the Lake of Bienne, from the upper end of which it issues through the Nidau Canal and then runs E. to Biiren. Henceforth its course is N.E. for a long distance, past Soleure (below which the Grosse Emme flows in on the right), Aarburg (where it is joined by the Wigger, right), Olten, Aarau, near which is the junction with the Suhr on the right, and Wildegg, where the Hallwiler Aa falls in on the right. A short way beyond, below Brugg, it receives first the Reuss (right), and very shortly afterwards the Limmat or Linth (right). It now turns due N., and soon becomes itself an affluent of the Rhine (left), which it surpasses in volume when they unite at Coblenz, opposite Waldshut. (W. A. B. C.) AARAU*, the capital of the Swiss canton of Aargau. In 1900 it had 7831 inhabitants, mostly German-speaking, and mainly Protestants. It is situated in the valley of the Aar, on the right bank of that river, and at the southern foot of the range of the Jura. It is about 50 m. by rail N.E. of Bern, and 31m. N.W. of Zurich. It is a well-built modern town, with no remarkable features about it. In the Industrial Museum there is (besides collections of various kinds) some good painted glass of the 16th century, taken from the neighbouring Benedictine monastery of Muri (founded 1027, suppressed 1841 — the monks are now quartered at Gries, near Botzen, in Tirol). The cantonal library contains many works relating to Swiss history and many MSS. coming from the suppressed Argovian monasteries. There are many industries in the town, especially silk-ribbon weaving, foundries, and factories for the manufacture of cutlery and scien- tific instruments. The popular novelist and historian, Heinrich Zschokke (1771-1848), spent most of his life here, and a bronze statue has been erected to his memory. Aarau is an important military centre. The slopes of the Jura are covered with vine- yards. Aarau, an ancient fortress, was taken by the Bernese in 14T5, and in 1798 became for a time the capital of the Helvetic republic. Eight miles by rail N.E. are the famous sulphur baths of Schinznach, just above which is the ruined castle of Habsburg, the original home of that great historical house. (W. A. B. C.) AARD-VARK (meaning " earth- pig "), the Dutch name for the mammals of genus Orycteropus, confined to Africa (see Eden- tata). Several species have been named. Among them is the typical form, 0. capensis, or Cape ant-bear from South Africa, and the northern aard-vark (O. aethiopicus) of north-eastern Africa, extending into Egypt. In form these animals are some- what pig-like; the body is stout, with arched back; the limbs are short and stout, armed with strong, blunt claws; the ears disproportionately long ; and the tail very thick at the base and tapering gradually. The greatly elongated head is set on a short thick neck, and at the extremity of the snout is a disk in which the nostrils open. The mouth is small and tubular, furnished with a long extensile tongue. The measurements of a female, taken in the flesh, were head and body 4 ft., tail 173 in.; but a large indi- vidual measured 6 ft. 8 in. over all. In colour the Cape aard-vark is pale sandy or yellow, the hair being scanty and allowing the skin to show; the northern aard-vark has a still thinner coat, and is further distinguished by the shorter tail and longer head and ears. These-animals are of nocturnal and burrowir" hi'i-its. and generally to be found near ant-hills. The strong claws make a hole in the side of the ant-hill, and the insects are collected on the extensile tongue. Aard-varks are hunted for their skins; but the flesh is valued for food, and often salted and smoked. AARD-WOLF (earth- wolf), a South and East African carni- vorous mammal (Proteles cristatus), in general appearance like a small striped hyena, but with a more pointed muzzle, sharper ears, and a long erectile mane down the middle line of the neck and back. It is of nocturnal and burrowing habits, and feeds on decomposed animal substances, larvae and termites. AARGAU (Fr. Argovie), one of the more northerly Swiss cantons, comprising the lower course of the river Aar (q.v.), whence its name. Its total area is 541-9 sq. m., of which 517-9 sq. m. are classed as "productive" (forests covering 172 sq. m. and vineyards 8-2 sq. m.). It is one of the least mountainous Swiss cantons, forming part of a great table-land, to the north of the Alps and the east of the Jura, above which rise low hills. The surface of the country is beautifully diversified, undulating tracts and well-wooded hills alternating with fertile valleys watered mainly by the Aar and its tributaries. It contains the famous hot sulphur springs of Baden (q.v.) and Schinznach, while at Rhein- felden there are very extensive saline springs. Just below Brugg the Reuss and the Limmat join the Aar, while around Brugg are the ruined castle cf Habsburg, the old convent of Konigsfelden (with fine painted medieval glass) and the remains of the Roman settlement of Vindonissa [Windisch]. The total population in 1900 was 206,498, almost exclusively German-speaking, but numbering 114,176 Protestants to 91,039 Romanists and 990 Jews. The capital of the canton is Aarau (q.v.), while other im- portant towns are Baden (q.v.), Zofingen (4591 inhabitants), Reinach (3668 inhabitants), Rheinfelden (3349 inhabitants), Wohlen (3274 inhabitants), and Lenzburg (2588 inhabitants). Aargau is an industrious and prosperous canton, straw-plaiting, tobacco-growing, silk-ribbon weaving, and salmon-fishing in the Rhine being among the chief industries. As this region was, up to 141 5, the centre of the Habsburg power, we find here many historical old castles (e.g. Habsburg, Lenzburg, Wildegg), and former monasteries (e.g. Wettingen, Muri), founded by that family, but suppressed in 1841, this act of violence being one of the main causes of the civil war called the " Sonderbund War," in 1847 in Switzerland. The cantonal constitution dates mainly from 1885, but since 1904 the election of the executive council of five members is made by a direct vote of the people. The legisla- ture consists of members elected in the proportion of one to every 1 100 inhabitants. The "obligatory referendum" exists in the case of all laws, while 5000 citizens have the right of " initiative " in proposing bills or alterations in the cantonal constitution. The canton sends 10 members to the federal Nationalrat, being one for every 20,000, while the two Standerate are (since 1904) elected by a direct vote of the people. The canton is divided into eleven administrative districts, and contains 241 communes. In 1415 the Aargau region was taken from the Habsburgs by the Swiss Confederates. Bern kept the south-west portion (Zofingen, Aarburg, Aarau, Lenzburg, and Brugg), but some districts, named the Freie Amter or " free bailiwicks " (Mellingen, Muri, Villmergen, and Bremgarten), with the county of Baden, were ruled as " subject lands" by all or certain of the Confederates. In 1798 the Bernese bit became the canton of Aargau of the Helvetic Republic, the re- mainder forming the canton of Baden. In 1803, the two halves (plus the Frick glen, ceded in 1802 by Austria to the Helvetic Republic) were united under the name of Kanton Aargau, which was then ad- mitted a full member of the reconstituted Confederation. See also Argovia (published by the Cantonal Historical Society), Aarau, from i860; F. X. Bronner, Der Kanton Aargau, 2 vols., St Gall and Bern, 1844; H. Lehmann, Die argauische Strohindustrie, Aarau, 1896; W. Merz, Die mittelalt. Burganlagen und Wehrbauten d. Kant. Argau (fine illustrated work on castles), Aarau, 2 vols., 1904-1906; W. Merz and F. E. Welti, Die Rechtsquellen d. Kant. Argau, 3 vols., Aarau, 1898-1905; J. Miiller, Der Aargau, 2 vols., Zurich, 1870; E. L. Rochholz, Aargauer Weislhumer, Aarau, 1877; E. Zschokke, Geschichte des Aargaus, Aarau, 1903. (W. A. B. C.) AARHUS, a seaport and bishop's see of Denmark, on the east coast of Jutland, of which it is the principal port; the second largest town in the kingdom, and capital of the ami (county) of Aarhus. Pop. (1901) 51,814. The district is low-lying, fertile and well wooded. The town is the junction of railways from-all AARON— AASEN parts of the country. The harbour is good and safe, and agricul- tural produce is exported, while coal and iron are among the chief imports. The cathedral of the 13th century (extensively restored) is the largest church in Denmark. There is a museum of art and antiquities. To the south-west (13 m. by rail), a pictur- esque region extends west from the railway junction of Skander- borg, including several lakes, through which flows the Gudenaa, the largest river in Jutland, and rising ground exceeding 500 ft. in the Himmelbjerg. The railway traverses this pleasant district of moorland and wood to Silkeborg, a modern town having one of the most attractive situations in the kingdom. The bishopric of Aarhus dates at least from 951. AARON, the traditional founder and head of the Jewish priest- hood, who, in company with Moses, led the Israelites out of Egypt (see Exodus ; Moses) . The greater part of his life-history is preserved in late Biblical narratives, which carry back exist- ing conditions and beliefs to the time of the Exodus, and find a precedent for contemporary hierarchical institutions in the events of that period. Although Aaron was said to have been sent by Yahweh (Jehovah) to meet Moses at the " mount of God " (Horeb, Ex. iv.27), he plays only a secondary part in the incidents at Pharaoh's court. After the "exodus" from Egypt a striking account is given of the vision of the God of Israel vouchsafed to him and to his sons Nadab and Abihu on the same holy mount (Ex. xxiv. 1 seq. 9 -1 1), and together with Hur he was at the side of Moses wh^n the latter, by means of his wonder-working rod, enabled Joshua to defeat the Amalekites (xvii. 8-16). Hur and Aaron were left in charge of the Israelites when Moses and Joshua ascended the mount to receive the Tables of the Law (xxiv. 12-15), an d when the people, in dismay at the prolonged absence of their leader, demanded a god, it was at the instigation of Aaron that the golden calf was made (see Calf, Golden). This was regarded as an act of apostasy which, according to one tradition, led to the consecration of the Levites, and almost cost Aaron his life (cp. Deut. ix. 20). The incident paves the way for the account of the preparation of the new tables of stone which contain a series of laws quite distinct from the Decalogue (q.v.) (Ex. xxxiii. seq.). Kadesh, and not Sinai or Horeb, appears to have been originally the scene of these incidents (Deut. xxxiii. 8 seq. com- pared with Ex. xxxii. 26 sqq.), and it was for some obscure offence at this place that both Aaron and Moses were prohibited from entering the Promised Land (Num. xx.). In what way they had not "sanctified" (an allusion in the Hebrew to Kadesh " holy ") Yahweh is quite uncertain, and it would appear that it was for a similar offence that the sons of Aaron mentioned above also met their death (Lev. x. 3 ; cp. Num. xx. 12, Deut. xxxii. 51). Aaron is said to have died at Moserah (Deut. x. 6), or at Mt. Hor ; the latter is an unidentified site on the border of Edom (Num. xx. 23, xxxiii. 37 ; for Moserah see ib. 30-31), and consequently not in the neighbourhood of Petra, which has been the traditional scene from the time of Josephus {Ant. iv. 4. 7). Several difficulties in the present Biblical text appear to have arisen from the attempt of later tradition to find a place for Aaron in certain incidents. In the account of the contention between Moses and his sister Miriam (Num. xii.), Aaron occupies only a secondary position, and it is very doubtful whether he was originally mentioned in the older surviving narratives. It is at least remarkable that he is only thrice mentioned in Deuter- onomy (ix. 20, x. 6, xxxii. 50). The post-exilic narratives give him a greater share in the plagues of Egypt, represent him as high-priest, and confirm his position by the miraculous budding of his rod alone of all the rods of the other tribes (Num. xvii. ; for parallels see Gray, comm. ad loc, p. 217). The latter story illus- trates the growth of the older exodus-tradition along with the development of priestly ritual : the old account of Korah's revolt against the authority of Moses has been expanded, and now describes (a) the divine prerogatives of the Levites in general, and (6) the confirmation of the superior privileges of the Aaronites against the rest of the Levites, a development which can scarcely be earlier than the time of Ezekiel (xliv. 15 seq.). Aaron's son Eleazar was buried in an Ephraimite locality known after the grandson as the " hill of Phinehas " (Josh. xxiv. 33). Little historical information has been preserved of either. The name Phinehas (apparently of Egyptian origin) is better known as that of a son of Eli, a member of the priesthood of Shiloh, and Eleazar is only another form of Eliezer the son of Moses, to whose kin Eli is said to have belonged. The close relation between Aaronite and Levitical names and those of clans related to Moses is very note- worthy, and it is a curious coincidence that the name of Aaron's sister Miriam appears in a genealogy of Caleb (1 Chron. iv. 17) with J ether (cp. Jethro) and Heber (cp. Kenites). In view of the confusion of the traditions and the difficulty of interpreting the details sketched above, the recovery of the historical Aaron is a work of peculiar intricacy. He may well have been the tradi- tional head of the priesthood, and R. H. Kennett has argued in favour of the view that he was the founder of the cult at Bethel (Journ. of Theol. Stud., 1905, pp. 161 sqq.), corresponding to the Mosaite founder of Dan (q.v.). This throws no light upon the name, which still remains quite obscure; and unless Aaron (Aharon) is based upon Aron, " ark " (Redslob, R. P. A. Dozy, J. P. N. Land), it must be placed in a line with the other un-Hebraic and difficult names associated with Moses and Aaron, which are, apparently, of South Palestinian (or North-Arabian) origin. For the literature and a general account of the Jewish priesthood, see the articles Levites and Priest. (S. A. C.) AARON'S ROD, the popular name given to various tall flowering plants ("hag taper," "golden rod," &c). In archi- tecture the term is given to an ornamental rod with sprouting leaves, or sometimes with a serpent entwined round it (from the Biblical references in Exodus vii. 10 and Numbers xvii. 8). AARSSENS, or Aarssen, FRANCIS VAN (1572-1641), a cele- brated diplomatist and statesman of the United Provinces. His talents commended him to the notice of Advocate Johan van Oldenbarneveldt, who sent him, at the age of 26 years, as a diplomatic agent of the states-general to the court of France. He took a considerable part in the negotiations of the twelve years' truce in 1606. His conduct of affairs having displeased the French king, he was recalled from his post by Oldenbarneveldt in 1616. Such was the hatred he henceforth conceived against his former benefactor, that he did his very utmost to effect his ruin. He was one of the packed court of judges who in 1619 condemned the aged statesman to death. For his share in this judicial murder a deep stain rests on the memory of Aarssens. He afterwards be- came the confidential counsellor of Maurice, prince of Orange, and afterwards of Frederick Henry, prince of Orange, in their conduct of the foreign affairs of the republic. He was sent on special embassies to Venice, Germany and England, and dis- played so much diplomatic skill and finesse that Richelieu ranked him among the three greatest politicians of his time. AASEN, IVAR (1813-1896), Norwegian philologist and lexico- grapher, was born at Aasen i Orsten, in Sondmore, Norway, on the 5th of August 1813. His father, a small peasant-farmer named Ivar Jonsson, died in 1826. He was brought up to farm- work, but he assiduously cultivated all his leisure in reading, and when he was eighteen he opened an elementary school in his native parish. In 1833 he entered the household of H. C. Thore- sen, the husband of the eminent writer Magdalene Thoresen, in Hero, and here he picked up the elements of Latin. Gradually, and by dint of infinite patience and concentration, the young peasant became master of many languages, and began the scientific study of their structure. About 1841 he had freed himself from all the burden of manual labour, and could occupy his thoughts with the dialect of his native district, the Sondmore; his first publication was a small collection of folk-songs in the Sondmore language (1843). His remarkable abilities now attracted general attention, and he was helped to continue his studies un- disturbed. His Grammar of the Norwegian Dialects (1848) was the result of much labour, and of journeys taken to every part of the country. Aasen's famous Dictionary of the Norwegian Dialects appeared in its original form in 1850, and from this publication dates all the wide cultivation of the popular language in NoTt wegian, since Aasen really did no less than construct, out of the different materials at his disposal, a popular language or definite folke-maal for Norway. With certain modifications, the most important of which were introduced later by Aasen himself, this artificial language is that which has been adopted ever since by those who write in dialect, and which later enthusiasts have once more endeavoured to foist upon Norway as her official AB— ABACUS language in the place of Dano-Norwegian. Aasen composed poems and plays in the composite dialect to show how it should be used ; one of these dramas, The Heir (1855), was frequently acted, and may be considered as the pioneer of all the abundant dialect-literature of the last half-century, from Vinje down to Garborg. Aasen continued to enlarge and improve his grammars and his dictionary. He lived very quietly in lodgings in Chris- tiania, surrounded by his books and shrinking from publicity, but his name grew into wide political favour as his ideas about the language of the peasants became more and more the watch- word of the popular party. Quite early in his career, 1842, he had begun to receive a stipend to enable him to give his entire attention to his philological investigations ; and the Storthing — conscious of the national importance of his work — treated him in this respect with more and more generosity as he advanced in years. He continued his investigations to the last, but it may be said that, after the 1873 edition of his Dictionary, he added but little to his stores. Ivar Aasen holds perhaps an isolated place in literary history as the one man who has invented, or at least selected and constructed, a language which has pleased so many thousands of his countrymen that they have accepted it for their schools, their sermons and their songs. He died in Christiania on the 23rd of September 1896, and was buried with public honours. (E. G.) AB, the fifth month of the ecclesiastical and the eleventh of the civil year of the Jews. It approximately corresponds to the period of the 15th of July to the 15th of August. The word is of Babylonian origin, adopted by the Jews with other calendar names after the Babylonian exile. Tradition ascribes the death of Aaron to the first day of Ab. On the ninth is kept the Fast of Ab, or the Black Fast, to bewail the destruction of the first temple by Nebuchadrezzar (586 B.C.) and of the second by Titus (a.d. 70). ABA. (1) A form of altazimuth instrument, invented by, and called after, Antoine d'Abbadie ; (2) a rough homespun manu- factured in Bulgaria; (3) a long coarse shirt worn by the Bedouin Arabs. ABABDA (the Gebadei of Pliny, probably the Troglodytes of classical writers), a nomad tribe of African " Arabs " of Hamitic origin. They extend from the Nile at Assuan to the Red Sea, and reach northward to the Kena-Kosseir road, thus occupying the southern border of Egypt east of the Nile. They call them- selves " sons of the Jinns." With some of the clans of the Bisharin (q.v.) and possibly the Hadendoa (q.v.) they represent the Blemmyes of classic geographers, and their location to-day is almost identical with that assigned them in Roman times. They were constantly at war with the Romans, who at last subsidized them. In the middle ages they were known as Beja (q.v.), and convoyed pilgrims from the Nile valley to Aidhab, the port of embarkation for Jedda. From time immemorial they have acted as guides to caravans through the Nubian desert and up the Nile valley as far as Sennar. To-day many of them are employed in the telegraph service across the Arabian desert. They inter- married with the Nuba, and settled in small colonies at Shendi and elsewhere long before the Egyptian invasion (a.d. 1820-1822). They are still great trade carriers, and visit very distant districts. The Ababda of Egypt, numbering some 30,000, are governed by an hereditary "chief." Although nominally a vassal of the Khedive he pays no tribute. Indeed he is paid a subsidy, a por- tion of the road-dues, in return for his safeguarding travellers from Bedouin robbers. The sub-sheikhs are directly responsible to him. The Ababda of Nubia, reported by Joseph von Russegger, who visited the country in 1836, to number some 40,000, have since diminished, having probably amalgamated with the Bisharin, their hereditary enemies when they were themselves a powerful nation. The Ababda generally speak Arabic (mingled with Barabra [Nubian] words), the result of their long-continued contact with Egypt; but the southern and south-eastern portion of the tribe in many cases still retain their Beja dialect, To- Bedawiet. Those of Kosseir will not speak this before strangers, as they believe that to reveal the mysterious dialect would bring ruin on them. Those nearest the Nile have much fellah blood in them. As a tribe they claim an Arab origin, apparently through their sheikhs. They have adopted the dress and habits of the fellahin, unlike their kinsmen the Bisharin and Hadendoa, who go practically naked. They are neither so fierce nor of so fine a physique as these latter. They are lithe and well built, but small: the average height is little more than 5 ft, except in the sheikh clan, who are obviously of Arab origin. Their complexion is more red than black, their features angular, noses straight and hair luxuriant. They bear the character of being treacherous and faithless, being bound by no oath, but they appear to be honest in money matters and hospitable, and, however poor, never beg. Formerly very poor, the Ababda became wealthy after the British occupation of Egypt. Their chief settlements are in Nubia, where they live in villages and employ themselves in agriculture. Others of them fish in the Red Sea and then hawk the salt fish in the interior. Others are pedlars, while charcoal- burning, wood-gathering and trading in gums and drugs, especi- ally in senna leaves, occupy many. Unlike the true Arab, the Ababda do not live in tents, but build huts with hurdles and mats, or live in natural caves, as did their ancestors in classic times. They have few horses, using the camel as beast of burden or their " mount " in war. They live chiefly on milk and durra, the latter eaten either raw or roasted. They are very superstitious, believing, for example, that evil would overtake a family if a girl member should, after her marriage, ever set eyes on her mother: hence the Ababda husband has to make his home far from his wife's village. In the Mahdist troubles (1882-1898) many " friendlies " were recruited from the tribe. For their earlier history see Beta; see also Bisharin, Haden- doa, Kabbabish; and the following authorities: — Sir F. R. Win- gate, Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan (Lond..l89l) ; Giuseppe Sergi, Africa: Antr apologia delta Stirpe Camitica (Turin, 1897); A. H. Keane, Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan (Lond. 1884); Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (Lond. 1905); Joseph von Rus- segger, Die Reisen in Afrika (Stuttgart, 1841-1850). (T. A. J.) ABACA, or Abaka, a native name for the plant Musa textilis, which produces the fibre called Manila Hemp (q.v,). ABACUS (Gr. afial;, a slab; Fr. abaque, tailloir), in archi- tecture, the upper member of the capital of a column. Its chief function is to provide a larger supporting surface for the archi-, trave or arch it has to carry. In the Greek Doric order the abacus is a plain square slab. In the Roman and Renaissance Doric orders it is crowned by a moulding. In the Archaic-Greek Ionic order, owing to the greater width of the capital, the abacus is rectangular in plan, and consists of a carved ovolo moulding. In later examples the abacus is square, except where there are angle volutes, when it is slightly curved over the same. In the Roman and Renaissance Ionic capital, the abacus is square with a fillet on the top of an ogee moulding, but curved over angle volutes. In the Greek Corinthian order the abacus is moulded, its sides are concave and its angles canted (except in one or two excep- tional Greek capitals, where it is brought to a sharp angle) ; and the same shape is adopted in the Roman and Renaissance Corin- thian and Composite capitals, in some cases with the ovolo moulding carved. In Romanesque architecture the abacus is square with the lower edge splayed off and moulded or carved, and the same was retained in France during the medieval period; but in England, in Early English work, a circular deeply moulded abacus was introduced, which in the 14th and 15th cen- turies was transformed into an octagonal one. The diminutive of Abacus, Abaciscus, is applied in architecture to the chequers or squares of atessellatedpavement. " Abacus " is also the name of an instrument employed by the ancients for arithmetical calculations; being used as counters. Fig. L Fig. 1. — Roman Abacus. pebbles, bits of bone or coins 1 shows a Roman abacus taken ABADDON— ABANDONMENT from an ancient monument. It contains seven long and seven shorter rods or bars, the former having four perforated beads running on them and the latter one. The bar marked I indi- cates units, X tens, and so on up to millions. The beads on the shorter bars denote fives, — five units, five tens, &c. The rod 6 and corresponding short rod are for marking ounces ; and the short quarter rods for fractions of an ounce. The Swan-Pan of the Chinese (fig. 2) closely resembles the Roman abacus in its construction and use. Computations are made with it by means of balls of bone or ivory run- ning on slender bamboo rods, similar to the simpler board, fitted up with beads strung on wires; which is employed in teaching the rudiments of arithmetic in 8 3 2 7/5408 English schools Fig. 2.— Chinese Swan-Pan. The name of abacus is also given, in logic, to an instrument, often called the " logical machine," analogous to the mathematical abacus. • It is constructed to show all the possible combinations of a set of logical terms with their nega- tives, and, further, the way in which these combinations are affected by the addition of attributes or other limiting words, i.e. to simplify mechanically the solution of logical problems. These instruments are all more or less elaborate developments of the " logical slate," on which were written in vertical-columns all the combinations of symbols or letters which could be made logically out of a definite number of terms. These were com- pared with any given premises, and those which were incom- patible were crossed off. In the abacus the combinations are inscribed each on a single slip of wood or similar substance, which is moved by a key; incompatible combinations can thus be mechanically removed at will, in accordance with any given series of premises. The principal examples of such machines are those of W. S. Jevons {Element. Lessons in Logic, c. xxiii.), John Venn (see his Symbolic Logic, 2nd ed., 1894, p. 13s), and Allan Marquand (see American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1885, pp. 303-7, and Johns Hopkins University Studies in Logic, 1883). ABADDON, a Hebrew word meaning " destruction." In poetry it comes to mean "place of destruction," and so the under- world or Sheol (cf. Job xxvi. 6 ; Prov. xv. n). In Rev. ix. n Abaddon ('Afia55u>v) is used of hell personified, the prince of the underworld. The term is here explained as Apollyon {q.v.) , the " destroyer." W. Baudissin (Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklo- pddie) notes that Hades and Abaddon in Rabbinic writings are employed as personal names, just as shemayya in Dan. iv. 23, shdmayim (" heaven "), and makom (" place ") among the Rabbins, are used of God. ABADEH, a small walled town of Persia, in the province of Fars, situated at an elevation of 6200 ft. in a fertile plain on the high road between Isfahan and Shiraz, 140 m. from the former and 1 70 m. from the latter place. Pop. 4000. It is the chief place of the Abadeh-Iklid district, which has 30 villages ; it has tele- graph and post offices, and is famed for its carved wood-work, small boxes, trays, sherbet spoons, &c, made of the wood of pear and box trees. ABAE ("A/3 3> 3 f° r "ounces, drachms, scruples." | is probably to be traced, to the written form of the z in "on." * These forms (as well as $, the symbol for the American dollar) are placed before their amounts. 4 It is given to Austria to rule Me whole earth. The device of Austria, first adopted by Frederick III. 3o ABBREVIATORS— ABDALLATIF A.M. (Anno Mundi), In the year of the world. A.M. (Ante meridiem), Forenoon. Anon. Anonymous. A.U.C. (Anno urbis conditae). In the year from the building of the city (i.e. Rome). A.V. Authorized version of the Bible. b. born. B.V.M. The Blessed Virgin Mary. B.C. Before Christ. c. circa, about. C. or Cap. (Caput), Chapter. C. Centigrade (or Celsius's) Thermometer cent. 1 (Centum), A hundred, frequently £100. Cf. or cp. (Confer), Compare. Ch. or Chap. Chapter. C.M.S. Church Missionary Society. Co. Company, County. C.O.D. Cash on Delivery. Cr. Creditor. curt. Current, the present month. d. died. D.G. (Dei gratia), By the grace of God. Do. Ditto, the same. D.O.M. (Deo Optimo Maximo), To God the Best and Greatest. Dr. Debtor. D.V. (Deo volente), God willing. E.& O.E. Errors and omissions excepted. e.g. (Exempli gratia). For example. etc. or &c. (El caetera), And the rest; and so forth. Ex. Example. F. or Fahr. Fahrenheit's Thermometer. Fee. (Fecit), He made (or did) it. fl. Flourished. Fo. or Fol.- Folio. f.o.b. Free on board. G.P.O. General Post Office. H.M.S. His Majesty's Ship, or Service. lb. dr Ibid. (Ibidem), In the same place. Id. (Idem), The same. i.e. (id est), That is. I.H.S. A symbol for "Jesus," derived from the first three letters of the Greek (I H 2) ; the correct origin was lost sight of, and the Romanized letters were then interpreted erroneously as standing for Jesus, Hominum Salvator, the Latin " h " and Greek long " e " being confused. I.M.D.G. (In majorem Dei gloriam), To the greater glory of God. Inf. (Infra), Below. Inst. Instant, the present month. I.O.U. I owe you. i.q. (Idem quod), The same as. k.t.X. (koX tA Xourd), Et caetera, and the rest. L. or Lib. (Liber), Book. Lat. Latitude. I.e. (Loco citato), In the place cited. Lon. or Long. Longitude. L.S. (Locus sigtih), The place of the seal. Mem. (Memento), Remember, Memorandum. MS. Manuscript. MSS. Manuscripts. N.B. (Nota bene), Mark well; take notice. N.B. North Britain (i.e. Scotland). N.D. No date. nem. con. (Nemine contradicente) , No one contradicting. No. (Numero), Number. N.S. New Style. N.T. New Testament. ob. (Obiit), Died. Obs. Obsolete. O.H.M.S. On His Majesty's Service. O.S. Old Style. O.S.B. Ordo Sancti Benedicti (Benedictines). O.T. Old Testament. P. Page. Pp. Pages. J9 (Per), For; e.g. $ lb., For one pound. Pinx. (Pinxit), He painted it. P.M. (Post Meridiem), Afternoon. P.O. Post Office, Postal Order. P.O.O. Post Office Order. P.P.C. (Pour prendre conge), To take leave. P.R. Prize-ring. prox. (Proximo [mense]), Next month. P.S. Postscript. Pt. Part. p.t. or pro tern. (Pro tempore), For the time. P.T.O. Please turn over. Q., Qu., or Qy. Query; Question. q.d. (Quasi dicat), As if he should say; as much as to say. Q.E.D. (Quod erat demonstrandum). Which was to be demonstrated. Q.E.F. (Quod erat faciendum), Which was to be done. ' "Per cent." is often signified by%, a form traceable to "too," q.s. or quant, suff. (Quantum sufficit), As much as is sufficient. q.v. (Quod vide), Which see. R. or 5. (Recipe), Take. V ( = r. for radix), The sign of the square root. R.I. P. (Requiescat in pace!), May he rest in peace! R.S.V.P. (Respondez s'il vous plait), Please reply. sc. (Scilicet) , Namely ; that is to say. Sc. or Sculp. (Sculpsit), He engraved it. S.D.U.K. Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. seq.or sq., seqq. or sqq. (Sequens, Sfiquentia), The following. S.J. Society of Jesus. s.p. (Sine prole), Without offspring. S.P.C.K. Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge. S.P.G. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. S.T.D. ) S.T.B. [ Doctor, Bachelor, Licentiate of Theology. S.T.L. ) Sup. (Supra), Above. s.v. (Sub voce), Under the word (or heading). T.C.D. Trinity College, Dublin. ult. (Ultimo [mense]), Last month. U.S. United States. U.S.A. United States of America. v. (Versus), Against. v. or vid. (Vide), See. viz. (Videlicet), Namely. Xmas. Christmas. This X is a Greek letter, corresponding to Ch. See also Graevius's Thesaurus Antiquitatum (1694, sqq.); Nicolai'a Tractatus de Siplis Veterum ; Mommsen's Corpus Inscriptionum Lati- narum (1863, sqq.); Natalis de WcJlly's Paleographie (Paris, 1838); Alph. Chassant's Paleographie (1854), and Dictionnaire des Abrevia- tions (3rd ed.'l866) ; Campelli, Dizionario di Abbreviature (1899). ABBREVIATORS, a body of writers in the papal chancery, whose business was to sketch out and prepare in due form the pope's bulls, briefs and consistorial decrees before these are written out in extenso by the scriptorcs. They are first men- tioned in Extravagantes of John XXII. and of Benedict XII. Their number was fixed at seventy-two by Sixtus IV. From the time of Benedict XII. (1334-1342) they were classed as de Parco majori or Praesidentiae majoris, and de Parco minori. The name was derived from a space in the chancery, surrounded by a grating, in which the officials sat, which is called higher or lower (major or minor) according to the proximity of the seats to that of the vice-chancellor. After the protonotaries left the sketching of the minutes to the abbreviators, those de Parco majori, who ranked as prelates, were the most important officers of the apostolic chancery. By Martin V. their signature was made essential to the validity of the acts of the chancery; and they obtained in course of time many important privileges. They were suppressed in 1908 by Pius X. and their duties were trans- ferred to the protonotarii apostolici particip antes. (See Cueia Roman a.) ABDALLATIF, or Abd-ul-Latif (1162-1231), a celebrated physician and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writers of the East, was born at Bagdad in 1162. An interesting memoir of Abdallatif, written by himself, has been preserved with addi- tions by Ibn-Abu-Osaiba (Ibn abi Usaibia), a contemporary. From that work we learn that the higher education of the youth of Bagdad consisted principally in a minute and careful study of the rules and principles of grammar, and in their committing to memory the whole of the Koran, a treatise or two on philology and jurisprudence, and the choicest Arabian poetry. After attaining to great proficiency in that kind of learning, Abdallatif applied himself to natural philosophy and medicine. To enjoy the society of the learned, he went first to Mosul (1189), and afterwards to Damascus. With letters of recommendation . from Saladin's vizier, he visited Egypt, where the wish he had long cherished to converse with Maimonides, " the Eagle of the Doctors," was gratified. He afterwards formed one of the circle of learned men whom Saladin gathered around him at Jerusalem. He taught medicine and philosophy at Cairo and at Damascus for a number of years, and afterwards, for a shorter period, at Aleppo. His love of travel led him in his old age to visit different parts of Armenia and Asia Minor, and he was setting out on a pilgrimage to Mecca when he died at Bagdad in 1231. Abdal- latif was undoubtedly a man of great knowledge and of an inquisitive and penetrating mind. Of the numerous works—' mostly on medicine — which Osaiba ascribes to him, one ODly, ABD-AR-RAHMAN 3* fiis graphic and detailed Account of Egypt (in two parts), appears to be known in Europe. The manuscript, discovered by Edward Pococke the Orientalist, and preserved in the, Bodleian Library, contains a vivid description of a famine caused, during the author's residence in Egypt, by the Nile failing to overflow its banks. It was translated into Latin by Professor White of Oxford in 1800, and into French, with valuable notes, by De Sacy in 1810. ABD-AR-RAHMAN, the name borne by five princes of the Omayyad dynasty, amirs and caliphs of Cordova, two of them being rulers of great capacity. Abd-ar- Rahman I. (756-788) was the founder of the branch of the family which ruled for nearly three centuries in Mahom- medan Spain. When the Omayyads were overthrown in the East by the Abbasids he was a young man of about twenty years of age. Together with his brother Yahya, he took refuge with Bedouin tribes in the desert. The Abbasids hunted their enemies down without mercy. Their soldiers overtook the brothers; Yahya was slain, and Abd-ar-rahman saved himself by fleeing first to Syria and thence to northern Africa, the common refuge of all who endeavoured to get beyond the reach of the Abbasids. In the general confusion of the caliphate produced by the change of dynasty, Africa had fallen into the hands of local rulers, formerly amirs or lieutenants of the Omay- yad caliphs, but now aiming at independence. After a time Abd-ar-rahman found that his life was threatened, and he fled farther west, taking refuge among the Berber tribes of Mauri- tania. In the midst of all his perils, which read like stories from the Arabian Nights, Abd-ar-rahman had been encouraged by reliance on a prophecy of his great-uncle Maslama that he would restore the fortune of the family. He was followed in all his wanderings by a few faithful clients of the Omayyads. In 755 he was in hiding near Ceuta, and thence he sent an agent over to Spain to ask for the support of other clients of the family, descendants of the conquerors of Spain, who were numerous in the province of Elvira, the modern Granada. The country was in a state of confusion under the weak rule of the amir Vusef, a mere puppet in the hands of a faction, and was torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs and by race conflicts be- tween the Arabs and Berbers. It offered Abd-ar-rahman the opportunity he had failed to find in Africa. On the invitation of his partisans he landed at Almufiecar, to the east of Malaga, in September 755. For a time he was compelled to submit to be guided by his supporters, who were aware of the risks of their venture. Yusef opened negotiations, and offered to give Abd- ar-rahman one of his daughters in marriage and a grant of land. This was far less than the prince meant to obtain, but he would probably have been forced to accept the offer for want of a better if the insolence of one of Yusef's messengers, a Spanish renegade, had not outraged a chief partisan of the Omayyad cause. He taunted this gentleman, Obeidullah by name, with being unable to write good Arabic. Under this provocation Obeidullah drew the sword. In the course of 756 a campaign was fought in the valley of the Guadalquivir, which ended, on the 16th of May, in the defeat of Yusef outside Cordova. Abd- ar-rahman's army was so ill provided that he mounted almost the only good war-horse in it; he had no banner, and one was improvised by unwinding a green turban and binding it round the head of a spear. The turban and the spear became the banner of the Spanish Omayyads. The long reign of Abd-ar- rahman I. was spent in a struggle to reduce his anarchical Arab and Berber subjects to order. They had never meant to give themselves a master, and they chafed under his hand, which grew continually heavier. The details of these conflicts belong to the general history of Spain. It is, however, part of the personal history of Abd-ar-rahman that when in 763 he was compelled to fight at the very gate of his capital with rebels acting on behalf of the Abbasids, and had won a signal victory, he cut off the heads of the leaders, filled them with salt and camphor and sent them as a defiance to the eastern caliph. His hist years were spent amid a succession of palace conspiracies, repressed with cruelty. Abd-ar-rahman grew embittered and ferocious. He was a fine example of an oriental founder of a, dynasty, and did his work so well that the Omayyads lasted in Spain for two centuries and a half. Abd-ar-Rahman II. (822-852) was one of the weaker of the Spanish Omayyads. He was a prince with a taste for music and literature, whose reign was a time of confusion. It is chiefly memorable for having included the story of the " Martyrs ot Cordova," one of the most remarkable passages in the religious history of the middle ages. Abd-ar-Rahman III. (912-961) was the greatest and the most successful of the princes of his dynasty in Spain (for the general history of his reign see Spain, History) . He ascended the throne when he was barely twenty-two and reigned for half a century. His life was so completely identified with the govern- ment of the state that he offers less material for biography than his ancestor Abd-ar-rahman I. Yet it supplies somt passages which show the real character of an oriental dynasty even at its best. Abd-ar-rahman III. was the grandson of his predecessor, Abdallah, one of the weakest and worst of the Spanish Omayyads. His father, Mahommed, was murdered by a brother Motarrif by order of Abdallah. The old sultan was so far influenced by humanity and remorse that he treated his grandson kindly. Abd-ar-rahman III. came to the throne when the country was exhausted by more than a generation of tribal conflict among the Arabs, and of strife between them and the Mahommedans of native Spanish descent. Spaniards who were openly or secretly Christians had acted with the renegades. These ele- ments, which formed the bulk of the population, were not averse from supporting a strong ruler who would protect them against the Arab aristocracy. These restless nobles were the most serious of Abd-ar-rahman's enemies. Next to them came the Fatimites of Egypt and northern Africa, who claimed the caliphate, and who aimed at extending their rule over the Mahommedan world, at least in the west. Abd-ar-rahman subdued the nobles by means of a mercenary army, which in- cluded Christians. He repelled the Fatimites, partly by sup- porting their enemies in Africa, and partly by claiming the caliphate for himself. His ancestors in Spain had been content with the title of sultan.. The caliphate was thought only to belong to the prince who ruled over the sacred cities of Mecca and Medina. But the force of this tradition had been so far weakened that Abd-ar-rahman could proclaim himself caliph on the 16th of January 929, and the assumption of the title gave him increased prestige with his subjects, both in Spain and Africa. His worst enemies were always his fellow Mahom- medans. After he was defeated by the Christians at Alhandega in 939 through the treason of the Arab nobles in his army (see Spain, History) he never again took the field. He is accused of having sunk in his later years into the self-indulgent habits of the harem. When the undoubted prosperity of his dominions is quoted as an example of successful Mahommedan rule, it is well to remember that he administered well not by means of but in spite of Mahommedans. The high praise given to his administration may even excite some doubts as to its real ex- cellence. We are told that a third of his revenue sufficed for the ordinary expenses of government, a third was hoarded and a third spent on buildings. A very large proportion of the surplus mu,st have been wasted on the palace-town of Zahra, built three miles to the north of Cordova, and named after a favourite concubine. Ten thousand workmen are said to have been employed for twenty-five years on this wonder, of which no trace now remains, The great monument of early Arabic architecture in Spain, the mosque of Cordova, was built by his predecessors, not by him. It is said that his harem included six thousand women. Abd-ar-rahman was tolerant, but it is highly probable that he was very indifferent in religion, and it is certain that he was a thorough despot. One of the most authentic sayings attributed to him is his criticism of Otto I. of Germany, recorded by Otto's ambassador, Johann, abbot of Gorze, who has left in his Vita an incomplete account of his embassy (in Pertz, Mon. Germ. Scriptores, iv. 355-377). He blamed the king of Germany for trusting his nobles, which he said 32 ABD-EL-AZIZ IV — ABD-EL-KADER could only increase their pride and leaning to rebellion. His confession that he had known only twenty happy days in his long reign is perhaps a moral tale, to be classed with the " omnia fui, et nil expedit " of Septimius Severus. In the agony of the Omayyad dynasty in Spain, two princes of the house were proclaimed caliphs for a very short time, Abd-ar-rahman IV. Mortada (1017), and Abd-ar-rahman V. Mostadir (1023-1024). Both were the mere puppets of factions, who deserted them at once. Abd-ar-rahman IV. was murdered in the year in which he was proclaimed, at Guadiz, when fleeing from a battle in which he had been deserted by his supporters. Abd-ar-rahman V. was proclaimed caliph in December 1023 at Cordova, and murdered in January 1024 by a mob of unemployed workmen, headed by one of his own cousins. The history of the Omayyads in Spain is the subject of the Histoire des Musulmans d'Espagne, by R. Dozy (Leiden, 1861). (D. H.) ABD-EL-AZIZ IV. (1880- ), sultan of Morocco, son of Sultan Mulai el Hasan III. by a Circassian wife. He was fourteen years of age on his father's death in 1894. By the wise action of Si Ahmad bin Musa, the chamberlain of El Hasan, Abd-el- Aziz's accession to the sultanate was ensured with but little fighting. Si Ahmad became regent and for six years showed himself a capable ruler. On his death in 1900 the regency ended, and Abd-el-Aziz took the reins of government into his own hands, with an Arab from the south, El Menebhi, for his chief adviser. Urged by his Circassian mother, the sultan sought advice and counsel from Europe and endeavoured to act up to it. But disinterested advice was difficult to obtain, and in spite of the unquestionable desire of the young ruler to do the best for the country, wild extravagance both in action and expenditure resulted, leaving the sultan with depleted exchequer and the confidence of his people impaired. His in- timacy with foreigners and his imitation of their ways were sufficient to rouse fanaticism and create dissatisfaction. His attempt to reorganize the finances by the systematic levy of taxes was hailed with delight, but the government was not strong enough to carry the measures through, and the money which should have been used to pay the taxes was employed to purchase firearms. Thus the benign intentions of Mulai Abd- el-Aziz were interpreted as weakness, and Europeans were accused of having spoiled the sultan and of being desirous of spoiling the country. When British engineers were employed to survey the route for a railway between Mequinez and Fez, this was reported as indicating an absolute sale of the country. The fanaticism of the people was aroused, and a revolt broke out near the Algerian frontier. Such was the condition of things when the news of the Anglo-French Agreement of 1904 came as a blow to Abd-el-Aziz, who had relied on England for support and protection against the inroads of France. On the advice of Germany he proposed the assembly of an international conference at Algeciras in 1906 to consult upon methods of reform, the sultan's desire being to ensuie a condition of affairs which would leave foreigners with no excuse for interference in the control of the country, and would promote its welfare, which Abd-el-Aziz had earnestly desired from his accession to power. The sultan gave his adherence to the Act of the Algeciras Conference, but the state of anarachy into which Morocco fell during the latter half of 1906 and the beginning of 1907 showed that the young ruler lacked strength sufficient to make his will respected by his turbulent subjects. In May 1907 the southern tribes invited Mulai Hafid, an elder brother of Abd-el-Aziz, and viceroy at Marrakesh, to become sultan, and in the following August Hafid was proclaimed sovereign there with all the usual formalities. In the meantime the murder of Europeans at Casablanca had led to the occupation of that port by France. In September Abd-el-Aziz arrived at Rabat from Fez and endeavoured to secure the support of the European powers against his brother. From France he accepted the grand cordon of the Legion of Honour, and was later enabled to negotiate a loan. His leaning to Christians aroused further opposition to his rule, and in January 1908 he was declared deposed by the ulema of Fez, who offered the throne to Hafid, After months of inactivity Abd-el-Aziz made an effort to re- store his authority, and quitting Rabat in July he marched on Marrakesh. His force, largely owing to treachery, was com- pletely overthrown (August 19th) when near that city, and Abd-el-Aziz fled to Settat within the French lines round Cas- ablanca. In November he came to terms with his brother, and thereafter took up his residence in Tangier as a pensioner of the new sultan. He declared himself more than reconciled to the loss of the throne, and as looking forward to a quiet, peaceful life. (See Morocco, History.) ABD-EL-KADER (c. 1807-1883), amir of Mascara, the great opponent of the conquest of Algeria by France, was born near Mascara in 1807 or 1808. His family were sherifs or descend- ants of Mahomet, and his father, Mahi-ed-Din, was celebrated throughout North Africa for his piety and charity. Abd-el- Kader received the best education attainable by a Mussulman of princely rank, especially in theology and philosophy, in horsemanship and in other manly exercises. While still a youth he was taken by his father on the pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina and to the tomb of Sidi Abd-el-Kader El Jalili at Bag- dad — events which stimulated his natural tendency to religious enthusiasm. While in Egypt in 1827, Abd-el-Kader is stated to have been impressed, by the reforms then being carried out by Mehemet Ali, with the value of European civilization, and the knowledge he then gained affected his career. Mahi-ed-Din and his son returned to Mascara shortly before the French occupa- tion of Algiers (July 1830) destroyed the government of the Dey. Coming forward as the champion of Islam against the infidels, Abd-el-Kader was proclaimed amir at Mascara in 1832. He prosecuted the war against France vigorously and in a short time had rallied to his standard all the tribes of western Algeria. The story of his fifteen years' struggle against the French is given under Algeria. To the beginning of 1842 the contest went in favour of the amir; thereafter he found in Marshal Bugeaud an opponent who proved, in the end, his master. Throughout this period Abd-el-Kader showed himself a born leader of men, a great soldier, a capable administrator, a per- suasive orator, a chivalrous opponent. His fervent faith in the doctrines of Islam was unquestioned, and his ultimate failure was due in considerable measure to the refusal of the Kabyles, Berber mountain tribes whose Mahommedanism is somewhat loosely held, to make common cause with the Arabs against the French. On the 21st of December 1847, the amir gave himself up to General Lamoriciere at Sidi Brahim. On the 23rd, his submission was formally made to the due d'Aumale, then governor of Algeria. In violation of the promise that he Would be allowed to go to Alexandria or St Jean d'Acre, on the faith of which he surrendered, Abd-el-Kader and his family were detained in France, first at Toulon, then at Pau, being in November 1848 transferred to the chateau of Amboise. There Abd-el-Kader remained until October 1852, when he was re- leased by Napoleon III. on taking an oath never again to dis- turb Algeria. The amir then took up his residence in Brusa, removing in 1855 to Damascus. In July i860, when the Moslems of that city, taking advantage of disturbances among the Druses of Lebanon, attacked the Christian quarter and killed over 3000 persons, Abd-el-Kader helped to repress the outbreak and saved large numbers of Christians. For this action the French government, which granted the amir a pension of £4000, bestowed on him the grand cross of the Legion of Honour. In 1865, he visited Paris and London, and was again in Paris at the exposition of 1867. In 1871, when the Algerians again rose in revolt, Abd-el-Kader wrote to them counselling submission to France. After his surrender in 1847 he devoted himself anew to theology and philosophy, and composed a philosophical treatise, of which a French translation was published in 1858 under the title of Rappel a V intelligent. Avis a Vindiffrent. He also wrote a book on the Arab horse. He died at Damascus on the 26th of May 1883. See Commdt. J. Pichon, Abd el Kader, 1807-1883 (Paris [1899],); Alex. Bellemare, Abd-el-Kader: sa vie politique et militaire (Paris, 1863) ; Col. C. H. Churchill, The Life of Abdel Kader (London, 1867). ABDERA— ABDOMEN ABDERA, an ancient seaport town on the south coast of Spain, between Malaca and New Carthage, in the district in- habited by the Bastuli. It was founded by the Carthaginians as a trading station, and after a period of decline became under the Romans one of the more important towns in the province of Hispania Baetica. It was situated on a hill above the modern Adra (q.v.). Of its coins the most ancient bear the Phoenician inscription abdrt with the head of Heracles (Melkarth) and a tunny-fish; those of Tiberius (who seems to have made the place a colony) show the chief temple of the town with two tunny-fish erect in the form of columns. For inscriptions re- lating to the Roman municipality see C.I.L. ii. 267. ABDERA, a town on the coast of Thrace near the mouth of the Nestos, and almost opposite Thasos. Its mythical founda- tion was attributed to Heracles, its historical to a colony from Clazomenae in the 7th century B.C. But its prosperity dates from 544 B.C., when the majority of the people of Teos migrated to Abdera after the Ionian revolt to escape the Persian yoke (Herod, i. 168); the chief coin type, a gryphon, is identical with that of Teos; the coinage is noted for the beauty and variety of its reverse types. The town seems to have declined in importance after the middle of the 4th century. The air of Abdera was proverbial as causing stupidity; but among its citizens was the philosopher Democritus. The ruins of the town may still be seen on Cape Balastra; they cover seven small hills, and extend from an eastern to a western harbour; on the S.W. hills are the remains of the medieval settlement of Polystylon. Mittheti. d. deutsch. Inst. Athens, xii. (1887), p. 161 (Regel); M6m. de I' Acad, des Inscriptions, xxxix. 211; K. F. Hermann, Ges. Abh. 90-11 1, 370 ff. ABDICATION (Lat. abdicatio, disowning, renouncing, from ab, from, and dicare, to declare, to proclaim as not belonging to one), the act whereby a person in office renounces and gives up the same before the expiry of the time for which it is held. In Roman law, the term is especially applied to the disowning of a member of a family, as the disinheriting of a son, but the word is seldom used except in the sense of surrendering the supreme power in a state. Despotic sovereigns are at liberty to divest themselves of their powers at any time, but it is other- wise with a limited monarchy. The throne of Great Britain cannot be lawfully abdicated unless with the consent of the two Houses of Parliament. When James II., after throwing the great seal into the Thames, fled to France in 1688, he did not formally resign the crown, and the question was discussed in parliament whether he had forfeited the throne or had abdicated. The latter designation was agreed on, for in a full assembly of the Lords and Commons, met in convention, it was resolved, in spite of James's protest, " that King James II. having endea- voured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, by breaking the original contract between king and people, and, by the advice of Jesuits and other wicked persons, having violated the fundamental laws, and having withdrawn himself out of this kingdom, has abdicated the government, and that the throne is thereby vacant." The Scottish parliament pronounced a decree of forfeiture and deposition. Among the most memor- able abdications of antiquity may be mentioned that of Sulla the dictator, 79 B.C., and that of the Emperor Diocletian, a.d. 305. The following is a list of the more important abdications of later times: — A.D. Benedict IX., pope -. 1048 Stephen II. of Hungary 1131 Albert (the Bear) of Brandenburg ........ 1169 Ladislaus III. of Poland 1206 Cetestine V., pope Dec. 13, 1294 John Baliol of Scotland 1296 John Cantacuzene, emperor of the East .... 1355 Richard II. of England Sept. 29, 1399 John XXIII., pope . . 1415 Erie VII. of Denmark and XIII. of Sweden . . . 1439 Murad II., Ottoman Sultan 1444 and 1445 Charles V., emperor 1556 Christina of Sweden 1654 John Caaimir of Poland . . ■ . . . t . . . 1668 1.2 James II. of England Frederick Augustus of Poland .... Philip V. of Spain Victor Amadeus II. of Sardinia . . . Ahmed III., Sultan of Turkey .... Charles of Naples (on accession to throne of Spain) Stanislaus II. of Poland m A.D. 1688 1704 • ■ 1724 1730 1730 1759 1795 Charles Emanuel IV. of Sardinia .... June 4, 1802 Charles IV. of Spain . . . . . . . Mar. 19, 1808 Joseph Bonaparte of Naples June 6,1808 Gustavus IV. of Sweden Mar. 29, 1809 Louis Bonaparte of Holland July 2, 1810 Napoleon I., French Emperor. April 4, 1814, and June 22, 1815 Victor Emanuel of Sardinia Mar. 13, 182 1 Charles X. of France Aug. 2, 1830 Pedro of Brazil 1 April 7, 1831 Miguel of Portgual May 26, 1834 William I. of Holland Oct. 7, 1840 Louis Philippe, king of the French . . . Feb. 24, 1848 Louis Charles of Bavaria Mar. 21, 1848 Ferdinand of Austria Dec. 2, 1848 Charles Albert of Sardinia Mar. 23, 1849 Leopold II. of Tuscany July 21, 1859 Isabella II. of Spain l une 2 5' 1 ^7° Amadeus I. of Spain Feb. n, 1873 Alexander of Bulgaria Sept. 7, 1886 Milan of Servia Mar. 6, 1889 ABDOMEN (a Latin word, either from abdere, to hide, or from a form adipomen, from adeps, fat), the belly, the region of the body containing most of the digestive organs. (See for ana- tomical details the articles Alimentary Canal, and Anatomy, Superficial and Artistic.) Abdominal Surgery. — The diseases affecting this region are dealt with generally in the article Digestive Organs, and under their own names (e.g. Appendicitis). The term " ab- dominal surgery " covers generally the operations which involve opening the abdominal cavity, and in modern times this field of work has been greatly extended. In this Encyclopaedia the surgery of each abdominal organ is dealt with, for the most part, in connexion with the anatomical description of that organ (see Stomach, Kidney, Liver, &c.) ; but here the general principles of abdominal surgery may be discussed. Exploratory Laparotomy. — In many cases of serious intra- abdominal disease it is impossible for the surgeon to say exactly what is wrong without making an incision and introducing his finger, or, if need be, his hand among the intestines. With due care this is not a perilous or serious procedure, and the great ad- vantage appertaining to it is daily being more fully recognized. It was Dr Oliver Wendell Holmes, the American physiologist and poet, who remarked that one cannot say of what wood a table is made without lifting up the cloth; so also it is often impossible to say what is wrong inside the abdomen without making an opening into it. When an opening is made in such circumstances— provided only it is done soon enough — the successful treatment of the case often becomes a simple matter. An exploratory operation, therefore, should be promptly resorted to as a means of diagnosis, and not left as a last resource till the outlook is well-nigh hopeless. It is probable that if the question were put to any experienced hospital surgeon if he had often had cause to regret having advised recourse to an exploratory operation on the abdomen, his answer would be in the negative, but that, on the other hand, he had not infrequently had cause to regret that he had not resorted to it, post-mortem examination having shown that if only he had insisted on an exploration being made, some band, some adhesion, some tumour, some abscess might have been satisfactorily dealt with, which, left unsuspected in the dark cavity, was accountable for the death. A physician by himself is helpless in these cases. Much of the rapid advance which has of late been made in the results of abdominal surgery is due to the improved rela- tionship which exists between the public and the surgical pro- fession. In former days it was not infrequently said, " If a surgeon is called in he is sure to operate." Not only have the 'Pedro had succeeded to the throne of Portugal in 1826, but abdicated it at once in favour of his daughter. II 34 ABOOMEW* public said this, but even physicians have been known to suggest it, and have indeed used the equivocal expression, the "apothe- osis of surgery," in connexion with the operative treatment, of a serious abdominal lesion. But fortunately the public have found out that the surgeon, being an honest man, does not advise operation unless he believes that it is necessary or, at any rate, highly advisable. And this happy discovery has led to much more confidence being placed in his decision. It has truly been said that a surgeon is a physician who can operate, and the public have begun to realize the fact that it is useless ■ to try to relieve an acute abdominal lesion by diet or drugs. Not many years ago cases of acute, obscure or chronic affections of the abdomen which were admitted into hospital were sent as a matter of course into the medical wards, and after the effect of drugs had heen tried with expectancy and failure, the services of a surgeon were called in. In acute cases this delay spoilt all surgical chances, and the idea was more widely spread ; that surgery, after all, was a poor handmaid to medicine. But now things are different. Acute or obscure abdominal cases are promptly relegated to the surgical wards; the surgeon is at once sent for, and if operation is thought desirable it is performed without any delay. The public have found that the surgeon is not a reckless operator, but a man who can take a broad view of a case in all its bearings. And so it has come about that the results of operations upon the interior of the abdomen have been improving day by day. And doubtless they will continue to improve. A great impetus was given to the surgery of wounded, morti- fied or diseased pieces of intestine by the introduction from Chicago of an ingenious contrivance named, after the inventor, Murphy's button. This consists of a short nickel-plated tube in two pieces, which are rapidly secured in the divided ends of the bowel, and in such a manner that when the pieces are subse- quently " married " the adjusted ends of the bowel are securely fixed together and the canal rendered practicable. In the course of time the button loosens itself into the interior of the bowel and comes away with the alvine evacuation. In many other cases the use of the button has proved convenient and successful, as in the establishment of a permanent communication between , the stomach and the small intestine when the ordinary gateway between these parts of the alimehtary canal is obstructed by an irremovable malignant growth; between two parts of the small intestine so that some obstruction may be passed; be- tween smal! and large intestine. The operative procedure goes by the name of short-circuiting; it enables the contents of the bowel to get beyond an obstruction. In this way also a perma- nent working communication can be set up between the gall- bladder, or a dilated bile-duct, and the neighbouring small intestine — the last-named operation bears the precise but very clumsy name of choledocoduodenostomy. By the use of Murphy's ingenious apparatus the communication of two parts can be secured in the shortest possible space of time, and this, in many of the cases in which it is resorted to, is of the greatest importance. But there is this against the method — that some- times ulceration occurs around the rim of the metal button, whilst at others the loosened metal causes annoyance in its passage along the alimentary canal. Some surgeons therefore prefer to use a bobbin of decalcified bone or similar soft material, while others rely upon direct suturing of the parts. The last- named method is gradually increasing in popularity, and of course, when time and circumstances permit, it is the ideal method of treatment. The cause of death in the case of intestinal obstruction is usually due to the blood being poisoned by the absorption of the products of decomposition of the fluid contents of the bowel above the obstruction. It is now the custom, therefore, for the surgeon to complete his operation for the relief of obstruction by drawing out a loop of the distended bowel, incising and evacuating it, and then carefully suturing and returning it. The surgeon who first recognized the lethal effect of the absorption of this stagnant fluid— or, at any rate, who first suggested the proper method of treating it — was Lawson Tait of Birmingham, who on the occurrence of grave symptoms after operating on the abdomen gave small, repeated' (loses of Epsom salts to wash away the harmful liquids of the bowel and to enable it at the satne time to empty itself of the g£S, which, by distending the intestines, was interfering with respiration and circulation. . Amongst still more recent improvements in abdominal surgery may be mentioned, the placing of the patient in the sitting position as soon as practicable after the operation, and the slow administration of a hot saline solution into the lower bowel; or, in the more desperate cases, of injecting pints of this "■ normal saline " fluid into the loose tissue of the armpit. Hot water thus administered or injected is quickly taken into the blood, increasing its volume, diluting its impurities' and quenching the great thirst which is so marked a symptom in this condition. Gunshot Wounds' of the Abdomen.— -If a revolver bullet passes through the abdomen, the coils of intestine are likely to be traversed by it in several places. If the bullet be small arid, by chance, surgically clean, it is possible that the openings may tightly close up behind it so that no leakage takes place into the general peritoneal cavity. If increasing collapse suggests that serious bleeding is occurring within the abdomen, the cavity is opened forthwith and a thorough exploration made. When it is uncertain if the bowel has been traversed or not, it is Well to wait before opening the abdomen, due preparation being made for performing that operation on the first appearance of symptoms indicative of perforation having occurred: Small perforating wounds of the bowel are treated by such suturing as the circumstances may suggest, the interior of the abdominal cavity being rendered as free from septic micro-organisms as possible. It is by the malign influence of such germs that a fatal issue is determined in the case of an abdominal wound, whether inflicted by firearms or by a pointed weapon. If aseptic procedure can be promptly resorted to and thoroughly carried out, abdominal wounds do well, but these essentials cannot be obtained upon the field of battle. When after an action wounded men come pouring into the field-hospital, the many cannot be kept waiting whilst preparations are being made for the thorough carrying out of a prolonged aseptic abdominal operation upon a solitary case. Experience in the South African war of 1809-1002 showed that Mauser bullets could pierce coils of intestine and leave the soldiers in such a condition that, if treated by mere " expectancy," more than 50 % recovered, whereas if operations were resorted to, fatal septic peritonitis was likely to ensue. In the close proximity of the fight, where time, assistants, pure water, towels, lotions and other necessaries for carrying out a thoroughly aseptic operation cannot be forthcoming, gunshot wounds of the ab- domen had best not be interfered with. Stabs of the abdomen are serious if they have penetrated the abdominal wall, as, at the time of injury, septic germs may have been introduced, or the bowel may have been wounded. In either case a fatal inflammation of the peritoneum may. be set up. It is inadvisable to probe a wound in order to find out if the belly-cavity has been penetrated, as the probe itself might carry inwards septic germs. In case of doubt it is better to en- large the wound in order to, determine its depth, and to disinfect and close it if it be non-penetrating. If, however, the belly- cavity has been opened, the neighbouring pieces of bowel should be examined, cleansed and, if need be, sutured. Should there have been an escape of the contents of the bowel the " toilet of the peritoneum " would be duly made, and a drainage-tube woiild be left in. If the stab had injured a large blood-vessel either of the abdominal cavity, or of the liver or of some other organ, the bleeding would be arrested by ligature or suture, and the extravasated blood sponged out. Before the days of antiseptic surgery, and of exploratory abdominal operations, these cases were generally allowed to drift to almost certain death, unrecognized and almost untreated : at the present time a large number of them are saved. Intussusception. — This is a terribly fatal disease of infants 'and children, in which a piece of bowel slips into, and is gripped by, ABDUCTION---ABD-UL-HAMID II. 35 the piece next below it. Formerly it was generally the custom to endeavour to reduce the invagination by passing air or water up the rectum under pressure — a speculative method of treat- ment which sometimes ended in a fatal rupture of the distended bowel, and often — one might almost say generally — failed to do what was expected of it. The teaching of modern surgery is that a small incision into the abdomen and a prompt withdrawal of the invaginated piece of bowel can be trusted to do all that, .and more than, injection can effect, without blindly risking a rupture of the bowel. It is certain that when the surgeon is unable to unravel the bowel with his fingers gently applied to the parts themselves, no speculative distension of the bowel could have been effective. But the outlook in these distressing cases, even when the operation is promptly resorted to, is ex- tremely grave, because of the intensity of the shock which the intussusception and resulting strangulation entail. Still, every operation gives them by far the best chance. Cancer of the Intestine. — With the introduction of aseptic methods of operating, it has been found that the surgeon can reach the bowel through the peritoneum easily and safely. With the peritoneum opened, moreover, he can explore the diseased bowel and deal with it as circumstances suggest. . If the can- cerous mass is fairly movable the affected piece of bowel is excised and the cut ends are spliced together, and the continuity uf the alimentary «canal is permanently re-established. Thus in the case of cancer of the large intestine which is not too far advanced, the surgeon expects to be able not only to relieve the obstruction of the bowel, but actually to cure the patient of his disease. When the lowest part of the bowel was found to be occupied by a cancerous obstruction, the surgeon used formerly to secure an easy escape for the contents of the bowel by making an opening into the colon in the left loin. But in recent years this operation of lumbar colotomy has been almost entirely replaced by opening the colon in the left groin. This operation of inguinal colotomy is usually divided into two stages: a loop of the large intestine is first drawn out through the ab- dominal wound and secured by stitches, and a few days after- wards, when it is firmly glued in place by adhesive inflammation, it is cut across, so that subsequently the motions can no longer find their way into the bowel below the artificial anus. If at the first stage of the operation symptoms of obstruction are urgent, one of the ingenious glass tubes with a rubber conduit, which Mr F. T. Paul has invented, may be forthwith introduced into the distended bowel, so that the contents may be allowed to escape without fear of soiling the peritoneum or even the surface-wound. (E. O.*) ABDUCTION (Lat. abductio, abducere, to lead away), a law term denoting the forcible or fraudulent removal of a person, limited by custom to the case where a woman is the victim. In the case of men or children, it has been usual to substitute the term kidnapping (q.v.). The old English laws against abduc- tion, generally contemplating its object as the possession of an heiress and her fortune, have been repealed by the Offences against the Person Act 1861, which makes it felony for any one from motives of lucre to take away or detain against her will, with intent to marry or carnally know her, &c, any woman of any age who has any interest in any real or personal estate, or is an heiress presumptive, or co-heiress, or presumptive next of kin to any one having such an interest; or for any one to cause such a woman to be married or carnally known by any other person; or for any one with such intent to allure, take away, or detain any such woman under the age of twenty-one, out of the possession and against the will of her parents or guardians. By s. 54, forcible taking away or detention against her will of any woman of any age with like intent is felony. The same act makes abduction without even any such intent a misdemeanour, where an unmarried girl under the age of six- teen is unlawfully taken out of the possession and against the will of her parents or guardians. In such a case the girl's con- sent is immaterial, nor is it a defence that the person charged reasonably believed that the girl was sixteen or over. The Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 made still more stringent provisions with reference to abduction by making the procura- tion or attempted procuration of any virtuous female under the age of twenty-one years a misdemeanour, as well as the abduction of any girl under eighteen years of age with the intent that she shall be carnally known, or the detaining of any female against her will on any premises, with intent to have, Or that another person may have, carnal knowledge of her. In Scotland, where there is no statutory adjustment, abduction is similarly dealt with by practice. ABD-UL-AZIZ (1830-1876), sultan of Turkey, son of Sultan Mahmud II., was born on the 9th of February 1830, and suc- ceeded his brother Abd-ul-Mejid in 1861. His personal in- terference in government affairs was not very marked, and extended to little more than taking astute advantage of the constant issue of State loans during his reign to acquire wealth, which was squandered in building useless palaces and in other futile ways: he is even said to have profited, by means of "bear" sales, from the default on the Turkish debt in 1875 and the consequent fall in prices. Another source of revenue was afforded by Ismail Pasha, the khedive of Egypt, who paid heavily in bakshish for the firman of 1866, by which the succes- sion to the khedivate was made hereditary from father to sob in direct line and in order of primogeniture, as well as for the subsequent firmans of 1867, 1869 and 1872 extending the khedive's prerogatives. It is, however, only fair to add that the sultan was doubtless influenced by the desire to bring about a similar change in the succession to the Ottoman throne and to ensure the succession after him of his eldest son, Yussuf Izz-ed-din. Abd-ul-Aziz visited Europe in 1867. being the first Ottoman sultan to do so, and was made a Knight of the Garter by Queen Victoria. In 1869 he received the visits of the emperor of Austria, the .Empress Eugenie and other foreign princes, on their way to the opening of the Suez Canal, and King Edward VII., while prince of Wales, twice visited Constantinople during his reign. The mis-government and financial straits of the country brought on the outbreak of Mussulman discontent and fanaticism which eventually culmi- nated in the murder of two consuls at Salonica and in the " Bulgarian atrocities," and cost Abd-ul-Aziz his throne. His deposition on the 30th of May 1876 was hailed with joy through- out Turkey; a fortnight later he was found dead in the palace where he was confined, and trustworthy medical evidence attributed his death to suicide. Six children survived him: Prince Yussuf Izz-ed-din, born 1857; Princess Saliha, wife of Kurd Ismail Pasha; Princess Nazim6, wife of Khalid Pasha; Prince Abd-ul-Mejid, born 1869; Prince Seif-ed-din, born 1876; Princess Emine, wife of Mahommed Bey; Prince Shefket, born 1872, died 1899. ABD-UL-HAMID I. {1725-1789), sultan of Turkey, son of Ahmed III., succeeded his brother Mustafa III. in 1773. Long confinement in the palace aloof from state affairs had left him pious, God-fearing and pacific in disposition. At his accession the financial straits of the treasury were such that the usual donative could not be given to the janissaries. War was, how- ever, forced on him, and less than a year after his accession the complete defeat, of the Turks at Kozluja led to the treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji (21st July 1774), the most disastrous, especially in its after effects, that Turkey has ever been obliged to con- clude. • (See Turkey.) Slight successes in Syria and the Morea against rebellious outbreaks there could not compensate for the loss of the Crimea, which Russia soon showed that she meant to absorb entirely. In 1787 war was again declared against Russia, joined in the following year by Austria, Joseph II. being entirely won over to Catherine, whom he accompanied in her triumphal progress in the Crimea. Turkey held her own against the Austrians, but in 1788 Ochakov fell to the Russians. Four months later, on the 7th of April 1789, the sultan died, aged sixty-four. ABD-UL-HAMID II. (1842- ), sultan of Turkey, son of Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid, was born on the 21st of September 1842, and succeeded to the throne on the deposition of his brother Murad V., on the 31st oi August 1876. He accompanied his ABD-UL-MEJID uncle S,ultatt Abd-ul-Aziz On his Visit to England and France in 1867. At his accession spectators were struck by the fearless manner in which he rode, practically unattended, on his way to be girt with the sword of Eyub. He was supposed to be of liberal principles, and the more conservative of his subjects were for some years after his accession inclined to regard him with suspicion as a too ardent reformer. But the circumstances of the country at his accession were ill adapted for liberal developments. Default in the public funds and an empty treasury, the insurrection in Bosnia and the Herzegovina, the war with Servia and Montenegro, the feeling aroused throughout Europe by the methods adopted in stamping out the Bulgarian rebellion, all combined to prove to the new sultan that he could expect little aid from the Powers. But, still clinging to the groundless belief, for which British statesmen had, of late at least, afforded Turkey no justification, that Great Britain at all events would support him, he obstinately refused to give ear to the pressing requests of the Powers that the necessary reforms should be instituted. The international Conference which met at Constantinople towards the end of 1876 was, indeed, startled by the salvo of guns heralding the promulgation of a constitu- tion, but the demands of the Conference were rejected, in spite of the solemn warnings addressed to the sultan by the Powers; Midhat Pasha, the author of the constitution, was exiled; and soon afterwards ^is work was suspended, though figuring to this day on the Statute-Book. Early in 1877 the disastrous war with Russia followed. The hard terms, embodied in the treaty of San Stefano, to which Abd-ul-Hamid was forced to consent, were to some extent amended at Berlin, thanks in the main to British diplomacy (see Europe, History); but by this time the sultan had lost all confidence in England, and thought that he discerned in Germany, whose supremacy was evidenced in his eyes by her capital being selected as the meeting-place of the Congress, the future friend of Turkey. He hastened to employ Germans for the reorganization of his finances and his army, and set to work in the determination to maintain his empire in spite of the difficulties surrounding him, to resist the encroachments of foreigners, and to take gradually the reins of absolute power into his own hands, being animated by a profound distrust, not unmerited, of his ministers. Financial embarrassments forced him to consent to a foreign control over the Debt, and the decree of December 1881, whereby many of the revenues of the empire were handed over to the Public Debt Administration for the benefit of the bondholders, was a sacrifice of principle to which he could only have con- sented with the greatest reluctance. Trouble in Egypt, where a discredited khedive had to be deposed, trouble on the Greek frontier and in Montenegro, where the Powers were determined that the decisions of the Berlin Congress should be carried into effect, were more or less satisfactorily got over. In his attitude towards Arabi, the would-be saviour of Egypt, Abd-ul-Hamid showed less than his usual astuteness, and the resulting con- solidation of England's hold over the country contributed still further to his estrangement from Turkey's old ally. The union in 1885 of Bulgaria with Eastern Rumelia, the severance of which had been the great triumph of the Berlin Congress, was another blow. Few people south of the Balkans dreamed that Bulgaria could be anything but a Russian province, and appre- hension was entertained of the results of the union 'until it was seen that Russia really and entirely disapproved of it. Then the best was made of it, and for some years the sultan preserved towards Bulgaria an attitude skilfully calculated so as to avoid running counter either to Russian or to German wishes. Germany's friendship was not entirely disinterested, and had to be fostered with a railway or loan concession from time to time, until in 1899 the great object aimed at, the Bagdad railway, was con- ceded. Meanwhile, aided by docile instruments, the sultan had succeeded in reducing his ministers to the position of secretaries, and in concentrating the whole administration of the country into his own hands at Yildiz. But internal dissension was not thereby lessened. Crete was constantly in turmoil, the Greeks were dissatisfied, and from, about r8 (c. 1575-1618), was the eldest sOn of Claud Hamilton, Lord Paisley (4th son of James, 2nd earl of Arran, and duke of Chatelherault), and of ■ Margaret, daughter of George, 6th Lord Seton. He was made sheriff of Linlithgow in 1600, received large grants of lands in Scotland and Ireland, was created in 1603 baron of Abercorn, and on the 10th of July 1606 was rewarded for his services in the matter of the union by being made eari of Abercorn, and Baron Hamilton, Mount Castle and Kilpatrick. He married Marion, daughter of Thomas, 5th Lord Boyd, and left five sons, of whoro the eldest, baron of Strabane, succeeded him as 2nd earl of Abercorn. He died on the 23rd of March 1618. The title of Abercorn, held by the head of the Hamilton family, became a marquessate in 1790, and a dukedom in 1868, the 2nd duke of Abercorn (b. 1838) being a prominent Unionist politician and chairman of the British South Africa Company, ABERCROMBIE, JOHN (1780-1844), Scottish physician, was the son of the Rev. George Abercrombie of Aberdeen, where he was born on the 10th of October 1780. He was edu- cated at the university of Edinburgh, and after graduating as M.D. in 1803 he settled down to practise in that city, where he soon attained a leading position. From 18 16 he published various papers in the. Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, which formed the basis of his Pathological and Practical Re- searches on Diseases of the Brain and Spinal Cord, and of his Researches on the Diseases of the Intestinal Canal, Liver and other Viscera of the Abdomen, both published in 1828. He also found time for philosophical speculations, and in 1830 he pub- lished his Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers of Man and the Investigation of Truth, which was followed in 1833 by a sequel, The Philosophy of the Moral Feelings. Both works, though showing little originality of thought, achieved wide popularity. He died at Edinburgh on the 14th of November 1844. ABERCROMBY, DAVID, a 17th-century Scottish physician who was sufficiently noteworthy a generation after the probable date of his death to have his Nova Medicinae Praxis reprinted at Paris in 1740. During his lifetime his Tula ac effi-cax luis venereae saepe absque ■mercurio ac semper absque salivatione mercuriali curando methodus (1684) was translated into French, Dutch and German. Two other works by him were De Pulsus Variatione (London, 1685), and A r s explorandi medicas facultates plantarum ex solo sapor e (London, 1685— 1688). His Opuscula were collected in 1687. These professional writings gave him a place and memorial in A. von Haller's Bibliotheca Medicinae Pract. (4 vols. 8vo, 1779, torn. iii. p. 619); but he claims notice rather by his remarkable controversial books in theology and philosophy than by his medical writings. Bred up at Douai as a Jesuit, he abjured popery, and published Protestancy proved Safer than Popery (London, 1686). But the most noticeable of his productions is A Discourse of Wit (London, 1685), which contains some of the most characteristic and most definitely-put metaphysical opinions of the Scottish philosophy of common sense. It was followed by Academia Scientiarum (1687), and by A Moral, Treatise of the Power of Interest (1690), dedicated to Robert Boyle. A Short Account of Scots Divines, by him, was printed at Edinburgh in 1833, edited by James Maidment. The exact date of his death is unknown, but ac- cording to Halle r he was alive early in the 18th century. ABERCROMBY,, PATRICK (1656-c. 1716), Scottish physician and antiquarian, was the third son of Alexander Abercromby of Fetterneir in Aberdeenshire, and brother of- Francis Aber- 44 ABERCROMBY— ABERDARE cromby, who was created Lord Glasford by James II. He was born at Forfar in 1656 apparently of a Roman Catholic family. Intending to become a doctor of medicine he entered the university of St Andrews, where he took his degree of M.D. in 1685, but apparently he spent most of his youthful years abroad. It has been stated that he attended the university of Paris. The Discourse of Wit (1685), sometimes assigned to him, belongs to Dr David Abercromby (?.».). On his return to Scotland, he is found practising as a physician in Edinburgh, where, besides his professional duties, he gave himself with characteristic zeal to the study of antiquities. He was appointed physician to James II. in 1685, but the revolution deprived him of the post. Living during the agitations for the union of England and Scotland, he took part in the war of pamphlets inaugurated and sustained by prominent men on both sides of the Border, and he crossed swords with no less redoubtable a foe than Daniel Defoe in his Advantages of the Act of Security compared with those of the intended Union (Edinburgh, 1707), and A Vindication of the Same against Mr De Foe (ibid.). A minor literary work of Abercromby's was a translation of Jean de Beaugue's Histoire de la guerre d'Hcosse (1556) which appeared in 1707. But the work with which his name is perma- nently associated is his Martial Achievements of the Scots Nation, issued in two large folios, vol. i. 1711, vol. ii. 1716. In the title-page and preface to vol. i. he disclaims the ambition of being an historian, but in vol. ii., in title-page and preface alike, he is no longer a simple biographer, but an historian. Even though, read in the light of later researches, much of the first volume must necessarily be relegated to the region of the mythical, none the less was the historian a laborious and accom- plished reader and investigator of all available authorities, as well manuscript as printed; while the roll of names of those who aided him includes every man of note in Scotland at the time, from Sir Thomas Craig and Sir George Mackenzie to Alexander Nisbet and Thomas Ruddiman. The date of Aber- cromby's death is uncertain. It has been variously assigned to 1715, 1716, 1720, and 1726, and it is usually added that he left a widow in great poverty. The Memoirs of the Abercrombys, commonly attributed to him, do not appear to have been pub- lished. See Robert Chambers, Eminent Scotsmen, s.v.; William Anderson, Scottish Nation, s.v.; Alexander Chalmers, Biog. Diet., s.v.; George Chalmers, Life of Ruddiman; William Lee, Defoe. ABERCROMBY, SIR RALPH (1734-1801), British lieutenant- general, was the eldest son of George Abercromby of Tullibody, Clackmannanshire, and was born in October 1734. Educated at Rugby and Edinburgh University, in 1754 he was sent to Leipzig to study civil law, with a view to his proceeding to the Scotch bar. On returning from the continent he expressed a strong preference for the military profession, and a cornet's commission was accordingly obtained for him (March 1756) in the 3rd Dragoon Guards. He served with his regiment in the Seven Years' war, and the opportunity thus afforded him of studying the methods of the great Frederick moulded his military character and formed his tactical ideas. He rose through the intermediate grades to the rank of lieutenant-colonel of the regiment (1773) and brevet colonel in 1780, and in 1781 he became colonel of the King's Irish infantry. When that regi- ment was disbanded in 1783 he retired upon half -pay. That up to this time he had scarcely been engaged in active service was owing mainly to his disapproval of the policy of the govern- ment, and especially to his sympathies with the American colonists in their struggles for independence; and his retirement is no doubt to be ascribed to similar feelings. On leaving the army he for a time took up political life as member of .Parlia- ment for Clackmannanshire. This, however, proved uncongenial, and, retiring in favour of his brother, he settled at Edinburgh and devoted himself to the education of his children. But on France declaring war against England in 1793, he hastened to resume his professional duties; and, being esteemed one of the ablest and most intrepid officers in'the whole British forces, he was appointed to the command of a brigade under the duke of York, for service in Holland. He commanded the advanced 1 guard in the action at Le Cateau, and was wounded at Nijmwegen. The duty fell to him of protecting the British army in its dis- astrous retreat out of Holland, in the winter of 1794-1795. In 1795 he received the honour of a knighthood of the Bath, in acknowledgment of his services. The same year he was ap- pointed to succeed Sir Charles Grey, as commander-in-chief of the British forces in the West Indies. In 1796 Grenada was suddenly attacked and taken by a detachment of the army under his orders. He afterwards obtained possession of the settlements of Demerara and Essequibo, in South America, and of the islands of St Lucia, St Vincent and Trinidad. He returned in 1797 to Europe, and, in reward for his important services, was appointed colonel of the regiment of Scots Greys, entrusted with the governments of the Isle of Wight, Fort-George and Fort- Augustus, and raised to the rank of lieutenant-general. He held, in 1 797-1 798, the chief command of the forces in Ire- land. There he laboured to maintain the discipline of the army, to suppress the rising rebellion, and to protect the people from military oppression, with a care worthy alike of a great general and an enlightened and beneficent statesman. When he was appointed to the command in Ireland, an invasion of that country by the French was confidently anticipated by the English govern- ment. He used his utmost efforts to restore the discipline of an army that was utterly disorganized; and, as a first step, he anxiously endeavoured to protect the people by re-establishing the supremacy of the civil power, and not allowing the military to be called out, except when it was indispensably necessary for the enforcement of the law and the maintenance of order. Finding that he received no adequate support from the head of the Irish government, and that all his efforts were opposed and thwarted by those who presided in the councils of Ireland, he resigned the command. His departure from Ireland was deeply lamented by the reflecting portion of the people, and was speedily followed by those disastrous results which he had anticipated, and which he so ardently desired and had so wisely endeavoured to prevent. After holding for a short period the office of com- mander-in-chief in Scotland, Sir Ralph, when the enterprise against Holland was resolved upon in 1799, was again called to command under the duke of York. The campaign of 1799 ended in disaster, but friend and foe alike confessed that the most decisive victory could not have more conspicuously proved the talents of this distinguished officer. His country applauded the choice when, in 1801, he was sent with an army to dispossess the French of Egypt. His experience in Holland and the West Indies particularly fitted him for this new command, as was proved by his carrying his army in health, in spirits and with the requisite supplies, in spite of very great difficulties, to the destined scene of action. The debarkation of the troops at Aboukir, in the face of strenuous opposition, is justly ranked among the most daring and brilliant exploits of the English army. A battle in the neighbourhood of Alexandria (March 21, 1 801) was the sequel of this successful landing, and it was Abercromby's fate to fall in the moment of victory. He was struck by a spent ball, which could not be extracted, and died seven days after the battle. His old friend and commander the duke of York paid a just tribute to the great soldier's memory in general orders: "His steady observance of discipline, his ever-watchful attention to the health and wants of his troops, the persevering and unconquerable spirit which marked his military career, the splendour of his actions in the field and the heroism of his death, are worthy the imitation of all who desire, like him, a life of heroism and a death of glory." By a vote of the House of Commons, a monument was erected in his honour in St Paul's cathedral. His widow was created Baroness Aber- cromby of Tullibody and Aboukir Bay, and a pension of £2000 a year was settled on her and her two successors in the title. _ A memoir of the later years of his life (1793-1801) by his third son, James (who was Speaker of the House of Commons, 1835-1S39, and became Lord Dunfermline), was published in 1861. For a shorter account of Sir Ralph Abercromby see Wilkinson, Twefa British Soldiers (London, 1899). ABERDARE, HENRY AUSTIN BRUCE, isx Baron (1815- ABERDARE— ABERDEEN 45 1895), English statesman, was born at Dufiryn, Aberdare, Glamorganshire, on the 16th of April 181 5, the son of John Bruce, a Glamorganshire landowner. John Brace's original family name was Knight, but on coming of age in 1805 he assumed the name of Bruce, his mother, through whom he in- herited the Duffryn estate, having been the daughter of William Bruce, high sheriff of Glamorganshire. Henry Austin Bruce was educated at Swansea grammar school, and in 1837 was called to the bar. Shortly after he had begun to practise, the discovery of coal beneath the Duffryn and other Aberdare Valley estates brought the family great wealth. From 1847 to 1852 he was stipendiary magistrate for Merthyr Tydvil and Aberdare, resigning the position in the latter year, when he entered parliament as Liberal member for Merthyr Tydvil. In 1862 he became under-secretary for the home department, and in 1869, after losing his seat at Merthyr Tydvil, but being re-elected for Renfrewshire, he was made home secretary by W. E. Gladstone. His tenure of this office was conspicuous for a reform of the licensing laws, and he was responsible for the Licensing Act of 1872, which constituted the magistrates the licensing authority, increased the penalties for misconduct in public-houses and shortened the number of hours for the sale of drink. In 1873 he relinquished the home secretaryship, at Gladstone's request, to become lord president of the council, and was almost *imultaneously raised to the peerage as Baron Aberdare. The defeat of the Liberal government in the following year terminated Lord Aberdare's official political life, and he sub- sequently-devoted himself to social, educational and economic questions. In 1876 he was elected F.R.S.; from 1878 to 1892 he was president of the Royal Historical Society; and in 1881 he became president of the Royal Geographical Society. In 1882 he began a connexion with West Africa which lasted the rest of his life, by accepting the chairmanship of the National African Company, formed by Sir George Taubman Goldie, which in 1886 received a charter under the title of the Royal Niger Company and in 1899 was taken over by the British government, its territories being constituted the protectorate of Nigeria. West African affairs, however, by no means exhausted Lord Aberdare's energies, and it was principally through his efforts that a charter was in 1894 obtained for the university of Wales at Cardiff. Lord Aberdare, who in 1885 was made a G.C.B., presided over several Royal Commissions at different times. He died in London on the 25th of February 1895. His second wife was the daughter of Sir William Napier, the historian of the Peninsular war, whose Life he edited. ABERDARE, a market town of Glamorganshire, Wales, situated (as the name implies) at the confluence of the Dar and Cynon, the latter being a tributary of the Taff. Pop. of urban district (1901), 43,365. It is 4 m. S.W. of Merthyr Tydvil, 24 from Cardiff and 160 from London by rail. It has a station on the Pontypool and Swansea section of the Great Western railway, and is also served by the Llwydcoed and Abernant stations which are on a branch line to Merthyr. The Taff Vale line (opened 1846) has a terminus in the town. The Glamorgan canal has also a branch (made in 181 1) running from Abercynon to Aberdare. From being, at the beginning of the 19th century, a mere village in an agricultural district, the place grew rapidly in population owing to the abundance of its coal and iron ore, and the population of the whole parish (which was only i486 in 1801) increased tenfold during the first half of the century. Iron- works were established at Llwydcoed and Abernant in 1799 and 1800 respectively, followed by others at Gadlys and Aberaman in 1827 and 1847. These have not been worked since about 1875, and the only metal industries remaining in the town are an iron foundry or two and a small tinplate works at Gadlys (established in 1868). Previous to 1836, most of the coal worked in the parish was consumed locally, chiefly in the ironworks, but in that year the working of steam coal for export was begun, pits were sunk in rapid succession, and the coal trade, which at least since 1875 has been the chief support of the town, soon reached huge dimensions. There are also several brickworks and breweries. During the latter half of the 19th century, considerable public improvements were effected in the town, making it, despite its neighbouring collieries, an agreeable place of residence. Its institutions included a post-graduate theo- logical college (opened in connexion with the Church of England in 1892, until 1907, when it was removed to Llandaff). There is a public park of fifty acres with two small lakes. Aberdare, with the ecclesiastical parishes of St Fagan's (TrecynOn) and Aberaman carved out of the ancient parish, has some twelve Anglican churches, one Roman Catholic church (built in 1866 in Monk Street near the site of a cell attached to Penrhys Abbey) and over fifty Nonconformist chapels. The services in the majority of the chapels are in Welsh. The whole parish falls within the parliamentary borough of Merthyr Tydvil. The urban district includes what were once the separate villages of Aberaman, Abernant, Cwmbach, Cwmaman, Cwmdare, Llwyd- coed and Trecyhon. There are several cairns and the remains of a circular British encampment on the mountain between Aberdare and Merthyr. Hirwaun moor, 4 m. to the N.W. of Aberdare, was according to tradition the scene of a battle at which Rhys ap Jewdwr, prince of Dyfed, was defeated by the allied forces of the Norman Robert Fitzhamon and Iestyn ab Gwrgan, the last prince of Glamorgan. ABERDEEN, GEORGE GORDON, ist Earl of (1637-1720), lord chancellor of Scotland, son of Sir John Gordon, ist baronet of Haddo, Aberdeenshire, executed by the Presbyterians in 1644, was born on the 3rd of October 1637. He graduated M.A., and was chosen professor at King's College, Aberdeen, in 1658. Subsequently he travelled and studied civil law abroad. At the Res oration the sequestration of his father's lands was annulled, and in 1665 he succeeded by the death of his elder brother to the baronetcy and estates. He returned home in 1667, was admitted advocate in 1668 and gained a high-legal reputation. He represented Aberdeenshire in the Scottish parliament of 1669 and in the following assemblies, during his first session strongly opposing the projected union of the two legislatures. In November 1678 he was made a privy councillor for Scotland, and in 1680 was raised to the bench as Lord Haddo. He was a leading member of the duke of York's administration, was created a lord of session in June and in November 1681 president of the court. The same year he is reported as moving in the council for the torture of witnesses. 1 In 1682 he was made lord chancellor of Scotland, and was created, on the 13th of November, earl of Aberdeen, Viscount Formartine, and Lord Haddo, Methlick, Tarves and Kellie, in the Scottish peerage, being appointed also sheriff principal of Aberdeenshire and Midlothian. Burnet reflects unfavourably upon him, calls him " a proud and covetous man," and declares " the new chancellor exceeded all that had gone before him." 2 He executed the laws enforcing religious conformity with severity, and filled the parish churches, but resisted the excessive measures of tyranny pre- scribed by the English government; and in consequence of an intrigue of the duke of Queensberry and Lord Perth, who gained the duchess of Portsmouth with a present of £27,000, he was dismissed in 1684. After his fall he was subjected to various petty prosecutions by his victorious rivals with the view of discovering some act of maladministration on which to found a charge against him, but the investigations only served to strengthen his credit. He took an active part in parliament in 1685 and 1686, but remained a non-juror during the whole of William's reign, being frequently fined for his non-attendance, and took the oaths for the first time after Anne's accession, on the nth of May 1703. In the great affair of the Union in 1707, while protesting against the Completion of the treaty till the act declaring the Scots aliens should be repealed, he refused to support the opposition to the measure itself and refrained from attending parliament when the treaty was settled. He died on the 20th of April 1720, after having amassed a large fortune. He is described by John Mackay as " very knowing in the laws and constitution of his country and" is believed to be the solidest statesman in Scotland, a fine orator, speaks slow but sure." 1 Sir J. Lauder's Hist. Notices (Bannatyne Club, 1848), p. 297. 2 Hist, of his own Times, i. 523. 46 ABERDEEN His person was said to be deformed, and his " want of mine or deportment " was alleged as a disqualification for the office of lord chancellor. He married Anne, daughter and sole heiress of George Lockhart of Torbrecks, by whom he had six children, his only surviving son, William, succeeding him as 2nd earl of Aberdeen. See Letters to George, earl of Aberdeen (with memoir: Spalding Club, 1851); Hist. Account of the Senators of the College of Justice, by G. Brunton and D. Haig (1832), p. 4.08; G. Crawfurd's Lives of the Officers of State (1726), p. 226; Memoirs of Affairs in Scotland, by Sir G. Mackenzie (182 1), p. 148; Sir J. Lauder's (Lord Fountainhall) Journals (Scottish Hist. Society, vol. xxxvi., 1900); J. Mackay's Memoirs (1733), p. 215; A. Lang's Hist, of Scotland, iii. 369, 376. (P. C. Y.) ' ABERDEEN, GEORGE HAMILTON GORDON, 4TH Earl of (1784-1860), English statesman, was the eldest son of George Gordon, Lord Haddo, by his wife Charlotte, daughter of William Baird of Newbyth, Haddingtonshire, and grandson of George, 3rd earl of Aberdeen. Born in Edinburgh on the 28th of January 1784, he lost his father in 1791 and his mother in 1795; and as his grandfather regarded him with indifference, he went to reside with Henry Dundas, afterwards Viscount Melville. At the age of fourteen he was permitted by Scotch law to name his own curators, or guardians, and selecting William Pitt and Dundas for this office he spent much of his time at their houses,, thus meeting many of the leading politicians of the day. He was educated at "Harrow, and St John's College, Cambridge, where he graduated as a nobleman in 1804. Before this time, however, he had become earl of Aberdeen on his grandfather's death in 1801, and had travelled over a large part of the continent of Europe, meeting on bis journeys Napoleon Bonaparte and other persons of distinction. He also spent some time in Greece, and on his return to England founded the Athenian Society, member- ship of which was confined to those who had travelled in that country. Moreover, he wrote an article in the Edinburgh Review of July 1805 criticizing Sir William Gill's Topography of Troy, and these circumstances led Lord Byron to refer to him in English Bards and Scotch Reviewers as " the travell'd thane, Athenian Aberdeen." Having attained his majority in 1805, he married on the 28th of July Catherine Elizabeth Hamilton, daughter of John James, 1st marquess of Abercorn. In De- cember 1806 he was elected a representative peer for Scotland, and took his seat as a Tory in the House of Lords, but for some years he took only a slight part in public business. However, by his birth, his abilities and his connexions alike he was marked out for a high position, and after the death of his wife in February 18 1 2 he was appointed ambassador extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary at Vienna, where he signed the treaty of Toplitz between Great Britain and Austria in October 1813 ; and accompanying the emperor Francis I. through the subsequent campaign against France, he was present at the battle of Leipzig. He Was one of the British representatives at the congress of Chatillon in February 1814, and in the same capacity was present during the negotiations which led to the treaty of Paris in the following May. Returning home he was created a peer of the United Kingdom as Viscount Gordon of Aberdeen (1814), and made a member of the privy council. On the 15th of July 18 15 he married Harriet, daughter of the Hon. John Douglas, and widow of James, Viscount Hamilton, and thus became doubly connected with the family of the marquess of Abercorn. During the ensuing thirteen years Aberdeen took a less prominent part in public affairs, although he succeeded in passing the Entail (Scotland) Act of 1825. He kept in touch, however, with foreign politics, and having refused to join the ministry of George Canning in 1827, became a member of the cabinet of the duke of Wellington as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in January 1828. In the following June he was transferred to the office of secretary of state for foreign affairs, and having acquitted himself with credit with regard to the war between Russia and Turkey, and to affairs in Greece, Portugal and France, he resigned with Wellington in November 1830, and shared his leader's attitude towards the Reform Bill of 1832. As a Scotsman, Aberdeen was interested in the ecclesiastical controversy which culminated in the disruption of 1843. In 1840 he introduced a bill to settle the vexed question of patronage; but disliked by a majority in the general assembly of the Scotch church, and unsupported by the government, it failed to become law, and some opprobrium was cast upon its author. In 1843 he brought forward a similai measure " to remove doubts respecting the admission of ministers to benefices." This Admission to Benefices Act, as it was called, passed into law, but did not reconcile the opposing parties. During the short administration of Sir Robert Peel in 1834 and 1835, Aberdeen had filled the office of secretary for the colonies, and in September 1841 he took office again under Peel, on this occasion as foreign secretary; » the five years during which he held this position were the most fruitful and successful of his public life. He owed his success to the confidence placed in him by Queen Victoria, to his wide knowledge of European politics, to his intimate friendship with Guizot, and not least to his own conciliatory disposition. Largely owing to his efforts, causes of quarrel between Great Britain and France in Tahiti, over the marriage of Isabella II. of Spain, and in other direc- tions, were removed. More important still were his service's in settling the question of the boundary between the United States and British North America at a time when a single in- judicious word would probably have provoked a war. In 1845 he supported Peel when in a divided cabinet he proposed to suspend the duty on foreign corn, and left office with that minister in July 1846. After Peel's death in 1850 he became the recognized leader of the Peelites, although since his resigna- tion his share in public business had been confined to a few speeches on foreign • affairs. His dislike of the Ecclesiastical Titles Assumption Bill, the rejection of which he failed to secure in 1851, prevented him from joining the government of Lord John Russell, or from forming an administration himself in this year. In December 1852, however, be became first lord of the treasury and head of a coalition ministry of Whigs and Peelites. Although united on free trade and in general on ques- tions of domestic reform, a cabinet which contained Lord Palmerston and Lord John Russell, in addition to Aberdeen, was certain to differ on questions of foreign policy. The strong and masterful character of these and other colleagues made the task of the prime minister one of unusual difficulty, a fact which was recognized by contemporaries. Charles Greville in his Memoirs says, " In the present cabinet are five or six first-rate men of equal, or nearly equal, pretensions^ none of them- likely to acknowledge the superiority or defer to the opinions of any other, and every one of these five or six considering himself abler and more important than their premier"; and Sir James Graham wrote, " It is a powerful team, but it will require good driving." The first year of office passed off successfully, and it was owing to the steady support of the prime minister that Gladstone's great budget of 1853 was accepted by the cabinet. This was followed by the outbreak of the dispute between France and Turkey over the guardianship of the holy places at Jerusalem, which, after the original cause of quarrel had'' been forgotten, developed into the Crimean war. The tortuous negotiations which preceded the struggle need not- be discussed here, but in defence of Aberdeen it may be said that he hoped and strove for peace to the last. Rightly or wrongly, however, he held that Russell was indispensable to the cabinet, and that a resignation would precipitate war. His outlook, usually so clear, was blurred by these, considerations, and he lacked the strength to force the suggestions which he made in the autumn of 1853 upon his imperious colleagues. Palmerston, supported by Russell and well served by Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, British ambassador at Constantinople, favoured a more aggres- sive policy, and Aberdeen, unable to control Palmerston, and unwilling to let Russell go, cannot be exonerated from blame. When the war began he wished to prosecute it vigorously; but the stories of misery and mismanagement from the seat of war deprived the ministry of public favour. Russell' resigned; and on the 29th of January 1855 a motion by J. A. Roebuck, fqr the appointment of a select committee to enquire into the con- duct of the war £ was carried in the House of Commons by a ABERDEEN 47 large majority. Treating this as a vote of want of confidence Aberdeen at once resigned office, and the queen bestowed upon him the order of the Garter. He smoothed the way for Palmerston to succeed him, and while the earl of Clarendon re- mained at the foreign, office he aided him with advice and was consulted on matters of moment. He died in London on the 14th of December i860, and was buried in the family vault at Stanmore. By his first wife he had one son and three daughters, all of whom predeceased their father. By his second wife, who died in August 1833, he left four sons and one daughter. His eldest son, George John James, succeeded as 5th earl; his second son was General Sir Alexander Hamilton-Gordon, K.C.B.; his third son was the Reverend Douglas Hamilton-Gordon; and his youngest son Arthur Hamilton, after holding various high offices under the crown, was created Baron Stanmore in 1893. Among the public offices held by the earl were those of lord- lieutenant of Aberdeenshire, president of the society of Anti- quaries from 1812 to 1846 and fellow of the Royal Society. Aberdeen was a distinguished scholar with a retentive memory and a wide knowledge of literature and art. His private life was exemplary, and he impressed his contemporaries with the loftiness of his character. Hi's manner was reserved, and as a speaker he was weighty rather than eloquent. In public life he was remarkable for his generosity to his political opponents, and for his sense of justice and honesty. He did not, however, possess the qualities which impress the populace, and he iacked the strength which is one of the essential gifts of a statesman. His character is perhaps best described by a writer who says " his strength was not equal to his goodness." His foreign policy was essentially one of peace and non-intervention, and in pursuing it he was accused of favouring the despotisms of Europe. Aberdeen was a model landlord. By draining the land, by planting millions of trees and by erecting numerous build- ings, he greatly improved the condition of his Aberdeenshire estates, and studied continually the welfare of his dependants. A bust of him by Matthew Noble is in Westminster Abbey, and his portrait was painted by Sir Thomas Lawrence. He wrote An Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in Grecian Architecture (London, 1822), and the Correspondence of the Earl of Aberdeen has been printed privately under the direction of his son, Lord Stanmore. The 6th earl, George (1841-1870), son of the 5th earl, was drowned at sea, and was succeeded by his brother John Campbell Gordon, 7th earl of Aberdeen (b. 1847), a prominent Liberal politician, who was lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1886, governor- general of Canada 1893-1898, and again the lord-lieutenant of Ireland when Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman formed his ministry at the close of 1905. See Lord Stanmore, The Earl of Aberdeen (London, 1893); C. C. F. Greville, Memoirs, edited by H. Reeve (London, 1888); Spencer Walpole, History of England (London, 1878-1886), and Life of Lord John Russell (London, 1889) ; A. W. Kinglake, Invasion of the Crimea (London, 1877-1888); Sir T. Martin, Life of the Prince Consort (London, 1875-1880); J. Morley, Life of Gladstone (London, 1903). (A. W, H.*) ABERDEEN, a royal burgh, city and county of a city, capital of Aberdeenshire, and chief seaport in the north of Scotland. It is the fourth Scottish town in population, industry and wealth, and stands on a bay of the North Sea, between the mouths of the Don and Dee, 1305 m. N. E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. Though Old Aberdeen, extending from the city suburbs to the southern banks of the Don, has a separate charter, privileges and history, the distinction between it and New Aberdeen can no longer be said to exist; and for parlia- mentary, municipal and other purposes, the two towns now form practically one community. Aberdeen's popular name of the " Granite City " is justified by the fact that the bulk of the town is built of granite, but to appreciate its more poetical designation of the " Silver City by the Sea," it should be seen after a heavy rainfall when its stately structures and countless houses gleam pure and white under the brilliant sunshine. The area of the city extends to 6602 acres, the burghs of Old Aberdeen and Woodside, and the district, of Torry (for parliamentary purposes in the constituency of Kincardineshire) to the south of the Dee, having been incorporated in 1891. The city comprises eleven wards and eighteen ecclesiastical parishes, and is under the jurisdiction of a council with lord provost, bailies, treasurer and dean of guild. The corporation owns the water (derived from the Dee at a spot 21 m. W.S.W. of the city) and gas supplies, ■ electric lighting and tramways. Since 1885 the city has returned two members to Parliament. Aberdeen is served by the Cale- donian, Great North of Scotland and North British railways (occupying a commodious joint railway station), and there is regular communication by sea with London and the chief ports on the eastern coast of Great Britain and the northern shores of the Continent. The mean temperature of the city for the year is 45'8° F., for summer 56 F., and for winter 37-3° F. The average yearly rainfall is 30-57 inches. The city is one of the healthiest in Scotland. Streets and Buildings. — Roughly, the extended city runs north and south. From the new bridge of Don to the " auld brig " of Dee there is tramway communication via King Street, Union Street and Holburn Road — a distance of over five miles. Union Street is one of the most imposing thoroughfares in the British Isles. From Castle Street it runs W. S. W. for nearly a mile, is 70 ft. wide, and contains the principal shops and most of the modern public buildings, all of granite. Part of the street crosses the Denburn ravine (utilized for the line of the Great North of Scotland railway) by a fine granite arch of 132 ft. span, portions of the older town still fringing the gorge, fifty feet below the level of Union Street. Amongst the more conspicuous secular buildings in the street may be mentioned the Town and County Bank, the Music Hall, with sitting accommodation for 2000 persons, the Trinity Hall of the incorporated trades (origin- ating in various years between 1398 and 1527, and having charit- able funds for poor members, widows and orphans), containing some portraits by George Jamesone, a noteworthy set of carved oak chairs, dating from 1574, and the shields of the crafts with quaint inscriptions; the office of the Aberdeen Free Press, one of the most influential papers in the north of Scotland; the Palace Hotel; the office of the Northern Assurance Company, and the National Bank of Scotland. In Castle Street, a con- tinuation eastwards of Union Street, are situated the Municipal and County Buildings, one of the most splendid granite edifices in Scotland, in the Franco-Scottish Gothic style, built in 1867-1878. They are of four stories and contain the great hall with an open timber ceiling and oak-panelled walls; the Sheriff Court House; the Town Hall, with excellent portraits of Prince Albert (Prince Consort), the 4th earl of Aberdeen, the various lord provosts and other distinguished citizens. In the vestibule of the en- trance corridor stands a suit of black armour believed to have been worn by Provost Sir Robert Davidson, who fell in the battle of Harlaw, near Inverurie, in 141 1. From the south-western corner a grand tower rises to a height of 210 ft., commanding a fine view of the city and surrounding country. Adjoining the- municipal buildings is the North of Scotland Bank, of Greek design, with a portico of Corinthian columns, the capitals of which are exquisitely carved. On the opposite side of the street is the fine building of the Union Bank. At the upper end of Castle Street stands the Salvation Army Citadel, an effective castellated mansion, the most imposing " barracks " possessed anywhere by this organization. In front of it is the Market Cross, a beautiful, open-arched, hexagonal structure, 21 ft. in diameter and 18 ft. high. The original was designed in 1682 by John Montgomery, a native architect, but in 1842 it was removed hither from, its old site and rebuilt in a better style. On the entablature surmounting the Ionic columns are panels contain- ing medallions of Scots sovereigns from James I. to James VII. From the centre rises a shaft, 125 ft. high, with a Corinthian capital on which is the royal unicorn rampant. On an eminence east of Castle Street are the military barracks. In Market Street are the Mechanics' Institution, founded in 1824, with a good, library; the Post and Telegraph offices; and the Market, where provisions of all kinds and general wares are sold. The Fish Market, on the Albert Basin, is a busy scene in the early morning. 4 8 ABERDEEN The Art Gallery and Museum at Schoolhill, built in the Italian Renaissance style of red and brown granite, contains an excellent collection of pictures, the Macdonald Hall of portraits of contem- porary artists by themselves being of altogether exceptional interest and unique of its kind in Great Britain. The public library, magnificently housed, contains more than 60,000 volumes. The theatre in Guild Street is the chief seat of dra- matic, as the Palace Theatre in Bridge Place is of variety enter- tainment. The new buildings of Marischal College fronting Broad Street, opened by King Edward VII. in 1906, form one of the most splendid examples of modern architecture in Great Britain; the architect, Alexander Marshall Mackenzie, a native of Aberdeen, having adapted his material, white granite, to the design of a noble building with the originality of genius. Churches. — Like most Scottish towns, Aberdeen is well equipped with churches, most of them of good design, but few of special interest. The East and West churches of St Nicholas, their kirkyard separated from Union Street by an Ionic facade, 1475 ft. long, built in 1830, form one continuous building, 220ft. in length, including the Drum Aisle (the ancient burial-place of the Irvines of Drum) and the Collison Aisle, which divide them and which formed the transept of the 12th-century church of St Nicholas. The West Church was built in 1775, in the Italian style, the East originally in 1834 in the Gothic. In 1874 a fire destroyed the, East Church and the old central tower with its fine peal of nine bells, one of which, Laurence or "Lowrie," was 4 ft. in diameter at the mouth, 35 ft. high and very thick. The church was rebuilt and a massive granite tower erected over the intervening aisles at the cost of the municipality, a new peal of 36 bells, cast in Holland, being installed to com- memorate the Victorian jubilee of 1887. The Roman Catholic Cathedral in Huntly Street, a Gothic building, was erected in 1859. The see of Aberdeen was first founded at Mortlach in Banffshire by Malcolm II. in 1004 to celebrate his victory there over the Danes, but in 113 7 David I. transferred the bishopric to Old Aberdeen, and twenty years later the cathedral of St Machar, situated a few hundred yards from the Don, was begun. Save during the episcopate of William Elphinstone (1484-1511), the building progressed slowly. Gavin Dunbar, who followed him in 15 18, was enabled to complete the structure by adding the two western spires and the southern transept. The church suffered severely at the Reformation, but is Still used as the parish church. It now consists of the nave and side aisles. It is chiefly built of outlayer granite, and, though the plainest cathedral in Scotland, its stately simplicity and severe symmetry lend it unique distinction. On the flat panelled ceiling, of the nave are the heraldic shields of the princes, noblemen and bishops who shared in its erection, and the great west window contains modern painted glass of excellent colour and design. The cemeteries are St Peter's in Old Aberdeen, Trinity near the links, Nellfield at the junction of Great Western and Holburn Roads, and Allenvale, very tastefully laid out, adjoining Duthie Park. Education. — Aberdeen University consists of King's College in Old Aberdeen, founded by Bishop Elphinstone in 1494, and Marischal College, in Broad Street, founded in 1593 by George Keith, 5th earl Marischal, which were incorporated in i860. Arts and divinity are taught at King's, law, medicine and science at Marischal. The number of students exceeds 800 yearly. The buildings of both colleges are the glories of Aberdeen. King's forms a quadrangle with interior court, two sides of which have been rebuilt, and a library wing has been added. The Crown Tower and the Chapel, the oldest parts, date from 1500. The former is surmounted by a structure about 40 ft. high, consisting of a six-sided lantern and royal crown, both sculptured, and resting on the intersections of two arched ornamental slips rising from the four corners of the top of the tower. The choir of the chapel still contains the original oak canopied stalls, miserere seats and lofty open screens in the French flamboyant style, and of unique beauty of design and execution. Their preservation was due to the enlightened energy of the principal at the time of the Reformation, who armed his folk to save the building from the barons of the Mearns after they had robbed St Machar's of its bells and lead. Marischal College is a stately modern building, having been rebuilt in 1836-1841, and greatly extended several years later at a cost of £100,000. The additions to the buildings opened by King Edward VII. in 1906 have been already mentioned. The beautiful Mitchell Tower is so named from the benefactor (Dr Charles Mitchell) who provided the splendid graduation hall. The opening of this tower in 1895 signalized the commemoration of the four hundredth anniversary of the foundation of the university. The University Library comprises nearly 100,000 books. A Botanic Garden was pre- sented to the university in 1899. Aberdeen and Glasgow Uni- versities combine to return one member to Parliament. The United Free Church Divinity Hall in Alford Place, in the Tudor Gothic style, dates from 1850. The Grammar School, founded in 1263, was removed in 1 861-1863 from its old quarters in Schoolhill to a large new building, in the Scots Baronial style, off Skene Street. Robert Gordon's College in Schoolhill was founded in 1729 by Robert Gordon of Straloch and further endowed in 1816 by Alexander Simpson of Collyhill. Originally devoted (as Gordon's Hospital) to the instruction and maintenance of the sons of poor burgesses of guild and trade in the city, it was re- organized in 1 88 1 as a day and night school for secondary and technical education, and has since been unusually successful. Besides a High School for Girls and numerous board schools, there are many private higher-class schools. Under the Endow- ments Act 1882 an educational trust was constituted which possesses a capital of £155,000. At Blairs, in Kincardineshire, five miles S. W. of Aberdeen, is St Mary's Roman Catholic College for the training of young men intended for the priesthood. Chirities. — The Royal Infimary, in Woolmanhill, established in 1740, rebuilt in the Grecian style in 1833-1840, and largely extended after 1887 as a memorial of Queen Victoria's jubilee; the Royal Asylum, opened in 1800; the Female Orphan Asylum, in Albyn Place, founded in 1840; the Blind Asylum, in Huntly Street, established in 1843; the Royal Hospital for Sick Chil- dren; the Maternity Hospital, founded in 1823; the City Hospital for Infectious Diseases; the Deaf and Dumb Institu- tion;' Mitchell's Hospital in Old Aberdeen; the East and West Poorhouses, with lunatic wards; and hospitals devoted to specialized diseases, are amongst the most notable of the charit- able institutions. There are, besides, industrial schools for boys and girls and for Roman Catholic children, a Female School of Industry, the Seabank Rescue Home, Nazareth House and Orphanage, St Martha's Home for Girls, St Margaret's Conva- lescent Home and Sisterhood, House of Bethany, the Convent of the Sacred Heart and the Educational Trust School. Parks and Open Spaces. — Duthie Park, of 50 acres, the gift of Miss Elizabeth Crombie Duthie of Ruthrieston, occupies an excellent site on the north bank of the Dee. Victoria Park (13 acres) and its extension Westburn Park (13 acres) are situated in the north-western area; farther north lies Stewart Park (n acres), called after Sir D. Stewart, lord provost in 1893. The capacious links bordering the sea between the mouths of the two rivers are largely resorted to for open-air recreation; there is here a rifle range where a " wapinschaw," or shooting tourna- ment, is held annually. Part is laid out as an 18-hole golf course; a section is reserved for cricket and football; a portion has been railed off for a race-course, and a bathing-station has been erected. Union Terrace Gardens are a popular rendezvous in the heart of the city. Statues. — In Union Terrace Gardens stands a colossal statue in bronze of Sir William Wallace, by W. G. Stevenson, R.S.A. (1888). In the same gardens are a bronze statue of Burns and Baron Marochetti's seated figure of Prince Albert. In front of Gordon's College is the bronze statue, by T. S. Burnett, A.R.S.A., of General Gordon (1888). At the east end of Union Street is the bronze statue of Queen Victoria, erected in 1893 by the royal tradesmen of the city. Near the Cross stands the granite statue of the 5th duke of Gordon (d. 1836). Here may also be mentioned the obelisk of Peterhead granite, 70 ft. high, erected in the square of Marischal College to the memory of Sir James ABERDEEN— ABERDEENSHIRE 49 M'Grigor (1778-1851), the military surgeon and director-general of the Army Medical Department, who was thrice elected lord rector of the College. Bridges. — The Dee is crossed by four bridges-, — the old bridge, the Wellington suspension bridge, the railway bridge, and Vic- toria Bridge, opposite Market Street. The first, till 1832 the only access to the city from the south, consists of seven semi- circular ribbed arches, is about 30 ft. high, and was built early in the 16th century by Bishops Elphinstone and Dunbar. It was nearly all rebuilt in 1718-1723, and in 1842 was widened from 14I to 26 ft. The bridge of Don has five granite arches, each 75 ft. in span, and was built in 1827-1832. A little to the west is the Auld Brig o' Balgownie, a picturesque single arch spanning the deep black stream, said to have been built by King Robert I., and celebrated by Byron in the tenth canto of Don Juan. Harbour. — A defective harbour, with a shallow sand and gravel bar at its entrance, long retarded the trade of Aberdeen, but under various acts since 1773 it was greatly deepened. The north pier, built partly by Smeaton in 1775-1781, and partly by Telford in 1810-1815, extends nearly 3000 ft. into the North Sea. It increases the depth of. water on the bar from a few feet to 22 or 24 ft. at spring tides and to 17 or 18 ft. at neap. A wet dock, of 29 acres, and with 6000 ft. of quay, was completed in 1848 and called Victoria Dock in honour of the queen's visit to the city in that year. Adjoining it is the Upper Dock. By the Harbour Act of 1868, the Dee near the harbour was diverted from the south at a cost of £80,000, and 90 acres of new ground (in addition to 25 acres formerly made up) were provided on the north side of the river for the Albert Basin (with a graving dock), quays and warehouses. A breakwater of concrete, 1050 ft. long, was constructed on the south side of the stream as a protection against south-easterly gales. On Girdleness, the southern point of the bay, a lighthouse was built in 1833. Near the harbour mouth are three batteries mounting nineteen guns. Industry. — Owing to the variety and importance of its chief industries Aberdeen is one of the most prosperous cities in Scotland. Very durable grey granite has been quarried near Aberdeen for more than 300 years, and blocked and dressed paving " setts," kerb and building stones, and monumental and other ornamental work of granite have long been exported from the district to all parts of the world. This, though once the predominant industry, has been surpassed by the deep-sea fisheries, which derived a great impetus from beam-trawling, introduced in 1882, and steam line fishing in 2889, and threaten to rival if not to eclipse those of Grimsby. Fish trains are despatched to London daily. Most of the leading industries date from the 18th century, amongst them woollens (1703), linen (1749) and cotton (1779). These give employment to several thousands of operatives. The paper-making industry is one of the most famous and oldest in the city, paper having been first made in Aberdeen in 1694. Flax-spinning and jute and comb- making factories are also very flourishing, and there are suc- cessful foundries and engineering works. There are large distilleries and breweries, and chemical works employing many hands. In the days of wooden ships ship-building was a flourish- ing industry, the town being noted for its fast clippers, many of which established records in the " tea races." The introduction of trawling revived this to some extent, and despite the distance of the city from the iron fields there is a fair yearly output of iron vessels. Of later origin are the jam, pickle and potted meat factories, hundreds of acres having been laid down in strawberries and other fruits within a few miles of the city. History. — Aberdeen was an important place as far back as the 1 2th century. William the Lion had a residence in the city, to which he gave a charter in n 79 confirming the corporate rights granted by David I. The city received other royal charters later. It was burned by the English king, Edward III., in 1336, but it was soon rebuilt and extended, and called New Aberdeen. The burgh records are the oldest in Scotland. They begin in 1398 and with one brief break are complete to the present day. For many centuries the city was subject to attacks by the neighbouring barons, and was strongly fortified, but the gates were all removed by 1770. In 1497 a blockhouse was built at the harbour mouth as a protection against the English. During the struggles between the Royalists and Covenanters the city was impartially plundered by both sides. In 1 71 5 the Earl Marischal proclaimed the Old Pretender at Aberdeen, and in 1745 the duke of Cumberland resided for a short time in the city before attacking the Young Pretender. The motto on the city arms is " Bon Accord," which formed the watchword of the Aberdonians while aiding Robert Bruce in his battles with the English. Population. — In 1396 the population was about 3000. By 1801 it had become 26,992; in 1841 it was 63,262; (1891) 121,623; (1901) 153,503- Authorities. — The charters of the burgh; extracts from the council register down to 1625, and selections from the letters, guildry and treasurer's accounts, forming 3 vols, of the Spalding Club; Cosmo Innes, Registrum Episcopatus Aberdenensis, Spalding Club ; Walter Thorn, The History of Aberdeen (1811); Robert Wilson, Historical Account and Delineation of Aberdeen (1822); William Kennedy, The Annals of Aberdeen (1818); Orem, Description of the Chanonry, Cathedral and King's College of Old Aberdeen, 1724-1725 (1830) ; Sir Andrew Leith Hay of Rannes, The Castellated Architecture of A berdeen ; Giles, Specimens of Old Castellated Houses of A berdeen (1838); James Bryce, Lives of Eminent Men of Aberdeen (1841); J. Gordon, Description of Both Towns of Aberdeen (Spalding Club, 1842) ; Joseph Robertson, The Book of Bon-Accord (Aberdeen, 1839) ; W. Robbie, Aberdeen: its Traditions and History (Aberdeen, 1893); C. G. Burr and A. M. Munro, Old Landmarks of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1886) ; A. M. Munro, Memorials of the Aldermen, Provosts and Lord Provosts of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1897) ; P. J. Anderson, Charters, &c, illustrating the History of the Royal Burgh of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1890) ; Selections from the Records of Marischal Collige (New Spalding Club, 1889, 1898-1899); J. Cooper, Chartulary of the Church of St Nicholas (New Spalding Club, 1888, 1892); G. Cadenhead, Sketch of the Territorial History of the Burgh of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1876); W. Cadenhead, Guide to the City of Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1897); A. Smith, History and Antiquities of New and Old Aberdeen (Aberdeen, 1882). ABERDEEN, a city and the county-seat of Brown county, South Dakota, U.S.A., about 125 m. N.E. of Pierre. Pop. (1890) 3182; (1900) 4087, of whom 889 were foreign born; (1905) 5841; (1910) 10,753. Aberdeen is served by the Chicago, Mil- waukee and St Paul, the Great Northern, the Minneapolis and St Louis, and the Chicago and North Western railways. It is the financial and trade centre for the northern part of the state, a fine agricultural region, and in 1908 had five banks and a number of wholesale houses. The city is the seat of the Northern Normal and Industrial School, a state institution, and has a Carnegie library; the principal buildings are the court house and the government buildings. Artesian wells furnish good water-power, and artesian-well supplies, grain pitchers, brooms, chemicals and flour are manufactured. The municipality owns and operates the water- works. Aberdeen was settled in 1880, and was chartered as a city in 1883. ABERDEENSHIRE, a north-eastern county of Scotland, bounded N. and E. by the North Sea, S. by Kincardine, Forfar and Perth, and W. by Inverness and Banff. It has a coast-line of 65 m., and is the sixth Scottish county in area, occupying 1,261,887 acres or 1971 sq.m. The county is generally hilly, and from the south-west, near the centre of Scotland, the Grampians send out various branches, mostly to the north-east. The shire is popularly divided into five districts. Of these the first is Mar, mostly between the Dee and Don, which nearly covers the southern half of the county and contains the city of Aberdeen. It is mountainous, especially Braemar (q.v.), which contains the greatest mass of elevated land in the British Isles. The soil on the Dee is sandy, and on the Don loamy. The second district, Formartine, between the lower Don and Ythan, has a sandy coast, which is succeeded inland by a clayey, fertile, tilled tract, and then by low hills, moors, mosses and tilled land. Buchan, the third district, lies north of the Ythan, and, com- prising the north-east of the county, is next in size to Mar, parts of the coast being bold and rocky, the interior bare, low, flat, undulating and in places peaty. On the coast, 6 m. S. of Peter- head, are the Bullers of Buchan — a basin in which the sea, enter- ing by a natural arch, boils up violently in stormy weather. I Buchan Ness is the most easterly point of Scotland. The fourth 5° ABERDEENSHIRE district, Garioch, in the centre of the shire, is a beautiful, undu- lating, loamy, fertile valley, formerly called the granary of Aberdeen. Strathbogie, the fifth district, occupying a consider- able area south of the Deveron, mostly consists of hills, moors and mosses. The mountains are the most striking of the physical features of the county. Ben Macdhui (4296 ft.), a magnificent mass, the second highest mountain in Great Britain, Braeriach (4248), Cairntoul (4241), Ben-na-bhuaird (3924), Ben Avon (3843), " dark " Lochnagar (3786), the subject of a well-known song by Byron, Cairn Eas (3556), Sgarsoch (3402), Culardoch (2953) , are the principal heights in the division of Mar. Farther north rise the Buck of Cabrach (2368) on the Banffshire border, Tap o' Noth (1830), Bennachie (1698), a beautiful peak which from its central position is a landmark visible from many different parts of the county, and which is celebrated in John Imlah's song, " O gin I were where Gadie rins," and Foudland {1529). The chief rivers are the Dee, 90 m. long; the Don, 82 m. ; the Ythan. 37 m., with mussel-beds at its mouth; the Ugie, 20 m., and the Deveron, 62 m., partly on the boundary of Banffshire. The rivers abound with salmon and trout, and the pearl mussel occurs in the Ythan and Don. A valuable pearl in the Scottish crown is said to be from the Ythan. Loch Muick, the largest of the few lakes in the county, 13 10 ft. above the sea, 2j m. long and j to j m. broad, lies some 8J m. S.W. of Ballater, and has Altnagiuthasstch, a royal shooting-box, near its south-western end. Loch Strathbeg, 6 m. S.E. of Fraserburgh, is only separated from the sea by a narrow strip of land. There are noted chalybeate springs at Peterhead, Fraserburgh, and Pannanich near Ballater. Geology. — The greater part of the county is composed of crystalline schists belonging to the metamorphic rocks of the Eastern Highlands. In the upper parts of the valleys of the Dee and the Don they form well-marked groups, of which the most characteristic are (1) the black schists and phyllites, with calc- flintas, and a thin band of tremolite limestone, (2) the main or Blair Atholl limestone, (3) the quartzite. These divisions are folded on highly inclined or vertical axes trending north-east and south-west, and hence the same zones are repeated over a considerable area. The quartzite is generally regarded as the highest member of the series. Excellent sections showing the component strata occur in Glen Clunie and its tributary valleys above Braemar. Eastwards down the Dee and the Don and northwards across the plain of Buchan towards Rattray Head and Fraserburgh there is a development of biotite gneiss, partly of sedimentary and perhaps partly of igneous origin. A belt of slate which has been quarried for roofing purposes runs along the west border of the county from Turriff by Auchterless and the Foudland Hills towards the Tap o' Noth near Gartly. The metamorphic rocks have been invaded by igneous materials, some before, and by far the larger series after the folding of the strata. The basic types of the former are represented by the sills of epidiorite and hornblende gneiss in Glen Muick and Glen Callater, which have been permeated by granite and pegmatite in veins and lenticles, often foliated. The later granites subse- quent to the plication of the schists have a wide distribution on the Ben Macdhui and Ben Avon range, and on Lochnagar; they stretch eastwards from Ballater by Tarland to Aberdeen and north to Bennachie. Isolated masses appear at Peterhead and at Strichen. Though consisting mainly of biotite granite, these later intrusions pass by intermediate stages into diorite, as in the area between Balmoral and the head-waters of the Gairn. The granites have been extensively quarried at Rubislaw, Peter- head and Kemnay. Serpentine and troctolite, the precise age of which is uncertain, occur at the Black Dog rock north of Aberdeen, at Belhelvie and near Old Meldrum. Where the schists of sedimentary origin have been pierced by these igneous intrusions, they are charged with contact minerals such as silli- manite, cordierite, kyanite and andalusite. Cordierite-bearing rocks occur near Ellon, at the foot of Bennachie, and on the top of the Buck of Cabrach. A banded and mottled calc-silicate hornfels occurring with the limestone at Derry Falls, W. N.W. of Braemar, has yielded malacolite, wollastonite, brown idocrase, garnet, sphene and hornblende. A larger list of minerals has been obtained from an exposure of limestone and associated beds in Glen Gairn, about four miles above the point where that river joins the Dee. Narrow belts of Old Red Sandstone, resting unconformably on the old platform of slates and schists, have been traced from the north coast at Peterhead by Turriff to Fyvie, and also from Huntly by Gartly to Kildrummy Castle. The strata consist mainly of conglomerates and sandstones, which, at Gartly and at Rhynie, are associated with lenticular bands of andesite indicating contemporaneous volcanic action. Small outliers of conglomerate and sandstone of this age have recently been found in the course of excavations in Aberdeen. The glacial deposits, especially in the belt bordering the coast between Aberdeen and Peterhead, furnish important evidence. The ice moved eastwards off the high ground at the head of the Dee and -the Don, while the mass spreading outwards from the Moray Firth invaded the low plateau of Buchan; but at a certain stage there was a marked defection northwards parallel with the coast, as proved by the deposit of red clay north of Aberdeen. At a later date the local glaciers laid down materials oil top of the tfed clay. The committee appointed by the British Association (Report for 1897, p. 333) proved that the Greensand, which has yielded a large suite of Cretaceous fossils at Moreseat, in the parish of Cruden, occurs in glacial drift, resting probably on granite. The strata from which the Moreseat fossils were derived are not now found in place in that part of: Scotland, but Mr Jukes Brown considers that the horizon of the fossils is that of the lower Greensand of the Isle of Wight or the Aptien stage of France. Chalk flints are widely distributed in the drift between Fyvie and the east coast of Buchan. At Plaidy a patch of clay with Liassic fossils occurs. At several localities between Logie Coldstone and Dinnet a deposit of diatomite (Kieselguhr) occurs beneath the peat. Flora and Fauna. — The tops of the highest mountains have an arctic flora. At the royal lodge on Loch Muick, 1350 ft. above the sea, grow larches, vegetables, currants, laurels, roses, &c. Some ash-trees, four or five feet in girth, are growing at 1300 ft. above the sea. Trees, especially Scotch fir and larch, grow well, and Braemar is rich in natural timber, said to surpass any in the north of Europe. Stumps of Scotch fir and oak found in peat are sometimes far larger than any now growing. The mole is found at 1800 ft. above the sea, and the squirrel at 1400. Grouse, partridges and hares are plentiful, and rabbits are often too numerous. Red deer abound in Braemar, the deer forest being the most extensive in Scotland. Climate and Agriculture. — The climate, except in the moun- tainous districts, is comparatively mild, owing to the proximity of much of the shire to the sea. The mean annual temperature at Braemar is 43-6° F., and at Aberdeen 45-8°. The mean yearly rainfall varies from about. 30 to 37 in. The summer climate of the upper Dee and Don valleys is the driest and most bracing in the British Isles, and grain is cultivated up to 1600 ft. above the sea, or 400 to 500 ft. higher than elsewhere in North Britain. Poor, gravelly, clayey and peaty soils prevail, but tile-draining, bones and guano, and the best methods of modern tillage, have greatly increased the produce. Indeed, in no part of Scotland has a more productive soil been made out of such unpromising material. Farm-houses and steadings have much improved, and the best agricultural implements and machines are in general use. About two-thirds of the population depend entirely on agriculture. Farms are small compared with those in the south-eastern counties. Oats are the predominant crop, wheat has practically gone out of cultivation, but barley has largely increased. The most distinctive industry is cattle-feed- ing. A great number of the home-bred crosses are fattened for the London and local markets, and Irish animals are imported on an extensive scale for the same purpose, while an exceedingly heavy business in dead meat for London and the south is done all over the county. Sheep, horses and pigs are also raised in large numbers. Fisheries. — A large fishing population in villages along the coast engage in the white and herring fishery, which is the next most important industry to agriculture, its development having ABERDEENSHIRE 5* been due almost exclusively to the introduction of steam trawlers. The total value of the annual catch, of which between a half and a third consists of herrings, amounts to £1,000,000. Had- docks are salted and rock-dried (speldings) or smoked (finnans). The ports and creeks are divided into the fishery districts of Peterhead, Fraserburgh and Aberdeen, the last of which in- cludes also three Kincardineshire ports. The herring season for Aberdeen, Peterhead and Fraserburgh is from June to September, at which time the ports are crowded with boats from other Scottish districts. There are valuable salmon- fishings — rod, net and stake-net — on the Dee, Don, Ythan and Ugie. The average annual despatch of salmon from Aberdeen- shire is about 400 tons. Other Industries. — Manufactures are mainly prosecuted in or near the city of Aberdeen, but throughout the rural districts there is much milling of corn, brick and tile making, smith-work, brewing and distilling, cart and farm-implement making, casting and drying of peat, and timber-felling, especially on Deeside and Donside, for pit-props, railway sleepers, laths and barrel- staves. There are a number of paper-making establishments, most of them on the Don near Aberdeen. The chief source of mineral wealth is the noted durable granite, which is quarried at Aberdeen, Kemnay, Peterhead and else- where. An acre of land on being reclaimed has yielded £40 to £50 worth of causewaying stones. Sandstone and other rocks are also quarried at different parts. The imports. are mostly coal, lime, timber, iron, slate, raw materials for the textile manufactures, wheat, cattle-feeding stuffs, bones, guano, sugar, alcoholic liquors, fruits. The exports are granite (rough- dressed and polished), flax, woollen and cotton goods, paper, combs, preserved provisions, oats, barley, live and dead cattle. Communications. — From the south Aberdeen city is approached by the Caledonian (via Perth, Forfar and Stonehaven), and the North British {via Dundee, Montrose and Stonehaven) railways, and the shire is also served by the Great North of Scotland railway, whose main line runs via Kintore and Huntly to Keith and Elgin. There are branch lines from various points opening up the more populous districts, as from Aberdeen to Ballater by Deeside, from Aberdeen to Fraserburgh (with a branch at Maud for Peterhead and at Ellon for Cruden Bay and Boddam), from Kintore to Alf ord, and from Inverurie to Old Meldrum and also to Macduff. By sea there is regular communication with London, Leith, Inverness, Wick, the Orkneys and Shetlands, Iceland and the continent. The highest of the macadamized roads crossing the eastern Grampians rises to a point 2200 ft. above sea-level. Population and Government. — In 1891 the population num- bered 284,036 and in 1901 it was 304,439 (of whom 159,603 were females), or 154 persons to the sq. m. In 1901 there were 8 persons who spoke Gaelic only, and 1333 who spoke Gaelic and English. The chief towns are Aberdeen (pop. in 1901, i53,5 3), Bucksburn (2231), Fraserburgh (9105), Huntly (4136), Inverurie (3624), Peterhead (11,794), Turriff (2273). The Supreme Court of Justiciary sits in Aberdeen to try cases from the counties of Aberdeen, Banff and Kincardine. The three counties are under a sheriff, and there are two sheriffs-substitute resident in Aberdeen, who sit also at Fraserburgh, Huntly, Peterhead and Turriff. The sheriff courts are held in Aberdeen and Peterhead. The county sends two members to parliament — one for East Aberdeenshire and the other for West Aberdeen- shire. The county town, Aberdeen (q.v.), returns two members. Peterhead, Inverurie and Kintore belong to the Elgin group of parliamentary burghs, the other constituents being Banff, Cullen and Elgin. The county is under school-board juris- diction, and there are also several voluntary schools. There are higher-class schools in Aberdeen, and secondary schools at Huntly, Peterhead and Fraserburgh, and many of the other schools in the county earn grants for secondary education. The County Secondary Education Committee dispense a large sum, partly granted by the education department and partly con- tributed by local authorities from the "residue" grant, and support, besides the schools mentioned, local classes and lectures in agriculture, fishery and other technical subjects, in addition to subsidizing the agricultural department of the university of Aberdeen. The higher branches of education have always been thoroughly taught in the schools throughout the shire, and pupils have long been in the habit of going directly from the schools to the university. The native Scots are long-headed, shrewd, careful, canny, active, persistent, but reserved and blunt, and without demon- strative enthusiasm. They have a physiognomy distinct from the rest of the Scottish people, and have a quick, sharp, rather angry accent. The local Scots dialect is broad, and rich in diminutives, and is noted for the use of e for or «,/for wh, d for th, &c. So recently as 1830 Gaelic was the fireside language of almost every family in Braemar, but now it is little used. History. — The country now forming the shires of Aberdeen and Banff was originally peopled by northern Picts, whom Ptolemy called Taixali, the territory being named Taixalon. Their town "of Devana, once supposed to be the modern Aber- deen, has been identified by Prof. John Stuart with a site in the parish of Peterculter, where there are remains of an ancient camp at Normandykes, and by Dr W. F. Skene with a station on Loch Davan, west of Aboyne. So-called Roman camps have also been discovered on the upper Ythan and Deveron, but evidence of effective Roman occupation is still to seek. Traces of the native inhabitants, however, are much less equivocal. Weems or earth-houses are fairly common in the west. Relics of crannogs or lake-dwellings exist at Loch Ceander, Or Kinnord, 5 m. north-east of Ballater, at Loch Goul in the parish of New Machar and elsewhere. Duns or forts occur on hills at Dunecht, where the dun encloses an area of two acres, Barra near Old Meldrum, Tap o' Noth, Dunnideer near Insch and other places. Monoliths, standing stones and "Druidical" circles of the pagan period abound, and there are many examples of the sculptured stones of the early Christian epoch. Efforts to convert the Picts were begun by Ternan in the 5th century, and continued by Columba (who founded a monastery at Old Deer), Drostan, Maluog and Machar, but it was long before they showed lasting results. Indeed, dissensions within the Columban church and the expulsion of the clergy from Pictland by the Pictish king Nectan in the 8th century undid most of the progress that had been made. The Vikings and Danes periodi- cally raided the coast, but when (1040) Macbeth ascended the throne of Scotland the Northmen, under the guidance of Thor- finn, refrained from further trouble in the north-east. Macbeth was afterwards slain at Lumphanan (1057), a cairn on Perkhill marking the spot. The influence of the Norman conquest of England was felt even in Aberdeenshire. Along with numerous Anglo-Saxon exiles, there also settled in the country Flemings who introduced various industries, Saxons who brought farming, and Scandinavians who taught nautical skill. The Celts revolted more than once, but Malcolm Canmore and his successors crushed them and confiscated their lands. In the reign of Alex- ander I. (d. 1 1 24) mention is first made of Aberdeen (originally called Aberdon and, in the Norse sagas, Apardion), which re- ceived its charter from William the Lion in 1179, by which date its burgesses had already combined with those of Banff, Elgin, Inverness and other trans-Grampian communities to form a free Hanse, under which they enjoyed exceptional trading privi- leges. By this time, too, the Church had been organized, the bishopric of Aberdeen having been established in 1 1 50. In the 12th and 13th centuries some of the great Aberdeenshire families arose, including the earl of Mar (c. n 22), the Leslies, Freskins (ancestors of the dukes of Sutherland), Durwards, Bysets, Comyns and Cheynes, and it is significant that in most cases their founders were immigrants. The Celtic thanes and their retainers slowly fused with the settlers. They declined to take advantage of the disturbed condition of the country during the wars of the Scots independence, and. made common cause with the bulk of the nation. Though John Comyn (d. 1300?), one of the competitors for the throne, had considerable interests in the shire, his claim received locally little support. In 1296 Edward I. made a triumphal march to the north to terrorize the 52 ABERDOUR— ABERFOYLE more turbulent nobles. Next year William Wallace surprised the English garrison in Aberdeen, but failed to capture the castle. In 1303 Edward again visited the county, halting at the castle of Kildrummy, then in the possession of Robert Bruce, who shortly afterwards became the acknowledged leader of the Scots and made Aberdeen his headquarters for several months. De- spite the seizure of Kildrummy Castle by the English in 1306, Brace's prospects brightened from 1308, when he defeated John Comyn, earl of Buchan (d. 1313?), at Inverurie. For a hundred years after Robert Brace's death (1329) there was intermittent anarchy in the shire. Aberdeen itself was burned by the English in 1336, and the re-settlement of the districts of Buchan and Strathbogie occasioned constant quarrels on the part of the dis- possessed. Moreover, the crown had embroiled itself with some of the Highland chieftains, whose independence it sought to abolish. This policy culminated in the invasion of Aberdeen- shire by Donald, lord of the Isles, who was, however, defeated at Harlaw, near Inverurie, by the earl of Mar in 141 1. In the 15th century two other leading county families appeared, Sir Alexander Forbes being created Lord Forbes about 1442, and Sir Alexander Seton Lord Gordon in 1437 and earl of Huntly in 1445. Bitter feuds raged between these families for a long period, but the Gordons reached the height of their power in the first half of the ,16th century, when their domains, already vast, were enhanced by the acquisition, through marriage, of the earldom of Sutherland (1514). Meanwhile commerce with the Low Countries, Poland and the Baltic had grown apace, Camp- vere, near Flushing in Holland, becoming the emporium of the Scottish traders, while education was fostered by the foundation of Ring's College at Aberdeen in 1497 (Marischal College followed a century later). At the Reformation so little intuition had the clergy of the drift of opinion that at the very time that religious structures were being despoiled in the south, the building and decoration of churches went on in the shire. The change was acquiesced in without much tumult, though rioting took place in Aberdeen and St Machar's cathedral in the city suffered damage. The 4th earl of Huntly offered some resistance, on behalf of the Catholics, to the influence of Lord James Stuart, afterwards the Reg&it Murray, but was defeated and killed at Corrichie on the hill of Fare in 1562. As years passed it was apparent that Presbyterianism was less generally acceptable than Episcopacy, of which system Aberdeenshire remained for generations the stronghold in Scotland. Another crisis in ecclesi- astical affairs arose in 1638, when the National Covenant was ordered to be subscribed, a demand so grudgingly responded to that the marquis of Montrose visited the shire in the following year to enforce acceptance. The Cavaliers, not being disposed to yield, dispersed an armed gathering of Covenanters in the affair called the Trot of Turriff (1630), in which the first blood of the civil war was shed. The Covenanters obtained the upper hand in a few weeks, when Montrose appeared at the bridge of Dee and compelled the surrender of Aberdeen, which had no choice but to cast in its lot with the victors. Montrose, however, soon changed sides, and after defeating the Covenanters under Lord Balfour of Burleigh (1644), delivered the city to rapine. He worsted the Covenanters again after a stiff fight on the 2nd of July 1645, at Alford, a village in the beautiful Howe of Alford. Peace was temporarily restored on the " engagement " of the Scots commissioners to assist Charles I. On his return from Holland in 1650 Charles II. was welcomed in Aberdeen, but in little more than a year General Monk entered the city at the head of the Cromwellian regiments. The English garrison re- mained till 1650, and next year the Restoration was effusively hailed, and prelacy was once more in the ascendant. Most of the Presbyterians conformed, but the Quakers, more numerous in the shire and the adjoining county of Kincardine than anywhere else in Scotland, were systematically persecuted. After the Revolution (1688) episcopacy passed under a cloud, but the clergy, yielding to force majeure, gradually accepted the inevitable, hoping, as long as Queen Anne lived, that prelacy might yet be recognized as the national form of Church government. Her death dissipated these dreams, and as George I., her successor, was antipathetic to the clergy, it happened that Jacobitism and episcopalianism came to be regarded in the shire as identical, though in point of fact the non-jurors as a body never counte- nanced rebellion. The earl of Mar raised the standard of revolt in Braemar (6th of September 171 5); a fortnight later James was proclaimed at Aberdeen cross; the Pretender landed at Peterhead on the 22nd of December, and in February 17 16 he was back again in France. The collapse of the first rising ruined many of the lairds, and when the second rebellion occurred thirty years afterwards the county in the main was apathetic, though the insurgents held Aberdeen for five months, and Lord Lewis Gordon won a trifling victory for Prince Charles Edward at Inverurie (23rd of December 1745). The duke of Cumberland relieved Aberdeen at the end of February 1746, and in April the Young Pretender was a fugitive. Thereafter the people devoted themselves to agriculture, industry and commerce, which developed by leaps and bounds, and, along with equally remarkable progress in education, transformed the aspect of the shire and made the community as a whole one of the most prosperous in Scotland. See W. Watt, History of Aberdeen and Banff (Edinburgh, 1900); Collections for a History of the Shires of Aberdeen and Banff (edited by Dr Joseph Robertson, Spalding Club) ; Sir A, Leith-Hay, Castles of Aberdeenshire (Aberdeen, 1887); J. Davidson, Inverurie and the Earldom of the Garioch (Edinburgh, 1878) ; Pratt, Buchan (rev. by R. Anderson), (Aberdeen, 1900); A. I. M'Connochie, Deeside .(Aber- deen, 1895). ABERDOUR, a village of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pleasantly situated on the shore of the Firth of Forth, 175 m. N.W. of Edinburgh by the North British railway and 7 m. N.W. of Leith by steamer, it is much resorted to for its excellent sea-bathing. There are ruins of a castle and an old decayed church, which contains some fine Norman work. About 3 m. S.W. is Doni- bristle House, the seat of the earl of Murray (Moray), and the scene of the murder (Feb. 7, 1592) of James, 2nd (Stuart) earl of Murray. The island of Inchcolm, or Island of Columba, J m. from the shore, is in the parish of Aberdour. As its name implies, its associations date back to the time of Columba. The primitive stone-roofed oratory is supposed to have been a hermit's cell. The Augustinian monastery was founded in 1 1 23 by Alexander I. The buildings are well preserved, consisting of a low square tower, church, cloisters, refectory and small chapter- house. The island of Columba was occasionally plundered by English and other rovers, but in the 16th century it became the property of Sir James Stuart, whose grandson became 2nd earl of Murray by virtue of his marriage to the elder daughter of the 1st earl. From it comes the earl's title of Lord St Colme (161 1). ABERDOVEY (Aberdyfi: the Dyfi is the county frontier), a seaside village of Merionethshire, North Wales, on the Cambrian railway. Pop. (1901) 1466. It lies in the midst of beautiful scenery, 4 m. from Towyn, on the N. bank of the Dyfi estuary, commanding views of Snowdon, Cader Idris, Arran Mawddy and Plynlimmon. The Dyfi, here a mile broad, is crossed by a ferry to Borth sands, whence a road leads to Aberystwyth. The sub- merged " bells of Aberdovey " (since Seithennin " the drunkard " caused the formation of Cardigan Bay) are famous in a Welsh song. Aberdovey is a health and bathing resort. ABERFOYLE, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland, 34I m. N. by W. of Glasgow by the North British railway. Pop. of parish (1901) 1052. The village is situated at the base of Craigmore (1271 ft. high) and on the Laggan, a head- water of the Forth. Since 1885, when the duke of Montrose constructed a road over the eastern shoulder of Craigmore to join the older road at the entrance of the Trossachs pass, Aberfoyle has be- come the alternative route to the Trossachs and Loch Katrine. Loch Ard, about 2 m. W. of Aberfoyle, lies 105 ft. above the sea. It is 3 m. long (including the narrows at the east end) and 1 m. broad. Towards the west end is Eilean Gorm (the green isle), and near the north-western shore are the falls of Ledard. Two m. N.W. is Loch Chon, 290 ft. above the sea, if m. long, and about 5 m. broad. It drains by the Avon Dhu to Loch Ard, which is drained in turn by the Laggan. The slate quarries on Craigmore are the only industry in Aberfoyle. ABERGAVENNY— ABERNETHY S3 ABERGAVENNY, a market town and municipal borough in the northern parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England, 14 m. W. of Monmouth on the Great Western and the London and North-Western railways. Pop. (1001) 7795. It is situated at the junction of a small stream called the Gavenny with the river Usk; and the site, almost surrounded by lofty hills, is very beautiful. The town was formerly walled, and has the remains of a castle built soon after the conquest, frequently the scene of border strife. The church of St Mary belonged origin- ally to a Benedictine monastery founded early in the 12th cen- tury. The existing building, however, is Decorated and Perpen- dicular, and contains a fine series of memorials of dates from the 13th to the 1 7th century. There is a free grammar school, which till 1857 had a fellowship at Jesus College, Oxford. Breweries, ironworks, quarries, brick fields and collieries in the neighbour- hood are among the principal industrial establishments. Aber- gavenny was incorporated in 1899, and is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 825 acres. This was the Roman Gobannium, a small fort guarding the road along the valley of the Usk and ensuring quiet among the hill tribes. There is practically no trace of this fort. Abergavenny (Bergavenny) grew up under the protectionof the lords of Abergavenny, whose title dated from William I. Owing to its situation, the town was frequently embroiled in the border warfare of the 12th and 13th centuries, and Giraldus Cambrensis relates how in 1 175 the castle was seized by the Welsh. Hamelyn de Baalun, first lord of Aber- gavenny, founded the Benedictine priory, which was subsequently endowed by William de Braose with a tenth of the profits of the castle and town. At the dissolution of the priory part of this en- dowment went towards the foundation of a free grammar school, the site itself passing to the Gunter family. During the Civil War prior to the siege of Raglan Castle in 1645, Charles I. visited Aber- gavenny, and presided in person over the trial of Sir Trevor Williams and other parliamentarians. In 1639 Abergavenny received a charter of incorporation under the title of bailiff and burgesses. A charter with extended privileges was drafted in 1657, but appears never to have been enrolled or to have come into effect. Owing to the refusal of the chief officers of the corporation to take the oath of allegiance to William III. in 1688, the charter was annulled, and the town subsequently declined in prosperity. The act of 27 Henry VIII., which provided that Monmouth, as county town, should return one burgess to parliament, further stated that other ancient Monmouthshire boroughs were to contribute towards the payment of the member. In consequence of this clause Abergavenny on various occasions shared in the election, the last instance being in 1685. Reference to a market at Abergavenny is found in a charter granted to the prior by William de Braose (d. 121 1). The right to hold two weekly markets and three yearly fairs, as hitherto held, was confirmed in 1657. Abergavenny was celebrated for the production of Welsh flannel, and also for the manufacture, whilst the fashion prevailed, of periwigs of goats' hair. The title of Baron Abergavenny, in the Neville family, dates from Edward Neville (d. 1476), who was the youngest son of the 1st earl of Westmoreland by Joan Beaufort, daughter of John of Gaunt. He married the heiress of Richard, earl of Worcester, whose father had inherited the castle and estate of Abergavenny, and was sum- moned in 1392 to parliament as Lord Bergavenny. Edward Neville was summoned to parliament with this title in 14.50. His direct male descendants ended in 1587 in Henry Neville, but a cousin, Edward Neville (d. 1622), was confirmed in the barony in 1604. From him it has descended continuously, the title being increased to an earldom in 1784; and in 1876 William Nevill (sic), 5th earl (b. 1826), an indefatigable and powerful supporter of the Conservative party, was created 1st marquess of Abergavenny. (See Neville.) ABERIGH-MACKAY, GEORGE ROBERT ( 1848-188 1), Anglo- Indian writer, son of a Bengal chaplain, was born on the 25th of July 1848, and was educated at Magdalen College School and Cambridge University. Entering the Indian education depart- ment in 1870, he became professor of English literature in Delhi College in 1873, tutor to the raja of Rutlam 1876, and principal of the Rajkumar College at Indore in 1877. He is best known for his book Twenty-one Days in India (1878-1879), a satire upon Anglo-Indian society and modes of thought. This book gave promise of a successful literary career; but the author died at the age of thirty-three. ABERNETHY, JOHN (1680- 1740), Irish Presbyterian divine, was born at Coleraine, county Londonderry, where his father was Nonconformist minister, on the 19th of October 1680. In his thirteenth year he entered the university of Glasgow, and on concluding his course there went on to Edinburgh, where his intellectual and social attainments gained him; a ready entrance' into the most cultured circles. Returning home he received licence to preach from his Presbytery before he was twenty one. In 1701 he was urgently invited to accept charge of an important congregation in Antrim; and after an interval of two years, mostly spent in further study in Dublin, he was ordained there on the 8th of August 1703. Here he did notable work, both as a debater in the synods and assemblies of his church and as an ; evangelist. In 17 12 he lost his wife (Susannah Jordan), and the loss desolated his life for many years. In i 7 1 7 he was invited to the congregation of Usher's Quay, Dublin, and contemporane- ously to what was called the Old Congregation of Belfast. The synod assigned him to Dublin. After careful consideration he declined to accede, and remained at Antrim. This refusal was regarded then as ecclesiastical high- treason; and a controversy of the most intense and disproportionate character followed, Aber- nethy standing firm for religious freedom and repudiating the; sacerdotal assumptions of all ecclesiastical courts. The contro- versy and quarrel bears the name of the two camps in the con- flict, the "Subscribers " and the " Non-subscribers." Out-and- out evangelical as John Abernethy was, there can be no question that he and his associates sowed the seeds of that after-struggle (1821-1840) in which, under the leadership of Dr Henry Gboke, the Arian and Socinian elements of the Irish Presbyterian Church were thrown out. Much of what he contended for, and which the " Subscribers " opposed bitterly, has been silently granted in the lapse of time. In 1 726 the " Non-subscribers," spite of an almost wofully pathetic pleading against separation by Abernethy, were cut off, with due ban and solemnity, from the Irish Presbyterian Church. In 1730, although a " Non-subscriber," he was invited to Wood Street, Dublin, whither he removed. In 1731 came on the greatest controversy in which Abernethy engaged, viz. in relation to the Test Act nominally, but practically on the entire question of tests and disabilities. His stand was " against all laws that, upon account of mere differences of religious opinions and forms of worship, excluded men of integrity and ability from serving their country." He was nearly a* century in ad- vance of his age. He had to reason with those who denied that a Roman Catholic or Dissenter could be a " man of integrity and ability." His Tracts- — afterwards collected— did fresh service, generations later, and his name is honoured by all who love freedom of conscience and opinion. He died in December 1740. See Dr Duchal's Life, prefixed to Sermons (1762) ; Diary in MS., 6 vols. 4to; Reid's Presbyterian Church in Ireland, iii. 234. ABERNETHY, JOHN (1764-1831), English surgeon, grandson of John Abernethy (see above), was born in London on the 3rd of April 1764. His father was a London merchant. Edu- cated at Wolverhampton grammar school, he was apprenticed in 1779 to Sir Charles Blicke (1745-1815), surgeon to St Bar- tholomew's Hospital, London. He attended the anatomical lectures of Sir William Blizard (1743-1835) at the London Hospital, and was early employed to assist as "demonstrator "; he also attended Percival Pott's surgical lectures at St Bartholo- mew's Hospital, as well as the lectures of John Hunter. On Pott's resignation of the office of surgeon of St Bartholomew's, Sir Charles Blicke, who was assistant-surgeon, succeeded him, and Abernethy was elected assistant-surgeon in 1787. In this capacity he began to give lectures at his house in Bartholomew Close, which were so well attended that the governors of the hospital built a regular theatre (1790-1791), and Abernethy thus became the founder of the distinguished school of St Bartholo- mew's. He held the office of assistant-surgeon of the hospital for the long period of twenty-eight years, till, in 1815, he was elected principal surgeon. He had before that time been ap- pointed lecturer in anatomy to the Royal College of Surgeons ( 18 14) . Abernethy was not a great operator, though his name is associated with the treatment of aneurism by ligature of the external iliac artery. His Surgical Observations on the Constitu- tional Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases (1809) — known as " My Book," from the great frequency with which he referred his patients to it, and to page 72 of it in particular, under that name — was one of the earliest popular works on medical science. 54 ABERRATION He taught that local diseases were frequently the results of disordered states of the digestive organs, and were to be treated by purging and attention to diet. As a lecturer he was ex- ceedingly attractive, and his success in teaching was largely attributable to the persuasiveness with which he enunciated his views. It has been said, however, that the influence he exerted on those who attended his lectures was not beneficial in this respect, that his opinions were delivered so dogmatically, and all who differed from him were disparaged and denounced so contemptuously, as to repress instead of stimulating inquiry. The celebrity he attained in his practice was due not only to his great professional skill, but also in part to the singularity of his manners. He used great plainness of speech in his intercourse with his patients, treating them often brusquely and sometimes even rudely. In the circle of his family and friends he was courteous and affectionate; and in all his dealings he was strictly just and honourable. He resigned his position at St Bartholo- mew's Hospital in 1827, and died at his residence at Enfield on the 20th of April 1831. A collected edition of his works was published in 1 830. A bio- graphy, Memoirs of John Abernethy, by George Macilwain, appeared in 1853. ABERRATION (Lat. ab, from or away, errare; to wander), a deviation or wandering, especially used in the figurative sense: as in ethics, a deviation from the truth; in pathology, a mental derangement; in zoology and botany, abnormal development or structure. In optics, the word has two special applications; (1) Aberration of Light, and (2) Aberration in Optical Systems. These subjects receive treatment below. I. Aberration of Light This astronomical phenomenon may be defined as an apparent motion of the heavenly bodies; the stars describing annually orbits more or less elliptical, according to the latitude of the star; consequently at any moment the star appears to be dis- placed from its true position. This apparent motion is due to the finite velocity of light, and the progressive motion of the observer with the earth, as it performs its yearly course about the sun. It may be familiarized by the following illustrations. Alexis Claude Clairaut gave this figure: Imagine rain to be falling vertically, and a person carrying a thin perpendicular tube to be standing on the ground. If the bearer be stationary, rain-drops will traverse the tube without touching its sides; if, however, the person be walking, the tube must be inclined at an angle varying as his velocity in order that the rain may traverse the tube centrally. J. J. L. de Lalande gave the illus- tration of a roofed carriage with an open front: if the carriage be stationary, no rain enters; if, however, it be moving, rain enters at the front. The " umbrella " analogy is possibly the best known figure. When stationary, the most efficient position in which to hold an umbrella is obviously vertical; when walk- ing, the umbrella must be held more and more inclined from the vertical as the walker quickens his pace. Another familiar figure, pointed out by P. L. M. de Maupertuis, is that a sportsman, when aiming at a bird on the wing, sights his gun some distance ahead of the bird, the distance being proportional to the velocity of the bird. The mechanical idea, named the parallelogram of velocities, permits a ready and easy graphical representation of these facts. Reverting to the analogy of Clairaut, let AB (fig. 1) represent the velocity of the rain, and AC the relative velocity of the person bearing the tube. The diagonal AD of the parallelogram, of which AB and AC are adjacent sides, will represent, both in direction and magnitude, the motion of the rain as apparent to the observer. Hence for the rain to centrally traverse the tube, this must be inclined at an angle BAD to the vertical; this angle is conveniently termed the aberration due to these two motions. The umbrella analogy is similarly explained; the most efficient position being when the stick points along the resultant AD. The discovery of the aberration of light in 1725, due to James Bradley, is one of the most important in the whole domain of C A Fig. 1. astronomy. That it was unexpected there can be no ;dbubt; and it was only by extraordinary perseverance and perspicuity that Bradley was able to explain it in 1727. Its origin is seated in attempts made to free from doubt the prevailing discordances as to whether the stars possessed appreciable parallaxes. The Copernican theory of the solar system — that the earth revolved annually about the sun — had received confirmation by the ob- servations of Galileo and Tycho Brahe, and the mathematical investigations of Kepler and Newton. As early as 1573, Thomas Digges had suggested that this theory should necessitate a parallactic shifting of the stars, and, consequently, if such stellar parallaxes existed, then the Copernican theory would receive additional confirmation. Many observers claimed to have determined such parallaxes, but Tycho Brahe and G. B. Riccioli concluded that they existed only in the minds of the observers, and were due to instrumental and personal errors. In 1680 Jean Picard, in his Voyage d' Uranibourg, stated, as a result of ten years' observations, that Polaris, or the Pole Star, exhibited variations in its position amounting to 40" annually; some astronomers endeavoured to explain this by parallax, but these attempts were futile, for the motion was at variance with that which parallax would occasion. J. Flamsteed, from measure- ments made in 1689 and succeeding years with his mural quad- rant, similarly concluded that the declination of the Pole Star was 40" less in July than in September. R. Hooke, in 1674, published his observations of 7 Draconis, a star of the second magnitude which passes practically overhead in the latitude of London, and whose observations are therefore singularly free from the complex corrections due to astronomical refraction, and concluded that this star was 23" more northerly in July than in October. When James Bradley and Samuel Molyneux entered this sphere of astronomical research in 1725, there consequently prevailed much uncertainty as to whether stellar parallaxes had been observed or not; and it was with the intention of definitely answering this question that these astronomers erected a large telescope at the house of the latter at Kew. They determined to reinvestigate the motion of 7 Draconis; the telescope, constructed by George Graham (1675-1751), a cele- brated instrument-maker, was affixed to a vertical chimney- stack, in such manner as to permit a small oscillation of the eyepiece, the amount of which, i.e. the deviation from the vertical, was regulated and measured by the introduction of a screw and a plumb-line. The instrument was set up in November 1725, and observations on 7 Draconis were made on the 3rd, 5th, nth, and 12th of December. There was apparently no shifting of the star, which was therefore thought to be at its most southerly point. On the 17th of December, however, Bradley observed that the star was moving southwards, a motion further shown by observations on the 20th. These results were unexpected, and, in fact, inexplicable by existing theories; and an examina- tion of the telescope showed that the observed anomalies were not due to instrumental errors. The observations were continued, and the star was seen to continue its southerly course until March, when it took up a position some 20" more southerly than its December position. After March it began to pass north- wards, a motion quite apparent by the middle of April; in June it passed at the same distance from the zenith as it did in De- cember; and in September it passed through its most northerly position, the extreme range from north to south, i.e. the angle between the March and September positions, being 40". This motion is evidently not due to parallax, for, in this case, the maximum range should be between the June and December positions; neither was it due to observational errors. Bradley and Molyneux discussed several hypotheses in the hope of fixing the solution. One hypothesis was: while 7 Draconis was stationary, the plumb-line, from which the angular measurements were made, varied; this would follow if the axis of the earth varied. The oscillation of the earth's axis may arise in two distinct ways; distinguished as " nutation of the axis " and " variation of latitude. " Nutation, the only form of oscilla- tion imagined by Bradley, postulates that while the earth's ABERRATION 55 axis is fixed with respect to the earth, i.e. the north and south poles occupy permanent geographical positions, yet the axis is not directed towards a fixed point in the heavens; variation of latitude, however, is associated with the shifting of the axis within the earth, i.e. the geographical position of the north pole varies. Nutation of the axis would determine a similar apparent motion for all stars: thus, all stars having the same polar distance as y Draconis should exhibit the same apparent motion after or before this star by a constant interval. Many stars satisfy the condition of equality of polar distance with that of y Draconis, but few were bright enough to be observed in Moly- neux's telescope. One such star, however, with a right ascension 1 nearly equal to that of y Draconis, but in the opposite sense, was selected and kept under observation. This star was seen to possess an apparent motion similar to that which would be a consequence of the nutation of the earth's axis; but since its declination varied only one half as much as in the case of 7 Dra- conis, it was obvious that nutation did not supply the requisite solution. The question as to whether the motion was due to. an irregular distribution of the earth's atmosphere, thus involving abnormal variations in the refractive index, was also investi- gated; here, again, negative results were obtained. Bradley had already perceived, in the case of the two stars previously scrutinized, that the apparent difference of declina- tion from the maximum positions was nearly proportional to the sun's distance from the equinoctial points; and he realized the necessity for more observations before any generalization could be attempted. For this purpose he repaired to the Rectory, Wanstead, then the residence of Mrs Pound, the widow of his uncle James Pound, with whom he had made many observations of the heavenly bodies. Here he had set up, on the 19th of August 1727, a more convenient telescope than that at Kew, its range extending over 6j° on each side of the zenith, thus covering a far larger area of the sky. Two hundred stars in the British Catalogue of Flamsteed traversed its field of view; and, of these, about fifty were kept under close observation. His conclusions may be thus summarized: (1) only stars near the solstitial colure had their maximum north and south positions when the sun was near the equinoxes, (2) each star was' at its maximum positions when it passed the zenith at six o'clock morning and evening (this he afterwards showed to be inaccurate, and found the greatest change in declination to be proportional to the latitude of the star), (3) the apparent motions of all stars at about the same time was in the same direction. A re-examination of his previously considered hypotheses as to the cause of these phenomena was fruitless; the true theory was ultimately discovered by a pure accident, comparable in simplicity and importance with the association of a falling apple with the discovery of the principle of universal gravitation. Sailing on the river Thames, Bradley repeatedly observed the shifting of a vane on the mast as the boat altered its course; and, having been assured that the motion of the vane meant that the boat, and not the wind, had altered its direction, he realized that the position taken up by the vane was determined by the motion of the boat and the direction of the wind. The application of this observation to the phenomenon which had so long perplexed him was not difficult, and, in 1727, he published his theory of the aberration of light — a corner-stone of the edifice of astronomical science. Let S (fig. 2) be a star and the observer be carried along the line AB; let SB be perpendicular to AB. If the observer be stationary at B, the star will appear in the direction BS; if, however, he traverses the distance BA in the same time as light passes from the star to his eye, the star will appear in the direction AS. Since, however, the ob- server is not conscious of his own translatory motion with the earth in its orbit, the star appears to have a displacement which is at all times parallel to the motion of the observer. To generalize this, let S (fig. 3) be the sun, ABCD the earth's orbit, and s the true position of a star. When the earth is at A, in consequence of aberration, the star Fig. 2. is displaced to a point c, its displacement sa being parallel to the earth's motion at A; when the earth is at B, the star appears at b; and so on throughout an orbital re- volution of the earth. Every star, therefore, describes an apparent orbit, which, if the line joining the sun and the star be perpendicular to the plane ABCD, will be ex- actly similar to that of the earth, i.e. almost a circle. As the star decreases in lati- tude, this circle will be viewed more and more ob- liquely, becoming a flatter and flatter ellipse until, with A r zero latitude, it degenerates into a straight line (fig. 4). The major axis of any such aberrational ellipse is always parallel to AC, i.e. the ecliptic, and since it is equal to the ratio of the velocity 1 3 L,/ X / *^ / / * / / \ / !*■■'.■ / ' V s / r / \ „*' *"■*• ''--.... B Fig. 3. :o Lat. 90" o L»L«o o Lat«S* o Lat.yf Late* Fig. 4. of light to the velocity of the earth, it is necessarily constant. This constant length subtends an angle of about 40" at the earth; the "constant of aberration " is half this angle. The generally accepted value is 20-445", due to Stnive; the last two figures are uncertain, and all that can be definitely affirmed is that the value lies between 20-43" and 20-48". The minor axis, on the other hand, is not constant, but, as we have already seen, depends on the latitude, being the product of the major axis into the sine of the latitude. Assured that his explanation was true, Bradley cor- rected his observations for aberration, but he found that there still remained a residuum which was evi- dently not a parallax, for it did not exhibit an annual cycle. He reverted to his early idea of a nutation of the earth's axis, and was rewarded by the discovery that the earth did possess such an oscillation (see Astronomy). Bradley recognized the fact that the experimental determination of the aberration constant gave the ratio of the velocities of light and of the earth; hence, if the velocity of the earth be known, the velocity of light is determined. In recent years much attention has been given to the nature of the propagation of light from the heavenly bodies to the earth, the argument generally being centred about the relative effect of the motion of the aether on the velocity of light. This subject is discussed in the articles Aether and Light. References. — A detailed account t>f Bradley's work is given in S. Rigaud, Memoirs of Bradley (1832), and in Charles Hutton, Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary (1795); a particularly clear and lucid account is given in H. H. Turner, Astronomical Discovery (1904). The subject receives treatment in all astronomical works. II. Aberration in Optical Systems Aberration in optical systems, i.e. in lenses or mirrors or a series of them, may be defined as the non-concurrence of rays from the points of an object after transmission through the system; it happens generally that an image formed by such a system is irregular, and consequently the correction of optical systems for aberration is of fundamental importance to the instrument-maker. Reference should be made to the articles Reflexion, Refraction, and Caustic for the general char- acters of reflected and refracted rays (the article Lens considers in detail the properties of this instrument, and should also be consulted) ; in this article will be discussed the nature, varieties and modes of aberrations mainly from the practical point of view, i.e. that of the optical-instrument maker. Aberrations may be divided in two classes: chromatic (Gr. X/xojua, colour) aberrations, caused by the composite nature of 5 6 ABERRATION the light generally applied (e.g. white light), which is dispersed by refraction, and monochromatic (Gr. p6vm, one) aberrations produced without dispersion. Consequently the monochro- matic class includes the aberrations at reflecting surfaces of any coloured light, and at refracting surfaces of monochromatic or light of single wave length. (a) Monochromatic Aberration. The elementary theory of optical systems leads to the theorem: Rays of light proceeding from any " object point " unite in an "image point"; and therefore an "object space" is repro- duced in an " image space." The introduction of simple auxiliary terms, due to C. F. Gauss (Dioptrische Untersuchungen, Got- tingen, 1841), named the focal lengths and focal planes, permits the determination of the image of any object for any system (see Lens). The Gaussian theory, however, is only true so long as the angles made by all rays with the optical axis (the symmet- rical axis of the system) are infinitely small, i.e. with infinitesimal objects, images and lenses; in practice these conditions are not realized, and the images projected by uncorrected systems are, in general, ill defined and often completely blurred, if the aper- ture or field of view exceeds certain limits. The investigations of James Clerk Maxwell (Phil.Mag., 1856; Quart. Journ. Math., 1858, and Ernst Abbe 1 ) showed that the properties of these reproductions, i.e. the relative position and magnitude of the images, are not special properties of optical systems, but neces- sary consequences of the supposition (in Abbe) of the repro- duction of all points of a space in image points (Maxwell assumes a less general hypothesis), and are independent of the manner in which the reproduction is effected. These authors proved, however, that no optical system can justify these suppositions, since they are contradictory to the fundamental laws of reflexion and refraction. Consequently the Gaussian theory only supplies a convenient method of approximating to reality; and no con- structor would attempt to realize this unattainable ideal. All that at present can be attempted is, to reproduce a single plane in another plane; but even this has not been altogether satis- factorily accomplished, aberrations always occur, and it is im- probable that these will ever be entirely corrected. This, and related general questions, have been treated — besides the above-mentioned authors — by M. Thiesen {Berlin. Akad. Sitzber. , 1890, xxxv. 799; Berlin Phys.Ges.Verh., 1892) and H. Bruns (Leipzig. Math. Phys. Ber., 1895, xxi. 325) by means of Sir W. R. Hamilton s "characteristic function" (Irish Acad. Trans., "Theory of Systems of Rays," 1828, et seq.). Reference may also be made to the treatise of Czapski-Eppenstein, pp. 155-161. A review of the simplest cases of aberration will now be given. (1) Aberration of axial points (Spherical aberration in the re- stricted sense). If S (fig. 5) be any optical system, rays pro- ceeding from an axis point O under an angle u\ will unite in the axis point O'i ; and those under an angle w 2 in the axis point 0' 2 . If there be refraction at a cpllective spherical surface, or through a thin positive lens, 0' 2 will lie in front of O'i so long as the angle w 2 is greater than «i ("under correction"); and conversely with a dispersive surface or lenses ("over correction"). The caustic, in the first case, resembles the sign > (greater than) ; in the second < (less than). If the angle u\ be very small, O'i is the Gaussian image; and O'i 0' 2 is termed the " longitudinal aberration," and 0'iR the " lateral aberration " of the pencils with aperture w 2 . If the pencil with the angle w 2 be that of the maximum aberration of all the pencils transmitted, then in a plane perpendicular to the axis at O'i there is a circular " disk of confusion " of radius 0'iR, and in a parallel plane at 0' 2 another one of radius 0' 2 R 2 ; between these two is situated the " disk of least confusion." The largest opening of the pencils, which take part in the reproduction of O, i.e. the angle u, is generally determined by the margin of one of the lenses or by a. hole in a thin plate placed between, before, or behind the lenses of the system. This hole is termed the "stop" or "diaphragm"; Abbe used the term " aDerture stop " for both the hole and the limiting margin of the •The investigations of E. Abbe on geometrical optics, originally published only in his university lectures, were first compiled by S. Czapski in 1893.' See below, Authorities. Fig. 5. lens. The component Si of the system, situated between the aperture stop and the object O, projects an image of the dia- phragm, termed by Abbe the "entrance pupil": the "exit pupil " is the image formed by the component S 2 , which is placed behind the aperture stop. All rays which issue from O and pass through the aperture stop also pass through the entrance and exit pupils, since these are images of the aperture stop. Since the maximum aperture of the pencils issuing from O is the angle u subtended by the entrance pupil at this point, the magni- tude of the aberration will be determined by the position and diameter of the entrance pupil. If the system be entirely behind the aperture stop, then this is itself the entrance pupil (" front stop "); if entirely in front, it is the exit pupil (" back stop "). If the object point be infinitely distant, all rays received by the first member of the system are parallel, and their inter- sections, after traversing the system, vary according to their " perpendicular height of incidence," i.e. their distance from the axis. This distance replaces the angle u in the preceding considerations; and the aperture, i.e. the radius of the entrance pupil, is its maximum value. (2) Aberration of elements, i.e. smallest objects at right angles to the axis. — If rays issuing from O (fig. 5) be concurrent, it does not follow ; , that points in a • portion of a plane perpendicular at O to the axis ^£^r"lf S "2fS?""-*^— : R * will be also con- O current, even if the part of the plane be very small. With a considerable aperture, the neighbouring point N will be reproduced, but attended by aberrations com- parable in magnitude to ON. These aberrations are avoided if, according to Abbe, the " sine condition," sin w'i/sin «i = sin «' 2 /sin « 2 , holds for all rays reproducing the point O. If the object point O be infinitely distant, U\ and w 2 are to be replaced by h\ and hi, the perpendicular heights of incidence; the " sine condition " then becomes sin i/i/Ai=sin u\lh 2 . A system ful- filling this condition and free from spherical aberration is called " aplanatic " (Greek a-, privative, irXavr), a wandering). This word was first used by Robert Blair (d. 1828), professor of prac- tical astronomy at Edinburgh University, to characterize a superior achromatism, and, subsequently, by many writers to denote freedom from spherical aberration. Both the aberration of axis points, and the deviation from the sine condition, rapidly increase in most (uncorrected) systems with the aperture. (3) Aberration of lateral object points (points beyond the axis) with narrow pencils. Astigmatism. — A point O (fig. 6) at a finite distance from the axis (or with an infinitely " distant object, a point which subtends a finite angle at the system) is, in general, even then not sharply reproduced, if the pencil of rays issuing from it and traversing the system is made infinitely narrow by reducing the aperture stop; such a pencil consists of the rays which can pass from the object point through the now infinitely small entrance pupil. It is seen (ignoring exceptional cases) that the pencil does not meet the refracting or reflecting surface at right angles; therefore it is astigmatic (Gr. a-, privative, ariyfia, a point). Naming the central ray passing through the entrance pupil the " axis of the pencil " or " principal ray," we can say: the rays of the pencil intersect, not in one point, but in two focal lines, which we can assume to be at right angles to the principal ray; of these, one lies in the plane containing the principal ray and Fig. ABERRATION 57 the axis of the system, i.e. in the " first principal section " or " meridional section," and the other at right angles to it, i.e. in the second principal section or sagittal section. We receive, therefore, in no single intercepting plane behind the system, as, for example, a focussing screen, an image of the object point; on the other hand, in each of two planes lines O' and O" are separately formed (in neighbouring planes ellipses are formed), and in a plane between O' and O" a circle of least confusion. The interval O'O", termed the astigmatic difference, increases, in general, with the angle W made by the principal ray OP with the axis of the system, i.e. with the field of view. Two " astig- matic image surfaces " correspond to one object plane; and these are in contact at the axis point; on the one lie the focal lines of the first kind, on the other those of the second. Systems in which the two astigmatic surfaces coincide are termed ana- stigmatic or stigmatic. Sir Isaac Newton was probably the discoverer of astigmation; the position of the astigmatic image lines was determined by Thomas Young (A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy, 1807); and the theory has been recently developed by A. Gullstrand (Skand. Arch.f. physiol., 1890, 2, p. 269; Allgemeine Theorie der monochromat. Aberrationen, etc., Upsala, 1900; Arch.f. Ophth., 1901, 53, pp. 2, 185). A bibliography by P. Culmann is given in M. von Rohr's Die Bilder- zeugung in optischen Instrumenten (Berlin, 1904). (4) A berralion of lateral object points with broad pencils. Coma. — By opening the stop wider, similar deviations arise for lateral points as have been already discussed for axial points; but in this case they are much more complicated. The course of the rays in the meridional section is no longer symmetrical to the principal ray of the pencil; and on an intercepting plane there appears, instead of a luminous point, a patch of light, not sym- metrical about a point, and often exhibiting a resemblance to a comet having its tail directed towards or away from the axis. From this appearance it takes its name. The unsymmetrical form of the meridional pencil — formerly the only one considered — is coma in the narrower sense only; other errors of coma have been treated by A. Konig and M. von Rohr {op. cit.) , and more recently by A. Gullstrand {op. cit.; Ann. d. Phys., 1905, 18, p. 941). (5) Curvature of the field of the image. — If the above errors be eliminated, the two astigmatic surfaces united, and a sharp image obtained with a wide aperture — there remains the necessity to correct the curvature of the image surface, especially when the image is to be received upon a plane surface, e.g. in photography. In most cases the surface is concave towards the system. (6) Distortion of the image. — If now the image be sufficiently sharp, inasmuch as the rays proceeding from every object point meet in an image point of satisfactory exactitude, it may happen that the image is distorted, i.e. not sufficiently like the object. This error consists in the different parts of the object being re- produced with different magnifications; for instance, the inner parts may differ in greater magnification than the outer (" barrel- shaped distortion "), or conversely (" cushion-shaped distortion") (see fig. 7). Systems free of this aberration are called " ortho- scopic " {6p66s, right, o-Korreiv, to look) . This aberration is quite distinct from that of the sharpness of reproduction ; in unsharp reproduction, the question of dis- tortion arises if only parts of the object can be recognized in the figure. If, in an unsharp image, a patch of light corresponds to an object point, the "centre of gravity" of the patch may be regarded as the image point, this being the point where the plane receiv- ing the image, e.g. a focussing screen, intersects the ray passing through the middle of the stop. This assumption is justified if a poor image on the focussing screen remains stationary when the aperture is diminished; in practice, this generally occurs. This ray, named by Abbe a " principal ray " (not to be confused with the "principal rays" of the Gaussian theory), passes through the centre of the entrance pupil before the first refraction, Object Barrel shaped Cushion shaped Distorted image Fig. 7. and the centre of the exit pupil after the last refraction. From this it follows that correctness of drawing depends solely upon the principal rays; and is independent of the sharpness or curvature of the image field. Referring to fig. 8, we have O'Q'/OQ =a' tan it/ /a tan w— i/N, where N is the " scale " or magnification of the image. For N to be constant for all values of w, a' tan w'/ a tan w must also be constant. If the ratio a'ja be sufficiently constant, as is often the case, the above relation reduces to the " condition of Airy," i.e. tan w' j tan w—& constant. This simple relation (see Camb. Phil. Trans., 1830, 3, p. 1) is fulfilled in all systems which are symmetrical with respect to their diaphragm (briefly named " symmetrical or holosymmetrical objectives "), or which consist of two like, but different-sized, components, placed from the diaphragm in the ratio of their size, and presenting the same curvature to it (hemisymmetrical objectives); in these systems tan w'l tan w=i. The constancy of a' /a necessary for this re- lation to hold was pointed out ^ ' by R. H. Bow {Brit. Journ. Photo g., 1861), and Thomas Sutton {Photographic Notes, 1862); it has been treated by O. Lummer and by M. von Rohr {Zeit. f. Instrumentenk., 1897, 17, and 1898, 18, p. 4). It requires the middle of the aperture stop to be reproduced in the centres of the entrance and exit pupils without spherical aberration. M. von Rohr showed that for systems fulfilling neither the Airy nor the Bow-Sutton condition, the ratio a' tan w 1 fa tan w will be constant for one distance of the object. This combined condition is exactly fulfilled by holosymmetrical objectives reproducing with the scale 1, and by hemisymmetrical, if the scale of reproduction be equal to the ratio of the sizes of the two components. Analytic Treatment of Aberrations. — The preceding review of the several errors of reproduction belongs to the " Abbe theory of aberrations," in which definite aberrations are discussed separ- ately; it is well suited to practical needs, for in the construction of an optical instrument certain errors are sought to be elimi- nated, the selection of which is justified by experience. In the mathematical sense, however, this selection is arbitrary; the re- production of a finite object with a finite aperture entails, in all probability, an infinite number of aberrations. This number is only finite if the object and aperture are assumed to be " in- finitely small of a certain order"; and with each order of infinite smallness, i.e. with each degree of approximation to reality (to finite objects and apertures), a certain number of aberrations is associated. This connexion is only supplied by theories which treat aberrations generally and analytically by means of indefinite series. A ray proceeding from an object point O (fig. 9) can be de- fined by the co-ordinates (£, tj) of this point O in an object plane I, at right angles to the axis, and two other co- ordinates (*, y), the point in which the ray intersects the entrance pupil, i.e. the plane II. Similarly the corresponding image ray may be defined by the points (£' ',ij')> and (*', y'), in the planes I' and II'. The origins of these four plane co-ordinate systems may be collinear with the axis of the optical system; and the corre- sponding axes may be parallel. Each of the four co-ordinates i;',il',x',y' are functions of £,,t\,x,y; and if it be assumed that the field of view and the aperture be infinitely small, then £ , ij, x, y are of the same order of infinitesimals; consequently by expand- ing £', v\ x', y' in ascending powers of £, ij, x, y, series are ob- tained in which it is only necessary to consider the lowest powers. It is readily seen that if the optical system be symmetrical, the origins of the co-ordinate systems collinear with the optical axis 5» ABERRATION and the corresponding axes parallel, then by changing the signs of £ ,77, x, y, the values £', 77, x , y must likewise change their sign, but retain their arithmetical values; this means that the series are restricted to odd powers of the unmarked variables. The nature of the reproduction consists in the rays proceeding from a point O being united in another point O'; in general, this will not be the case, for £', 77' vary if £, 77 be constant, but x, y variable. It may be assumed that the planes I' and II' are drawn where the images of the planes I and II are formed by rays near the axis by the ordinary Gaussian rules; and by an extension of these rules, not, however, corresponding to reality, the Gauss image point O' , with co-ordinates £' , 17 '0, of the point O at some distance from the axis could be constructed. Writing A£' = £' — f' and Ar)' = ?/— 7/0, then A£' and A77' are the aberrations belonging to £, 77 and *, y, and are functions of these magnitudes which, when expanded in series, contain only odd powers, for the same reasons as given above. On account of the aberrations of all rays which pass through O, a patch of light, depending in size on the lowest powers of £, 17, x, y which the aberrations contain, will be formed in the plane I'. These degrees, named by J. Petzval (Berichl iiber die Ergebnisse einiger dioptrischer Untersuchungen,. Buda Pesth, 1843; Akad. Sitzber., Wien, 1857, vols.xxiv.xxvi.) "the numerical orders of the image," are consequently only odd powers; the condition for the for- mation of an image of the mth order is that in the series for A£ ' and A77' the coefficients of the powers of the 3rd, 5th . . . (»»-2)th degrees must vanish. The images of the Gauss theory being of the third order, the next problem is to obtain an image of 5th order, or. to make the coefficients of the powers of 3rd degree zero. This necessitates the satisfying of five equations; in other words, there are five alterations of the 3rd order, the vanishing of which produces an image of the 5th order. The expression for these coefficients in terms of the constants of the optical system, i.e. the radii, thicknesses, refractive indices and distances between the lenses, was solved by L. Seidel (Astr. Nach., 1856, p. 289); in 1840, J. Petzval constructed his portrait objective, unexcelled even at the present day, from similar cal- culations, which have never been published (see M. von Rohr, Thcorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs, Berlin, 1899, p. 248). The theory was elaborated by S. Finterswalder (Miinchen. Akad. AbhandL, 1891, 17, p. 519), who also published a posthumous paper of Seidel containing a short view of his work (Miinchen. Akad. Sitzber., 1898, 28, p. 395) ; a simpler form was given by A. Kerber (Bei- trage zur Dioplrik, Leipzig, 1895-6-7-8^9). A. Konigand M. von Rohr (see M. von Rohr , Die Bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten, pp. 3l7-3 2 3) have represented Kerber's method, and have deduced the Seidel formulae from geometrical considerations based on the Abbe method, and have interpreted the analytical results geometrically (pp. 212-316). The aberrations can also be expressed by means of the "char- acteristic function " of the system and its differential coefficients, instead of by the radii, &c, of the lenses; these formulae are not immediately applicable, but give, however, the relation between the number of aberrations and the order. Sir William Rowan Hamilton (British Assoc. Report, 1833, p. 360) thus derived the aberrations of the third order; and in later times the method was pursued by Clerk Maxwell (Proc. London Math. Soc, 1874-1875; see also the treatises of R. S. Heath and L. A. Herman), M. Thiesen (Berlin. Akad. Sitzber., 1890, 35, p. 804), H. Bruns {Leipzig. Math. Phys.Ber., 1895, 2I > p. 410), and particularly successfully by K. Schwartzschild (Ghtlingen. Akad. AbhandL, 1905, 4, No. 1), who thus discovered the aberrations of the 5th order (of which there are nine), and possibly the shortest proof of the practical (Seidel) formulae. A. Gullstrand (vide supra, and Ann. d. Phys., 1905, 18, p. 941) founded his theory of aberrations on the differential geometry of surfaces. The aberrations of the third order are: (1) aberration of the axis point; (2) aberration of points whose distance from: the Aberra- ax ' s * s ver y sm ^l» l ess than of the third order — the ttons of deviation from the sine condition and coma here fall the third together in one class; (3) astigmatism; (4) curvature order - of the field; (5) distortion. (1) Aberration of the third order of axis points is dealt with in all text-books on optics. It is important for telescope objec- tives, since their apertures are so small as to permit higher orders to be neglected. For a single lens of very small thickness and given power, the aberration depends upon the ratio of the radii r:r r , and is a minimum (but never zero) for a certain value of this ratio; it varies inversely with the refractive index (the power of the lens remaining constant). The total aberration of two or more very thin lenses in contact, being the sum of the individual aberrations, can be zero. This is also possible if the lenses have the same algebraic sign. Of thin positive lenses with »=i-5, four are necessary to correct spherical aberration of the third order. These, systems, however, are not of great practical importance. In most cases, two thin lenses are combined, one of which has just so strong a positive aberration (" under-correc- tion," vide supra) as the other a negative; the first must be a positive lens and the second a negative lens; the powers, however, may differ, so that the desired effect of the lens is maintained. It is generally an advantage to secure a great refractive effect by several weaker than by one high-power lens. By one, and likewise by several, and even by an infinite number of thin lenses in contact, no more than two axis points can be repro- duced without aberration of the third order. Freedom from aberration for two axis points, one of which is infinitely distant, is known as " Herschel's condition." All these rules are valid, inasmuch as the thicknesses and distances of the lenses are not to be taken into account. (2) The condition for freedom from coma in the third order is also of importance for telescope objectives; it is known as " Fraunhofer's condition." (4) After eliminating the aberration on the axis, coma and astigmatism, the relation for the flatness of the field in the' third order is expressed by the " Petzval equation," Si/r(w'-«)= o, where r is the radius of a refracting surface, n and n' the refractive indices of the neighbouring media, and 2 the sign of summation for all refracting surfaces. Practical Elimination of Aberrations. — The existence of an optical system, which reproduces absolutely a finite plane on another with pencils of finite aperture, is doubtful; but practical systems solve this problem with an accuracy which mostly suffices for the special purpose of each species of instrument. The problem of finding a system which reproduces a given object upon a given plane with given magnification (in so far as aber- rations must be taken into account) could be dealt with by means of the approximation theory; in most cases, however, the analytical difficulties are too great. Solutions, however, have been obtained in special cases (see A. Konig in M. von Rohr's Die Bilderzeugung, p. 373; K. Schwarzsehild, Gottingen. Akad. AbhandL, 1905, 4, Nos. 2and3). At the present time constructors almost always employ the inverse method: they compose a system from certain, often quite personal experiences, and test, by the trigonometrical calculation of the paths of several rays, whether the system gives the desired reproduction (examples are given in A. Gleichen, Lehrbuch der geomelrischen Optik, Leipzig and Berlin, 1902). The radii, thicknesses and distances are continually altered until the errors of the image become sufficiently small. By this method only certain errors of repro- duction are investigated, especially individual members, or all, of those named above. The analytical approximation theory is often employed provisionally, since its accuracy does not generally suffice. In order to render spherical aberration and the deviation from the sine condition small throughout the whole aperture, there is given to a ray with a finite angle of aperture u* (with infinitely distant objects: with a finite height of incidence h*) the same distance of intersection, and the same sine ratio as to one neighbouring the axis (u* or h* may not be much smaller than the largest aperture U or H to be used in the system). The rays with an angle of aperture smaller than u* would not have the same distance of intersection and the same sine ratio'; these deviations are called "zones," and the constructor en- deavours to reduce these to a minimum. The same holds for the errors depending upon the angle of the field of view, w: astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion are eliminated for a definite value, w*; "zones of astigmatism, curvature- of field and distortion " attend smaller values of w. The practical optician names such systems: "corrected for the angle of aperture u* (the height of incidence h*), or the angle of field of view w*." Spherical aberration and changes of the sine ratios are often represented graphically as functions of the aperture; ABERRATION 5$ in the same way as the deviations of two astigmatic image sur- faces of the image plane of the axis point are represented as functions of the angles of the field of view. The final form of a practical system consequently rests on compromise; enlargement of the aperture results in a diminution of the available field of view, and vice versa. The following may be regarded as typical: — (i) Largest aperture; necessary corrections are — for the axis point, and sine condition; errors of the field of view are almost disregarded; example — high- power microscope objectives. (2) Largest field of view; neces- sary corrections are — for astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion; errors of the aperture only slightly regarded; ex- amples — photographic widest angle objectives and oculars. Between these extreme examples stands the ordinary photo- graphic objective: the portrait objective is corrected more with regard to aperture; objectives for groups more with regard to the field of view. (3) Telescope objectives have usually not very large apertures, and small fields of view; they should, however, possess zones as small as possible, and be built in the simplest manner. They are the best for analytical computation. (b) Chromatic or Colour Aberration. In optical systems composed of lenses, the position, magnitude and errors of the image depend upon the refractive indices of the glass employed (see Lens, and above, " Monochromatic Aberration ") . Siqce the index of refraction varies with the colour • or wave length of the light (see Dispersion), it follows that a system of lenses (uncorrected) projects images of different colours in somewhat different places and sizes and with differ- ent aberrations; i.e. there are " chromatic differences " of the distances of intersection, of magnifications, and of mono- chromatic aberrations. If mixed light be employed (e.g. white light) all these images are formed; and since they are all ulti- mately intercepted by a plane (the retina of the eye> a focussing screen of a camera, &c), they cause a confusion, named chro- matic aberration; for instance, instead of a white margin on a dark background, there is perceived a coloured margin, or narrow spectrum. The absence of this error is termed achroma- tism, and an optical system so corrected is termed achromatic. A system is said to be " chromatically under-corrected " when it shows the same kind of chromatic error as a thin positive lens, otherwise it is said to be " over-corrected." If, in the first place, monochromatic aberrations be neglected —in other words, the Gaussian theory be accepted — then every reproduction is determined by the positions of the focal planes, and the magnitude of the focal lengths, or if the focal lengths, as ordinarily happens, be equal, by three constants of repro- duction. These constants are determined by the data of the system (radii, thicknesses, distances, indices, &c, of the lenses); therefore their dependence on the refractive index, and conse- quently on the colour, are calculable (the formulae are given in Czapski-Eppcnstein, Grundziige der Theorie der optischeii Instrumcnte (1903, p. 166). The refractive indices for different wave lengths must be known for each kind of glass made use of. In this manner the conditions are maintained that any one constant of reproduction is equal for two different colours, i.e. this constant is achromatized. For example, it is possible, with one thick lens in air, to achromatize the position of a. focal plane of the magnitude of the focal length. If all three constants of reproduction be achromatized, then the Gaussian image for all distances of objects is the same for the two colours, and the system is said to be in " stable achromatism." In practice it is more advantageous (after Abbe) to determine the chromatic aberration (for instance, that of the distance of intersection) for a fixed position of the object, and express it by a sum in which each component contains the amount due to each refracting surface (see Czapski-Eppenstein, op. cit. p.\i7o; A. KSnig in M. v. Rohr's collection, Die Bildcrzeugung, p. 340). In a plane containing the image point of one colour, ah'other colour produces a disk of confusion; this is similar to the con- fusion caused by two " zones " in spherical aberration. For infinitely distant objects the radius of the chromatic disk of. confusion is proportional to the linear aperture, and independent of the focal length (vide supra, " Monochromatic Aberration of the; Axis Point "); and since this disk becomes the less harmful with" an increasing image of a given object, or with increasing focal length, it follows that the deterioration of the image is propor- tional to the ratio of the aperture to the focal length, i.e. the " relative aperture." (This explains the gigantic focal lengths in vogue before the discovery of achromatism.) Examples. — (a) In a very thin lens, in air, only one constant of reproduction is to be observed, since the focal length and. the distance of the focal point are equal. If the refractive index for one colour be n, and for another n-\-dn, and the powers, or reciprocals of the focal lengths, be <£ and cp+dcp, then (1) d/ = dn/(n- 1) = i/v; dn is called the dispersion, and v the dis- persive power of the glass. (b) Two thin lenses in contact: let $1 and 4> 2 be the powers corresponding to the lenses of refractive indices «i and n-_ and radii r\, r"i, and r' 2 , r" 2 respectively; let denote the total power, and d, dni, dn 2 the changes of , n u and n 2 with the colour. Then the following relations hold: — (2) = 1 ,+*2=(«i-i)(iA'i-iA"i) + («2-i)(iA , 2-iA" 2 ) = (n\-i)h+(n 2 - i)k 2 ; and (3) dcj> = hdrii + k 2 dn 2 . For achromatism di/4> 2 = -V\/v 2 . Therefore be not zero (equation 2)), and the dispersive powers must also be. different y (according to 4). Newton failed to perceive the existence of media of different dispersive powers required by achromatism; consequently he constructed large reflectors instead of refractors. James Gregory and Leonhard Euler arrived at the correct view from a false con- ception of the achromatism of the eye ; this 'was determined by Chester More Hall in 1728, Klingenstierna in 1754 and by Dollond in : 757. w ho constructed the celebrated achromatic telescopes. (See Telescope.) Glass with weaker dispersive power (greater v) is named "crown glass"; that with greater dispersive power, "flint gla,ss." For the construction of an achromatic collective lens ( positive) it follows, by means of equation (4), that a collec- tive lens I. of crown glass and a dispersive lens II. of flint glass must be chosen; the latter, although the weaker, corrects the other chromatically by its greater dispersive power. For an achromatic .dispersive lens the converse must be adopted. This is, at the ^present day, the ordinary type, e.g., of telescope objective (fig. 10); the values of the four radii must satisfy the equations (2) and (4). Two other conditions may also be pos- tulated; one is 'always the elimination of the aberration on the axis; the second either the " Herschel " or " Fraunhofer condition," the latter being the best (vide supra, " Monochromatic Aberration "). In practice, however, it is often more useful to avoid the second condition by making the lenses have contact, i.e. equal radii. According to P. Rudolph (Eder's Jahrb. f. Photog., 18/91, S, p. 223; 1893, 7, p. 221), cemented objectives of" thin lenses permit the elimination of spherical aberration on the axis, if, as above, the collective lens has a smaller refractive index; on the other hand, they permit the elimination of i astigmatism and curvature of the field, if the collective lens has a greater refractive index (this follows from the Petzval equation;. see L. Seidel, Astr. Nachr., 1856, p. 289). Should the i cemented system be positive, then the more powerful lens must: be positive; and, according to (4), to the greater power belongs the weaker dispersive power (greater v), that is to. say, crown glass;, consequently the crown glass must have the greater refractive index for astigmatic and plane images. In all earlier kinds of glass, however, the dispersive power increased with the refractive iiideX; "that is,' v decreased as n increased; but some of tjie/JeHa^iasl^s by.'E. Abbe and 0. Schott were craven Fig. 10. 6o ABERRATION glasses of high refractive index, and achromatic systems from such crown glasses, with flint glasses of lower refractive index, are called the " new achromats," and were employed by P. Rudolph in the first " anastigmats " (photographic objectives). Instead of making d vanish, a certain value can be assigned to it which will produce, by the addition of the two lenses, any desired chromatic deviation, e.g. sufficient to eliminate one present in other parts of the system. If the lenses I. and II. be cemented and have the same refractive index for one colour, then its effect for that one colour is that of a lens of one piece; by such decomposition of a lens it can be made chromatic or achromatic at will, without altering its spherical effect. If its chromatic effect (d/) be greater than that of the same lens, this being made of the more dispersive of the two glasses em- ployed, it is termed " hyper-chromatic." For two thin lenses separated by a distance D the condition for achromatism is D = {v 1/1+^2/2) {vi+vti; if Vi = vt (e.g. if the lenses be made of the same glass), this reduces to D = | (/1+/2), known as the "condition for oculars." If a constant of reproduction, for instance the focal length, be made equal for two colours, then it is not the same for other colours, if two different glasses are employed. For example, the condition for achromatism (4) for two thin lenses in contact is fulfilled in only one part of the spectrum, since dn 2 /dn 1 varies within the spectrum. This fact was first ascertained by J. Fraunhofer, 'who defined the colours by means of the dark lines in the solar spectrum; and showed that the ratio of the disper- sion of two glasses varied about 20% from the red to the violet (the variation for glass and water is about 50%). If, therefore, for two colours, a and b, f„=fb =/, then for a third colour, c, the focal length is different, viz. if c lie between a and b, then f c ; and he was content to resign the command of fleets and armies to younger men, like Duke Valdemar, after- wards Valdemar II., and to confine himself to the administration of the empire which his genius had created. In this sphere Absalon proved himself equally great. The aim of his policy was to free Denmark from the German yoke. It was contrary to his advice and warnings that Valdemar I. rendered fealty to the emperor Frederick Barbarossa at Dole in 1162; and when, on the accession of Canute V. in 1182, an imperial ambassador arrived at Roskilde to receive the homage of the new king, Absalon resolutely withstood him. " Return to the emperor," cried he, " and tell him that the king of Denmark will in no wise show him obedience or do him homage." As the archpastor of Denmark Absalon also rendered his country inestimable services, building churches and monasteries, introducing the religious orders, founding schools and doing his utmost to promote civilization and enlightenment. It was he who held the first Danish Synod at Lund in 1167. In n 78 he became archbishop of Lund, but very unwillingly, only the threat of excommunica- tion from the holy see finally inducing him to accept the pallium. Absalon died on the 21st of March 1201, at the family monastery of Soro, which he himself had richly embellished and endowed. Absalon remains one of the most striking and picturesque figures of the Middle Ages, and was equally great as churchman, statesman and warrior. That he enjoyed warfare there can be no doubt; and his splendid physique and early training had well fitted him for martial exercises. He was the best rider in the army and the best swimmer in the fleet. Yet he was not like the ordinary fighting bishops of the Middle Ages, whose sole concession to their sacred calling was to avoid the " shedding of blood " by using a mace in battle instead of a sword. Absalon never neglected his ecclesiastical duties, and even his wars were of the nature of crusades. Moreover, all his martial energy notwithstanding, his personality must have been singularly winning; for it is said of him that he left behind not a single enemy, all his opponents having long since been converted by him into friends. See Saxo, Gesta Danorum, ed. Holder (Strassburg, 1886), books x.^ xvi. ; Steinstrup, Danmark's Riges Historic. Oldtiden eg den asldre Middelalder, pp. 570-735 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905). (R. N. B.) ABSCESS (from Lat. abscedere, to separate), in pathology, a collection of pus among the tissues of the body, the result of bacterial inflammation. Without the presence of septic organ- isms abscess does not occur. At any rate, every acute abscess contains septic germs, and these may have reached the inflamed area by direct infection, or may have been carried thither by the blood-stream. Previous to the formation of abscess some- thing has occurred to lower the vitality of the affected tissue — some gross injury, perchance, or it may be that the power of resistance against bacillary invasion was -lowered by reason of constitutional weakness. As the result, then, of lowered vitality, a certain area becomes congested and effusion takes place into the tissues. This effusion coagulates and a hard, brawny mass is formed which softens towards the centre. If nothing is done the softened area increases in size, the skin over it becomes thinned, loses its vitality (mortifies) and a small "slough" is formed. When the slough gives way the pus escapes and, tension being relieved, pain ceases. A local necrosis or death of tissue takes place at that part of the inflammatory swelling farthest from the healthy circulation. When the attack of septic inflammation is very acute, death of the tissue occurs en masse, as in the core of a boil or carbuncle. Sometimes, however, no such mass of dead tissue is to be observed, and all that escapes when the skin is lanced or gives way is the creamy pus. In the latter case the tissue has broken down in a molecular form. 'After the escape of the core or slough along with a certain amount of pus, a space,- the abscess-cavity, is left, the walls of which are lined with new vascular tissue which has itself escaped destruc- tion. . This lowly organized material is called granulation tissue, and exactly resembles the growth which covers the floor of an ulcer. These granulations eventually fill the contracting cavity and obliterate it by forming interstitial scar-tissue. This is called healing by second intention. ■ Pus may accumulate in a normal cavity, such as a joint or bursa, or in the cranial, thoracic or abdominal cavity. In all these situations, if the diagnosis is clear, the principle of treatment is evacuation and drainage. When evacuating an abscess it is often advisable to scrape away the lining of unhealthy granulations and to wash out the cavity with an antiseptic lotion. If the after-drainage of the cavity is thorough the formation of pus ceases and the watery discharge from the abscess wall subsides. As the cavity contracts the discharge becomes less, until at last the drainage tube can be removed and the external wound allowed to heal. The large collections of pus which form in connexion with disease of the spinal column in the cervical, dorsal and lumbar regions are now treated by free evacuation of the tuberculous pus, with careful antiseptic measures. The opening should be in as de- pendent a position as possible in order that the drainage may be thorough. If tension recurs after opening has been made, as by the blocking of the tube, or by its imperfect position, or by its being too short, there is likely to be a fresh formation of pus, and without delay the whole procedure must be gone through again. (E. O.*) ABSCISSA (from the Lat. abscissus, cut off), in the Cartesian system of co-ordinates, the distance of a point from the axis of y measured parallel to the horizontal axis (axis of x). Thus PS (or OR) is the abscissa of P. The word appears for the first time in a Latin work written by Stefano degli Angeli (1623-1607), a professor of mathematics in Rome. (See Geometry, § Analytical.) ABSCISSION (from Lat. abscindere), a tearing away, or cut- ting off; a term used sometimes in prosody for the elision of a vowel before another, and in surgery especially for abscission of the cornea, or the removal of that portion of the eyeball situated in front of the attachments of the recti muscles; in botany, the separation of spores by elimination of the connexion. ABSCOND (Lat. abscondere, to hide, put away), to depart in a secret manner; in law, to remove from the jurisdiction of the courts or so to conceal oneself as to avoid their jurisdiction. A person may " abscond " either for the purpose of avoiding arrest for a crime (see Arrest), or for a fraudulent purpose, such as the defrauding of his creditors (see Bankruptcy). ABSENCE (Lat. absentia), the fact of being "away," either in body or mind; " absence of mind " being a condition in which the mind is withdrawn from .what is passing. The special occasion roll-call at Eton College is called " Absence," which the boys attend in their tall hats. A soldier must get permission or "leave of absence" before he can be away from his regiment. Seven years' absence with no sign of life either by letter or ABSENTEEISM-ABSOLUTE 75 message is held presumptive evidence of death in the law courts. ABSENTEEISM, a term used primarily of landed proprietors who absent themselves from their estates, and live and spend their incomes elsewhere; in its more extended meaning it in- cludes all those (in addition to landlords) who live out of a country or locality but derive their income from some source within it. Absenteeism is a question which has been much de- bated, and from both the economic and moral point of view there is little doubt that it has a prejudicial effect. To it has been attributed in a great measure the unprosperous condition of the rural districts of France before the Revolution, when it was unusual for the great nobles to live on their estates unless compelled to do so by a sentence involving their " exile " from Paris. It has also been an especial evil in Ireland, and many attempts were made to combat it. As early as 1727 a tax of four shillings in the pound was imposed on all persons .holding offices and employments in Ireland and residing in England. This tax was discontinued in 1753, but was re-imposed in 1769. In 1774 the tax was reduced to two shillings in the pound, but was dropped after some years. It was revived by the Independent Parliament in 1782 and for some ten years brought in a sub- stantial amount to the revenue, yielding in' 1790 as much as £63,089. Authorities. — For a discussion of absenteeism from the economic point of view see N. W. Senior, Lectures on the Rate of Wages, Political Economy; J. S. Mill, Political Economy; J. R. McCulloch, Treatises and Essays on Money, &c, article "Absenteeism "; A. T. Hadley, Economics; on absenteeism in Ireland see A. Young, Tour in Ireland (1780); T. Prior, List of Absentees (1729); E. Wakefield, Account of Ireland (1812); W. E. H. Lecky, Ireland in the 18th Century (1892); A. E. Murray, History of the Commercial and Financial Relations between England and Ireland (1903) ; Parlia- mentary Papers, Ireland, 1830, vii., ditto, 1845, xix.-xxii.; in France, A. de Monchretien, Traicte de I'cekonomie politique (1615); A. de Tocqueville, L'Ancien Regime (1857); H. Taine, Les Origines de la France content poraine, I'ancien Regime (1876). ABSINTHE, a liqueur or aromatized spirit, the characteristic flavouring matter of which is derived from various species of wormwood {Artemisia absinthium). Among the other substances generally employed in its manufacture are angelica root, sweet flag,, dittany leaves, star-anise fruit, fennel and hyssop. A colourless " alcoholate " (see Liqueurs) is first prepared, and to this the well-known green colour of the beverage is imparted by maceration with green leaves of wormwood, hyssop and mint. Inferior varieties are made by means of essences, the distillation process being omitted. There are two varieties of absinthe, the French and the Swiss, the latter of which is of a higher alcoholic strength than the former. The best absinthe contains 70 to 80% of alcohol. It is said to improve very materially by storage. There is a popular belief to the effect that absinthe is frequently adulterated with copper, indigo or other dye-stuffs (to impart the green colour), but, in fact, this is now very rarely the case. There is some reason to believe that excessive absinthe-drinking leads to effects which are specifically worse than those assoc- iated with over-indulgence in other forms of alcohol. ABSOLUTE (Lat. absohere, to loose, set free), a term having the general signification of independent, self-existent, uncondi- tioned. Thus we speak of " absolute " as opposed to " limited " or " constitutional " monarchy, or, in common parlance, of an " absolute failure," i.e. unrelieved by any satisfactory circum- stances. In philosophy the word has several technical uses. (1) In Logic, it has been applied to non-connotative terms which do not imply attributes (see Connotation), but more commonly, in opposition to Relative, to terms which do not imply the exist- ence of some other (correlative) term; e.g. " father " implies " son," " tutor " " pupil," and therefore each of these terms is relative. In fact, however, the distinction is formal, and, though convenient in the terminology of elementary logic, cannot be strictly maintained. The term " man," for example, which, as compared with " father," " son," " tutor," seems to be absolute, is obviously relative in other connexions; in various contexts it implies its various possible opposites, e.g. " woman," " boy," " master," " brute." In other words, every term which is susceptible of definition is ipso facto relative, for definition is precisely the segregation of the thing defined from all other things which it is not, i.e. implies a relation. Every term which has a meaning is, therefore, relative, if only to its contradictory. (2) The term is used in the phrase " absolute knowledge " to imply knowledge per se. It has been held, however, that, since all knowledge implies a knowing subject and a known object, absolute knowledge is a contradiction in terms (see Relativity) . So also Herbert Spencer spoke of "absolute ethics," as opposed to systems of conduct based on particular local or temporary laws and conventions (see Ethics). (3) By far the most important use of the word is in the phrase "the Absolute" (see Metaphysics). It is sufficient here to indicate the problems involved in their most elementary form. The process of knowledge in the sphere of intellect as in that of natural science is one of generalization, i.e. the co-ordination of particular facts under general statements, or in other words, the explanation of one fact by another, and that other by a third, and so on. In this way the particular facts or existences are left behind in the search for higher, more inclusive conceptions; as twigs are traced to one branch, and branches to one trunk, so, it is held, all the plurality of sense-given data is absorbed in a unity which is all-inclusive and self -existent, and has no " beyond." By a metaphor this process has been described as the 666s dvw (as of tracing a river to its source). Other phrases from different points of view have been used to describe the idea, e.g. First Cause, Vital Principle (in connexion with the origin of life), God (as the author and sum of all being), Unity, Truth {i.e. the sum and culmination of all knowledge), Causa Causans, &c. The idea in different senses appears both in ideal- istic and realistic systems of thought. The theories of the Absolute may be summarized briefly as follows. (1) The Absolute does not exist, and is not even in any real sense thinkable. This view is held by the empiricists, who hold that nothing is knowable save phenomena. The Absolute could not be conceived, for all knowledge is susceptible of defini- tion and, therefore, relative. The Absolute includes the idea of necessity, which the mind cannot cognize. (2) The Absolute exists for thought only. In this theory the absolute is the un- known x which the human mind is logically compelled to postu- late a priori as the only coherent explanation and justification of its thought. (3) The Absolute exists but is unthinkable, because it is an aid to thought which comes into operation, as it were, as a final explanation beyond which thought cannot go. . Its existence is shown by the fact that without it all demonstra- tion would be a mere circulus in probando or verbal exercise, because the existence of separate things implies some one thing which includes and explains them. (4) The Absolute both exists and is conceivable. It is argued that we do in fact conceive it in as much as we do conceive Unity, Being, Truth. The concep- tion is so clear that its inexplicability (admitted) is of no account. Further, since the unity of our thought implies the absolute, and since the existence of things is known only to thought, it appears absurd that the absolute itself should be regarded as non-existent. The Absolute is substance in itself, the ultimate "basis and matter of existence. All things are merely manifesta- tions of it, exist in virtue of it, but are not identical with it. (5) Metaphysical idealists pursue this line of argument in a dif- ferent way. For them nothing exists save thought; the only existence that can be predicated of any thing and, therefore, of the Absolute, is that it is thought. Thought creates God, things, the Absolute. (6) Finally, it has been held that we can conceive the Absolute, though our conception is only partial, just as our conception of all things is limited by the imperfect powers of human intellect. Thus the Absolute exists for us only in our thought of it (4 above). But thought itself comes from the Absolute which, being itself the pure thought of thoughts, separates from itself individual minds. It is, therefore, perfectly natural that human thought, being essentially homogeneous with the Absolute, should be able by the consideration of the universe to arrive at some imperfect conception of the source from which all is derived. 76 ABSOLUTION— ABSORPTION OF LIGHT The whole controversy is obscured by inevitable difficulties in terminology. The fundamental problem is whether a thing which is by hypothesis infinite can in any sense be defined, and if it is not defined, whether it can be said to be cognized or thought. It would appear to be almost an axiom that anything which by hypothesis transcends the intellect (i.e. by including subject and object, knowing and known) is ipso facto beyond the limits of the knower. Only an Absolute can cognize an absolute. ABSOLUTION (Lat. absolutio from absolvo, loosen, acquit), a term used in civil and ecclesiastical law, denoting the act of setting free or acquitting. In a criminal process it signifies the acquittal of an accused person on the ground that the evidence has either disproved or failed to prove the charge brought against him. In this sense it is now little used, except in Scottish law in the forms assoilzie and absolvitor. The ecclesiastical use of the word is essentially different from the civil. It refers not to an accusation, but to sin actually committed (after baptism) ; and it denotes the setting of the sinner free from the guilt of the sin, or from its ecclesiastical penalty (excommunication), or from both. The authority of the church or minister to pronounce absolution is based on John xx. 23; Matt, xviii. 18; James v. 16, &c. In primitive times, when confession of sins was made before the congregation, the absolution was deferred till the penance was completed; and there is no record of the use of any special formula. Men were also encouraged, e.g. by Chrysostom, to confess their secret sins secretly to God. In course of time changes grew up. (1) From the 3rd century onwards, secret (auricular) confession before a bishop or priest was practised. For various reasons it became more and more common, until the fourth Lateran council (12 15) ordered all Christians of the Roman obedience to make a confession once a year at least. In the Greek church also private confession has become obligatory. (2) In primitive times the penitent was reconciled by imposition of hands by the bishop with or without the clergy: gradually the office was left to be discharged by priests, and the outward action more and more disused. (3) It became the custom to give the absolution to penitents immediately after their confession and before the penance was performed. (4) Until the Middle Ages the form of absolution after private confession was of the nature of a prayer, such as " May the Lord absolve thee"; and this is still the practice of the Greek church. But about the 13th century the Roman formula was altered, and the council of Trent (1551) declared that the "form" and power of the sacrament of penance lay in the words Ego te absolvo, &c, and that the accompanying prayers are not essential to it. Of the three forms of absolution in the Anglican Prayer Book, that in the Visitation of the Sick (disused in the church of Ireland by decision of the Synods of 1871 and 1877) runs "I absolve thee," tracing the authority so to act through the church up to Christ: the form in the Communion Service is precative, while that in Morning and Evening Prayer is indicative indeed, but so general as not to imply anything like a judicial decree of absolution. In the Lutheran church also the practice of private confession survived the Reformation, together with both the exhibitive (I forgive, &c.) and declaratory (I declare and pronbunce) forms of absolution. In granting absolution, even after general con- fession, it is in some places still the custom for the minister, where the numbers permit of it, to lay his hands on the head of each penitent. (W. O. B.) ABSOLUTISM, in aesthetics, a term applied to the theory that beauty is an objective attribute of things, not merely a subjec- tive feeling of pleasure in him who perceives. It follows that there is an absolute standard of the beautiful by which all ob- jects can be judged. The fact that, in practice, the judgments even of connoisseurs are perpetually at variance, and that the so-called criteria of one place or period are more or less opposed to those of all others, is explained away by the hypothesis that individuals are differently gifted in respect of the capacity to appreciate. (See Aesthetics.) In political philosophy absolutism, as opposed to constitu- tional government, is the despotic rule of a sovereign unrestrained by laws and based directly upon force. In the strict sense such governments are rare, but it is customary to apply the term to a state at a relatively backward stage of constitutional develop- ment. ABSORPTION OF LIGHT. The term "absorption" (from Lat. absorbere) means literally " sucking up " or " swallowing," and thus a total incorporation in something, literally or figura- tively ; it is technically used in animal physiology for the function of certain vessels which suck up fluids; and in light and optics absorption spectrum and absorption band are terms used in the discussion of the transformation of rays in various media. If a luminous body is surrounded by empty space, the light which it emits suffers no loss of energy as it travels outwards. The intensity of the light diminishes merely because the total energy, though unaltered, is distributed over a wider and wider surface as the rays diverge from the source. To prove this, it will be sufficient to mention that an exceedingly small deficiency in the transparency of the free aether would be sufficient to pre- vent the light of the fixed stars from reaching the earth, since their distances are so immense. But when light is transmitted through a material medium, it always suffers some loss, the light energy being absorbed by the medium, that is, converted partially or wholly into other forms of energy such as heat, a portion of which transformed energy may be re-emitted as radiant energy of a lower frequency. Even the most transparent bodies known absorb an appreciable portion of the light trans- mitted through them. Thus the atmosphere absorbs a part of the sun's rays, and the greater the distance which the rays have to traverse the greater is the proportion which is absorbed, so that on this account the sun appears less bright towards sunset. On the other hand, light can penetrate some distance into all substances, even the most opaque, the absorption being, however, extremely rapid in the latter case. The nature of the surface of a body has considerable influence on its power of absorbing light. Platinum black, for instance, in which the metal is in a state of fine division, absorbs nearly all the light incident on it, while polished platinum reflects the greater part. In the former case the light penetrating between the particles is unable to escape by reflexion, and is finally absorbed. The question of absorption may be considered from either of two points of view. We may treat it as a superficial effect, especially in the case of bodies which are opaque enough or thick enough to prevent all transmission of light, and we may investi- gate how much is reflected at the surface and how much is ab- sorbed; or, on the other hand, we may confine our attention to the light which enters the body and inquire into the relation between the decay of intensity and the depth of penetration. We shall take these two cases separately. Absorptive Power.— When none of the radiations which fall on a body penetrates through its substance, then the ratio of the amount of radiation of a given wave-length which is absorbed to the total amount received is called the " absorptive power " of the body for that wave-length. Thus if the body absorbed half the incident radiation its absorptive power would be §, and if it absorbed all the incident radiation its absorptive power would be 1. A body which absorbs all radiations of all wave- lengths would be called a "perfectly black body." No such body actually exists, but such substances as lamp-black and platinum-black approximately fulfil the condition. The frac- tion of the incident radiation which is not absorbed by a body gives a measure of its reflecting power, with which we are not here concerned. Most bodies exhibit a selective action on light, that is to say, they readily absorb light of particular wave-lengths, light of other wave-lengths not being largely absorbed. All bodies when heated emit the same kind of radiations which they absorb — an important principle known as the principle of the equality of radiating and absorbing powers. Thus black sub- stances such as charcoal are very luminous when heated. A tile of white porcelain with a black pattern on it will, 1/ heated red-hot, show the pattern bright on a darker ground. On the other hand, those substances which either are good reflectors or ABSTEMII— ABSTRACTION 77 good transmitters, are not so luminous at the same temperature; for instance, melted silver, which reflects well, is not so luminous as carbon at the same temperature, and common salt, which is very transparent for most kinds of radiation, when poured in a fused condition out of a bright red-hot crucible, looks almost like water, showing only a faint red glow for a moment or two. But all such bodies appear to lose their distinctive properties when heated in a vessel which nearly encloses them, for in that case those radiations which they do not emit are either trans- mitted through them from the walls of the vessel behind, or else reflected from their surface. This fact may be expressed by saying that the radiation within a heated enclosure is the same as that of a perfectly black body. Coefficient of Absorption, and Law of Absorption. — The law which governs the rate of decay of light intensity in passing through any medium may be readily obtained. If Io represents the intensity of the light which enters the surface, Ii the intensity after passing through i centimetre, I 2 the intensity after passing through 2 centimetres, and so on; then we should expect that whatever fraction of Io is absorbed in the first centimetre, the same fraction of Ii will be absorbed in the second. That is, if an amount /To is absorbed in the first centimetre, jli is absorbed in the second, and so on. We have then ii = iod-i) l 2 = iiCi-j") = io(i-i) 2 I s = I 2 (l-7) = I (l_j)3 and so on, so that if I is the intensity after passing through a thickness / in centimetres I = Io(l-j)' (I). We might call j, which is the proportion absorbed in one centimetre, the " coefficient of absorption " of the medium. It would, however, not then apply to the case of a body for which the whole light is absorbed in less than one centimetre. It is better then to define the coefficient of absorption as a quantity k such that kin of the light is absorbed in i/»th part of a centi- metre, where n may be taken to be a very large number. The formula (i) then becomes I = I e-* ( (2) where e is the base of Napierian logarithms, and k is a constant which is practically the same as j for bodies which do ndt absorb very rapidly. There is another coefficient of absorption (k) which occurs in Helmholtz's theory of dispersion (see Dispersion). It is closely related to the coefficient k which we have just defined, the equation connecting the two being k — ^KKJ\,\ being the wave- length of the incident light. The law of absorption expressed by the formula (2) has been verified by experiments for various solids, liquids and gases. The method consists in comparing the intensity after trans- mission through a layer of known thickness of the absorbent with the intensity of light from the same source which has not passed through the medium, k being thus obtained for various thicknesses and found to be constant. In the case of solutions, if the absorption of the solvent is negligible, the effect of in- creasing the concentration of the absorbing solute is the same as that of increasing the thickness in the same ratio. In a similar way the absorption of light in the coloured gas chlorine is found to be unaltered if the thickness is reduced by compres- sion, because the density is increased in the same ratio that the thickness is reduced. This is not strictly the case, however, for such gases and vapours as exhibit well-defined bands of absorption in the spectrum, as these bands are altered in char- acter by compression. If white light is allowed to fall on some coloured solutions, the transmitted light is of one colour when the thickness of the solution is small, and of quite another colour if the thickness is great. This curious phenomenon is known as dichromatism (from 5i-, two, and xp&H"-, colour). Thus, when a strong light is viewed through a solution of chlorophyll, the light seen is a brilliant green if the thickness is small, but a deep blood-red for thicker layers. This effect can be explained as follows. The solution is moderately transparent for a large number of rays in the neighbourhood of the green part of the spectrum; it is, on the whole, much more opaque for red rays, but is readily penetrated by certain red rays belonging to a narrow region of the spectrum. The small amount of red transmitted is at first quite overpowered by the green, but having a smaller coefficient of absorption, it becomes finally predominant. The effect is complicated, in the case of chlorophyll and many other bodies, by selective reflexion and fluorescence. For the molecular theory of absorption, see Spectroscopy. References. — A. Schuster's Theory of Optics (1904); P. K. L. Drude's Theory of Optics (Eng. trans., 1902); F. H. Wiillner's Lehrbuch der Experimentalphysik, Bd. iv. (1899). (J. R. C.) ABSTEMII (a Latin word, from abs, away from, temetum, in- toxicating liquor, from which is derived the English " abste- mious " or temperate), a name formerly given to such persons as could not partake of the cup of the Eucharist on account of their natural aversion to wine. Calvinists allowed these to com- municate in the species of bread only, touching the cup with their lip; a course which was deemed a profanation by the Lutherans. Among several Protestant sects, both in Great Britain and America, abstemii on a somewhat different principle have appeared in modern times. These are total abstainers, who maintain that the use of stimulants is essentially sinful, and allege that the wine used by Christ and his disciples at the supper was unfermented. They accordingly communicate in the unfermented " juice of the grape." ABSTINENCE (from Lat. abstinere, to abstain), the fact or habit of refraining from anything, but usually from the indul- gence of the appetite and especially from strong drink. " Total abstinence " and " total abstainer " are associated with taking the pledge to abstain from alcoholic liquor (see Temperance). In the discipline of the Christian Church abstinence is the term for a less severe form of Fasting (g.v.). ABSTRACTION (Lat. abs and trahere), the process or result of drawing away; that which is drawn away, separated or derived. Thus the noun is used for a summary, compendium or epitome of a larger work, the gist of which is given in a concentrated form. Similarly an absent-minded man is said to be " abstracted," as paying no attention to the matter in hand. In philosophy the word has several closely related technical senses. (1) In formal logic it is applied to those terms which denote qualities, attributes, circumstances, as opposed to concrete terms, the names of things; thus " friend " is concrete, " friendship " abstract. The term which expresses the connotation of a word is therefore an abstract term, though it is probably not itself connotative; adjectives are concrete, not abstract, e.g. " equal " is concrete, " equality " abstract (cf. Aristotle's aphaeresis and prosthesis). (2) The process of abstraction takes an important place both in psychological and metaphysical speculation. The psychologist finds among the earliest of his problems the question as to the process from the perception of things seen and heard to mental conceptions, which are ultimately distinct from immediate perception (see Psychology). When the mind, beginning with isolated individuals, groups them together in virtue of perceived resemblances and arrives at a unity in plurality, the process by which attention is diverted from individuals and concentrated on a single inclusive concept {i.e. classification) is one of ab- straction. All orderly thought and all increase of knowledge depend partly on establishing a clear and accurate connexion between particular things and general ideas, rules and principles. The nature of the resultant concepts belongs to the great contro- versy between Nominalism, Realism and Conceptualism. Meta- physics, again, is concerned with the ultimate problems of matter and spirit; it endeavours to go behind the phenomena of sense and focus its attention on the fundamental truths which are the only logical bases of natural science. This, again, is a process of abstraction, the attainment of abstract ideas which, apart from the concrete individuals, are conceived as having a substantive existence. The final step in the .process is the conception of the Absolute (q.v.), which is abstract in the most complete sense. Abstraction differs from Analysis, inasmuch as its object is to select a particular quality for consideration in itself as it is 78 ABSTRACT OF TITLE---ABU HANIFA found in all the objects to which it belongs, whereas analysis considers all the qualities which belong to a single object. ABSTRACT OF TITLE, in English law, an epitome of the various instruments and events under and in consequence of which the vendor of an estate derives his title thereto. Such an abstract is, upon the sale or mortgage of an estate, prepared by some competent person for the purchaser or mortgagee, and verified by his solicitor by a comparison with the original deeds. (See Conveyancing.) ABT, FRANZ (1810-1885), German composer, was born on the 22nd of December 18 19 at Eilenburg, Saxony, and died at Wiesbaden on the 31st of March 1885. The best of his popular songs have become part of the recognized art-folk-music of Ger- many; his vocal works, solos, part-songs, &c, enjoyed an extra- ordinary vogue all over Europe in the middle of the 19th century, but in spite of their facile tunefulness have few qualities of last- ing beauty. Abt was kapellmeister at Bernburg in 1841, at Zurich in the same year and at Brunswick from 1852 to 1882, when he retired to Wiesbaden. ABU, a mountain of Central India, situated in 24 36' N. lat. and 72 43' E. long., within the Rajputana state of Sirohi. It is an isolated spur of the Aravalli range, being completely detached from that chain by a narrow valley 7 miles across, in which flows the western Banas. It rises from the surrounding plains of Marwar likeva precipitous granite island, its various peaks ranging from 4000 to 5653 feet. The elevations and platforms of the mountain are covered with elaborately sculptured shrines, temples and tombs. On the top of the hill is a small round plat- form containing a cavern, with a block of granite, bearing the impression of the feet of Data-Bhrigu, an incarnation of Vishnu. This is the chief place of pilgrimage for the Jains, Shrawaks and Banians. The two principal temples are situated at Deulwara, about the middle of the mountain, and five miles south-west of Guru Sikra, the highest summit. They are built of white marble, and are pre-eminent alike for their beauty and as typical speci- mens of Jain architecture in India. The more modern of the two was built by two brothers, rich" merchants, between the years 1 197 and 1247, and for delicacy of carving and minute beauty of detail stands almost unrivalled, even in this land of patient and lavish labour. The other was built by another merchant prince, Vimala Shah, apparently about a.d. 1032, and, although simpler and bolder in style, is as elaborate as good taste would allow in a purely architectural object. It is one of the oldest as well as one of the most complete examples of Jain architecture known. The principal object within the temple is a cell lighted only from the door, containing a cross-legged seated figure of the god Parswanath. The portico is composed of forty-eight pillars, the whole enclosed in an oblong courtyard about 140 feet by 90 feet, . surrounded by a double colonnade of smaller pillars, forming porticos to a range of fifty-five cells, which enclose it on all sides, exactly as they do in a Buddhist monastery (vihdra). In this temple, however, each cell, instead of being the residence of a monk, is dccupied by an image of Parswanath, and over the door, or on the jambs of each, are sculptured scenes from the life of the deity. The whole interior is magnificently ornamented. Abu is now the summer residence of the governor-general's agent for Rajputana, and a place of resort for Europeans in the hot weather. It is 16 miles from the Abu road station of the Rajputana railway. The annual mean temperature is about 70 , rising to 90 in April; but the heat is never oppressive. The annual rainfall is about 68 inches. The hills are laid out with driving-roads and bridle-paths, and there is a beautiful little lake. The chief buildings are a church, club, hospital and a Lawrence asylum school for the children of British soldiers. ABU-BEKR (573-634), the name (" Father of the virgin") of the first of the Mahommedan caliphs (see Caliph). He was originally called Abd-el-Ka'ba (" servant of the temple "), and received the name by which he is known historically in con- sequence of the marriage of his virgin daughter Ayesha to Mahomet. He was born at Mecca in the year a.d. 573, a Koreishite of the tribe of Beni-Taim. Possessed of immense wealth, which he had himself acquired in commerce, and held in high esteem as a judge, an interpreter of dreams and a depositary of the traditions of his race, his early accession to Islamism was a fact of great importance. On his conversion he assumed the name of Abd-Alla (servant of God). His own belief in Mahomet and his doctrines was so thorough as to procure for him the title El Siddik (the faithful), and his success in gaining converts was correspondingly great. In his personal . relationship to the prophet he showed the deepest veneration and most unswerving devotion. When Mahomet fled from Mecca, Abu-Bekr was his sole companion, and shared both his hardships and his triumphs, remaining constantly with him until the day of his death. During his last illness the prophet indicated Abu-Bekr as his successor by desiring him to offer up prayer for the people. The choice was ratified by the chiefs of the army, and ultimately confirmed, though AH, Mahomet's son- in-law, disputed it, asserting his own title to the dignity. After a time Ali submitted, but the difference of opinion as to his claims gave rise to the controversy which still divides the followers of the prophet into the rival factions of Sunnites and Shiites. Abu-Bekr had scarcely assumed his new position (632), under the title Calif et-Resul- Allah (successor of the prophet of God) , when he was called to suppress the revolt of the tribes Hejaz and Nejd, of which the former rejected Islamism and the latter refused- to pay tribute. He encountered formidable opposition from different quarters, but in every case he was successful, the severest struggle being that with the impostor Mosailima, who was finally defeated by Khalid at the battle of Akraba. Abu-Bekr's zeal for the spread of the new faith was as conspicuous as that of its founder had been. When the internal disorders had been repressed and Arabia completely subdued, he directed his generals to foreign conquest. The Irak of Persia was overcome by Khalid in a single campaign, and there was also a successful expedition into Syria. After the hard-won victory over Mosailima, Omar, fearing that the sayings of the prophet would be entirely forgotten when those who had listened to them had all been removed by death, induced Abu-Bekr to see to their preservation in a written form. The record, when completed, was deposited with Hafsa, daughter of Omar, and one of the wives of Mahomet. It was held in great reverence by all Moslems, though it did not possess canonical authority, and furnished most of the materials out of which the Koran, as it now exists, was prepared. When the authoritative version was completed all copies of Hafsa's record were destroyed, in order to prevent possible disputes and divi- sions. Abu-Bekr died on the 23rd of August 634. Shortly, before his death, which one tradition ascribes to poison, another to natural causes, he indicated Omar as his successor, after the manner Mahomet had observed in his own case. ABU HAMED, a town of the Anglo- Egyptian Sudan on the 1 right bank of the Nile, 345 m. by rail N. of Khartum. It stands, at the centre of the great S-shaped bend of the Nile, and from it the railway to Wadi Haifa strikes straight across the Nubian desert, a little west of the old caravan route to Korosko. A - branch railway, 138 m. long, from Abu Hamed goes down the right bank of the Nile to Kareima in the Dongola mudiria. The town is named after a celebrated sheikh buried here, by whose tomb travellers crossing the desert used formerly to deposit all superfluous goods, the sanctity of the saint's tomb ensuring their safety. ABU IIANIFA AN-NU'MAN IBN THABIT, Mahommedan canon lawyer, was born at Kufa in a.h. 80 (a.d. 699) of non- ; Arab and probably Persian parentage. Few events of his life are known to us with any certainty. He was a silk-dealer and a man of considerable means, so that he was able to give his time to legal studies. He lectured at Kufa upon canon law (fiqh) and was a consulting lawyer (mufti), but refused steadily to take any public post. When al-Mansur, however, was build- ing Bagdad (145-149) Abu Hanifa was one of the four over- seers whom he appointed over the craftsmen (G. Le Strange, Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate, p. 17). In a.h. 150 (a.d. 767) he died there under circumstances which are very differently reported. A persistent but apparently later tradition • ABU KLEA-^ABUL FAZL 79 asserts that he died in prison after severe beating, because he refused to obey al-Mansur's command to act as a judge (cadi, qddi). This was to avoid a responsibility for which he felt unfit — a frequent attitude of more pious Moslems. Others say that al-Mahdi, son of al-Mansur, actually constrained him to be a judge and that he died a few days after. It seems certain that he did suffer imprisonment and beating for this reason, at the hands of an earlier governor of Kufa under the Omayyads (Ibn Qutaiba, Ma'drif, p. 248). Also that al-Mansur desired to make him judge, but compromised upon his inspectorship of buildings (so in Tabarl). A late story is that the judgeship was only a pretext with al-Mansur, who considered him a partisan of the 'Alids and a helper with his wealth of Ibrahim ibn 'Abd Allah in his insurrection at Kufa in 145 (Weil, Geschichte, ii. 53 ff.). For many personal anecdotes see de Slane's transl. of Ibn Khallikan iii. 555 ff., iv. 272 ff. For his place as a speculative jurist in the history of canon law, see Mahommedan Law. He was buried in eastern Bagdad, where his tomb still exists, one of the few surviving sites from the time of al-Man§ur, the founder. (Le Strange 191 ff.) See C. Brockelmann, Geschichte, i. 169 ff. ; Nawawi's Biogr. Diet. pp. 698-770; Ibn Hajar al-Haitami's Biography, publ. Cairo, A.H. 1304 ; legal bibliography under Mahommedan Law. (D. B. Ma.) ABU KLEA, a halting-place for caravans in the Bayuda Desert, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It is on the road from Merawi to Metemma and 20 m. N. of the Nile at the last-mentioned place. Near this spot, on the 17th of January 1885, a British force marching to the relief of General Gordon at Khartum was attacked by the Mahdists, who were repulsed. On the 19th, when the British force was nearer Metemma, the Mahdists re- newed the attack, again unsuccessfully. Sir Herbert Stewart, the commander of the British force, was mortally wounded on the 19th, and among the killed on the 17th was Col. F. G. Burnaby (see Egypt, Military Operations). ABU-L-'ALA UL-MA'ARRI [Abu-l-'Ala Ahmad ibn 'Abdallah ibn Sulaiman] (973-1057), Arabian poet and letter-writer, be- longed to the South Arabian tribe Tanukh, a part of which had migrated to Syria before the time of Islam. He was born in 973 at Ma'arrat un-Nu'man, a Syrian town nineteen hours' journey south of Aleppo, to the governor of which it was subject at that time. He lost his father while he was still an infant, and at the age of four lost his eyesight owing to smallpox. This, however, did not prevent him from attending the lectures of the best teachers at Aleppo, Antioch and Tripoli. These teachers were men of the first rank, who had been attracted to the court of Saif-ud-Daula, and their teaching was well stored in the re- markable memory of the pupil. At the age of twenty-one Abu-l-'Ala returned to Ma'arra, where he received a pension of thirty dinars yearly. In 1007 he visited Bagdad, where he was admitted to the literary circles, recited in the salons, academies and mosques, and made the acquaintance of men to whom he addressed some of his letters later. In 1009 he returned to Ma'arra, where he spent the rest of his life in teaching and writing. During this period of scholarly quiet he developed his characteristic advanced views on vegetarianism, cremation of the dead and the desire for extinction after death. Of his works the chief are two collections of his poetry and two of his letters. The earlier poems up to 1029 are of the kind usual at the time. Under the title of Saqt uz-Zand they have been published in Bulaq (1869), Beirut (1884) and Cairo (1886). The poems of the second collection, known as the LuzUm ma lam yalzam, or the Luzumiyyat, are written with the difficult rhyme in two consonants instead of one, and contain the more original, mature and somewhat pessimistic thoughts of the author on mutability, virtue, death, &c. They have been published in Bombay (1886) and Cairo (1889). The letters on various literary and social subjects were published with commentary by Shain Effendi in Beirut (1894), and with English translation, &c, by Prof. D. S. Margoliouth in Oxford (1898). A second collection of letters, known as the Risdlat ul-Ghufrdn, was summarized and partially translated by R. A. Nicholson in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1900, pp. 637 ff.; 1902, pp. 75 ff., 337 ff,, 813 ff.). . Bibliography. — C. Rieu, De Abu-l-'Alae Poetae Arabici vita et carminibus (Bonn, 1843); A. von Kremer, Uber die philosophischen Gedichte des Abu-l-'Ala (Vienna, 1888); cf. also the same writer's articles in the Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenldndischen Gesellschaft (vols, xxix., xxx., xxxi. and xxxviii.). For his life see the intro- duction to D. S. Margoliouth's edition of the letters, supplemented by the same writer's articles "Abu-l-'Ala al-Ma'arri's Correspond- ence on Vegetarianism " in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1902, pp. 289 ff.). (G. W. T.) ABU-L-'ATAHIYA [Abu Ishaq Isma'il ibn Qasim al-'Anazi] (748-828), Arabian poet, was born at 'Ain ut-Tamar in the Hijaz near Medina. His ancestors were of the tribe of 'Anaza. His youth was spent in Kufa, where he was engaged for some time in selling pottery. Removing to Bagdad, he continued his business there, but became famous for his verses, especially for those addressed to 'Utba, a slave of the caliph al-Mahdi. His affection was unrequited, although al-Mahdi, and after him Harun al-Rashld, interceded for him. Having offended the caliph, he was in prison for a short time. The latter part of his life was more ascetic. He died in 828 in the reign of al-Ma'mun. The poetry of Abu-l-'Atahiya is notable for its avoidance of the artificiality almost universal in his days. The older poetry of the desert had been constantly imitated up to this time, al- though it was not natural to town life. Abu-l-'Atahiya was one of the first to drop the old qasida (elegy) form. He was very fluent and used many metres. He is also regarded as one of the earliest philosophic poets of the Arabs. Much of his poetry is concerned with the observation of common life and morality, and at times is pessimistic. Naturally, under the circumstances, he was strongly suspected of heresy. His poems (Diwan) with life from Arabian sources have been published at the Jesuit Press in Beirut (1887, 2nd ed. 1888). On his position in Arabic literature see W. Ahlwardt, Diwan des Abu Nowas (Greifswald, 1861), pp,. 21 ff. ; A. von Kremer, Cultur geschichte des Orients (Wien, 1877), vol. ii. pp. 372 ff. (G. W. T.) •ABULFARAJ [Abu-1-Faraj 'All ibn ul-Husain ul-Isbahani] (897-967), Arabian scholar, was a member of the tribe of the Quraish (Koreish) and a direct descendant of Marwan, the last of the Omayyad caliphs. He was thus connected with the Omayyad rulers in Spain, and seems to have kept up a corre- spondence with them and to have sent them some of his works. He was born in Ispahan, but spent his youth and made his early studies in Bagdad. He became famous for his knowledge of early Arabian antiquities. His later life was spent in various parts of the Moslem world, in Aleppo with Saif-ud-Daula (to whom he dedicated the Book of Songs), in Rai with the Buyid vizier Ibn 'Abbad and elsewhere. In his last years he lost his reason. In religion he was a Shiite. Although he wrote poetry, also an anthology of verses on the monasteries of Mesopotamia and Egypt, and a genealogical work, his fame rests upon his Book of Songs (Kitdb ul-Aghdni), which gives an account of the chief Arabian songs, ancient and modern, with the stories of the composers and singers. It contains a mass of information as to the life and customs of the early Arabs, and is the most valuable authority we have for their pre-Islamic and early Moslem days. A part of it was published by J. G. L. Kosegarten with Latin translation (Greifswald, 1840). The text was published in 20 vols, at Bulaq in 1868. Vol. xxi. was edited by R. E. Briinhow (Leyden, 1888). A volume of elaborate indices was edited by I, Guidi (Leyden, 1900), and a missing fragment of the text was published by J. Wellhausen in the Zeitschrift der deutschen morgen- ldndischen Gesellschaft, vol. 50, pp. 146 ff. For his life see M'G. de Slane's translation of Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, vol. ii. pp. 249 ff. (G. W. T.) ABUL FAZL, wazir and historiographer of the great Mogul emperor, Akbar, was born in the year a.d. 1551. His career as a minister of state, brilliant though it was, would probably have been by this time forgotten but for the record he himself has left of it in his celebrated history. The Akbar Nameh, or Book of Akbar, as Abul Fazl's chief literary work, written in Persian, is called, consists of two parts — the first being a com- plete history of Akbar's reign and the second, entitled Ain-i- Akbari, or Institutes of Akbar, being an account of the religious and political constitution and administration of the empire. The style is singularly elegant, and the contents of the second 8o ABULFEDA— ABU SIMBBL part possess a unique and lasting interest. An excellent trans- lation of the Ain by Francis Gladwin was published in Calcutta, 1 783-1 786. It was reprinted in London very inaccurately, and copies of the original edition are now exceedingly rare and correspondingly valuable. It was also translated by Professor Blockmann in 1848. Abul Fazl died by the hand of an assassin, while returning from a mission to the Deccan in 1602. The murderer was instigated by Prince Selim, afterwards Jahangir, who had become jealous of the minister's influence. ABULFEDA [Abu-1-Fida' Isma'Il ibn 'All 'Imad-ud-Dnl] (1273-1331), Arabian historian and geographer, was born at Damascus, whither his father Malik ul-Afdal, brother of the prince of Hamah, had fled from the Mongols. He was a de- scendant of Ayytib, the father of Saladin. In his boyhood he devoted himself to the study of the Koran and the sciences, but from his twelfth year was almost constantly engaged in military expeditions, chiefly against the crusaders. In 1285 he was present at the assault of a stronghold of the knights of St John, and he took part in the sieges of Tripoli, Acre and Qal'at ar-Rum. In 1298 he entered the service of the Mameluke Sultan Malik al-NS.sir and. after twelve years was invested by him with the governorship of Hamah. In 13 12 he .became prince with the title Malik us-Salih, and in 1320 received the hereditary rank of sultan with the title Malik ul-Mu'ayyad. For more than twenty years altogether he reigned in tran- quillity and splendour, devoting himself to the duties of govern- ment and to the composition of the works to which he is chiefly indebted for his fame. He was a munificent patron of men of letters, who came in large numbers to his court. He died in 133 1. His chief historical work in An Abridgment of the History of the Human Race, in the form of annals extending from the creation of the world to the year 1329 (Constantinople, 2 vols. 1869). Various translations of parts of it exist, the earliest being a Latin rendering of the section relating to the Arabian conquests in Sicily, by Dobelius, Arabic professor at Palermo, in 1610 (preserved in Muratori's Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, vol. i.). The section dealing with the pre-Islamitic period was edited with Latin translation by H. O. Fleischer under the title Abulfedae Historia Ante-Islamica (Leipzig, 183 1). The part dealing with the Mahommedan period was edited, also with Latin translation, by J. J. Reiske as Annates Muslemici (5 vols., Copenhagen, 1789-1794). His Geography is, like much of the his- tory, founded on the works of his predecessors, and so ultimately on the work of Ptolemy. A long introduction on various geo- graphical matters is followed by twenty-eight sections dealing in tabular form with the chief towns of the world. After each name are given the longitude, latitude, " climate," spelling, and then observations generally taken from earlier authors. Parts of the work were published and translated as early as 1650 (cf. Carl Brockelmann's Geschichte der Arabischen Litteratur, Berlin, 1902, vol. ii. pp. 44-46). The text of the whole was pub- lished by M'G. de Slane and M. Reinaud (Paris, 1840), and a French translation with introduction by M. Reinaud and Stanislas Guyard (Paris, 1848-1883). (G. W. T.) ABU-L-QASIM [Khalaf ibn 'Abbas uz-Zahrawi], Arabian physician and surgeon, generally known in Europe as Abul- casis, flourished in the tenth century at Cordova as physi- cian to the caliph 'Abdur-RahmSn III. (912-961). No details of his life are known. A part of his compendium of medicine was published in Latin in the 16th century as Liber theoricae nee non praclicae Alsaharavii (Augsburg, 1519). His manual of surgery was published at Venice in 1497, at Basel in 1541, and at Oxford Abulcasis de Chirurgia arabice et latine cura Johannis Channing (2 vols. 1778). For his other works see Carl Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabi- schen Litteratur (Weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 239-240. (G. W. T.) ABUNDANTIA (" Abundance "), a Roman goddess, the personification of prosperity and good fortune. Modelled after the Greek Demeter, she is practically identical with Copia, Annona and similar goddesses. On the coins of the later Roman emperors she is frequently represented holding a cornucopia, from which she shakes her gifts, thereby at the same time in- dicating the liberality of the emperor or empress. She may be compared with Domina Abundia (Old Fr. Dame Habonde, Notre Dame d'Abondance), whose name often occurs in poems of the Middle Ages, a beneficent fairy, who brought plenty to those whom she visited (Grimm, Teutonic Mythology, tr. 1880, i. 286-287). ABU NUWAS [Abu 'AH Hal-asan ibn Hani'al-Hakaml] (c. 756-810), known as Abu Nuwas, Arabian poet, was born in al- Ahwaz, probably about 756. His mother was a Persian, his father a soldier, a native of Damascus. His studies were made in Basra under Abu Zaid and . Abu "Ubaida (q.v.), and in Kufa under Khalaf al-Ahmar. He is also said to have spent a year with the Arabs in the desert to gain purity of language. Settling in Bagdad he enjoyed the favour of HarOn al-Rashid and al-Amln, and died there probably about 810. The greater part of his life was characterized by great licentiousness and disregard of religion, but in his later days he became ascetic. Abu Nuwas is recognized as the greatest poet of his time. His mastery of language has led to extensive quotation of his verses by Arabian scholars. Genial, cynical, immoral, he drew on all the varied life of his time for the material of his poems. In his wine-songs especially the manners of the upper classes of Bagdad are revealed. He was one of the first to ridicule the set form of the qasida (elegy) as unnatural, and has satirized this form in several poems. See I. Goldziher, Abhandlungen zur Arabischen Philologie (Leyden, 1 896) , i. pp. 145 ff . His poems were collected by several Arabian editors. One such collection (the MS. of which is now in Vienna) contains nearly 5000 verses grouped under the ten headings: wine, hunting, praise, satire, love of youths, love of women, obscenities, blame, elegies, renunciation of the world. His collected poems (Diwan) have been published in Cairo (i860) and in Beirut (1884). The wine-songs were edited by W. Ahlwardt under the title Diwan des Abu Nomas. 1. Die Weinlieder (Greifswald, 1861). (G. W. T.) ABU SIMBEL, or Ipsambul, the name of a group of temples of Rameses II. (c. 1250 B.C.) in Nubia, on the left bank of the Nile, 56 m. by river S. of Korosko. They are hewn in the cliffs at the riverside, at a point .where the sandstone hills on the west reach the Nile and form the southern boundary of a wider portion of the generally barren valley. The temples are three in number. The principal temple, probably the greatest and most imposing of all rock-hewn monuments, was discovered by Burckhardt in 1 8 1 2 and opened by Belzoni in 1 8 1 7 . (The front has been cleared several times, most recently in 1892, but the sand is always pressing forward from the north end.) The hillside was recessed to form the facade, backed against which four immense seated colossi of the king, in pairs on either side of the entrance, rise from a platform or forecourt reached from the river by a flight of steps. The colossi are no less than 65 ft. in height, of nobly placid design, and are accompanied by smaller figures of Rameses' queen and their sons and daughters; behind and over them is the cornice, with the dedication below in a line of huge hiero- glyphs, and a long row of apes, standing in adoration of the rising sun above. The temple is dedicated primarily to the solar gods Amenr£ of Thebes and Raharakht of Heliopolis, the true sun god; it is oriented to the east so that the rays of the sun in the early morning penetrate the whole length of two great halls to the innermost sanctuary and fall upon the central figures of Amenrg and Rameses, which are there enthroned with Ptah of Memphis and Raharakht on either side. The interior of the temple is decorated with coloured sculpture of fine workmanship and in good preservation; the scenes are more than usually interesting; some are of religious import (a*mongst them Ra- meses as king making offerings to himself as god), others illus- trate war in Syria, Libya and Ethiopia: another series depicts the events of the famous battle with the Hittites and their allies at Kadesh, in which Rameses saved the Egyptian camp and army by his personal valour. Historical stelae of the same reign are engraved inside and outside the temple; the most interest- ing is that recording the marriage with a Hittite princess in the 34th year. Not the least important feature of the temple be- longs to a later age, when some Greek, Carian and Phoenician ABU TAMMAM— ABYDOS 81 soldiers of one of the kings named Psammetichus (apparently Psammetichus II., 594-589 B.C.) inscribed their names upon the two southern colossi, doubtless the only ones then clear of sand. These graffiti are of the highest value for the early history of the alphabet, and as proving the presence of Greek mercenaries in the Egyptian armies of the period. The upper part of the second colossus (from the south) has fallen; the third was re- paired by Sethos II. not many years after the completion of the temple. This great temple was wholly rock-cut, and is now threatened by gradual ruin by sliding on the planes of stratifica- tion. A small temple, immediately to the south of the first, is believed to have had a built antechamber: it is the earliest known example of a " birth chapel," such as was usually attached to Ptolemaic temples for the accommodation of the divine mother-consort and her son. The third and northernmost temple, separated from the others by a ravine, is on a large scale; the colossi of the facade are six in number and 33 ft. high, repre- senting Rameses and his queen Nefrere, who dedicated the temple to the goddess Hathor. The whole group forms a singular monu- ment of Rameses' unbounded pride and self-glorification. See Egypt; J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records, -Egypt, vol. iii. pp. 124 et seq., esp. 212; "The Temples of Lower Nubia," in the American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, October 1906. (F. Ll. G.) ABU TAMMAM [Habib ibn Aus] (807-846), Arabian poet, was, like Buhturl, of the tribe of Tai (though some say he was the son of a Christian apothecary named Thaddeus, and that his genea- logy was forged). He was born in Jasim (Josem), a place to the north-east of the Sea of Tiberias or near Manbij (Hierapolis). He seems to have spent his youth in Horns, though, according to one story, he was employed during his boyhood in selling water in a mosque in Cairo. His first appearance as a poet was in Egypt, but as he failed to make a living there he went to Damascus and thence to Mosul. From this place he made a visit to the governor of Armenia, who awarded him richly. After 833 he lived mostly in Bagdad, at the court of the caliph Mo'tasim. From Bagdad he visited Khorassan, where he enjoyed the favour of 'Abdallah ibn T^^ir- About 845 he was in Ma'arrat un- Nu'man, where he met Buhturl. He died in Mosul. Abu Tammam is best known in literature as the compiler of the collec- tion of early poems known as the Hatndsa (q.v.). Two other collections of a similar nature are ascribed to him. His own poems have been somewhat neglected owing to the success of his com- pilations, but they enjoyed great repute in his lifetime, and were distinguished for the purity of their style, the merit of the verse and the excellent manner of treating subjects. His poems (Diwan) were published in Cairo (a.d. 1875). ' See Life in Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, trans, by M'G. de Slane (Paris. and London, 1842), vol. i. pp. 348 ff.; and in the Kitdb ul-Aghani (Book of Songs) of Abulfaraj (Bulaq, 1869), vol. xv. pp. 100-108. (G. W. T.) ABUTILON (from the Arabic aubiilililn, a name given by Avicenna to this or an allied genus), in botany, a genus of plants, natural order Malvaceae (Mallows), containing about eighty species, and widely distributed in the tropics. They are free- growing shrubs with showy bell-shaped flowers, and are favourite greenhouse plants. They may be grown outside in England during the summer months, but a few degrees of frost is fatal to them. They are readily propagated from cuttings taken in the spring or at the end of the summer. A large number of horti- cultural varieties have been developed by hybridization, some of which have a variegated foliage. ABUTMENT, a construction in stone or brickwork designed to receive and resist the lateral pressure of an arch, vault or strut. When built outside a wall it is termed a buttress. ABU UBAIDA [Ma'mar ibn ul-Muthanna] (728-825), Arabian scholar, was born a slave of Jewish Persian parents in Ba§ra, and in his youth was a pupil of Abu'Amr ibn ul-'Ala. In 803 he was called to Bagdad by Harun al-Rashid. He died in Ba?ra. He was one of the most learned and authoritative scholars of his time in all matters pertaining to the Arabic language, anti- quities and stories, and is constantly cited by later authors and compilers. Jahiz held him to be the most learned scholar in all branches of human knowledge, and Ibn Hisham accepted his interpretation even of passages in the Koran. The titles of 105 of his works are mentioned in the Fihrist, and his Book of Days is the basis of parts of the history of Ibn al-Athir and of the Book of Songs (see Abulfaraj) , but nothing of his (except a song) seems to exist now in an independent form. He is often described as a Kharijite. This, however, is true only in so far as he denied the privileged position of the Arab people before God. He was, however, a strong supporter of the Shu'ubite movement, i.e. the movement which protested against the idea of the superi- ority of the Arab race over all others. This is especially seen in his satires on Arabs (which made him so hated that no man followed his bier when he died). He delighted in showing that words, fables, customs, &c, which the Arabs believed to be peculiarly their own, were derived from the Persians. In these matters he was the great rival of Asma'i (q.v.). See Life in Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, trans, by M'G. de Slane (Paris and London, 1842), vol. iii. pp. 388-398; also I. Goldziher's Muhammedanische Studien (Halle, 1888), vol. i. pp. 194-206. (G. W. T.) ABYDOS, an ancient city of Mysia, in Asia Minor, situated at Nagara Point on the Hellespont, which is here scarcely a mile broad. It probably was originally a Thracian town, but was afterwards colonized by Milesians. Here Xerxes crossed the strait on his bridge of boats when he invaded Greece. Abydos is celebrated for the vigorous resistance it made against Philip V. of Macedon (200 B.C.), and is famed in story for the loves of Hero and Leander. The town remained till late Byzantine times the toll station of the Hellespont, its importance being transferred to the Dardanelles {q.v.), after the building of the " Old Castles " by Sultan Mahommed II. (c. 1456). See Choiseul-Gouffier, Voyage dans I'empire ottoman (Paris, 1842). ABYDOS, one of the most ancient cities of Upper Egypt, about 7 m. W. of the Nile in lat. 26° 10' N. The Egyptian name was Abdu, " the hill of the symbol or reliquary," in which the sacred head of Osiris was preserved. Thence the Greeks named it Abydos, like the city on the Hellespont; the modern Arabic name is Arabet el Madfunek. The history of the city begins in the late prehistoric age, it having been founded by the pre-Menite kings (Petrie, Abydos, ii. 64), whose town, temple and tombs have been found there. The kings of the 1st dynasty, and some of the Hnd dynasty, were also buried here, and the temple was renewed and enlarged by them. Great forts were built on the desert behind the town by three kings of the Hnd dynasty. The temple and town continued to be rebuilt at intervals down to the times of the XXXth dynasty, and the cemetery was used continuously. In the Xllth dynasty a gigantic tomb was cut in the rock by Senwosri (or Senusert) III. Seti I. in the XIX th dynasty founded a great new temple to the south of the town in honour of the ancestral kings of the early dynasties; this was finished by Rameses (or Ramessu) II., who also built a lesser temple of his own. Mineptah (Merenptah) added a great Hypogeum of Osiris to the temple of Seti. The latest building was a new temple of Nekhtnebf in the XXXth dynasty. From the Ptolemaic times the place continued to decay and no later works are known (Petrie, Abydos, i. and ii.). The worship here was of the jackal god Upuaut (Ophois, Wepwoi), who " opened the way " to the realm of the dead, in- creasing from the 1st dynasty to the time of the Xllth dynasty and then disappearing after the XVIIIth. Anher appears in the Xlth dynasty; and Khentamenti, the god of the western Hades, rises to importance in the middle kingdom and- then vanishes in the XVIIIth. The worship here of Osiris in his various forms begins in the Xllth dynasty and becomes more important in later times, so that at last the whole place was considered as sacred to him (Abydos, ii. 47). The temples successively built here on one site were nine or ten in number, from the 1st dynasty, 5500 B.C. to the XXVIth dynasty, 500 B.C. The first was an enclosure, about 30 X 50 ft., surrounded by a thin wall of unbaked bricks. Covering one wall of this came the second temple of about 40 ft. square in a wall about 10 ft. thick. An outer temmos (enclosure) wall surrounded the ground. This outer wall was thickened about the Hnd or 82 ABYSS— ABYSSINIA Illrd dynasty. The eld temple entirely vanished in the IVth dynasty, and a smaller building was erected behind it, enclosing a wide hearth of black ashes. Pottery models of offerings arc found in the ashes, and these were probably the substitutes for sacrifices decreed by Cheops (Khufu) in his temple reforms. A great clearance of temple offerings was made now, or earlier, and a chamber full of them has yielded the fine ivory carvings and the glazed figures and tiles which show the splendid work of the 1st dynasty. A vase of Menes with purple inlaid hiero- glyphs in green glaze and the tiles with relief figures are the most important pieces. The noble statuette of Cheops in ivory, found in the stone chamber of the temple, gives the only portrait of this greatest ruler. The temple was rebuilt entirely on a larger scale by Pepi I. in the Vlth dynasty. He placed a great stone gateway to the temenos, an outer temenos wall and gateway, with a colonnade between the gates. His temple was about 40X50 ft. inside, with stone gateways front and back, showing that it was of the processional type. In the Xlth dynasty Menthotp (Mentuhotep) III. added a colonnade and altars. Soon after, Sankhkere entirely rebuilt the temple, laying a stone pavement over the area, about 45 ft. square, besides subsidiary chambers. Soon after Senwosri (Senusert) I. in the Xllth dynasty laid massive foundations of stone over the pavement of his predecessor. A great temenos was laid out enclosing a much larger area, and the temple itself was about three times the earlier size. The XVTIIth dynasty began with a large chapel of Amasis (Ahniosi, Aahmes) I., and then Tethmosis (Thothmes, Tahutmes) III. built'a far larger temple, about 130X200 ft. He made also a processional way past the side of the temple to the cemetery beyond, with a great gateway of granite. Rameses III. added a large building; and Amasis II. in the XXVIth dynasty rebuilt the temple again, and placed in it a large monolith shrine of red granite, finely wrought. The foundations of the successive temples were comprised within about 18 ft. depth of ruins; these needed the closest examination to discriminate the various buildings, and were recorded by over 4000 measurements and 1000 levellings (Petrie, Abydos, ii.). The temple of Seti I. was built on entirely new ground half a mile to the south of the long series of temples just described. This is the building best known as the Great Temple of Abydos, being nearly complete and an impressive sight. A principal object of it was the adoration of the early kings, whose cemetery, to which it forms a great funerary chapel, lies behind it. The long list of the kings of the principal dynasties carved on a wall is known as the " Table of Abydos." There were also seven chapels for the worship of the king and principal gods. At the back were large chambers connected with the Osiris worship (Caulfield, Temple of the Kings); and probably from these led out the great Hypogeum for the celebration of the Osiris mys- teries, built by Mineptah (Murray, Osireion). The temple was originally 550 ft. long, but the forecourts are scarcely recognizable, and the part in good state is about 250 ft. long and 350 ft. wide, including the wing at the side. Excepting the list of kings and a panegyric on Rameses II., the subjects are not historical but mythological. The work is. celebrated for its delicacy and re- finement, but lacks the life and character of that in earlier ages. The sculptures have been mostly published in hand copy, not facsimile, by Mariette in his Abydos, i. The adjacent temple of Rameses II. was much smaller and simpler in plan; but it had a fine historical series of scenes around the outside, of which the lower parts remain. A list of kings, similar to that of Seti, formerly stood here; but the fragments were removed by the French consul and sold to the British Museum. The Royal Tombs of the earliest dynasties were placed about a mile back on the great desert plain. The earliest is about 10X20 ft. inside, a pit lined with brick walls, and originally roofed with timber and matting. Others also before Menes are 15X25 ft. The tomb probably of Menes is of the latter size. After this the tombs increase in size and complexity. The tomb-pit is surrounded by chambers to hold the offerings, the actual sepulchre being a great wooden chamber in the midst of the brick-lined pit. Rows of small tomb-pits for the servants of the king surround the royal chamber, many dozens of such burials being usual. By the end of the Ilnd dynasty the type changed to a long passage bordered with chambers on either hand, the royal burial being in the middle of the length. The greatest of these tombs with its dependencies covered a space of over 3000 square yards. The contents of the tombs have been nearly destroyed by successive plunderers; enough re- mained to show that rich jewellery was placed on the mummies, a profusion of vases of hard and valuable stones from the royal table service stood about the body, the store-rooms were filled with great jars of wine, perfumed ointment and other supplies, and tablets of ivory and of ebony were engraved with a record of the yearly annals of the reigns. The sealings of the various officials, of which over 200 varieties have been found, give an insight into the public arrangements (Petrie, Royal Tombs, i. and ii.). The cemetery of private persons begins in the 1st dynasty with some pit tombs in the town. It was extensive in the Xllth and XIHth dynasties and contained many rich tombs. In the XVIIIth-XXth dynasties a large number of fine tombs were made, and later ages continued to bury here till Roman times. Many hundred funeral steles were removed by Mariette's work- men, without any record of the burials (Mariette, Abydos, ii. and iii.). Later excavations have been recorded by Ayrton, Abydos, iii.; Maclver, El Amrah and Abydos; and Garstang, El Arabah. The forts lay behind the town. That known as Shunet oz Zebib is about 450X250 ft. over all, and still stands 30 ft. high. It was built by Khasekhemui, the last king of the Ilnd dynasty. Another fort nearly as large adjoined it, and is probably rather older. A third fort of a squarer form is now occupied by the Coptic convent; its age cannot be ascertained (Ayrton, Abydos, iii.). (W. M.F. P.) ABYSS (Gr. d-, privative, /Sucrcroj, bottom), a bottomless depth ; hence any deep place. From the late popular abyssimus (superlative of Low Latin abyssus) through the French abisme (i.e. abtme) is derived the poetic form abysm, pronounced as late as 1616 to rhyme with time. The adjective " abyssal " or " abysmal " has been used by zoologists to describe deep regions of the sea; hence abysmal zone, abysmal flora and fauna, abys- mal accumulations, the deposit on the abysmal bed of the ocean. In heraldry, the abyss is the middle of an escutcheon. In the Greek version of the Old Testament the word represents (1) the original chaos (Gen. i. 2), (2) the Hebrew tekom (" a surging water-deep "), which is used also in apocalyptic and kabba- listic literature and in the New Testament for hell, the place of punishment (cf. Eurip. Phoen. for the " yawning chasm ' of Tartarus ") ; in the Revised (not the Authorized) version abyss is generally used for this idea. Primarily in the Septuagint cosmography the word is applied (a) to the Waters under the earth which originally covered it, and from which the springs and rivers are supplied, (b) to the waters of the firmament which were regarded as closely connected with those below. Deriva- tively, from the general idea of depth, it acquired the meaning of the place of the dead, though apparently never quite the same as Sheol. In Revelation it is the prison of evil spirits whence" they may occasionally be let loose, and where' Satan is doomed to spend idoo years. Beneath the altar in the temple of Jeru- salem there was believed to be a passage which led down to the abyss of the world, where the foundation-stone of the earth was laid. In rabbinical cosmography the abyss is a region of Gehenna situated below the ocean bed and divided into three or seven parts imposed one above the other. In the Kabbalah the abyss as the opening into the lower world is the abode of evil spirits, and corresponds to the opening of the abyss to the world above. In general the abyss is regarded vaguely as a place' of indefinite extent, the abode of mystery and sorrow. See G. Schiaparelli, Astronomy in the Old Testament (Eng. trans., Oxford, 1905). ABYSSINIA (officially Ethiopia), an inland country and empire of N.E. Africa lying, chiefly, between 5 and 15 N. arid 35 and 42 E. It is bounded N. by Eritrea (Italian). W. ABYSSINIA 83 ABYSSINIA English Miles 50 100 150 200 250 If J <«! PROTECTORATE mm u dol? Emery Walker sc. by the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, S. by British East Africa, S.E. and E. by the British, Italian and French possessions in Somali- land and on the Red Sea. The coast lands held by European powers, which cut off Abyssinia from access to the sea, vary in width from 40 to 250 miles. The country approaches nearest to the ocean on its N.E. border, where the frontier is drawn about 40 m. from the coast of the Red Sea. Abyssinia is narrowest in the north, being here 230 m. across from east to west. It broadens out southward to a width of 900 m. along the line of 9 N., and resembles in shape a triangle with its apex to the north. It is divided into Abyssinia proper (i.e. Tigre, Amhara, Gojam, &c), Shoa, Kaffa and Galla land — all these form a geographical unit— and central Somaliland with Harrar. To the S.W. Abys- sinia also includes part of the low country of the Sobat tributary of the Nile. The area of the whole state is about 350,000 sq. m., of which Abyssinian Somaliland covers fully a third. (1) Physical Features.—. Between the valley of the. Upper Nile and the low lands which skirt the south-western shores of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden is a region of elevated plateaus from which rise various mountain ranges. These tablelands and mountains constitute Abyssinia, Shoa, Kaffa and Galla land. On nearly every side the walls of the plateaus rise with considerable abruptness from the plains, constituting outer mountain chains. The Abyssinian highlands are thus a clearly marked orographic division. From Ras Kasar. (18°. N.), to Annesley Bay (15 N.) the eastern wall of the plateau runs parallel to the Red Sea. It then turns due S. and follows closely the line of 40° E. for some 400 m. About 9° N. there is a break in the wall) through which the river Hawash flows eastward. The main range at this point trends S.W,-, while south of the Hawash valley, which is some 3000 ft. below the level of the mountains, another massif rises in a direct line ; . south. This 8 4 ABYSSINIA second range sends a chain (the Harrar hills) eastward to the Gulf of Aden. The two chief eastern ranges maintain a parallel course S. by W., with a broad upland valley between — in which valley are a series of lakes — to about 3° N., the outer (eastern) spurs of the plateau still keeping along the line of 40° E. The southern escarpment of the plateau is highly irregular, but has a general direction N.W. and S.E. from 6° N. to 3° N. It overlooks the depression in which is Lake Rudolf and — east of that lake — southern Somaliland. The western wall of the plateau from 6° N. to n° N. is well marked and precipitous. North of n° N. the hills turn more to the east and fall more gradually to the plains at their base. On its northern face also the plateau falls in terraces to the level of the eastern Sudan*. The eastern escarp- ment is the best defined of these outer ranges. It has a mean height of from 7000 to 8000 ft., and in many places rises almost perpendicularly from the plain. Narrow and deep clefts, through which descend mountain torrents to lose themselves in the sandy soil of the coast land, afford means of reaching the plateau, or the easier route through the Hawash valley may be chosen. On surmounting this rocky barrier the traveller finds that the encircling rampart rises little above the normal level of the plateau. (2) The aspect of the highlands is most impressive. The northern portion, lying mainly between io° and 15° N., consists of a huge mass of Archaean rocks with a mean height of from 7000 to 7 500 ft. above the sea, and is flooded in a deep central depression by the waters of Lake Tsana. Above the plateau rise several irregular and generally ill-defined mountain ranges which attain altitudes of from 12,000 to over 15,000 ft. Many of the mountains are of weird and fantastic shape. Character- istic of the country are the enormous fissures which divide it, formed in the course of ages by the erosive action of water. They are in fact the valleys of the rivers which, rising on the uplands or mountain sides, have cut their way to the surrounding low- lands. Some of the valleys are of considerable width; in other cases the opposite walls of the gorges are but two or three hundred yards apart, and fall almost vertically thousands of feet, representing an erosion of hard rock of many millions of cubic feet. One result of the action of the water has been the formation of numerous isolated flat-topped hills or small plateaus, known as ambas, with nearly perpendicular sides. The highest peaks are found in the Simen (or Semien) and Gojam ranges. The Simen Mountains lie N.E. of Lake Tsana and cul- minate in the snow-covered peak of Daschan (Dajan), which has an altitude of 15, 160 ft. A few miles east and north re- spectively of Dajan are Mounts Biuat and Abba Jared, whose summits are a few feet only below that of Dajan. In the Chok Mountains in Gojam Agsias Fatra attains a height of 13,600 ft. Parallel with the eastern escarpment are the heights of Baila (12,500 ft.), Abuna Josef (13,780 ft.), and Kollo (14,100 ft.), the last-named being S.VV. of Magdala. The valley between these hills and the eastern escarpment is one of the longest and most profound chasms in Abyssinia. Between Lake Tsana and the eastern hills are Mounts Guna (13,800 ft.) and Uara Sahia (13,000 ft.). The figures given are, however, approximate only. The southern portion of the highlands — the 10° N. roughly marks the division between north and south — has more open tableland than the northern portion and fewer lofty peaks. Though there are a few heights between 10,000 and 12,000 ft., the majority do not exceed 8000 ft. But the general character of the southern regions is the same as in the north — a much-broken hilly plateau. Most of the Abyssinian uplands have a decided slope to the north-west, so that nearly all the large rivers find their way in that direction to the Nile. Such are the Takazze in the north, the Abai in the centre, and the Sobat in the south, and through these three arteries is discharged about four-fifths of the entire drainage. The rest is carried off, almost due north by the Khor Baraka, which occasionally reaches the Red Sea south of Suakin; by the Hawash, which runs out in the saline lacustrine district near the head of Tajura Bay; by the Webi Shebeli (Wabi- Shebeyli) and Juba, which flow S.E. through Somaliland, though the Shebeli fails to reach the Indian Ocean; and by the Omo, the main feeder of the closed basin of Lake Rudolf. The Takazze, which is the true upper course of the Atbara, has its head-waters in the central tableland; and falls from about 7000 to 2500 ft. in the tremendous crevasse through which it sweeps round west, north and west again down to the western terraces, where it passes from Abyssinian to Sudan territory. During the rains the Takazze (i.e. the " Terrible ") rises some 18 ft. above its normal level, and at this time forms an impassable barrier between the northern and central provinces. In its lower course the river is known by the Arab name Setit. The Setit is joined (14° 10' N, 36 E.) by the Atbara, a river formed by several streams which rise in the mountains W. and N.W. of Lake Tsana. The Gash or Mareb is the most northerly of the Abyssinian rivers which flow towards the Nile valley. Its head-waters rise on the landward side of the eastern escarp- ment within 50 miles of Annesley Bay on the Red Sea. It reaches the Sudan plains near Kassala, beyond which place its waters are dissipated in the sandy soil. The Mareb is dry for a great part of the year, but like the Takazze is subject to sudden freshets during the rains. Only the left bank of the upper course of the river is in Abyssinian territory, the Mareb here forming the boundary between Eritrea and Abyssinia. (3) The Abai — that is, the upper course of the Blue Nile — has its source near Mount Denguiza in the Gojam highlands (about n° N. and 37 E.), and first flows for 70 m. nearly due north to the south side of Lake Tsana. Tsana (q.v.), which stands from 2500 to 3000 ft. below the normal level of the plateau, has somewhat the aspect of a flooded crater. It has an area of about 1 100 sq. m., and a depth in some parts of 250 ft. At the south-east corner the rim of the crater is, as it were, breached by a deep crevasse through which the Abai escapes, and here develops a great semicircular bend like that of the Takazze, but in the reverse direction — east, south and north-west — down to the plains of Sennar, where it takes the name of Bahr-el-Azrak or Blue Nile. The Abai has many tributaries. Of these the Bashilo rises near Magdala and drains eastern Amhara; the Jamma rises near Ankober and drains northern Shoa ; the Muger rises near Adis Ababa and drains south-western Shoa; the Didessa, the largest of the Abai's affluents, rises in the Kaffa hills and has a generally S. to N. course; the Yabus runs near the western edge of the plateau escarpment. All these are perennial rivers. The right-hand tributaries, rising mostly on the western sides of the plateau, have steep slopes and are generally torrential in character. The Bolassa, however, is perennial, and the Rahad and Dinder are important rivers in flood-time. In the mountains and plateaus of Kaffa and Galla in the south-west of Abyssinia rise the Baro, Gelo, Akobo and other of the chief affluents of the Sobat tributary of the Nile. The Akobo, in about 7 50' N. and 33° E., joins the Pibor, which in about 85° N. and 33 20' E. unites with the Baro, the river below the confluence taking the name of Sobat. These rivers descend from the mountains in great falls, and like the other Abyssinian streams are unnavigable in their upper courses. The Baro on reaching the plain becomes, however, a navigable stream afford- ing an open waterway to the Nile. The Baro, Pibor and Akobo form for 250 m. the W. and S.W. frontiers of Abyssinia (see Nile, Sobat and Sudan). The chief river of Abyssinia flowing east is the Hawash (Awash, Awasi), which rises in the Shoan uplands and makes a semicircular bend first S.E. and then N.E. It reaches the Afar (Danakil) lowlands through a broad breach in the eastern escarpment of the plateau, beyond which it is joined on its left bank by its chief affluent, the Germama (Kasam), and then trends round in the direction of Tajura Bay. Here the Hawash is a copious stream nearly 200 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep, even in the dry season, and during the floods rising 50 or 60 ft. above low-water mark, thus inundating the plains for many miles along both its banks. Yet it fail's to reach the coast, and after a winding course of about 500 m. passes (in its lower reaches) through a series of badds (lagoons) to Lake Aussa, some 60 or 70 m. from the head of Tajura Bay. In this lake the river is ABYSSINIA 85 lost. This remarkable phenomenon is explained by the position of Aussa in the centre of a saline lacustrine depression several hundred feet below sea-level. While most of the other lagoons are highly saline, with thick incrustations of salt round their margins, Aussa remains fresh throughout the year, owing to the great body of water discharged into it by the Hawash. Another lacustrine region extends from the Shoa heights south-west to the Samburu (Lake Rudolf) depression. In this chain of lovely upland lakes, some fresh, some brackish, some completely closed, others connected by short channels, the chief links in their order from north to south are:— Zwai, com- municating southwards with Hara and Lamina, all in the Arusi Galla territory; then Abai with an outlet to a smaller tarn in the romantic Baroda and Gamo districts, skirted on the west sides by grassy slopes and wooded ranges from 6000 to nearly 9000 ft. high; lastly, in the Asille country, Lake Stefanie, the Chuwaha of the natives, completely closed and falling to a level of about 1800 ft. above the sea. To the same system obviously belongs the neighbouring Lake Rudolf (q.v.), which is larger than all the rest put together. This lake receives at its northern end the waters of the Omo, which rises in the Shoa highlands and is a perennial river with many affluents. In its course of some 370 m. it has a total fall of about 6000 ft. (from 7600 at its source to 1600 at lake-level), and is consequently a very rapid stream, being broken by the Kokobi and other falls, and navi- gable only for a short distance above its mouth. The chief rivers of Somaliland (q.v.), the Webi Shebeli and the Juba (q.v.), have their rise on the south-eastern slopes of the Abyssinian escarp- ment, and the greater part of their course is through territory belonging to Abyssinia. There are numerous hot springs in Abyssinia, and earthquakes, though of no great severity, are not uncommon. (4) Geology. — The East African tableland is continued into Abyssinia. Since the visit of W. T. Blanford in 1870 the geology has received little attention from travellers. The following formations are represented: — Sedimentary and Metamorphic. Recent. Coral, alluvium, sand. Tertiary. (?) Limestones of Harrar. Jurassic. Antalo Limestones. Triassic (?). Adigrat Sandstones. Archaean. Gneisses, schists, slaty rocks. Igneous. Recent. Aden Volcanic Series. Tertiary, Cretaceous (?). Magdala group. Jurassic. Ashangi group. Archaean. — The metamorphic rocks compose the main mass of the tableland, and are exposed in every deep valley in Tigre and along the valley of the Blue Nile. Mica schists form the prevalent rocks. Hornblende schists also occur and a compact felspathic rock in the Suris defile. The foliae of the schists strike north and south. Triassic (?). — In the region of Adigrat the metamorphic rocks are invariably overlain by white and brown sandstones, un- fossiliferous, and attaining a maximum thickness of 1000 feet. They are overlain by the fossiliferous limestones of the Antalo group. Around Chelga and Adigrat coal-bearing beds occur, which Blanford suggests may be of the same age as the coal- bearing strata of India. The Adigrat Sandstone possibly represents some portion of the Karroo formation of South Africa. Jurassic. — The fossiliferous limestones of Antalo are generally horizontal, but are in places much disturbed when interstratified with trap rocks. The fossils are all characteristic Oolite forms and include species of Hemicidaris, Pholadomya, Ceromya, Trigonia and Alaria. Igneous Rocks.— -Above a height of 8000 ft. the country con- sists of bedded traps belonging to two distinct and unconform- able groups. The lower (Ashangi group) consists of basalts and dolerites often amygdaloidal. Their relation to the Antalo limestones is uncertain, but Blanford considers them to be not later in age than the Oolite. The upper (Magdala group) con- tains much trachytic rock of considerable thickness, lying perfectly horizontally, and giving rise to a series of terraced ridges characteristic of central Abyssinia. They are inter- bedded with unfossiliferous sandstones and shales. Of more recent date (probably Tertiary) are some igneous rocks, rich in alkalis, occurring in certain localities in southern Abyssinia. Of still more recent date are the basalts and ashes west of Massawa and around Annesley Bay and known as the Aden Volcanic Series. With regard to the older igneous rocks, the enormous amount they have suffered from denudation is a prominent feature. They have been worn into deep and narrow ravines, sometimes to a depth of 3000 to 4000 ft. (5) Climate. — The climate of Abyssinia and its dependent territories varies greatly. Somaliland and the Danakil lowlands have a hot, dry climate producing semi-desert conditions; the country in the lower basin of the Sobat is hot, swampy and malarious. But over the greater part of Abyssinia as well as the Galla highlands the climate is very healthy and temperate. The country lies wholly within the tropics, but its nearness to the equator is counterbalanced by the elevation of the land. In the deep valleys of the Takazze and Abai, and generally in places below 4000 ft., the conditions are tropical and fevers are prevalent. On the uplands, however, the air is cool and bracing in summer, and in winter very bleak. The mean range of temperature is between 6o° and 80° F. On the higher moun- tains the climate is Alpine in character. The atmosphere on the plateaus is exceedingly clear, so that objects are easily recognizable at great distances. In addition to the variation in climate dependent on elevation, the year may be divided into three seasons. Winter, or the cold season, lasts from October to February, and is followed by a dry hot period, which about the middle of June gives place to the rainy season. The rain is heaviest in the Takazze basin in July and August. In the more southern districts of Gojam and Wallega heavy rains continue till the middle of September, and occasionally October is a wet month. There are also Spring and winter rains; indeed rain often falls in every month of the year. But the rainy season proper, caused by the south-west monsoon, lasts from June to mid-September, and commencing in the north moves southward. In the region of the Sobat sources the rains begin earlier and last longer. The rainfall varies from about 30 in. a year in Tigre and Amhara to over 40 in. in parts of Galla land. The rainy season is of great importance not only to Abyssinia but to the countries of the Nile valley, as the prosperity of the eastern Sudan and Egypt is largely dependent upon the rain- fall. A season of light rain may be sufficient for the needs of Abyssinia, but there is little surplus water to find its way to the Nile; and a shortness of rain means a low Nile, as practically all the flood water of that river is derived from the Abyssinian tributaries (see Nile). (6) Flora and Fauna. — As in a day's journey the traveller may pass from tropical to almost Alpine conditions of climate, so great also is the range of the flora and fauna. In the valleys and lowlands the vegetation is dense, but the general appearance of the plateaus is of a comparatively bare country with trees and bushes thinly scattered over it. The glens and ravines on the hillside are often thickly wooded, and offer a delightful contrast to the open downs. These conditions are particularly characteristic of the northern regions; in the south the vegeta- tion on the uplands is more luxuriant. Among the many varie- ties of trees and plants found are the date palm, mimosa, wild olive, giant sycamores, junipers and laurels, the myrrh and other gum trees (gnarled and stunted, these flourish most on the eastern foothills), a magnificent pine (the Natal yellow pine, which resists the attacks of the white ant), the fig, orange, lime, pomegranate, peach, apricot, banana and other fruit trees; the grape vine (rare), blackberry and raspberry; the cotton and indigo plants, and occasionally the sugar cane. There are in the south large forests of valuable timber trees; and the coffee plant is indigenous in the Kaffa country, whence it takes 86 ABYSSINIA its name. Many kinds of grasses and flowers abound- Large areas are covered by the kussa, a hardy member of the rose family, which grows from 8 to 10 ft. high and has abundant pendent red blossoms. The flowers and the leaves of this plant are highly prized for medicinal purposes. The fruit of the kurarina, a tree found almost exclusively in Shoa, yields a black grain highly esteemed as a spice. On the tableland a great variety of grains and vegetables are cultivated. A fibrous plant, known as the sanseviera, grows in a wild state in the semi-desert regions of the north and south-east. In addition to the domestic animals enumerated below (§ 8) the fauna is very varied. Elephant and rhinoceros are numerous in certain low-lying districts, especially in the Sobat valley. The Abyssinian rhinoceros has two horns and its skin has no folds. The hippopotamus and crocodile inhabit the larger rivers flowing west, but are not found in the Hawash, in which, however, otters of large size are plentiful. Lions abound in the low countries and in Somaliland. In central Abyssinia the lion is no longer found except occasionally in the river valleys. Leopards, both spotted and black, are numerous and often of great size; hyaenas are found everywhere and are hardy and fierce; the lynx, wolf, wild dog and jackal are also common. Boars and badgers are more rarely seen. The giraffe is found in the western districts, the zebra and wild ass frequent the lower plateaus and the rocky hills of the north. There are large herds of buffalo and antelope, and gazelles of many varieties and in great numbers are met with in most parts of the country. Among the varieties are the greater and lesser kudu (both rather rare); the duiker, gemsbuck, hartebeest, gerenuk (the most common — it has long thin legs and a camel-like neck); klip- springer, found on the high plateaus as well as in the lower dis- tricts; and the dik-dik, the smallest of the antelopes, its weight rarely exceeding io lb, common in the low countries and the foothills. The civet is found in many parts of Abyssinia, but chiefly in the Galla regions. Squirrels and hares are numerous, as are several kinds of monkeys, notably the guereza, gelada, guenon and dog-faced baboon. They range from the tropical lowlands to heights of 10,000 ft. Birds are very numerous, and many of them remarkable for the beauty of their plumage. Great numbers of eagles, vultures, hawks, bustards and other birds of prey are met with; and partridges, duck, teal, guinea-fowl, sand-grouse, curlews, wood- cock, snipe, pigeons, thrushes and swallows are very plentiful. A fine variety of ostrich is commonly found. Among the birds prized for their plumage are the marabout, crane, heron, black- bird, parrot, jay and humming-birds of extraordinary brilliance. Among insects the most numerous and useful is the bee, honey everywhere constituting an important part of the food of the inhabitants. Of an opposite class is the locust. Serpents are not numerous, but several species are poisonous. There are thousands of varieties of butterflies and other insects. (7) Provinces and Towns. — Politically, Abyssinia is divided into provinces or kingdoms and dependent territories. The chief provinces are Tigre, which occupies the N.E. of the country; Amhara or Gondar, in the centre; Gojam, the district enclosed by the great semicircular sweep of the Abai; and Shoa (q.v.), which lies east of the Abai and south of Amhara. Besides these ancient provinces and several others of smaller size, the empire includes the Wallega region, lying S.W. of Gojam; the Harrar province in the east; Kaffa (q.v.) and Galla land, S.W. and S. of Shoa; and the central part of Somaliland. With the exception of Harrar (q.v.), a city of Arab foundation, there are no large towns in Abyssinia. Harrar is some 30 m. S.E. of Dire Dawa, whence there is a railway (188 m. long) to Jibuti on the Gulf of Aden. The absence of large towns in Abyssinia proper is due to the provinces into which the country is divided having been for centuries in a state of almost continual warfare, and to the frequent change of the royal residences on the exhaustion of fuel supplies. The earliest capital appears to have been Axum (q.v.) in Tigre, where there are extensive ruins. In the middle ages Gondar in Amhara became the capital of the country and was so regarded up to the middle of the 19th century. Since 1892 the capital has been Adis Ababa in the kingdom of Shoa. The other towns of Abyssinia worthy of mention may be grouped according to their geographical position. None of them has a permanent population exceeding 6000, but at several large markets are held periodically. In Tigre there are Adowa or Adua (17 m. E. by N. of Axum), Adigrat, Macalleand Antalo. The three last-named places are on the high plateau near its eastern escarpment and on the direct road south from Massawa to Shoa. West of Adigrat is the monastery of Debra-Domo, one of the most celebrated sanctuaries in Abyssinia. In Amhara there are: — Magdala (q.v.), formerly the residence of King Theodore, and the place of imprisonment of the British captives in 1866. Debra-Tabor ("Mount Tabor"), the chief royal residence during the reign of King John, occupies a strong strategic position overlooking the fertile plains east of Lake Tsana, at a height of about 8,620 ft. above the sea ; it has a population of 3000, including the neighbouring station of Samara, headquarters of the Protestant missionaries in the time of King Theodore. Ambra-Mariam, a fortified station midway between Gondar and Debra-Tabor near the north-east side of Lake Tsana, with a population of 3000; here is the famous shrine and church dedicated to St Mary, whence the name of the place, " Fort St Mary." Mahdera-Mariam (" Mary's Rest "), for some time a royal residence, and an important market and great place of pilgrimage, a few miles south-west of Debra- Tabor; its two churches of the " Mother " and the " Son " are held in great veneration by all Abyssinians; it has a permanent population estimated at over 4000, Gallas and Amharas, the former mostly Mahommedan. Sokota, one of the great central markets, and capital of the province of Waag in Am'hara, at the converging point of several main trade routes;" the market is numerously atterfded, especially by dealers in the salt blocks which come from Lake Alalbed. The following towns are in Shoa: — Ankober, formerly the capital of the kingdom; Aliu- Amba, east of Ankober on the trade route to the Gulf of Aden; Debra-Berhan (Debra-Bernam) (" Mountain of Light "), once a royal residence; Liche (Litche), one of the largest market towns in southern Abyssinia. Lieka, the largest market in Galla land, has direct communications with Gojam, Shoa and other parts of the empire. Bonga, the commercial centre of Kaffa, and Jiren, capital of the neighbouring province of Jimma, are frequented by traders from all the surrounding provinces, and also by foreign merchants from the seaports on the Gulf of Aden. Apart from these market-places there are no settle- ments of any size in southern Abyssinia. Communications. — The Jibuti-Dire Dawa railway has been mentioned above. The continuation of this railway to the capital was begun in 1006 from the Adis Ababa end. There are\ few roads in Abyssinia suitable for wheeled traffic. Transport is usually carried on by mules, donkeys, pack-horses and (in the. lower regions) camels- From Dire Dawa to Harrar there is a well-made carriage road, and from, Harrar to Adis Ababa the caravan track is kept in good order, the river Hawash being spanned by an iron bridge. There is also a direct trade route from Dire Dawa to the capital. Telegraph lines connect Adis Ababa and several important towns in northern Abyssinia with Massawa, Harrar and Jibuti. There is also a telephonic service, the longest line being from Harrar to the capital. (8) Agriculture. — The soil is exceedingly fertile, as is evident from the fact that Egypt owes practically all its fertility to the sediment carried into the Nile by its Abyssinian tributaries. Agriculture is extensively followed, chiefly by the Gallas, the indolence of the Abyssinians preventing them from being good farmers. In the lower regions a wide variety of crops are grown — among them maize, durra, wheat, barley, rye, teff, pease, cotton and sugar-cane — and many kinds of fruit trees are culti- vated. Teff is a kind of millet with grains about the size of an ordinary pin-head, of which is made the bread commonly eaten. The low grounds also produce a grain, tocussa, from which black bread is made. Besides these, certain oleaginous plants, the suf, nuc and selite (there are no European equivalents for the ABYSSINIA 87' native names), and the ground-nut are largely grown. The castor bean grows wild, the green castor in the low, damp regions, the red castor at medium altitudes. The kat plant, a medicinal herb which has a tonic quality, is largely grown in the Harrar province. On the higher plateaus the hardier cereals only are cultivated. Here the chief crops are wheat, barley, teff, peppers, vegetables of all kinds and coffee. Above 10,000 ft. the crops are confined practically to barley, oats, beans and occasionally wheat. Coffee is one of the most important products of the country, and its original home is believed to be the Kaffa highlands. It is cultivated in the S., S.E. and S.W. provinces, and to a less extent in the central districts. Two qualities of coffee are cultivated, one known as Abyssinian, the other as Harrar- Mocha. The " Abyssinian " coffee is grown very extensively throughout the southern highlands. Little attention is paid to the crop, the berries being frequently gathered from the ground, and consequently the coffee is of comparatively low grade. " Harrar-Mocha " is of first-class quality. It is grown in the highlands of Harrar, and cultivated with extreme care. The raising of cotton received a considerable impetus in the early years of the 20th century. The soil of the Ha wash valley proved particularly suitable for raising this crop. In the high plateaus the planting of seeds begins in May, in the lower pla- teaus and the plains in June, but in certain parts where the summer is long alid rain abundant sowing and reaping are going on at the same time. Most regions yield two, many three crops a year. The methods of culture are primitive, the plough commonly used being a long pole with two vertical iron teeth and a smaller pole at right angles to which oxen are attached. This implement costs about four shillings. The ploughing is done by the men, but women and girls do the reaping. The grain is usually trodden out by cattle and is often stored in clay- lined pits. Land comparatively poor yields crops eight to ten- fold the quantity sown; the major part of the land, yields twenty to thirtyfold. In the northern parts of the empire very little land is left uncultivated. The hillsides are laid out in terraces and carefully irrigated in the dry season, the channels being often two miles or more long. Of all the cereals barley is the most widely grown. The average rate of pay to an agri- cultural labourer is about threepence a day in addition to food, which may cost another penny a day. The Abyssinians keep a large number of domestic animals. Among cattle the Sanga or Galla ox is the most common. The bulls are usually kept for ploughing, the cow being preferred for meat. Most of the cattle are of the zebu or hump-backed variety, but there are also two breeds — one large, the other resembling the Jersey cattle — which are straight-backed. The horns of the zebu variety are sometimes four feet long. Sheep, of which there are very large flocks, belong to the short and fat-tailed variety. The majority are not wool-bearing, but in one district a very small black sheep is raised for wool. The small mountain breed of sheep weigh no more than 20 to 30 lb apiece. Goats -are of both the long and short-haired varieties. The horns of the large goats are often thirty inches in length and stand up straight from the head. The goats from the Arusi Galla country have fine silky hair which is sometimes sixteen inches long. The meat of both sheep and goats is excellent; that of the latter is pre- ferred by the natives. In 1904 the estimated number of sheep and goats in the country was 20,000,000. Large quantities of butter, generally rancid, are made from the milk of cows, goats and sheep. In the Leka province small black pigs are bred in considerable numbers. The horses (very numerous) are small but strong; they are generally about 14 hands in height. The best breeds come from the Shoa uplands. The ass is also small and strong; and the mule, bred in large numbers, is of excellent quality, and both as a transport animal and as a mount is preferred to the horse. The mule thrives in every condition of climate, is fever-proof, travels over the most difficult mountain passes with absolute security, and can carry with ease a load of 200 lb. The average height of a mule is 12^ hands. The country is admirably adapted for stock-raising. (9) Minerals. — In the south and south-west provinces placer gold mines by the banks of watercourses are. worked by Gallas as an industry subsidiary to tending their flocks and fields.' In the Wallega district are veins of gold-bearing quartz, mined to a certain extent. There are also gold mines in southern Shoa. The annual output of gold is worth not less than £500,000. Only a small proportion is exported. Besides gold, silver, iron, coal and other minerals are found. Rock-salt is obtained from the province of Tigr6. Trade and Currency. — Abyssinia being without seaports, the external trade is through Massawa (Italian) in the north, Jibuti (French), Zaila and Berbera (British) in the south, and for all these ports Aden is a distributing centre. For Tigre and Amhara products Massawa is the best port, for the rest of the empire, Jibuti. For southern Abyssinia, Kaffa and Galla lands, Harrar is the great entrepot, goods being forwarded thence to Jibuti and the other Somaliland ports. There is also a con- siderable trade with the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan through the frontier towns of Rosaires and Gallabat. At the French and British ports there is freedom of trade, but on goods for Abys- sinia entering Massawa a discriminating tax is levied if they are not imported from Italy. The chief articles of export are coffee, skins, ivory, civet, ostrich feathers, gum, pepper, kat plant (used by Moslems for its stimulating properties), gold (in small quantities) and live stock. The trade in skins is mainly with the Uaited States through Aden; America also takes a large propoition of the coffee exported. For live stock there is a good trade with Madagascar. The chief imports are cotton goods, the yearly value of this trade being fully £250,000; the sheetings are largely American; the. remainder English and Indian. No other article of import approaches cotton in importance, but a con^ siderable trade is done in arms and ammunition, rice, sugar, flour and other foods, and a still larger trade in candles and matches (from Sweden), oil, carpets (oriental and European), hats and umbrellas. Commerce long remained in a backward condition; but under the Emperor Menelek II. efforts were made to develop the resources of the country, and in 1905 the total volume of trade exceeded £1,000,000. Until the end of the 19th century the usual currency was the Maria Theresa dollar, bars of rock-salt and cartridges. In 1894 a new coinage was introduced, with the Menelek dollar or talari, worth about two shillings, as the standard. This new coinage gradually superseded the older currency. In 1905 the Bank of Abyssinia, the first banking house in the country, was founded, with its headquarters at Adis Ababa. The bank, which was granted a monopoly of banking business in the empire for fifty years, has a capital of £500,000, has the power to issue notes, to mint the Abyssinian coinage, and to engage in commercial operations. It was founded under Egyptian law by the National Bank of Egypt, which insti- tution had previously obtained a concession from the emperor Menelek. (10) Government. — The political institutions are of a feudal character. Within their provinces the rases (princes) exercise large powers. The emperor, styled negus negusti (king of kings), is occasionally assisted by a council of rases. In October 1907 an imperial decree announced the constitution of a cabinet on European lines, ministers being appointed to the portfolios of foreign affairs, war, commerce, justice and finance. The legal system is said to be based on the Justinian code. From the decisions of the judges there is a right of appeal to the emperor. The chief judicial official is known as the affa-negus (breath of the king). The Abyssinian church (q.v.) is presided over by an abuna, or archbishop. The land is not held in fee simple, but is subject to the control of the emperor or the church. Revenue is derived from an ad valorem tax on all imports; the purchase and sale of animals; from royalties on trading concessions, and in other ways, including fees for the administration of justice. Education, of a rudimentary character, is given by the clergy. In 1907 a system of compulsory education " of all male children over the age of 12 " was decreed. The education was to be state 88 ABYSSINIA provided, Coptic teachers were brought from Egypt and school buildings were erected. The Abyssinian calendar is as follows: — The Abyssinian year of 365 days (366 in leap-year) begins on the 1st of Maskarram, which corresponds to about the 10th of September. The months have thirty days each, and are thus named: Maskarram, Tekemt, Hadar, Tahsas, Tarr, Yekatit, Magawit, Miaziah, Genbot, Sanni, Hamle, Nas'hi. The remaining five days in the year, termed Pagmen or Quaggimi (six in leap-year, the extra day being named Kadis Yohannis), are put in at the end and treated as holidays. Abyssinian reckoning is about seven years eight months behind the Gregorian. Festivals, such as Easter, fall a week later than in western Europe. Army. — A small standing army is maintained in each province of Abyssinia proper. Every able-bodied Abyssinian is expected to join the army in case of need, and a force, well armed with modern weapons, approaching 250,000 can be placed in the field. The cavalry is chiefly composed of Galla horsemen. (F. R. C.) Ethnology (11) The population of the empire is estimated at from 3,500,000 to 5,000,000. The inhabitants consist mainly of the Abyssinians, the Galla and the Somali (the two last-named peoples are separately noticed). Of non- African races the most numerous are Armenians, Indians, Jews and Greeks. There is a small colony of British, French, Italians and Russians. The following remarks apply solely to Abyssinia proper and its in- habitants. It should be remembered that the term " Abys- sinian " is purely geographical, and has little or no ethnical significance; it is derived from the Arabic Habesh, "mixed," and was a derisive name applied by the Arabs to the hetero- geneous inhabitants of the Abyssinian plateau. Abyssinia appears to have been originally peopled by the eastern branch of the Hamitic family, which has occupied this region from the remotest times, and still constitutes the great bulk of its inhabitants, though the higher classes are now strongly Semitized. The prevailing colour in the central provinces (Amhara, Gojam) is a deep brown, northwards (Tigr6, Lasta) it is a pale olive, and here even fair complexions are seen. South- wards (Shoa, Kobbo, Amuru) a decided chocolate and almost sooty black is the rule. Many of the people are distinctly negroid, with big lips, small nose, broad at the base, and frizzly or curly black hair. The negroid element in the population is due chiefly to the number of negro women who have been im- ported into the harems of the Abyssinians. The majority, however, may be described as a mixed Hamito-Semitic people, who are in general well formed and handsome, with straight and regular features, lively eyes, hair long and straight or somewhat curled and in colour dark olive, approaching to black. The Galla, who came originally from the south, are not found in many parts of the country, but predominate in the Wollo dis- trict, between Shoa and Amhara. It is from the Galla that the Abyssinian army is largely recruited, and, indeed, there are few of the chiefs who have not an admixture of Galla blood in their veins. As regards language, several of the indigenous groups, such as the Khamtas of Lasta, the Agau or Agaos of Agaumeder (" Agao land ") and the Falashas (q.v.), the so-called " Jews " of Abys- sinia, still speak rude dialects of the old Hamitic tongue. But the official language and that of all the upper classes is of Semitic origin, derived from the ancient Himyaritic, which is the most archaic member of the Semitic linguistic family. Geez, as it is called, was introduced with the first immigrants from Yemen, and although no longer spoken is still studied as the liturgical language of the Abyssinian Christians. Its literature consists of numerous translations of Jewish, Greek and Arabic works, besides a valuable version of the Bible. (See Ethiopia.) The best modern representative of Geez is the Tigrina of Tigr6 and Lasta, which is much purer but less cultivated than the Amharic dialect, which is used in state documents, is current in the central and southern provinces and is much affected by Hamitic ele- ments. All are written in a peculiar syllabic script which, un- like all other Semitic forms, runs from left to right, and is derived from that of the Sabaeans and Minaeans, still extant in the very old rock-inscriptions of south Arabia. The hybridism of the Abyssinians is reflected in their political and social institutions, and especially in their religious beliefs and practices. On a seething mass of African heathendom, already in early times affected by primitive Semitic ideas, was suddenly imposed a form of Christianity which became the state religion. While the various ethnical elements have been merged in the composite Abyssinian nation, the primitive and more ad- vanced religious ideas have nowhere been fused in a uniform Christian system. Foreigners are often surprised at the strange mixture of savagery and lofty notions in a Christian community which,. for instance, accounts accidental manslaughter as wilful murder. Recourse is still had to dreams as a means of detecting crime. A priest is summoned, and, if his prayers and curses fail, a small boy is drugged, and " whatever person he dreams of is fixed on as the criminal. ... If the boy does not dream of the person whom the priest has determined on as the criminal, he is kept under drugs until he does what is required of him " (Count Gleichen, With the Mission to Menelik, chap, xvi., 1898). The Abyssinian character reflects the country's history. Murders and executions are frequent, yet cruelty is not a marked feature of their, character; and in war they seldom kill their prisoners. When a man is convicted of murder, he is handed over to the relatives of the deceased, who may either put him to death or accept a ransom. When the murdered person has no relatives, the priests take upon themselves the office of avengers. The natural indolence of the people has been fostered by the constant wars, which have discouraged peaceful occupations. The soldiers live by plunder, the monks by alms. The haughtiest Abyssinian is not above begging, excusing himself with the remark, " God has given us speech for the purpose of begging." The Abyssinians are vain and selfish, irritable but easily ap- peased; and are an intelligent bright people, fond of gaiety. On every festive occasion, as a saint's day, birth, marriage, &c, it is customary for a rich man to collect his friends and neigh- bours, and kill a cow and one or two sheep. The principal parts of the cow are eaten raw while yet warm and quivering, the re- mainder being cut into small pieces and cooked with the favour- ite sauce of butter and red pepper paste. The raw meat eaten in this way is considered to be very superior in taste and much more tender than when cold. The 'statement by James Bruce respecting the cutting of steaks from a live cow has frequently been called in question, but there can be no doubt that Bruce actually saw what he narrates. Mutton and goat's flesh are the meats most eaten: pork is avoided on religious grounds, and the hare is never touched, possibly, as in other countries, from superstition. Many forms of game are forbidden; for example, all water-fowl. The principal drinks are mlse, a kind of mead, and bousa, a sort of beer made from fermented cakes. The Abyssinians are heavy eaters and drinkers, and any occasion is seized as an excuse for a carouse. Old and young, of both sexes, pass days and nights in these symposia, at which special customs and rules prevail. Little bread is eaten, the Abyssinian preferring a thin cake of durra meal or teff, kneaded with water and exposed to the sun till the dough begins to rise, when it is baked. Salt is a luxury; " he eats salt " being said of a spend- thrift. Bars of rock-salt, after serving as coins, are, when broken up, used as food. There is a general looseness of morals: marriage is a very slight tie, which can be dissolved at any time by either husband or wife. Polygamy is by no means uncommon. Hence there is little family affection, and what exists is only between children of the same father and mother. Children of the same father, but of different mothers, are said to be " always enemies to each other." (Samuel Gobat's Journal of a Three Years' Residence in Abyssinia, 1834.) The dress of the Abyssinians is much like that of the Arabs. It consists of close-fitting drawers reaching below the knees, with a sash to hold them, and a large white robe. The Abys- sinian, however, is beginning to adopt European clothes on the I upper part of the body, and European hats are becoming common. ABYSSINIA 89 The Christian Abyssinians usually go barehead and barefoot, in contrast to the Mahommedans, who wear turbans and leather sandals. The women's dress is a smock with sleeves loose to the wrist, where they fit tightly. The priests wear a white jacket with loose sleeves, a head-cloth like a turban and a special type of shoe with turned-up toes and soles projecting at the heel. In the Woldeba district hermits dress in ochre-yellow cloths, while the priests of some sects wear hides dyed red. Clothes are made of cotton, though the nobles and great people wear silk robes presented by the emperor as a mark of honour. The possessor of one of these is allowed to appear in the royal presence wearing it instead of having one shoulder bared, as is the usual Abyssinian method of showing respect. A high-born man covers himself to the mouth in the presence of inferiors. The men either cut their hair short or plait it; married women plait their hair and wind round the head a black or parti-coloured silk handkerchief; girls wear their hair short. In the hot season no Abyssinian goes without a flag-shaped fan of plaited rushes. The Christian Abyssinians, men and women, wear a blue silk cord round the neck, to which is often attached a crucifix. For ornament women wear silver ankle-rings with bells, silver neck- laces and silver or gold rosettes in the ears. Silver rings on fingers and also on toes are common. The women are very fond of strong scents, which are generally oils imported from India and Ceylon. The men scarcely ever appear without a long curved knife, generally they carry shield and spear as well. Although the army has been equipped with modern rifles, the common weapon of the people is the matchlock, and slings are still in use. The original arms were a sickle-shaped sword, spear and shield. The Abyssinians are great hunters and are also clever at taming wild beasts. The nobles hunt antelopes with leopards, and giraffes and ostriches with horse and grey- hound. In elephant-hunting iron bullets weighing a quarter of a pound are used; thro wing-clubs are employed for small game, and lions are hunted with the spear. Lion skins belong to the emperor, but the slayer keeps a strip to decorate his shield. Stone and mortar are used in building, but the Abyssinian houses are of the roughest kind, being usually circular huts, ill made and thatched with grass. These huts are sometimes made simply of straw and are surrounded by high thorn hedges, but, in the north, square houses, built in stories, flat-roofed, the roof sometimes laid at the same slope as the hillside, and some with pitched thatched roofs, are common. The inside walls are plastered with cow-dung, clay and finely chopped straw. None of the houses have chimneys, and smoke soon colours the in- terior a dark brown. Generally the houses are filthy and ill ventilated and swarm with vermin. Drainage and sanitary arrangements do not exist. The caves of the highlands are often used as dwellings. The most remarkable buildings in Abyssinia are certain churches hewn out of the solid rock. The chief native industries are leather-work, embroidery and filigree metal- work; and the weaving of straw mats and baskets is extensively practised. The baskets are particularly well made, and are frequently used to contain milk. Abyssinian art is crude and is mainly reserved for rough frescoes in the churches. These frescoes, however, often exhibit considerable skill, and are indicative of the lively imagination of their painters. They are in the Byzantine style and the colour- ing is gaudy. Saints and good people are always depicted full face, the devil and all bad folk are shown in profile. Among the finest frescoes are those in the church of the Holy Trinity at Adowa and those in the church at Kwarata, on the shores of Lake Tsana. The churches are usually circular in form, the walls of stone, the roof thatched. The chief musical instruments are rough types of trumpets and flutes, drums, tambourines and cymbals, and quadrangular harps. History (12) Abyssinia, or at least the northern portion of it, was included in the tract of country known to the ancients as Ethiopia, the northern limits of which reached at one time to about Syene. The connexion between Egypt and Ethiopia was in early times very intimate, and occasionally the two coun- tries were under the same ruler, so that the arts and civilization of the one naturally found their way into the other. In early times, too, the Hebrews had commercial intercourse with the Ethiopians; and according to Abyssinian tradition the queen of Sheba who visited Solomon was a monarch of their country, and from their son Menelek the kings of Abyssinia claim descent. During the Captivity many of the Jews settled here and brought with them a knowledge of the Jewish religion. Under the Ptolemies, the arts as well as the enterprise of the Greeks entered Ethiopia, and led to the establishment of Greek colonies. A Greek inscription it Adulis, no longer extant, but copied by Cosmas of Alexandria, and preserved in his Topographia Chris- tiana, records that Ptolemy Euergetes, the third of the Greek dynasty in Egypt, invaded the countries on both sides of the Red Sea, and having reduced most of the provinces of Tigre to subjection, returned to the port of Adulis, and there offered sacrifices to Jupiter, Mars and Neptune. Another inscription, not so ancient, found at Axum, states that Aizanas, king of the Axumites, the Homerites, &c, conquered the nation of the Bogos, and returned thanks to his father, the god Mars, for his victory. Out of these Greek colonies appears to have arisen the kingdom of Auxume which flourished from the 1st to the 7th century a.d. and was at one time nearly coextensive with Abyssinia proper. The capital Auxume and the seaport Adulis were then the chief centres of the trade with the interior of Africa in gold dust, ivory, leather, a'romatics, &c. At Axum, the site of the ancient capital, many vestiges of its former great- ness still exist; and the ruins of Adulis, which was once a sea- port on the bay of Annesley, are now about 4 m. from the shore (see Ethiopia, The Axumite Kingdom). (13) Christianity was introduced into the country by Fru- mentius (q.v.), who was consecrated first bishop of Ethiopia by St Athanasius of Alexandria about a.d. 330. From . . . the scanty evidence available it would appear that tion of the new religion at first made little progress, and the Christ!' Axumite kings seem to have been among the latest " llt y- converts. Towards the close of the 5th century a great company of monks are believed to have established themselves in the country. Since that time monachism has been a power among the people and not without its influence on the course of events. In the early part of the 6th century the king of the Homerites, on the opposite coast of the Red Sea, having persecuted the Christians, the emperor Justinian I. requested the king of Auxume, Caleb or El-Esbaha, to avenge their cause. He ac- cordingly collected an army, crossed over into Arabia, and con- quered Yemen (c. 525), which remained subject to Ethiopia for about fifty years. This was the most flourishing period in the annals of the country. The Ethiopians possessed the richest part of Arabia, carried on a large trade, which extended as far as India and Ceylon, and were in constant communication with the Greek empire. Their expulsion from Arabia, followed by the conquest of Egypt by the Mahommedans in the middle of the 7th century, changed this state of affairs, and the continued advances of the followers of the Prophet at length cut them off from almost every means of communication with the civilized world; so that, as Gibbon says, " encompassed by the enemies of their religion, the Ethiopians slept for near a thousand years, forgetful of the world by whom they were forgotten." About a.d. 1000, a Jewish princess, Judith, conceived the design of murdering all the members of the royal family, and of establish- ing herself in their stead. During the execution of this project, the infant king was carried off by some faithful adherents, and conveyed to Shoa, where his authority was acknowledged, while Judith reigned for forty years over the rest of the kingdom, and transmitted the crown to her descendants. In 1268 the kingdom was restored to the royal house in the person of YektinO Amlak. (14) Towards the close of the 15th century the Portuguese missions into Abyssinia began. A belief had long prevailed in Europe of the existence of a Christian kingdom in the far east, whose monarch was known as Prester John, and various 9 o ABYSSINIA expeditions had been sent in quest of it. Among others who had engaged in this search was Pedro de Covilham, who arrived in Abyssinia in 1490, and, believing that he guese k ac ^ at l en g tn reached the far-famed kingdom, presented influence, to the negus, or emperor of the country, a letter from his master the king of Portugal, addressed to Prester John. Covilham remained in the country, but in 1507 an Armenian named Matthew was sent by the negus to the king of Portugal to request his aid against the Mahommedans. In 1520 a Portuguese fleet, with Matthew on board, entered the Red Sea in compliance with this request, and an embassy from the fleet visited the negus, Lebna Dengel Dawit (David) II., and remained in Abyssinia for about six years. One of this embassy was Father Francisco Alvarez, from whom we have the earliest and not the least interesting account of the country. Between 1528 and 1540 armies of Mahommedans, under the renowned general Mahommed Gran (or Granye, probably a Somali or a Galla) , entered Abyssinia from the low country to the south-east, and overran the kingdom, obliging the emperor to take refuge in the mountain fastnesses. In this extremity recourse was again had to the Portuguese. John Bermudez, a subordinate member of the mission of 1520, who had remained in the country after the departure of the embassy, was, according to his own statement (which is untrust- worthy), ordained successor to the abuna (archbishop), and sent to Lisbon. Bermudez certainly came to Europe, but with what credentials is 'not known. Be that as it may, a Portuguese fleet, under the command of Stephen da Gama, was sent from India and arrived at Massawa in February 1541. Here he received an ambassador from the negus beseeching him to send help against the Moslems, and in the July following a force of 450 musqueteers, under the command of Christopher da Gama, younger brother of the admiral, marched into the interior, and being joined by native troops were at first successful against the enemy; but they were subsequently defeated, and their com- mander taken prisoner and put to death (August 1542). On the 21st of February 1543, however, Mahommed Granye was shot in an engagement and his forces totally routed. After this, quarrels arose between the negus and Bermudez, who had returned to Abyssinia with Christopher da Gama and who now wished the emperor publicly to profess himself a convert to Rome. This the negus refused to do, and at length Bermudez was obliged to make his way out of the country. The Jesuits who had accompanied or followed the da Gama expedition into Abyssinia, and fixed their headquarters at Fremona (near Adowa), were oppressed and neglected, but not actually expelled. In the beginning of the 17th century Father Pedro Paez arrived at Fremona, a man of great tact and judgment, who soon rose into high favour at court, and gained over the emperor to his faith. He directed the erection of churches, palaces and bridges in different parts of the country, and carried out many useful works. His successor Mendez was a man of much less concili- atory manners, and the feelings of the people became strongly excited against the intruders, till at length, on the death of the negus Sysenius, Socinius or Seged I., and the accession of his son Fasiiidas in 1633, they were all sent out of the country, after having had a footing there for nearly a century Po'ncet anc * a ^ a ^ - ■ ^ ne French physician C. J. Poncet, who and Bmcc. went there in 1698, via Sennar and the Blue Nile, 'vas the only European that afterwards visited the country before Bruce in 1769. James Brace's main object was to dis- cover the sources of the Nile, which he was convinced lay in Abyssinia. Accordingly, leaving Massawa in September 1769, he travelled via Axum to Gondar, where he was well received by King Tekla Haimanot II. He accompanied the king on a warlike expedition round Lake Tsana, moving S. round the eastern shore, crossing the genuine Blue Nile (Abai) close to its point of issue from the lake and returning via the western shore. On a second expedition of his own he proved to his own satis- faction that the river originated some 40 miles S.W. of the lake at a place called Geesh (4th of November 1770). He showed that this river flowed into the lake, and left it by its now well- known outlet. Bruce subsequently returned to Egypt (end of 1772) via Gondar, the upper Atbara, Sennar, the Nile and the Korosko desert (see Bruce, James). (15) In order to attain a clear view of native Abyssinian history, as distinct from the visits and influence of Europeans, it must be borne in mind that during the last three hundred years, and indeed for a longer period, for out 90,000, had during this time advanced, and was occupying a strong position at Abbar Garima, near Adua (or Adowa). Here Baratieri attacked him on the 1st of March, but the difficulties of the country were great, and one of the four Italian brigades had pushed too far forward. This brigade was attacked by overwhelming numbers, and on ;the remaining brigades advancing in support, they were successively cut to pieces by the encircling masses of the enemy. The Italians lost over 4500 white and 2000 native troops killed and wounded, and over 2500 prisoners, of which 1600 were white, whilst the Abyssinians owned to a loss of over 3000. General Baldissera advanced with a large body of reinforcements to avenge this defeat, but the Abyssinians, desperately short of supplies, had already retired, and beyond the peaceful relief of Adrigat no further operations took place. It may here be remarked that the white prisoners taken by Menelek were exceedingly well treated by him, and that he behaved throughout the struggle with Italy with the greatest humanity and dignity. On the 26th of October following a provisional treaty of peace was concluded at Adis Ababa, annulling the treaty of Uccialli and recognizing the absolute independence of Abyssinia. This treaty was ratified, and fOllowed-t>y other treaties and agree- ments defining the Eritrean-Abyssinian and the Abyssinian- Italian Somaliland frontiers (see Italy, History, and Somali- land, Italian). . (25) The war, so disastrous to Italy, attracted the attention of all Europe to Abyssinia and its monarch, and numerous Menelek missions, two Russian, three French and one British, asinde- were despatched to the country, and hospitably re- monlrc/i ceived h Y Menelek. The British one, under Mr (after- wards Sir) Rennell Rodd, concluded a friendly treaty with Abyssinia (15th of May 1897), but did not, except in the direction of Somaliland, touch on frontier questions, which for several years continued a subject of discussion. During the 1 Ras of Harrar, which province had been conquered and occupied by Menelek in January 1887. same year (1897) a small French expedition under Messrs Clochette and de Bonchamps endeavoured to reach the Nile, but, after surmounting many difficulties, stuck in the marshes of the Upper Sobat, and was obliged to return. Another expe- dition of Abyssinians, under Dejaj Tasamma and accompan- ied by three Europeans— Faivre (French), Potter (Swiss) and Artomonov (Russian) — started early in 1898, and reached the Nile at the Sobat mouth in June, a few days only before Major Marchand and his gallant companions arrived on the scene. But no contact was made, and the expedition returned to Abyssinia. In the same year Menelek proceeded northwards with a large army for the purpose of chastising Mangasha, who was again rebelling against his authority. After some trifling fighting Mangasha submitted, and Ras Makonnen despatched a force to subdue Beni Shangul, the chief of which gold country, Wad Tur el Guri, was showing signs of disaffection. This effected, the Abyssinians almost came into contact with the Egyptian troops sent up the Blue Nile (after the. occupation of Khartum) to Famaka and towards Gallabat; but as both sides were anxious to avoid a collision over this latter town, no hostile' results ensued. An excellent understanding was, in fact, estab- lished between these two contiguous countries, in spite of occa- sional disturbances by bandits on the frontier. On this frontier question, a treaty was concluded on the 15th of May 1902 between England and Abyssinia for the delimitation of the Sudan- Abyssinian frontier. Menelek, in addition, agreed hot to obstruct the waters of Lake Tsana, the Blue Nile or the Sobat, so as not to interfere with the Nile irrigation question, and' he also agreed to give a concession, if such should be required, for the construction of a British railway through his dominions, to connect the Sudan with Uganda. A combined British-Abys- sinian expedition (Mr A. E. Butter's) was despatched in 1901 to propose and survey a boundary between Abyssinia on the orie side and British East Africa and Uganda on the other; and the report of the expedition was made public by the British govern- ment in November 1904. It was followed in 1908 by an agreed ment defining the frontiers concerned. (26) In 1899 the rebellion of the so-called " mad " mullah (Hajji Mahommed Abdullah) began on the borders - of British Somaliland. An Abyssinian expedition was, at Great Britain's request, sent against the mullah, tio'^wftti '■'■ but without much effect. In the spring and Britain ■*'.' summer of 1901 a fresh expedition from Harrar was against the undertaken against the mullah, who was laying waste fj^a/i the Ogaden country. Two British officers accompanied this force, which was to co-operate with British troops advancing from Somaliland; but little was achieved by the Abyssinians^ and after undergoing considerable privations and losses, 1 arid harassing the country generally, including that of sOme friendly tribes, it returned to Harrar. During the 1902-3 campaign Of General (Sir) W. H. Manning, Menelek provided a force 6f } 5o6o to co-operate with the British and to occupy the Webi Shebeli and south-western parts of the Haud. This time the Abyssifiiaris were more successful, and beat the rebels in a pitched fight; but the difficulties of the country again precluded effective co-opera-^ tion. During General Egerton's campaign (1903-4) yet another force of 5000 Abyssinians was despatched towards Somaliland. Accompanied by a few British officers, it worked its way south- ward, but did not contribute much towards the final solution. In any case, however, it is significant that the Abyssinians hav^ repeatedly been willing to co-operate with the British Sway from their own country. Regarding the question of railways, the first concession for 'a railway from the coast at Jibuti (French Somaliland) to the interior was grantedby Menelek to a French company ' : in 1894. The company having met with numberless ".Bmv^aa difficulties and financial troubles, the French gOvern- influenced ment, on the extinction of the company's funds, came ! to the rescue and provided money for the construction. (In the alternative British capitalists interested in the company wbuTd have obtained control of the line.), The ; French .gayernment'^ ABYSSINIAN CHURCH 95 help enabled the railway to be compieted to Dire Dawa, 28 m. from Harrar, by the last day of 1902. Difficulties arose over the continuation of the railway to Adis Ababa and beyond, and the proposed internationalization of the line. These diffi- culties, which hindered the work of construction for years, were composed (so far as the European Powers interested were con- cerned) in 1906. By the terms of an Anglo-French-Italian agreement, signed in London on the 13th of December of that year, it was decided that the French company should build the railway as far as Adis Ababa, while railway construction west of that place should be under British auspices, with the stipula- tion that any railway connecting Italy's possessions on the Red Sea with its Somaliland protectorate should be built under Italian auspices. A British, an Italian and an Abyssinian representative were to be appointed to the board of the French company, and a French director to the board of any British or Italian company formed. Absolute equality of treatment on the railway and at Jibuti was guaranteed to the commerce of all the Powers. Meanwhile the country slowly developed in parts and opened out cautiously to European influences. Most of the Powers appointed representatives at Menelek's capital — the British minister-plenipotentiary and consul-general, Lieut.-Colonel Sir J. L. Harrington, having been appointed shortly after the British mission in 1897. In December 1903 an American mission visited Adis Ababa, and a commercial treaty between the United States and Abyssinia was signed. A German mission visited the country early in 1905 and also concluded a treaty of commerce with the negus. Later in the year a German minister was ap- pointed to the court of the emperor. After 1897 British influence in Abyssinia, owing largely no doubt to the conquest of the Sudan, the destruction of the dervish power and the result of the Fashoda incident, was sensibly on the increase. Of the remaining powers France occupied the most important position in the country. Ras Makonnen, the most capable and civilized of Menelek's probable successors, died in March 1906, and Mangasha died later in the same year; the question of the succession therefore opened up the possibility that, in spite of recent civilizing influences, Abyssinia might still relapse in the future into its old state of conflict. The Anglo-French-Italian agreement of December 1906 contained provisions in view of this contingency. The preamble of the document declared that it was the common interest of the three Powers "to maintain intact the integrity of Ethiopia," and Article I. provided for their co-operation in maintaining "the political and territorial status quo in Ethiopia." Should, however, the status quo be disturbed, the powers were to concert to safeguard their special interests. The terms of the agreement were settled in July 1906, and its text forthwith communicated to the negus. After considerable hesitation Menelek sent, early in December, a note to the powers, in which, after thanking them for their intentions, he stipulated that the agreement should not in any way limit his own sovereign rights. In June 1908, by the nomination of his grandson, Lij Yasu (b. 1896), as his heir, the emperor endeavoured to end the rivalry between various princes claiming the succession to the throne. (See Menelek.) A convention with Italy, concluded in the same year, settled the frontier questions outstanding with that country. (G.*) Bibliography. — For general information see A. B. Wylde's Mod- ern Abyssinia (London, 1901), a volume giving the result of many years' acquaintance with the country and people ; Voyage en A byssinie . . . 1839-43, par une commission scientifique, by Th. Lefebvre and others (6 vols, and atlas, 3 vols., Paris, 1845-54) ! Elisee Reclus, Nouvelle geographic universelle, vol. x. chap. v. (Paris, 1885). For latest geographical and kindred information consult the Geographical Journal (London), especially "A Journey through Abyssinia," vol. xv. (1900), and "Exploration in the Abai Basin," vol. xxvii. (1906), both by H. Weld Blundell, and "From the Somali Coast through S. Ethiopia to the Sudan," vol. xx. (1902), by C. Neumann; Antoine d'Abbadie, Geographic de I'Ethiopie (Paris, 1890). The British parliamentary paper Africa, No. 13 (1904), is a report on the survey of the S.E. frontier by Capt. P. Maud, R.E., and contains A valuable map. For geology, &c., see W. T, Blanford, Observa- tions on the Geology and Zoology of Abyssinia (London, 1870); C. Futterer, "Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Jura in Ost-Afrika," Zeit. Deutsch. Geol. Gesell. xlix. p. 568 (1897); C. A. Raisin, "Rocks from Southern Abyssinia," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. lix. pp. 292-306 (1903). Among works by travellers describing the country are — James Bruce's Travels to discover the Source of the Nile [1768-1773] (Edin- burgh, 1813, 3rd ed., 8 vols.); The Highlands of Aethiopia (3 vols., London, 1844), by Sir W. Cornwallis Harris, dealing with the Danakil country, Harrar and Shoa; Mansfield Parkyns, Life in Abyssinia; being notes collected during three years' residence and travels (2nd ed., London, 1868); Antoine d'Abbadie, Douze ans dans la Haute- Ethiopie (Paris, 1868); P. H. G. Powell-Cotton, A Sporting Trip through Abyssinia (London, 1902); A. Donaldson Smith, Through Unknown African Countries (London, 1897); M. S. Wellby, 'Twixt Sirdar and Menelik (London, 1901). For history see — A. M. H. J. Stokvis' Manuel d'histoire, vol. i. pp. 439-46, and vol. ii. pp. lxxiv-v (Leiden, 1888-89), which contains lists of the sovereigns of Abyssinia, Shoa and Harrar, from the earliest times, with brief notes. Texts of treaties between Abyssinia and the European Powers up to 1896 will be found in vol. i. of Sir E. Hertslet's The Map of Africa by Treaty (London, 1896). L. J. Morie's Histoire de I'Ethiopie: Tome ii, "L'Abyssinie " (Paris, 1904), is a comprehensive survey (the views on modern affairs being coloured by a strong anti-British bias). For more detailed historical study consult C. Beccari's Notizia e Saggi di opere e documenti inediti riguardanti la Storia di Etiopia durante i Secoli XVI., XVII. e XVIII. (Rome. 1903), a valuable guide to the period indicated; E. Glaser, Die Abessinier in Arabien und Afrika (Munich, 1895); The Portuguese Expedition to Abys- sinia tn 1541-1543 as narrated by Castanhoso (with the account of Bermudez), translated and edited by R. S. Whiteway (London, Hakluyt' Society, 1902), which contains a bibliography; Futuh el- Habacha, a contemporary Arab chronicle of the wars of Mahommed Gran, translated into French by Antoine d'Abbadie and P. Pau- litschke (Paris, 1898) ; A Voyage to Abyssinia by Father Jerome Lobo, from the French [by Samuel Johnson] (London, 1735); Record of the Expedition to Abyssinia, 3 vols., an official history of the war of 1868, by Major T. J. Holland and Capt. H. Hozier (London, 1870); Hormuzd Rassam, Narrative of the British Mission to Theodore [1865-1868] (2 vols., London, 1869); Henry Blanc, A Narrative of Captivity in Abyssinia (London, 1868), by one of Theodore's prisoners; Sir Gerald H. Portal, My Mission to Abyssinia (London, 1892), an account of the author's embassy to King John in 1887; Count A. E. W. Gleichen, With the Mission to Menelik, 1897 (London, 1898), containing the story of the Rennell Rodd mission; R. P. Skinner, Abyssinia of To-Day (London, 1906), a record of the first American mission to the country; G. F. H. Berkeley, The Cam- paign of Adowa and the Rise of Menelik (London, 1902). Books deal- ing with missionary enterprise are — Journal of a Three Years' Residence in Abyssinia, by Bishop Samuel Gobat (London, 1834); J. L. Krapf, Travels, Researches and Missionary Labours during an 18 years' residence in Eastern Africa (London, i860); Cardinal G. Massaja, / miei Trentacinque anni di Missione nell' Alta Etiopia (10 vols., Milan, 1886-1893). Political questions are referred to by T. Lennox Gilmour, Abyssinia: the Ethiopian Railway and the Powers (London, 1906); H. le Roux, Menelik et nous (Paris, 1901); Charles Michel, La question d'Ethiopie (Paris, 1905). (F. R. C.) ABYSSINIAN CHURCH. As the chronicle of Axum relates, Christianity was adopted in Abyssinia in the 4th century. About a.d. 330 Frumentius was made first bishop of Ethiopia by Athanasius, patriarch of Alexandria. Cedrenus and Nice- phorus err in dating Abyssinian Christianity from Justinian, c. 542. From Frumentius to the present day, with one break, the Metropolitan (Abuna) has always been appointed from Egypt, and, oddly enough, he is always a foreigner. Little is known of church history down to the period of Jesuit rule, which broke the connexion with Egypt from about 1500 to 1633. But the Abyssinians rejected the council of Chalcedon, and still remain monophysites. Union with the Coptic Church {q.v.) continued after the Arab conquest in Egypt. Abu Salih records (12th century) that the patriarch used always to send letters twice a year to the kings of Abyssinia and Nubia, till Al Hakim stopped the practice. Cyril, 67th patriarch, sent Severus as bishop, with orders to put down polygamy and to enforce observance of canonical consecration for all churches. These examples show the close relations of the two churches in the Middle Ages. But early in the 16th century the church was brought under the influence of a Portuguese mission. In 1439, in the reign of Zara Yakub, a religious discussion between an Abyssinian, Abba Giorgis, and a Frank had led to the despatch of an embassy from Abyssinia to the Vatican; but the initiative in the Roman Catholic missions to Abyssinia was taken, not by Rome, but by Portugal, as an incident in the struggle with the Mussulmans for the command of the trade route to India by the 9 6 ACACIA Red Sea. In 1507 Matthew, or Matheus, an Armenian, had been sent as Abyssinian envoy to Portugal to ask aid against the Mussulmans, and in 1520 an embassy under Dom Rodrigo de Lima landed in Abyssinia. An interesting account of this mission, which remained for several years, was written by Francisco Alvarez, the chaplain. Later, Ignatius Loyola wished to essay the task of conversion, but was forbidden. Instead, the pope sent out Joao Nunez Barreto as patriarch of the East Indies, with Andre de Oviedo as bishop; and from Goa envoys went to Abyssinia, followed by Oviedo himself, to secure the king's adherence to Rome. After repeated failures some measure of success was achieved, but not till 1604 did the king make formal submission to the pope. Then the people rebelled and the king was slain. Fresh Jesuit victories were followed sooner or later by fresh revolt, and Roman rule hardly triumphed when once for all it was overthrown. In 1633 the Jesuits were expelled and allegiance to Alexandria resumed. There are many early rock-cut churches in Abyssinia, closely resembling the Coptic. After these, two main types of archi- tecture are found — one basilican, the other native. The cathe- dral at Axum is basilican, though the early basilicas are nearly all in ruins — e.g. that at Adulis and that of Martula Mariam in Gojam, rebuilt in the 16th century on the ancient foundations. These examples show the influence of those architects who, in the 6th centaury, built the splendid basilicas at Sanaa and else- where in Arabia. Of native churches there are two forms — one square or oblong, found in Tigre; the other circular, found in Amhara and Shoa. In both, the sanctuary is square and stands clear in the centre. An outer court, circular or rectangular, surrounds the body of the church. The square type may be due to basilican influence, the circular is a mere adaptation of the native hut: in both, the arrangements are obviously based on Jewish tradition. Church and outer court are usually thatched, with wattled or mud-built walls adorned with rude frescoes. The altar is a board on four wooden pillars having upon it a small slab (tabut) of alabaster, marble, or shittim wood, which forms its essential part. At Martula Mariam, the wooden altar overlaid with gold had two slabs of solid gold, one 500, the other 800 ounces in weight. The ark kept a.t Axum is described as 2 feet high, covered with gold and gems. The liturgy was celebrated on it in the king's palace at Christmas, Epiphany, Easter and Feast of the Cross. Generally the Abyssinians agree with the Copts in ritual and practice. The LXX. version was translated into Geez, the literary language, which is used for all services, though hardly understood. Saints and angels are highly revered, if not adored, but graven images are forbidden. Fasts are long and rigid. Confession and absolution, strictly enforced, give great power to the priesthood. The clergy must marry, but once only. Pil- grimage to Jerusalem is a religious duty and covers many sins. Authorities. — Tellez, Historia de Ethiopia (Coimbra, 1660) ; Alvarez, translated and edited for the Hakluyt Soc. by Lord Stanley of Alderley, under the title Narrative of the Portuguese Embassy to Abyssinia (London, 1881); Ludolphus, History of Ethiopia (London, 1684, and other works) ; T. Wright, Christianity of Arabia (London, 1855); C. T. Beke. "Christianity among the Gallas," Brit. Mag. (London, 1847); J. C. Hotten, Abyssinia Described (London, 1868); "Abyssinian Church Architecture," Royal Inst. Brit. Arch. Trans- actions, 1869; Ibid. Journal, March 1897; Archaeologia, vol. xxxii. ; J. A. de Graca Barreto, Documenta historian ecclesiae Habessinarum illustrantia (Olivipone, 1879) ; E. F. Kromrei, Glaubenlehre und Gebrduche der dlleren Abessinischen Kirche (Leipzig, 1895); F. M. E. Pereira, Vida do Abba Samuel (Lisbon, 1894); Idem, Vida do Abba Daniel (Lisbon, 1897) ; Idem, Historia dos Martyres de Nagran (Lisbon, 1899); Idem, Chronica de Susenyos (Lisbon, text 1892, tr. and notes 1900) ; Idem, Martyrio de Abba Isaac (Coimbra, 1903) ; Idem, Vida de S. Paulo de Thebas (Coimbra, 1904) ; Archdeacon Dowling, The Abyssinian Church, (London, 1909) ; and periodicals as under Coptic Church. (A. J. B.) ACACIA, a genus of shrubs and trees belonging to the family Leguminosae and the sub-family Mimoseae. The small flowers are arranged in rounded or elongated clusters. The leaves are compound pinnate in general (see fig.). In some instances, however, more especially in the Australian species, the leaflets are suppressed and the leaf-stalks become vertically flattened, and serve the purpose of leaves. The vertical position protects the structure from the intense sunlight, as with their edges towards the sky and earth they do not intercept light so fully as ordinary horizontally placed leaves. There are about 450 species of acacia widely scattered over the warmer regions of the globe. They abound in Australia and Africa. Various species yield gum. True gum-arabic is the product of Acacia Senegal, abun- dant in both east and west tropical Africa. Acacia arabica is the gum-arabic tree of India, but yields a gum inferior to the true gum-arabic. An astringent medicine, called catechu (q.v.) or cutch, is procured from several species, but more especially from Acacia catechu, by boiling down the wood and evaporating the solution so as to get an extract. The bark of Acacia arabica, under the name of babul or babool, is used in Scinde for tanning. The bark of various Australian species, known as wattles, is also very rich in tannin and forms an important article of export. Such are Acacia pycnantha, golden wattle, A. decurrens, tan wattle, and A. dealbata, silver wattle. The pods of Acacia nilotica, under the name of neb-neb, and of other African species Acacia Senegal, flowering branch, natural size (after A. Meyer and Schumann). From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik. are also rich in tannin and used by tanners. The seeds of Acacia niopo are roasted and used as snuff in South America. Some species afford valuable timber; such are Acacia melan- oxylon, black wood of Australia, which attains a great size; its wood is used for furniture, and takes a high polish ; and Acacia komalophylla (also Australian), myall wood, which yields a fragrant timber, used for ornamental purposes. Acacia formosa supplies the valuable Cuba timber called sabicu. Acacia seyal is supposed to be the shittah tree of the Bible, which supplied shittim-wood. Acacia heterophylla, from Mauritius and Bourbon, and Acacia koa from the Sandwich Islands are also good timber trees. The plants often bear spines, especially those growing in arid districts in Australia or tropical and South Africa. These sometimes represent branches which have become short, hard and pungent, or sometimes leaf-stipules. Acacia armata is the kangaroo-thorn of Australia, A. giraffae, the African camel- thorn. In the Central American Acacia sphaerocephala (bull- thorn acacia) and A. spadicigera, the large thorn-like stipules are hollow and afford shelter for ants, which feed on a secretion of honey on the leaf-stalk and curious food-bodies at the tips of the leaflets; in return they protect the plant against leaf-cutting insects. In common language the term Acacia is often applied to species of the genus Robihia (q.v.) which /belongs also to the ACADEMIES 97 Leguminous family, but is placed in a different section. Robinia Pseud-acacia, or false acacia, is cultivated in the milder parts of Britain, and forms a large tree, with beautiful pea-like blossoms. The tree is sometimes called the locust tree. ACADEMIES. The word "academy" is derived from "the olive grove of Academe, Plato's retirement, " the birthplace of the Academic school of philosophy (see under Academy, Greek). The schools of Athens after the model of the Academy continued to flourish almost without a break for nine centuries till they were abolished by a decree of Justinian. It was not without significance in tracing the history of the word that Cicero gave the name to his villa near Puteoli. It was there that he entertained his cultured friends and held the symposia which he afterwards elaborated in Academic Questions and other philosophic and moral dialogues. "Academy," in its modern acceptation, may be defined as a society or corporate body having for its object the cultivation and promotion of literature, of science and of art, either sever- ally or in combination, undertaken for the pure love of these pursuits, with no interested motive. Modern academies, more- over, have, almost without exception, some form of public recognition; they are either founded or endowed, or subsidized, or at least patronized, by the sovereign of the state. The term " academy " is very loosely used in modern times; and, in essentials, other bodies with the title of " society " or " college," or even " school; " often embody the same idea; we are only concerned here, however, with those which, bearing the title of academy, are of historical importance in their various spheres. Early History. — The first academy, as thus defined, though it might with equal justice claim to- be the first of universities, was the museum of Alexandria founded at the beginning of the 3rd century B.C. by the first of the Ptolemies. There all the sciences then known were pursued, and the most learned men of Greece and of the East gathered beneath its spacious por- ticos. Here, too, was the nucleus of the famous library of Alexandria. Passing over the state institute for the promotion of science founded at Constantinople by Caesar Bardas in the 9th century, and the various academies established by the Moors at Granada, at Corduba and as far east as Samarkand, we come to the academy over which Alcuin presided, a branch of the School of the Palace established by Charlemagne in 782. This academy was the prototype of the learned coteries of Paris which Moliere afterwards satirized. It took all knowledge for its province; it included the learned priest and the prince who could not write his own name, and it sought to solve all problems by witty definitions. The David of Alcuin's academy (such was the name that the emperor assumed) found no successors or imitators, and the tradition of an Oxford academy of Alfred the Great has been proved to rest on a forgery. The academy of arts founded at Florence in 1270 by Brunetto Latini was short-lived and has left no memories, and modern literary academies may be said to trace their lineage in direct descent from the troubadours of the early 14th century. The first Floral Games were held at Tou- louse in May 1324, at the summons of a gild of troubadours, who invited " honourable lords, friends and companions who possess the science whence spring joy, pleasure, good sense, merit and politeness " to assemble in their garden of the " gay science " and recite their works. The prize, a golden violet, was awarded to Vidal de Castelnaiidary for a poem to the glory of the Virgin. In spite of the English invasion and other adversities the Floral Games survived till, about the year 1500, their permanence was secured by the munificent bequest of Clemence Isaure, a rich lady of Toulouse. In 1694 the AcadSmie its Jeux Floraux was constituted an academy by letters patent of Louis XIV. ; its statutes were reformed and the number of members raised to 36. Suppressed during the Revolution it was revived in 1806, and still continues to award amaranths of gold and silver lilies, for which there is keen competition. Provence led the way, but Italy of the Renaissance is the soil in which academies most grew and flourished. The Accademia 1.4 Pontaniana, to give it its subsequent title, was founded at Flor- ence in 1433 by Antonio Beccadelli of Palermo and fostered by Lauren tius Valla. Far more famous was the Accademia Pla- tonica, founded c. 1442 by Cosimo de' Medici, which numbered among its members Marsilio Ficino, Pico della Mirandola, Machia- velli and Angelo Poliziano. It was, as the name implies, chiefly occupied with Plato, but it added to its objects the study of Dante and the purification of the Italian language, and though it lived for barely half a century, yet its influence as a model for similar learned societies was great and lasting. Modern Academics. — Academies have played an important part in the revival of learning and in the birth of scientific inquiry. They mark an age of aristocracies when letters were the distinction of the few and when science had not been differ- entiated into distinct branches, each with its own specialists. Their interest is mainly historical, and it cannot be maintained that at the present day they have much direct influence on the advancement of learning either by way of research or of publi- cation. For example, the standard dictionaries of France, Germany and England are the work, not of academies, but of individual scholars, of Littre, Grimm and Murray. Matthew Arnold's plea for an English academy of letters to save his countrymen from the note of vulgarity and provinciality has met with no response. Academies have been supplanted, socially by the modern club, and intellectually by societies devoted to special branches of science. Those that survive from the past serve, like the Heralds' College, to set an official stamp on literary and scientific merit. The principal academies of Europe, past and present, may be dealt with in various classes, according to the subjects to which they are devoted. I. Scientific Academies Austria. — The Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften. at Vienna, originally projected by Leibnitz, was founded by the emperor Ferdinand I. in 1846, and has two classes — mathe- matics and natural science, and history and philology. Belgium and the Netherlands. — A literary society was founded at Brussels in 1769 by Count Cobenzl, the prime minister of Maria Theresa, which after various changes of name and con- stitution became in 1816 the AcadSmie imperiale et royale des sciences et belles-lettres, under the patronage of William I. of the Netherlands. It has devoted itself principally to natural his- tory and antiquities. The Royal Institute of the Low Countries was founded in 1808 by King Louis Bonaparte. It was replaced in 1 85 1 by the Royal Academy of Sciences at Amsterdam, to which in 1856 a literary section was added. Denmark. — The Kongelige danske videnskabernes selskab (Royal Academy of Sciences) at Copenhagen owes its origin to Christian VI., who in 1742 invited six Danish numismatists to arrange his cabinet of medals. Historians and antiquaries were called in to assist at the sittings, and the commission developed into a sort of learned club. The king took it under his protec- tion, enlarged its scope by the addition of natural history, physics and mathematics, and in 1743 constituted it a royal academy with an endowment fund. France. — The old Academie des sciences had the same origin as the more celebrated AcadSmie francaise. A number of men of science had for some thirty years met together, first at the house of P. Marsenne, then at that of Montmort, a member of the Council of State, afterwards at that of Melchisedec Thevenot, the learned traveller. It included Descartes, Gassendi, Blaise and Etienne Pascal. Hobbes, the author of Leviathan, was presented to it during his visit to Paris in 1640. Colbert con- ceived the idea of giving an official status to this learned club. A number of chemists, physicians, anatomists and eminent mathematicians, among whom were Christian Huyghens and Bernard Frenicle de Bessy (1605-1675), the author of a famous treatise on magic squares, were chosen to form the nucleus of the new society. Pensions were granted by Louis XIV. to each of the members, and a fund for instruments and experiment was placed at their disposal. They began their session on the 22nd of December 1666 in the Royal Library, meeting twice & 11 9 8 ACADEMIES week — the mathematicians on Wednesdays, the physicists on Saturdays. Duhamel was appointed permanent secretary, a post he owed more to his polished Latinity than to his scientific attainments, all the proceedings of the society being recorded in Latin, and C. A. Couplet was made treasurer. At first the academy was rather a laboratory and observatory than an academy proper. Experiments were undertaken in common and results discussed. Several foreign savants, in particular the Danish astronomer Roemer, joined the society, attracted by the liberality of the Grand Monarque; and the German physi- cian and geometer Tschirnhausen and Sir Isaac Newton were made foreign associates. The death of Colbert, who was suc- ceeded by Louvois, exercised a disastrous effect on the fortunes of the academy. The labours of the academicians were diverted from the pursuit of pure science to such works as the construc- tion of fountains and cascades at Versailles, and the mathema- ticians were employed to calculate the odds of the games of lansquenet and basset. In 1699 the academy was reconstituted by Louis Phelypeaux, comte de Pontchartrain, under whose department as secretary of state the academies came. By its new constitution it consisted of twenty-five members, ten honorary, men of high rank interested in science, and fifteen pensionaries, who were the working members. Of these three were geometricians, three astronomers, three mechanicians, three anatomists, and three chemists. Each of these three had two associates, and, besides, each pensionary had the privilege of naming a pupil. There were eight foreign and four free associates. The officers were, a president and a vice-president, named by the king from among the honorary members, and a secretary and treasurer chosen from the pensionaries, who held office for life. Fontenelle, a man of wit, and rather a popularizer of science than an original investigator, succeeded Duhamel as secretary. The constitution was purely aristocratical, differing in that respect from that of the French Academy, in which the principle of equality among the members was never violated. Science was not yet strong enough to dispense with the patronage of the great. The two leading spirits of the academy at this period were Clairault and Reaumur. To trace the subsequent fortunes of this academy would be to write the history of the rise and progress of science in France. It has reckoned among its members Laplace, Buffon, Lagrange, D'Alembert, Lavoisier, and Jussieu, the father of modern botany. On the 21st of December 1792 it met for the last time, and it was suppressed with its sister academies by the act of the Convention on the 8th of April 1793. Some of its members were guillotined, some were imprisoned, more were reduced to poverty. The aristo- cracy of talent was almost as much detested and persecuted by the Revolution as that of rank. In 1795 the Convention decided on founding an Institut National which was to replace all the academies, and its first class corresponded closely to the old academy of sciences. In 1816 the Academie des sciences was reconstituted as a branch of the Institute. The new academy has reckoned among its members, besides many other brilliant men, Carnot the engineer, the physicists Fresnel, Ampere, Arago, Biot, the chemists Gay- Lussac and Thenard, the zoologists G. Cuvier and the two Geoffroy Saint- Hilaires. In France there were also considerable academies in most of the large towns. Montpellier, for example, had a royal academy of sciences, founded in 1706 by Louis XIV., on nearly the same footing as that of Paris, of which, indeed, it was in some measure the counterpart. It was reconstituted in 1847, and organized under three sections — medicine, science and letters. Toulouse also has an academy, founded in 1640, under the name of Societe de lanternistes; and there were analo- gous institutions at Nimes, Aries, Lyons, Dijon, Bordeaux and elsewhere. Germany. — The Collegium Curiosum was a scientific society, founded by J. C. Sturm, professor of mathematics and natural philosophy in the university of Altorf, in Franconia, in 1672, on the plan of the Accademia del Cimento. It originally consisted of twenty members, and continued to flourish long after the death of its founder. The early labours of the society were devoted to the repetition (under varied conditions) of the mosi notable experiments of the day, or to the discussion of the re- sults. Two volumes (1676-1685) of proceedings were published by Sturm. The former, Collegium Experimental sive Curiosum, begins with an account of the diving-bell, "a new invention"; next follow chapters on the camera obscura, the Torricellian experiment, the air-pump, microscope, telescope, &c. The Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, if judged by the work it has produced, holds the first place in Germany. Its origin was the Societas Regia Scientiarum, constituted in 1 700 by Frederick I. on the comprehensive plan of Leibnitz, who was its first president. Hampered and restricted under Frederick William I., it was reorganized under Frederick II. on the French model furnished by Maupertuis, and received its present con- stitution in 181 2. It is divided into two classes and four sections — physical and mathematical, philosophical and historical. Each section has a permanent secretary with a salary of 1200 marks, and each of the 50 regular members is paid 600 marks a year. Among the contributors to its transactions (first volume published in 17 10), to name only the dead, we find Immanuel Bekker, Bockling, Bernoulli, F. Bopp, P. Buttmann, Encke (of comet fame), L. Euler, the brothers Grimm, the two Humboldts, Lachmann, Lagrange, Leibnitz, T. Mommsen, J. Miiller, G. Niebuhr, C. • Ritter (the geographer), Savigny and Zumpt. Frederick II. presented in 1768.4 Dissertation on Ennui. To the Berlin Academy we owe the Corpus Inscriptionum Grae- carum, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, and the Monumenta Germaniae Historica. The Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Mannheim was founded by the elector Palatine in 1755. Since 1780 it has devoted itself specially to meteorology, and has published valuable observa- tions under the title of Ephemerides Societatis Meteor ologicae Theodoro-Palatinae. The Bavarian Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Mtinchen was founded in 1759. It is distinguished from other academies by the part it has played in national education. Maximilian Joseph, the enlightened elector (afterwards king) of Bavaria, induced the government to hand over to it the organization and super- intendence of public instruction, and this work was carried out by Privy-councillor Jacobi, the president of the academy. In recent years the academy has specially occupied itself with natural history. The Konigliche Akademie der Wissenschaften, at Erfurt, which dates from 1754 and devotes itself to applied science, and the Hessian academy of sciences at Giessen, which publishes medical transactions, also deserve mention. Great Britain and Ireland. — In 1616 a scheme for founding a royal academy was started by Edmund Bolton, an eminent scholar and antiquary, who in his petition to King James I., which was supported by George Villiers, marquis of Buckingham, proposed that the title of the academy should be "King James, his Academe or College of honour." A list of the proposed original members is still extant, and includes the names of George Chapman, Michael Drayton, Ben Jonson, John Selden, Sir Kenelm Digby and Sir Henry Wotton. The constitution is of interest as reflecting the mind of the learned king. The academy was to consist of three classes, — tutelaries, who were to be Knights of the Garter, auxiliaries, all noblemen or ministers of state, and the essentials, "called from out of the most famous lay gentlemen of England, and either living in the light of things, or without any title of profession or art of life for lucre." Among other duties to be assigned to this academy was the licensing of all books other than theological. The death of King James put an end to the undertaking. In 1635 a second attempt to found an academy was made under the patronage of Charles I., with the title of "Minerva's Museum," for the instruction of young noblemen in the liberal arts and sciences, but the project was soon dropped. (For the "British Academy" see III. below.) About 1645 the more ardent followers of Bacon used to meet, some in London, some at Oxford, for the discussion of subjects connected with experimental science. This was the original oi the Royal Society (q.v.), which received its charter in 1663. ACADEMIES 99 A society was formed in Dublin, similar to the Royal Society in London, as early as 1683; but the distracted state of the country proved unpropitious to the cultivation of philosophy and literature. The Royal Irish Academy grew from a society established in Dublin about 1782 by a number of gentlemen, most of whom belonged to the university. They held weekly meetings, and read, in turn, essays on various subjects. They professed to unite the advancement of science with the history of mankind and polite literature. The first volume of transac- tions appeared in 1788. Hungary. — The Magyar Tudomdnyos Akademia (Hungarian Academy of Sciences) was founded in 1825 by Count Stephen Szechenyi for the encouragement of the study of the Hungarian language and the various sciences. It has about 300 members and a fine building in Budapest containing a picture gallery and housing various national collections. Italy.^-The Academia Secretorum Naturae was founded at Naples in 1 560 by Giambattista della Porta. It arose like the French Academy from a little club of friends who met at della Porta 's house and called themselves the Otiosi. The condition of membership was to have made some discovery in natural science. Della Porta was suspected of practising the black arts and summoned to Rome to justify himself before the papal court. He was acquitted by Paul V., but commanded to close his academy. The Accademia dci Lincei, to which della Porta was admitted when at Rome, and of which he became the chief ornament, had been founded in 1603 by Federigo Cesi, the marchese di Monti- celli. Galileo and Colonna were among its earliest members. Its device was a lynx with upturned eyes, tearing a Cerberus with its claws. As a monument the Lincei have left the magni- ficent edition of Fernandez de Oviedo's Natural History of Mexico (Rome, 1651, fol.), printed at the expense of the founder and elaborately annotated by the members. This academy was resuscitated in 1870 under the title of Reale Accademia dei Lincei, with a literary as well as a scientific side, endowed in 1878 by King Humbert; and in 1883 it received official recog- nition from the Italian government, being lodged in the Corsini palace, whose owner made over to it his library and collections. The Accademia del Cimento was founded at Florence in 1657 by Leopold de' Medici, brother of the grand duke Ferdinand II., at the instigation of Vincenzo Viviani, the geometrician. It was an academy of experiment, a deliberate protest against the deductive science of the quadrivium. Its founder left it when he was made a cardinal, and it lasted only ten years, but the grand folio published in Italian (afterwards translated into Latin) in 1667 is a landmark in the history of science. It contains ex- periments on the pressure of the air (Torricelli and Borelli were among its members), on the incompressibility of water and on universal gravity. Science in Italy is now represented by the Reale Accademia idle Scienze (Royal Academy of Sciences), founded in 1757 as a private society, and incorporated under its present name by royal warrant in 1783. It consists of 40 full members, who must be residents of Turin, 20 non-resident, and 20 foreign members. It publishes a yearly volume of proceedings and awards prizes to learned works. There are, besides, royal academies of science at Naples, Lucca and Palermo. Portugal. — The Academia Real das Sciencias (Royal Academy of Sciences) at Lisbon dates from 1779. It was reorganized in 185 1 and since then has been chiefly occupied in the publication of Portugaliae Monumenta Historica. Russia. — The Academie Imperiale des sciences de Saint- Peters- bourg, Imperatorskaya Akademiya natik, was projected by Peter the Great. The advice of Wolff and Leibnitz was sought, and several learned foreigners were invited to become members. Peter himself drew the plan, and signed it on the 10th of February 1724; but his sudden death delayed its fulfilment. On the 21st of December 1725, however, Catherine I. established it according to his plan, and on the 27th the society met for the first time. On the 1st of August 1726, Catherine honoured the meeting with her presence, when Professor G. B. Bilfinger, a German scientist, delivered an oration upon the determination of magnetic variations and longitude. Shortly afterwards the empress settled a fund of £4982 per annum for the support of the academy; and 15 eminent members were admitted and pensioned, under the title of professors in the various branches of science and literature. The most distinguished of these were Nicholas and Daniel Bernouilli, the two Delisles, Bilfinger, and Wolff. During the short reign of Peter II. the salaries of members were discontinued, and the academy neglected by the Court; but it was again patronized by the empress Anne, who added a seminary under the superintendence of the professors. Both institutions flourished for some time under the direction of Baron Johann Albrecht Korff (1697-1766). At the accession of Elizabeth the original plan was enlarged and improved; learned foreigners were drawn to St Petersburg; and, what was considered a good omen for the literature of Russia, two natives, Lomonosov and Rumovsky, men of genius who had prosecuted their studies in foreign universities, were enrolled among its members. The annual income was increased to £10,659, and sundry other advantages were conferred upon the institution. Catherine II. utilized the academy for the advance- ment of national culture. She altered the court of directors greatly to the advantage of the whole body, corrected many of its abuses, added to its means, and infused a new vigour and spirit into its researches. By her recommendation the most intelligent professors visited all the provinces of her vast do- minions, with most minute and ample instructions to investigate the natural resources, conditions and requirements, and report on the real state of the empire. The result was that no country at that time could boast, within so few years, such a number of excellent official publications on its internal state, its natural productions, its topography, geography and history, and on the manners, customs and languages of the different tribes that inhabited it, as came from the press of this academy. In its researches in Asiatic languages, oriental customs and religions, it proved itself the worthy rival of the Royal Asiatic Society in England. The first transactions, Commentarii Academiae Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitanae ad annum 1726, with a dedication to Peter II., were published in 1728. This was con- tinued until 1747, when the transactions were called Novi Commentarii Academiae, &c; and in 1777, Acta Academiae Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitanae, with some alteration in the arrangements and plan of the work. The papers, hitherto in Latin only, were now written indifferently in Latin or in French, and a preface added, Partie Historique, which contains an ac- count of the society's meetings. Of the Commentaries, fourteen volumes were published: of the New Commentaries (17 50-1 776) twenty. Of the Acta Academiae two volumes are printed every year. In 1872 there was published at St Petersburg in 2 vols,, Tableau gineral des matieres contenues dans les publications de V Acadimie Imperiale des Sciences de St Petersbourg. The academy is composed, as at first, of fifteen professors, besides the president and director. Each of the professors has a house and an annual stipend of from £200 to £600. Besides the pro- fessors, there are four pensioned adjuncts, who are present at the meetings of the society, and succeed to the first vacancies. The buildings and apparatus of this academy are on a vast scale. There is a fine library, of 36,000 books and manuscripts; and an extensive museum, considerably augmented by the collections made by Pallas, Gmelin, Guldenstadt and other professors, during their expeditions through the Russian empire. The motto of the society is Paulatim. Spain. — The Real Academia Espanola at Madrid (see below) had a predecessor in the Academia Naturae curiosorum (dating from 1657) modelled on that of Naples. It was reconstituted in 1847 after the model of the French academy. Sweden. — The Kongliga Svenska Velenskaps Akademien owes its institution to six persons of distinguished learning, among whom was Linnaeus. They met on the 2nd of June 1739, and formed a private society, the Collegium Curiosorum; and at the end of the year their first publication made its appearance. IOO ACADEMIES As the meetings continued and the members increased the society attracted the notice of the king; and on the 31st of March 1741 it was incorporated as the Royal Swedish Academy. Though under royal patronage and largely endowed, it is, like the Royal Society in England, entirely self-governed. Each of the members resident at Stockholm becomes in turn president, and continues in office for three months. The dissertations read at each meeting are published in the Swedish language, quarterly, and make an annual volume. The first forty volumes, octavo, completed in 1779, are called the Old Transactions. United States of America. — The oldest scientific association in the United States is the American Philosophical Society Held at Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge. It owed its origin to Benjamin Franklin, who in 1743 published " A Proposal for Promoting Useful Knowledge among the British Plantations in America," which was so favourably received that in the same year the society was organized, with Thomas Hopkinson (1709-1751) as president and Franklin as secretary. In 1769 it united with another scientific society founded by Franklin, called the Anlerican Society Held at Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge, and adopted its present name, adding the descriptive phrase from the title of the American Society, and elected Franklin president, an office which he held until his death (1790). The American Philo- sophical Society is national in scope and is exclusively scien- tific; its Transactions date from 1771, and its Proceedings from 1838. It has a hall in Philadelphia, with meeting-rooms and a. valuable library and collection of interesting portraits and relics. David Rittenhouse was its second and Thomas Jefferson was its third president. In 1786 John Hyacinth de Magellan, of London, presented a fund, the income of which was to supply a gold medal for the author of the most important discovery " relating to navigation, astronomy or natural philosophy (mere natural history excepted)." An annual general meeting is held. The American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Boston), the second oldest scientific organization in the United States, was chartered in Massachusetts in 1780 by some of the most promi- nent men of that time. James Bowdoin was its first president, John Adams its second. The Academy published Memoirs beginning in 1785, and Proceedings from 1846. The Rumford Premium awarded through it for the most " important discovery or useful improvement on Heat, or on Light " is the income of $5000 given to the Academy by Count Rumford. The National Academy of Sciences (1863) was incorporated by Congress with the object that it " shall, whenever called upon by any department of the Government, investigate, examine, experiment and report upon any subject of science or art." Its membership was first limited to 50; after the amendment of the act of incorporation in 1870 the limit was placed at 100; and in 1907 it was prescribed that the resident membership should not exceed 1 50 in number, that not more than 10 members be elected in any one year, and that the number of foreign associates be restricted to 50. The Academy is divided into six committees: mathematics and astronomy; physics and en- gineering; chemistry; geology and palaeontology; biology; and anthropology. It gives several gold medals for meritorious researches and discoveries. It publishes scientific monographs (at the expense of the Federal Government) . Its presidents have been Alexander D. Bache, Joseph Henry, Wm. B. Rogers, Othniel C. Marsh, Wolcott Gibbs, Alexander Agassiz and Ira Remsen. The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia was or- ganized in 181 2. It has a large library, very rich in natural history, and its museum, with nearly half a million specimens, is particularly strong in conchology and ornithology. The society has published Journals since 1817, and Proceedings since 1 841; it also has published the American Journal of Conchology. The American Entomological Society (in 1 859-1 867 the Entomo- logical Society of Philadelphia, and since 1876 part of this academy) has published Proceedings since 1861, and the Entomo- logical News (a monthly). There are also other scientific organizations like the American Association for the Advancement of Science (chartered in 1874, as a continuation of the American Association of Geologists, founded in 1840 and becoming in 1842 the American Association of Geologists and Naturalists), which publishes its Proceedings annually; the American Geographical Society (1852), with headquarters in New York; the National Geographic Society (1888), with headquarters in Washington, D.C.; the Geological Society of America (1888), the American Ornithologists' Union (1883), the American Society of Naturalists (1883), the Botanical Society of America (1893), the American Academy of Medicine (1876); and local academies of science, or of special sciences, in many of the larger cities. The Smithsonian Institution at Washington is treated in a separate article. II. Academies of Belles Lettres Belgium. — Belgium has always been famous for its literary societies. The little town of Diest boasts that it possessed a society of poets in 1302, and the Catherinists of Alost date from 1 107. It is at least certain that numerous Chambers of Rhetoric (so academies were then called) existed in the first years of the rule of the house of Burgundy. France. — The French Academy (I'Acade'mie franqaise) was established by order of the king in the year 1635, but in its original form existed four or five years earlier. About the year 1629 certain literary friends in Paris agreed to meet informally each week at the house of Valentin Courart, the king's secretary. The conversation turned mostly on literary topics; and when one of the number had finished some literary work, he read it to the rest, and they gave their opinions upon it. The fame of these meetings, though the members were bound to secrecy, reached the ears of Cardinal Richelieu, who promised his protection and offered to incorporate the society by letters patent. Nearly all the members would have preferred the charms of privacy, but, considering the risk they would run in incurring the cardinal's displeasure, and that by the letter of the law all meetings of any sort were prohibited, they expressed their gratitude for the high honour the cardinal thought fit to confer on them, proceeded at once to organize their body, settle their laws and constitution, appoint officers and choose a name. Letters patent were granted by the king on the 29th of January 1635. The officers consisted of a director and a chancellor, chosen by lot, and a permanent secretary, chosen by vote. They elected also a publisher, not a member of the body. The director presided at the meetings, being considered as primus inter pares. The chancellor kept the seals and sealed all the official documents of the academy. The cardinal was ex officio protector. The meetings were held weekly as before.' The object for which the academy was founded, as set forth in its statutes, was the purification of the French language. " The principal function of the academy shall be to labour with all care and diligence to give certain rules to our language, and to render it pure, eloquent and capable of treating the arts and sciences " (Art. 24). They proposed " to cleanse the language from the impurities it has contracted in the mouths of the common people, from the jargon of the lawyers, from the mis- usages of ignorant courtiers, and the abuses of the pulpit" {Letter of A cademy to Cardinal Richelieu) . The number of members was fixed at forty. The original members formed a nucleus of eight, and it was not till 1639 that the full number was completed. Their first undertaking con- sisted of essays written by the members in rotation. To judge by the titles and specimens which have come down to us, these possessed no special originality or merit, but resembled the hnSd^eis of the Greek rhetoricians. Next, at the instance of Cardinal Richelieu, they undertook a criticism of Corneille's Cid, the most popular work of the day. It was a rule of the academy that no work could be criticized except at the author's request, and fear of incurring the cardinal's displeasure wrung from Corneille an unwilling consent. The critique of the academy was re-written several times before it met with the cardinal's approbation. After six months of elaboration, it was published ACADEMIES 101 under the title, Sentiments de Vacadimie fransaise sur le Cid. This judgment did not satisfy Corneille, as a saying attributed to him on the occasion shows. "Horalius," he said, referring to his last play, " was condemned by the Duumviri, but he was absolved by the people." But the crowning labour of the academy, begun in 1639, was a dictionary of the French language. By the twenty-sixth article of their statutes, they were pledged to compose a dictionary, a grammar, a treatise on rhetoric and one on poetry. Jean Chapelain, one of the original members and leading spirits of the academy, pointed out that the diction- ary would naturally be the first of these works to be undertaken, and drew up a plan of the work, which was to a great extent carried out. A catalogue was to be made of all the most ap- proved authors, prose and verse: these were to be distributed among the members, and all approved words and phrases were to be marked for incorporation in the dictionary. For this they resolved themselves into two committees, which sat on other than the regular days. C. F. de Vaugelas was appointed editor in chief. To remunerate him for his labours, he received from the cardinal a pension of 2000 francs. The first edition of this dictionary appeared in 1694, the sixth and last in 1835, since when complements have been added. This old Academie jranqaise perished with the other pre- revolutionary academies in 1793, and it has little but the name in common with the present academy, a section of the Institute. That Jean Baptfste Suard, the first perpetual secretary of the new, had been a member of the old academy, is the one con- necting link. The chronicles of the Institute down to the end of 1895 have been given in full by the count de Franqueville in Le premier siecle de I'lnstitut de France, and from it we extract a few lead- ing facts and dates. Before the Revolution there were in exist- ence the following institutions: — (1) the Acadimie de poesie et de musique, founded by Charles IX. in 1570 at the instigation of Baif, which counted among its members Ronsard and most of the Pleiade; (2) the Acadimie des inscriptions el medailles, founded in 1701; (3) the Academie des inscriptions et belles- lettres; (4) the old Academie des sciences; (5) the Acadimie de peinture et de sculpture, a school as well as an academy; (6) the Academie d' architecture. The object of the Convention in 1795 was to rebuild all the institutions that the Revolution had shattered and to combine them in an organic whole; in the words of the preamble: — " II y a pour toute la Ripublique un Institut national charge de recueiller les dicouvertes, de perfeclionner les arts el les sciences." As Renan has remarked, the Institute embodied two ideas, one disputable, the other of undisputed truth: — That science and art are a state concern, and that there is a solidarity between all branches of knowledge and human activities. The Institute was at first composed of 184 members resident in Paris and an equal number living in other parts of France, with 24 foreign members, divided into three classes, (1) physical and mathe- matical science, (2) moral and political science, (3) literature and the fine arts. It held its first sitting on the 4th of April 1796. Napoleon as first consul suppressed the second class, as subversive of government, and reconstituted the other classes as follows: (1) as before, (2) French language and literature, (3) ancient history and literature, (4) fine arts. The class of moral and political science was restored on the proposal of M. Guizot in 1832, and the present Institute consists of the five classes named above. Each class or academy has its own special jurisdiction and work, with special funds; but there is a general fund and a common library, which, with other common affairs, are managed by a committee of the Institute — two chosen from each academy, with the secretaries. Each member of the Institute receives an annual allowance of 1 200 francs, and the secretaries of the different academies have a, salary of 6000 francs. The class of the Institute which deals with the language and literature takes precedence, and is known as the Acadimie jrancaise. There was at first no perpetual secretary, each secretary of sections presiding in turn. Shortly afterwards J. B. Suard was elected to the post, and ever since the history of the academy has been determined by the reigns of its succes- sive perpetual secretaries. The secretary, to borrow an epigram of Sainte-Beuve, both reigns and governs. There have been in order: Suard (13 years), Francois Juste Raynouard (9 years), Louis Simon Auger, Francois Andrieux, Arnault, Villemain (34 years), Henri Joseph Patin, Charles Camille Doucet (19 years), Gaston Boissier. Under Raynouard the academy ran a tilt against the abb6 Delille and his followers. Under Aug^r it did battle with romanticism, " a new literary schism." Auger did not live to see the election of Lamartine in 1829, and it needed ten more years for Victor Hugo after many vain assaults to enter by the breach. The academy is professedly non-political. It accepted and even welcomed in succession the empire, the restoration and the reign of Louis Philippe, and it tolerated the republic of 1848; but to the second empire it offered a passive resistance, and no politician of the second empire, what- ever his gifts as an orator or a writer, obtained an armchair. The one seeming exception, Emile Ollivier, confirms the rule. He was elected on the eve of the Franco-German war, but his discours de reception, a eulogy of the emperor, was deferred and never delivered. The Institute appears in the annual budget for a grant of about 700,000 fr. It has also large vested funds in property, including the magnificent estate and library of Chantilly bequeathed to it by the due d'Aumale. It awards various prizes, of which the most considerable are the Montyon prizes, each of 20,000 fr., one for the poor Frenchman who has performed the most virtuous action during the year, and one for the French author who has published the book of most service to morality. The conditions are liberally interpreted; the first prize is divided among a number of the deserving poor, and the second has been assigned for lexicons to Moliere, Corneille and Madame de Sevigne. One alteration in the methods of the French Academy has to be chronicled: in 1859 it became the custom to discuss the claims of the candidates at a preliminary meeting of the members. In 1880, on the instance of the philosopher Caro, supported by A. Dumas, fils, and by the aged Desire Nisard, it was decided to abandon this method. A point of considerable interest is the degree in which, since its foundation, the French Academy has or has not represented the best literary life of France. It appears from an examination of the lists of members that a surprising number of authors of the highest excellence have, from one cause or another, escaped- the honour of academic " immortality." When the academy, was founded in 1634, the moment was not a very brilliant one in French letters. Among the forty original members we find: only ten who are remembered in literary history; of these four may reasonably be considered famous still — Balzac, Chapelain, Racan and Voiture. In that generation Scarron was never one of the forty, nor do the names of Descartes, Malebranche or Pascal occur; Descartes lived in Holland, Scarron was paralytic, Pascal was best known as a mathematician — (his Lettres pro- vincioles was published anonymously) — and when his fame was rising he retired to Port Royal, where he lived the life of a recluse. The due de la Rochefoucauld declined the honour from a proud modesty, and Rotrou died too soon to be elected. The one astounding omission of the 17 th century, however, is the name of Moliere, who was excluded by his profession as an actor. 1 On the other hand, the French Academy was never more thoroughly representative of letters than when Boileau, Corneille, La Fontaine, Racine, and Quinault were all members. Of the great theologians of that and the subsequent age, the Academy contained Bossuet, Flechier, Fenelon, and Massillon, but not Bourdaloue. La Bruyere and Fontenelle were among the forty, but not Saint-Simon, whose claims as a man of letters were unknown to his contemporaries. Early in the 18th century almost every literary personage of eminence found his place naturally in the Academy. The only exceptions of importance 1 The Academy has made the amende honorable by placing in the Salle des stances a bust of Moliere, with the inscription "Rienne manque a sa gloire, il manquait d, la notre." 102 ACADEMIES were Vauvenargues, who died too early for the honour, and two men of genius but of dubious social position, Le Sage and the abbe Prevost d'Exiles. The approach of the Revolution affected gravely the personnel of the Academy. Montesquieu and Voltaire belonged to it, but not Rousseau or Beaumarchais. Of the Encyclopaedists, the French Academy opened its doors to D'Alembert, Condorcet, Volney, Marmontel and La Harpe, but not to Diderot, Rollin, Condillac, Helvetius or the Baron d'Holbach. Apparently the claims of Turgot and of Quesnay did not appear to the Academy sufficient, since neither was elected. In the transitional period, when the social life of Paris was distracted and the French Academy provisionally closed, neither Andre Chenier nor Benjamin Constant nor Joseph de Maistre became a member. In the early years of the 19th century considerations of various kinds excluded from the ranks of the forty the dissimilar names of Lamennais, Prudhon, Comte and Bdranger. Critics of the French Academy are fond of point- ing out that neither Stendhal, nor Balzac, nor Theophile Gautier, nor Flaubert, nor Zola penetrated into the Mazarine Palace. It is not so often remembered that writers so academic as Thierry and Michelet and Quinet suffered the same exclusion. In later times neither Alphonse Daudet nor Edmond de Goncourt, neither Guy de Maupassant nor Ferdinand Fabre, has been among the forty immortals. The non-election, after a long life of distinc- tion, of the scholar Fustel de Coulanges is less easy to account for. Verlaine, although a poet of genius, was of the kind that no academy can ever be expected to recognize. Concerning the influence of the French Academy on the lan- guage and literature, the most opposite opinions have been advanced. On the one hand, it has been asserted that it has corrected the judgment, purified the taste and formed the lan- guage of French writers, and that to it we owe the most striking characteristics of French literature, its purity, delicacy and flexi- bility. Thus Matthew Arnold, in his Essay on the Literary Influence of Academies, has pronounced a glowing panegyric on the French Academy as a high court of letters, and a rallying-point for educated opinion, as asserting the authority of a master in matters of tone and taste. To it he attributes in a great measure that thoroughness, that openness of mind, that absence of vulgarity which he finds everywhere in French literature; and to the want of a similar institution in England he traces that eccentricity, that provincial spirit, that coarseness which, as he thinks, are barely compensated by English genius. Thus, too, Renan, one of its most distinguished members, says that it is owing to the academy " qu'on pent tout dire sans appareil scholastique avec la langue des gens du monde." " Ah ne dites," he exclaims, " qu'ils n'ont rien fait, ces obscures beaux esprits dont la vie se passe a instruire le prods des mots, A peser les syllables. lis ont fait un chef-d'asuvre — la langue franqaise." On the other hand, its inherent defects have been well summed up by P. Lanfrey in his Histoire de Napoleon: " This institution had never shown itself the enemy of despotism. Founded by the monarchy and for the monarchy, eminently favourable to the spirit of intrigue and favouritism, incapable of any sustained or combined labour, a stranger to those great works pursued in common which legitimize and glorify the existence of scientific bodies, occupied exclusively with learned trifles, fatal to emulation, which it pretends to stimulate, by the compromises and calcu- lations to which it subjects it, directed in everything by petty considerations, and wasting all its energy in childish tourna- ments, in which the flatteries that it showers on others are only a foretaste of the compliments it expects in return for itself, the French Academy seems to have received from its founders the special mission to transform genius into bel esprit, and it would be hard to produce a man of talent whom it has not demoralized. Drawn in spite of itself towards politics, it alternately pursues and avoids them; but it is specially attracted by the gossip of politics, and whenever it has so far emancipated itself as to go into opposition, it does so as the champion of ancient prejudices. If we examine its influence on the national genius, we shall see that it has given it a flexibility, a brilliance, a polish, which it never possessed before; but it has done so at the expense of its masculine qualities, its originality, its spontaneity, its vigour, its natural grace. It has disciplined it, but it has emasculated, impoverished and rigidified it. It sees in taste, not a sense of the beautiful, but a certain type of correctness, an elegant form of mediocrity. It has substituted pomp for grandeur, school routine for individual inspiration, elaborateness for simplicity, fadeur and the monotony of literary orthodoxy for variety, the source and spring of intellectual life; and in the works produced under its auspices we discover the rhetorician and the writer, never the man. By all its traditions the academy was made to be the natural ornament of a monarchical society. Richelieu conceived and created it as a sort of superior centralization applied to intellect, as a high literary court to maintain intel- lectual unity and protest against innovation. Bonaparte, aware of all this, had thought of re-establishing its ancient privileges; but it had in his eyes one fatal defect — esprit. Kings of France could condone a witticism even against themselves, a parvenu could not." On the whole the influence of the French Academy has been conservative rather than creative. It has done much by its example for style, but its attempts to impose its laws on lan- guage have, from the nature of the case, failed. For, however perfectly a dictionary or a grammar may represent the existing language of a nation, an original genius is certain to arise — a Victor Hugo or an Alfred de Musset — who will set at defiance all dictionaries and academic rules. Germany. — Of the German literary academies the most cele- brated was Die Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft (the Fruitful Society), established at Weimar in 161 7. Five princes were among the original members. The object was to purify the mother tongue. The German academies copied those of Italy in their quaint titles and petty ceremonials, and exercised little permanent influence on the language or literature of the country. Italy. — Italy in the 16th century was remarkable for the number of its literary academies. Tiraboschi, in his History of Italian Literature, has given a list of 171; and Jarkius, in his Specimen Historiae Academiarum Condilarum, enumerates nearly 700. Many of these, with a sort of Socratic irony, gave themselves ludicrous names, or names expressive of ignorance. Such were the Lunatici of Naples, the Estravaganti, the Ful- minales, the Trapessati, the Drowsy, the Sleepers, the Anxious, the Confused, the Unstable, the Fantastic, the Transformed, the Ethereal. " The first academies of Italy chiefly directed their attention to classical literature; they compared manuscripts; they suggested new readings or new interpretations; they de- ciphered inscriptions or coins, they sat in judgment on a Latin ode or debated the propriety of a phrase. Their own poetry had, perhaps, never been neglected; but it was not till the writings of Bembo furnished a new code of criticism in the Italian language that they began to study it with the same minuteness as modern Latin." " They were encouragers of a numismatic and lapidary erudition, elegant in itself, and throwing for ever little specks of light on the still ocean of the past, but not very favourable to comprehensive observation, and tending to bestow on an unprofitable pedantry the honours of real learning." 1 The Italian nobility, excluded as they mostly were from politics, and living in cities, found in literature a consolation and a career. Such academies were oligarchical in their constitution; they encouraged culture, but tended to hamper genius and extinguish originality. Far the most celebrated was the Accademia della Crusca or Furfuralorum; that is, of bran, or of the sifted, founded in 1582. The title was borrowed from a previous society at Perugia, the Accademia degli Scossi, of the well-shaken. Its device was a sieve; its motto, "II phi bel fior ne coglie " (it collects the finest flower); its principal object the purification of the language. Its great work was the Vocabulario della Crusca, printed at Venice in 161 2. It was composed avowedly on Tuscan principles, and regarded the 14th century as the Augustan period of the language. Paul Beni assailed it in his Anti-Crusca, and this exclusive Tuscan purism has disappeared in subsequent editions. The Accademia della Crusca is now incorporated with 1 Hallam's Int. to Lit. of Europe, vol. i. p. 654, and vol. ii. p. 502. ACADEMIES 103 two older societies — the Accademia degll Apatici (the Impartials) and the Accademia Flotenlina. Among the numerous other literary academies of Italy we may mention the academy of Naples, founded about 1440 by Alphonso, the king; the Academy of Florence, founded 1540, to illustrate and perfect the Tuscan tongue, especially by the close study of Petrarch; the Intronati of Siena, 1525; the Infiammati of Padua, 1534; the Rozzi of Siena, suppressed by Cosimo, 1568. The Academy of Humorists arose from a casual meeting of witty noblemen at the marriage of Lorenzo Marcini, a Roman gentleman. It was carnival time, and to give the ladies some diversion they recited verses, sonnets and speeches, first im- promptus and afterwards set compositions. This gave them the name, Belli Humori, which, after they resolved to form an academy of belles lettres, they changed to Humoristi. In 1690 the Accademia degli Arcadi was founded at Rome, for the purpose of reviving the study of poetry, by Crescimbeni, the author of a history of Italian poetry. Among its members were princes, cardinals and other ecclesiastics; and, to avoid disputes about pre-eminence, all came to its meetings masked and dressed like Arcadian shepherds. Within ten years from its establishment the number of academicians was 600. The Royal Academy of Savoy dates from 17 19, and was made a royal academy by Charles Albert in 1848. Its emblem is a gold orange tree full of flowers and fruit; its motto " Flores fructusque perennes," the same as that of the famous Florimen- tane Academy, founded at Annecy by St Francis de Sales. It has published valuable memoirs on the history and antiquities of Savoy. Spain. — The Real Academia Espanola at Madrid held its first meeting in July 17 13, in the palace of its founder, the duke d'Escalona. It consisted at first of 8 academicians, including the duke; to which number 14 others were afterwards added, the founder being chosen president or director. In 17 14 the king granted them the royal confirmation and protection. Their device is a crucible in the middle of the fire, with this motto, Limpia, fixa, y da esplendor — " It purifies, fixes, and gives bright- ness." The number of its members was limited to 24; the duke d'Escalona was chosen director for life, but his successors were elected yearly, and the secretary for life. Their object, as marked out by the royal declaration, was to cultivate and im- prove the national language. They were to begin with choosing carefully such words and phrases as have been used by the best Spanish writers; noting the low, barbarous or obsolete ones; and composing a dictionary wherein these might be distinguished from the former. Sweden. — The Svenska Akademien was founded in 1786, for the purpose of purifying and perfecting the Swedish language. A medal is struck by its direction every year in honour of some illustrious Swede. This academy does not publish its transac- tions. III. Academies of Archaeology and History France. — The old Acadimie des inscriptions et belles-lettres (or " Petite Academie," founded in 1663) was an offshoot of the French Academy, which then at least contained the Mite of French learning. Louis XIV. was of all French kings the one most occupied with his own aggrandisement. Literature, and even science, he only encouraged so far as they redounded to his own glory. Nor were literary men inclined to assert their independence. Boileau well represented the spirit of the age when, in dedicating his tragedy Berenice to Colbert, he wrote: " The least things become important if in any degree they can serve the glory and pleasure of the king." Thus it was that the Academy of Inscriptions arose. At the suggestion of Colbert a company (a committee we should now call it) had been ap- pointed by the king, chosen from the French Academy, charged with the office of furnishing inscriptions, devices and legends for medals. It consisted of four academicians: Chapelain, then considered the poet laureate of France, one of the authors of the critique on the Cid; the abb6 Amable de Bourzeis (1606- 1671); Francois Charpentier (1620-1702), an antiquary of high repute among his contemporaries; and the abbe Jacques de Cassagnes (1636-1679), who owed his appointment more to the fulsome flattery of his odes than to his really learned translations of Cicero and Sallust. This company used to meet in Colbert's library in the winter, at his country-house at Sceaux in the summer, generally on Wednesdays, to serve the convenience of the minister, who was always present. Their meetings were principally occupied with discussing the inscriptions, statues and pictures intended for the decoration of Versailles; but Colbert, a really learned man and an enthusiastic collector of manuscripts, was often pleased to converse with them on matters of art, history and antiquities. Their first published work was a collection of engravings, accompanied by descrip- tions, designed for some of the tapestries at Versailles. Louvois, who succeeded Colbert as a superintendent of buildings, revived the company, which had begun to relax its labours. F61ibien, the learned architect, and the two great poets Racine and Boileau, were added to their number. A series of medals was commenced, entitled Midailles de la Grande Histoire, or, in other words, the history of the Grand Monarque. But it was to M. de Pontchartrain, comptroller-general of finance, and secretary of state, that the academy owed its in- stitution. He added to the company Renaudot and Jacques Tourreil, both men of vast learning, the latter tutor to his son, and put at its head his nephew, the abbe Jean Paul Bignon, librarian to the king. By a new regulation, dated the 16th of July 1 70 1, the Acadimie royale des inscriptions et midailles was instituted, being composed of ten honorary members, ten pensioners, ten associates, and ten pupils. Its constitution was an almost exact copy of that of the Academy of Sciences. Among the regulations we find the following, which indicates clearly the transition from a staff of learned officials to a learned body: " The academy shall concern itself with all that can contribute to the perfection of inscriptions and legends, of designs for such monuments and decorations as may be submitted to its judg- ment; also with the description of all artistic works, present and future, and the historical explanation of the subject of such works; and as the knowledge of Greek and Latin antiquities, and of these two languages, is the best guarantee for success in labours of this class, the academicians shall apply themselves to all that this division of learning includes, as one of the most worthy objects of their pursuit." Among the first honorary members we find the indefatigable Mabillon (excluded from the pensioners by reason of his orders), Pere La Chaise, the king's confessor, and Cardinal Rohan; among the associates Fontenelle and Rollin, whose Ancient History was submitted to the academy for revision. In 1711 they completed L'Histoire mitallique du roi, of which Saint- Simon was asked to write the preface. In 1716 the regent changed its title to that of the Acadimie des inscriptions et belles- lettres, a title which better suited its new character. In the great battle between the Ancients and the Moderns which divided the learned world in the first half of the 18th century, the Academy of Inscriptions naturally espoused the cause of the Ancients, as the Academy of Sciences did that of the Moderns. During the earlier years of the French Revolu- tion the academy continued its labours uninterruptedly; and on the 22nd of January 1793, the day after the death of Louis XVI., we find in the Proceedings that M. Brequigny read a paper on the projects of marriage between Queen Elizabeth and the dukes of Anjou and Alencon. In the same year were published the 45th and 46th vols, of the Mimoires de I'acadSmie. On the 2nd of August of the same year the last stance of the old academy was held. More fortunate than its sister Academy of Sciences, it lost only three of its members by the guillotine. One of these was the astronomer Sylvain Bailly. Three others sat as members of the Convention; but for the honour of the academy, it should be added that all three were distinguished by their moderation. In the first draft of the new Institute, October 25, 1795, no class corresponded exactly to the old Academy of Inscrip- tions; but most of the members who survived found themselves I04 ACADEMIES re-elected either in the class of moral and political science, under which history and geography were included as sections, or more generally under the class of literature and fine arts, which em- braced ancient languages, antiquities and monuments. In 1816 the academy received again its old name. The Pro- ceedings of the society embrace a vast field, and are of very various merits. Perhaps the subjects on which it has shown most originality are comparative mythology, the history of science among the ancients, and the geography and antiquities of France. The old academy has reckoned among its members De Sacy the orientalist, Dansse de Villoison (1750-1805) the philologist, Anquetil du Perron the traveller, Guillaume J. de C. L. Sainte-Croix and du Theil the antiquaries, and Le Beau, who has been named the last of the Romans. The new academy has inscribed on its lists the names of Champollion, A. Remusat, Raynouard, Burnouf and Augustin Thierry. In consequence of the attention of several literary men in Paris having been directed to Celtic antiquities, a Celtic Academy was established in that city in 1805. Its objects were, first, the elucidation of the history, customs, antiquities, manners and monuments of the Celts, particularly in France; secondly, the etymology of all the European languages, by the aid of the Celto-British, Welsh and Erse ; and, thirdly, researches relating to Druidism. The attention of the members was also particu- larly called to the history and settlements of the Galatae in Asia. Lenoir, the keeper of the museum of French monuments, was appointed president. The academy still exists as La sociite nationale des antiquaires de France. Great Britain. — The British Academy was the outcome of a meeting of the principal European and American academies, held at Wiesbaden in October 1899. A scheme was drawn up for an international association of the academies of the world under the two sections of natural science and literary science, but while the Royal Society adequately represen ted Englandinscience there was then no existing institution that could claim to represent England in literature, and at the first meeting of the federated academies this chair was vacant. A plan was proposed by Professor H. Sidgwick to add a new section to the Royal Society, but after long deliberation this was rejected by the president and council. The promoters of the plan thereupon determined to form a separate society, and invited certain persons to become the first members of a new body, to be called "The British Academy for the promotion of historical, philosophical and philological studies." The unincorporated body thus formed petitioned for a charter, and on the 8th of August 1902 the royal charter was granted and the by-laws were allowed by order in council. The objects of the academy are therein defined — -"the promo- tion of the study of the moral and political sciences, including history, philosophy, law, politics and economics, archaeology and philology." The number of ordinary fellows (so all members are entitled) is restricted to one hundred, and the academy is governed by a president (the first being Lord Reay) and a council of fifteen elected annually by the fellows. Italy. — Under this class the Accademia Ercolanese (Academy of Herculaneum) properly ranks. It was established at Naples about 1755, at which period a museum was formed of the anti- quities found at Herculaneum, Pompeii and other places, by the marquis Tanucci, who was then minister of state. Its object was to explain the paintings, &c, discovered at those places. For this purpose the members met every fortnight, and at each meeting three paintings were submitted to three academicians, who made their report at their next sitting. The first volume of their labours appeared in 1775, and they have been continued under the title of Antichitd di Ercolano. They contain engravings, of the principal paintings, statues, bronzes, marble figures, medals, utensils, &c, with explanations. In the year 1807 an academy of history and antiquities, on a new plan, was estab- lished at Naples by Joseph Bonaparte. The number of members was limited to forty, twenty of whom were to be appointed by the king; and these twenty were to present to him, for his choice, three names for each of those needed to complete the full number. Eight thousand ducats were to be annually allotted for the current expenses, and two thousand for prizes to the authors of four works which should be deemed by the academy most deserving of such a reward. A grand meeting was to be held every year, when the prizes were to be distributed and analyses of the works read. The first meeting took place on the 25th of April 1807; but the subsequent changes in the political state of Naples prevented the full and permanent establishment of this institution. In the same year an academy was established at Florence for the illustration of Tuscan antiquities, which pub- lished some volumes of memoirs. IV. Academies of Medicine and Surgery Austria. — The defunct Academy of Surgery at Vienna was instituted in 1784 by the emperor Joseph II. under the direction of the distinguished surgeon, Giovanni Alessandro Brambilla (1728-1800). For many years it did important work, and though closed in 1848 was reconstituted by the emperor Francis Joseph in 1854. In 1874 it ceased to exist; its functions had become mainly military, and were transferred to newer schools. France. — Acadimie de Medecine. Medicine is a science which has always engaged the attention of the kings of France. Charle- magne established a school of medicine in the Louvre, and various societies have been founded, and privileges granted to the faculty by his successors. The Acadimie de midecim succeeded to the old Acadimie royale de chirurgie et sociiti royale de midecine. It was erected by a royal ordinance, dated December 20, 1820. It was divided into three sections — medicine, surgery and pharmacy. In its constitution it closely resembled the Acadimie des sciences. Its function was to preserve or propagate vaccine matter, and answer inquiries addressed to it by the government on the subject of epidemics, sanitary reform and public health generally. It has maintained an enormous correspondence in all quarters of the globe and published extensive minutes. Germany. — The Academia Naturae Curiosi, afterwards called the Academia Caesar aea Leopoldina, was founded in 1662 by J. L. Bausch, a physician of Leipzig, who published a general invitation to medical men to communicate all extraordinary cases that occurred in the course of their practice. The works of the Naturae Curiosi were at first published separately ; but in 1770 a new arrangement was planned for publishing a volume of observations annually. From some cause, however, the first volume did not make its appearance until 1784, when, it was published under the title of Ephemerides. In 1687 the emperor Leopold took the society under his protection, and its name was changed in his honour. This academy has no fixed abode, but follows the home of its president. Its library remains at Dresden. By its constitution the Leopoldine Academy consists of a presi- dent, two adjuncts or secretaries and unlimited colleagues or members. At their admission the last come under a twofold obligation — first, to choose some subject for discussion out of the animal, vegetable or mineral kingdoms, not previously treated by any colleague of the academy ; and, secondly, to apply them- selves to furnish materials for the annual Ephemerides. . V. Academies of the Fine Arts France. — The Acadimie royale de peinture et de sculpture at Paris was founded by Louis XIV. in 1648, under the title of Acadimie royale des beaux arts, to which was afterwards united the Acadimie d' architecture, founded 1671. It is composed of painters, sculptors, architects, engravers and musical composers. From among the members of the society who are painters, is chosen the director of the French Acadimie des beaux arts at Berne, also instituted by Louis XIV. in 1677. The director's province is to superintend the studies of the painters, sculptors, &c, who, chosen by competition, are sent to Italy at the expense of the government, to complete their studies in that country. Most of the celebrated French painters have begun their career in this way. The Acadimie nationale de musique is the official and adminis- trative name given in France to the grand opera. In 1570 the poet Baif established in his house a school of music, at which ballets and masquerades were given. In 1645 Mazarin brought ACADEMY 10- from Italy a troupe of actors, and established them in the rue du Petit Bourbon, where they gave Jules Strozzi's Achitte in Sciro, the first opera performed in France. After Moliere's death in 1673, his theatre in the Palais Royal was given to Sulli, and there were performed all Gluck's great operas; there Vestris danced, and there was produced Jean Jacques Rousseau's Devin du Village. Great Britain. — The Royal Academy of Arts in London, founded in 1768, is described in a separate article. (See Academy, Royal.) The Academy of Ancient Music was established in London in 1 7 10, with the view of promoting the study and practice of vocal and instrumental harmony. This institution had a fine musical library, and was aided by the performances of the gentlemen of the Chapel Royal and the choir of St Paul's, with the boys belonging to each, and continued to flourish for many years. About 1734 the academy became a seminary for the instruction of youth in the principles of music and the laws of harmony. The Royal Academy of Mkisic was formed for the performance of operas, composed by Handel, and conducted by him at the theatre in the Haymarket. The subscription amounted to £50,000, and the king, besides subscribing £1000, allowed the society to assume the title Royal. It consisted of a governor, deputy-governor and twenty directors. A contest between Handel and Senesino, one of the performers, in which the directors took the part of the latter, occasioned the dis- solution of the academy after it had existed with honour for more than nine years. The present Royal Academy of Music dates from 1822, and was incorporated in 1830. It instructs pupils of both sexes in music. (See also the article Conserva- toire for colleges of music.) Italy. — In 1778 an academy of painting and sculpture was established at Turin. The meetings were held in the palace of the king, who distributed prizes among the most successful members. In Milan an academy of architecture was established so early as 1380, by Gian Galeazzo Visconti. About the middle of the 1 8th century an academy of the arts* was established there, after the example of those at Paris and Rome. The pupils were furnished with originals and models, and prizes were distributed by competent judges annually. The prize for painting was a gold medal. Before the effects of the French Revolution reached Italy this was one of the best establishments of the kind in that kingdom. In the hall of the academy were some admirable examples of Correggio, as well as several statues of great merit, particularly a small bust of Vitellius, and a torso of Agrippina, of most exquisite beauty. The academy of the arts, which had been long established at Florence, fell into decay, but was restored in the end of the 18th century. In it there are halls for nude and plaster figures, for .the use of the sculptor and the painter, with models of all the finest statues in Italy. But the treasures of this and the other institutions for the fine arts were greatly diminished during the occupancy of Italy by the French. The academy of the arts at Modena, after being plundered by the French, dwindled into a petty school for drawing from living models. There is also an academy of the fine arts in Mantua, and another at Venice. Russia. — The academy of St Petersburg was established in 1757 by the empress Elizabeth, at the suggestion of Count Shuvalov, and annexed to the academy of sciences. The fund for its support was £4000 per annum, and the foundation ad- mitted forty scholars. Catherine II. formed it into a separate institution, augumented the annual revenue to £12,000, and increased the number of scholars to three hundred; she built for it a large circular building, which fronts the Neva. The scholars are admitted at the age of six, and continue until they have attained that of eighteen. They are. clothed, fed and lodged at the expense of the crown; and are instructed in read- ing, writing, arithmetic, French, German and drawing. At the age of fourteen they are at liberty to choose any of the following arts; first, painting in all its branches, architecture, mosaic, enamelling, &c; second, engraving on copper-plates, seal- cutting, &c; third, carving on wood, ivory and amber; fourth, watch-making, turning, instrument-making, casting statues in bronze and other metals, imitating gems and medals in paste and other compositions, gilding and varnishing. Prizes aie annually distributed, and from those who have obtained four prizes, twelve are selected, who are sent abroad at the charge of the crown. A certain sum is paid to defray their travelling expenses; and when they are settled in any town, they receive during four years an annual salary of £60. The academy has a small gallery of paintings for the use of the scholars; and those who have made great progress are. permitted to copy the pictures in the imperial collection. For the purpose of design, there are full-size models of the best antique statues in Italy. South America. — There are several small academies in the various towns of South America, the only one of note being that of Rio de Janeiro, founded by John VI. of Portugal in 18 16 and now known as the Escola National de Bellas Artes. Spain. — In Madrid an academy for painting, sculpture and architecture, the Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, was founded by Philip V. The minister for foreign affairs is presi- dent. Prizes are distributed every three years. In Cadiz a few students are supplied by government with the means of drawing and modelling from figures; and such as are not able to purchase the requisite instruments are provided with them. Sweden. — An academy of the fine arts was founded at Stock- holm in the year 1733 by Count Tessin. In its hall are the ancient figures of plaster presented by Louis XIV. to Charles XI. The works of the students are publicly exhibited, and prizes are distributed annually. Such of them as display distinguished ability obtain pensions from government, to enable them to reside in Italy for some years, for the purposes of investigation and improvement. In this academy there are nine professors and generally about four hundred students. Austria. — In the year 1705 an academy of painting, sculpture and architecture was established at Vienna, with the view of encouraging and promoting the fine arts. United States of America. — In America the institution similar to the Royal Academy of Arts in London is the National Academy of Design (1826), which in 1906 absorbed the Society of American Artists, the members of the society becoming members of the academy. The volume of excerpts from the general catalogue of books in the British Museum, 'Academies," 5 parts and index, furnishes a complete bibliography. (F. S.) ACADEMY, GREEK or Academe (Gr. aKa.8rmet.aor enadritiLa), the name given to the philosophic successors of Plato. The name is derived from a pleasure-garden or gymnasium situated in the suburb of the Ceramicus on the river Cephissus about a mile to the north-west of Athens from the gate called Dipylum. It was said to have belonged to the ancient Attic hero Academus, who, when the Dioscuri invaded Attica to recover their sister Helen, carried off by Theseus, revealed the place where she was hidden. Out of gratitude the Lacedaemonians, who reverenced the Dioscuri, always spared the Academy during their invasions of the country. It was walled in by Hipparchus and was adorned with walks, groves and fountains by Cimon (Plut. Citn. 13), who bequeathed it as a public pleasure-ground to his fellow-citizens. Subsequently the garden became the resort of Plato (q.v.), who had a small estate in the neighbourhood. Here he taught for nearly fifty years till his death in 348 B.C., and his followers continued to make it their headquarters. It was closed for teach- ing by Justinian in a.d. 529 along with the other pagan schools. Cicero borrowed the name for his villa near Puteoli, where he composed his dialogue .The Academic Questions. The Platonic Academy (proper) lasted from the days of Plato to those of Cicero, and during its whole course there is traceahle a distinct continuity of thought which justifies its examination as a real- intellectual unit. On the other hand, this continuity of thought is by no means an identity. The Platonic doctrine was so far modified in the hands of successive scholarchs that th,e Academy has been divided into either two, three or five ma jp sections (Sext. Empir. Pyrrh. Hyp. i. 220). Finally, in the days pf Philo* , Antiochus and Cicero, the metaphysical dogrqatis-to io6 ACADEMY of Plato had been changed into an ethical syncretism which combined elements from the Scepticism of Carneades and the doctrines of the Stoics; it was a change from a dogmatism which men found impossible to defend, to a probabilism which afforded a retreat from Scepticism and intellectual anarchy. Cicero represents at once the doctrine of the later Academy and the general attitude of Roman society when he says, " My words do not proclaim the truth, like a Pythian priestess; but I conjecture what is probable, like a plain man; and where, I ask, am I to search for anything more than verisimilitude?" And again: "The characteristic of the Academy is never to interpose one's judgment, to approve what seems most probable, to compare together different opinions, to see what may be advanced on either side and to leave one's listeners free to judge without pretending to dogmatize." The passage from Sextus Empiricus, cited above, gives the general view that there were three academies: the first, or Old, academy under Speusippus and Xenocrates; the second, or Middle, academy under Arcesilaus and Polemon; the third, or New, academy under Carneades and Clitomachus. Sextus notices also the theory that there was a fourth, that of Philo of Larissa and Charmidas, and a fifth, that of Antiochus. Diogenes Laertius says that Lacydes was the founder of the New Academy (i. 19, iv. 59). Cicero {de Oral. iii. 18, &c.) and Varro insist that there were only two academies, the Old and the New. Those who maintain that there is no justification for the five-fold division hold that the agnosticism of Carneades was really latent in Plato, and became prominent owing to the necessity of re- futing the Stoic criterion. The general tendency of the Academic thinkers was towards practical simplicity, a tendency due in large measure to the inferior intellectual capacity of Plato's immediate successors. Cicero (de Fin. v. 3) says generally of the Old Academy: " Their writings and method contain all liberal learning, all history, all polite discourse; and besides they embrace such a variety of arts, that no one can undertake any noble career without their aid. ... In a word the Academy is, as it were, the workshop of every artist." It is true that these men turned to scientific investigation, but in so doing they escaped from the high alti- tudes in which Plato thought, and tended to lay emphasis on the mundane side of philosophy. Of Plato's originality and speculative power, of his poetry and enthusiasm they inherited nothing, " nor amid all the learning which has been profusely lavished upon investigating their tenets is there a single deduc- tion calculated to elucidate distinctly the character of their progress or regression " (Archer Butler, Led. on Anc. Phil. »• 3i5)- The modification of Academic doctrine from Plato to Cicero may be indicated briefly under four heads. (1) Plato's own theory of Ideas was not accepted even by Speusippus and Xenocrates. They argued that the Good cannot be the origin of things, inasmuch as Goodness is only found as an attribute of things. Therefore, the idea of Good must be secondary to some other more fundamental principle ©f exist- ence. This unit Speusippus attempted to find in the Pytha- gorean number-theory. From it he deduced three principles, one for numbers, one for magnitude, one for the soul. The Deity he conceived as that living force which rules all and resides everywhere. Xenocrates, though like Speusippus in- fected with Pythagoreanism, was the most faithful .of Plato's successors. He distinguished three spheres, the sensible, the intelligible, and a third compounded of the two, to which corre- spond respectively, sense, intellect and opinion (56£a). Cicero notes, however, that both Speusippus and Xenocrates abandon the Socratic principle of hesitancy. (2) Up to Arcesilaus, the' Academy accepted the principle of finding a general unity in all things, by the aid of which a principle of certainty might be found. Arcesilaus, however, broke new ground by attacking the very possibility of certainty. Socrates had said, " This alone I know, that I know nothing." But Arcesilaus went farther and denied the possibility of even the Socratic minimum of certainty: "I cannot know even whether I know or not." Thus from the dogmatism of the master the Academy plunged into the extremes of agnostic criticism. (3) The next stage in the Academic succession was the moder- ate scepticism of Carneades, which owed its existence to his opposition to Chrysippus, the Stoic. To the Stoical theory of perception, the avraala KaraAr/xruoj, by which they expressed a conviction of certainty arising from impressions so strong as to amount to science, he opposed the doctrine of acatalepsia, which denied any necessary correspondence between perceptions and the objects perceived. He saved himself, however, from absolute scepticism by the doctrine of probability or verisimilitude, which may serve as a practical guide in life. Thus his criterion of imagination (4>a.VTa ' ' e% lemnisci! are broad-leaved species; A. spinosus and A. spinosissimus have narrower, spiny toothed leaves. In decoration, the acanthus was first reproduced in metal, and subse- quently carved in stone by the Greeks. - It was afterwards, with various changes, adopted in all succeeding styles of architecture as a basis of ornamental decoration. There are two types, that found in the Acanthus spinosus, which was followed by the Greeks, and that in the Acanthus mollis, which seems to have been preferred by the Romans. ACAPULCO, a city and port of the state of Guerrero on the Pacific coast of Mexico, 190 m. S.S.W. of the city of Mexico, Pop. (1900) 4932. It is located on a deep, semicircular bay. From Cambridge Natural ACARNANIA— ACCENT in almost land-locked, easy of access, and with so secure an anchor- age that vessels can safely lie alongside the rocks that fringe the shore. It is the best harbour on the Pacific coast of Mexico, and it is a port of call for steamship lines running between Panama and San Francisco. The town is built on a narrow strip of low land, scarcely half a mile wide, between the shore line and the lofty mountains that encircle the bay. There is great natural beauty in the surroundings, but the mountains render the town difficult of access from the interior, and give it an exceptionally hot and unhealthy climate. The effort to admit the cooling sea breezes by cutting through the mountains a passage called the Abra de San Nicolas had some beneficial effect. Acapulco was long the most important Mexican port on the Pacific, and the only depot for the Spanish fleets plying between Mexico and Spain's East Indian colonies from 1778 until the independence of Mexico, when this trade was lost. The town has been chosen as the terminus for two railway lines seeking a Pacific port— the Interoceanic and the Mexican Central. The town suffered considerably from earthquakes in July and August 1900. There are exports of hides, cedar and fruit, and the adjacent district of Tabares produces cotton, tobacco, cacao, sugar cane, Indian corn, beans and coffee. ACARNANIA, a district of ancient Greece, bounded on the W. by the Ionian Sea, on the N. by the Ambracian Gulf, on the E. and S. by Mt. Thyamus and the Achelous. The Echinades islands, off the S.W. coast, are gradually being joined up to the mainland. Its most populous region was the plain of the Achelous, commanded by the principal town Stratus; com- munication with the coast was impeded by mountain ridges and lagoons. Its people long continued in semi-barbarism, having little intercourse with the rest of Greece. In the 5th century B.C. with the aid of Athens they subdued the Corinthian factories on their coast. In 391 they submitted to the Spartan king Agesilaus; in 371 they passed under Theban control. In the Hellenistic age the Acarnanians were constantly assailed by their Aetolian neighbours. On the advice of Cassander they made effective their ancient cantonal league, apparently after the pattern of Aetolia. In the 3rd century they obtained assistance from the Illyrians, and formed a close alliance with Philip V. of Macedonia, whom they supported in his Roman wars, their new federal capital, Leucas, standing a siege in his interest. For their sympathy with his successor Perseus they were de- prived of Leucas and required to send hostages to Rome (167). The country was finally desolated by Augustus, who drafted its inhabitants into Nicopolis and Patrae. Acarnania took a prominent part in the national uprising of 1821; it is now joined with Aetolia as a nome. The sites of several ancient towns in Acarnania are marked by well-preserved walls, especially those of Stratus, Oeniadae and Limnaea. Authorities. — Strabo vii. 7, x. 2; Thucydides; Polybius iv. 40; Livy xxxiii. 16-17; Corpus Inscr. Graecarum, no. 1739; E. Oberhummer, Akarnanien im Altertum (Munich, 1887); Heuzey, Mt. Olympe et VAcarnanie (Paris, i860). (M. O. B. C. ; E. Gr.) ACARUS (from Gr. dxapt, a mite), a genus of Arachnids, repre- sented by the cheese mite and other forms. ACASTUS, in Greek legend, the son of Pelias, king of Iolcus in Thessaly (Ovid, Metam. viii. 306; Apollonius Rhodius i. 224; Pindar, Nemea, iv. 54, v. 26). He was a great friend of Jason, and took part in the Calydonian boar-hunt and the Argonautic expedition. After his father's death he instituted splendid funeral games in his honour, which were celebrated by artists and poets, such as Stesichorus. His wife Astydameia (called Hippolyte in Horace, Odes, iii. 7. 17) fell in love with Peleus (q.v.), who had taken refuge at Iolcus, but when her advances were rejected accused him falsely to her husband. Acastus, to avenge his fancied wrongs, left Peleus asleep on Mount Pelion, having first hidden his famous sword. On awaking, Peleus was attacked by the Centaurs, but saved by Cheiron. Having re- covered his sword he returned to Iolcus and slew Acastus and Astydameia. Acastus was represented with his famous horses in the painting of the Argonautic expedition by Micon in the temple of the Dioscuri at Athens. ACATALEPSY (Gr. d-, privative, and Kara\a^^avei.v, to seize), a term used in Scepticism to denote incomprehensibility. ACAULESCENT (Lat. acaulescens, becoming stemless, from a, not, and caulis, a stem), a term used of a plant apparently stemless, as dandelion, the stem being almost suppressed. ACCA LARENTIA (not Laurentia), in Roman legend, the wife of the shepherd Faustulus, who saved the lives of the twins Romulus and Remus after they had been thrown into the Tiber. She had twelve sons, and on the death of one of them Romulus took his place, and with the remaining eleven founded the college of the Arval brothers (Fratres Arvales). The tradition that Romulus and Remus were suckled by a wolf has been explained by the suggestion that Larentia was called lupa (" courtesan," literally " she-wolf ") on account of her immoral character (Livy i. 4; Ovid, Fasti, iii. 55). According to another account, Larentia was a beautiful girl, whom Hercules won in a game of dice (Macrobius i. 10; Plutarch, Romulus, 4, 5, Quaest. Rom. 35; Aulus Gellius vi. 7). The god advised her to marry the first man she met in the street, who proved to be a wealthy Etruscan named Tarutius. She inherited all his property and bequeathed it to the Roman people, who out of gratitude instituted in her honour a yearly festival called Larentalia (Dec. 23). According to some, Acca Larentia was the mother of the Lares, and, like Ceres, Tellus, Flora and others, symbolized the fertility of the earth — in particular the city lands and their crops. See Mommsen, " Die echte und die falsche Larentia," in Romische Forschungen, ii. 1879; E. Pais, Ancient Legends of Roman History (Eng. trans. 1906), whose views on the subject are criticized by W. W. Fowler in W. H. D. Rouse's The Year's Work in Classical Studies (1907) ; C. Pascal, Studii di antichitd, e Mitologia (1896). ACCELERATION (from Lat. accelerare, to hasten, celer, quick), hastening or quickening; in mechanics, a term employed to denote the rate at which the velocity of a body, whose motion is not uniform, either increases or decreases. (See Mechanics and Hodograph.) ACCENT. The word " accent " has its origin in the Lat. accentus, which in its turn is a literal translation of the Gr. 7rpocra)6[a. The early Greek grammarians used this term for the musical accent which characterized their own language, but later the term became specialized for quantity in metre, whence comes the Eng. prosody. Besides various later developments of usage it is important to observe that " accent " is used in two different and often contrasted senses in connexion with language. In all languages there are two kinds of accent: (1) musical chromatic or pitch accent; (2) emphatic or stress accent. The former indicates differences in musical pitch between one sound and another in speech, the latter the difference between one syllable and another which is occasioned by emitting the breath in the production of one syllable with greater energy than is employed for the other syllables of the same word. These two senses, it is to be noticed, are different from the common usage of the word in the statement that some one talks with a foreign or with a vulgar accent. In these cases, no doubt, both differences of intonation and differences of stress may be included in the statement, but other elements are frequently no less marked, e.g. the pronunciation of t and d as real dentals, whereas the English sounds so described are really produced not against the teeth but against their sockets, the inability to produce the interdental th whether breathed as in thin or voiced as in this and its representation by d or z, the production of o as a uniform sound instead of one ending as in English in a slight u sound, or such dialect changes as lydy (laidy) for lady, or toime for time (taime) . In different languages the relations between pitch and stress differ very greatly. In some the pitch or musical accent pre- dominates. In such languages if signs are employed to mark the position of the chief accent in the word it will be the pitch and not the stress accent which will be thus indicated. Amongst the languages of ancient times Sanskrit and Greek both indicate by signs the position of the chief pitch accent in the word, and the same method has been employed in modern times for lan- guages in which pitch accent is well marked, as it is, for example. 112 ACCENT in Lithuanian, the language still spoken by some two millions of people on the frontier between Prussia and Russia in the neighbourhood of Konigsberg and Vilna. Swedish also has a well-marked musical accent. Modern Greek has changed from pitch to stress, the stress being generally laid upon the same syllable in modern as bore the pitch accent in ancient Greek. In the majority of European languages, however, stress is more conspicuous than pitch, and there is plenty of evidence to show that the original language from which Greek, Latin, Celtic, Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages of Europe are descended, possessed stress accent also in a marked degree. To the existence of this accent must be attributed a large part of the phenomena known as Ablaut or Gradation (see Indo- European Languages). In modern languages we can see the same principle at work making Acton out of the O. Eng. (Anglo- Saxon) ac-tun (oak- town), and in more recent times producing the contrast between New Town and Newton. In French, stress is less marked than it is in English, but here also there is evidence to show that in the development from Latin to French a very strong stress accent must have existed. The natural result of producing one syllable of a word with greater energy than the others is that the other syllables have a less proportion of breath assigned to them and therefore tend to become indistinct or altogether inaudible. Thus the strong stress accent existing in the transition period between Latin and French led to the curtailing of long Latin words like latrocinium or hospit&le into the words which we have borrowed from French into English as larceny and hotel. It will be observed that the first syllable and that which bears the accent are the two which best withstand change, though the strong tendency in English to stress heavily the first syllable bids fair ultimately to oust the e in the pro- nunciation of larceny. No such changes arise when a strong pitch accent is accompanied by a weaker stress accent, and hence languages like ancient Sanskrit and ancient Greek, where such conditions existed, preserve fuller forms than their sister languages or than even their own descendants, when stress takes the place of pitch as the more important element in accent. In both pitch and stress accent different gradations may be observed. In pitch, the accent may be uniform^ rising or falling. Or there may be combinations of rising and falling or of falling and rising accents upon the same syllable. In ancient Greek, as is well known, three accents are distinguished — (i) the acute ('), a rising accent; (2) the grave ('), apparently merely the indication that in particular positions in the sentence the acute accent is not used where it would occur in the isolated word; and (3) the circumflex, which, as its form ( A ) shows, and as the ancient grammarians inform us, is a combination of the rising and the falling accent upon the same syllable, this syllable being always long. Different Greek dialects, however, varied the syllables of the word on which the accent occurred, Aeolic Greek, for example, never putting the acute on the last syllable of a word, while Attic Greek had many words so accented. The pitch accent of the Indo-European languages was origin- ally free, i.e. might occur on any syllable of a word, and this condition of things is still found in the earliest Sanskrit literature. But in Greek before historical times the accent had become limited to the last three syllables of a word, so that a long word like the Homeric genitive tpo)itvow could in no circumstances be accented on either of its first two syllables, while if the final syllable was long, as in the accusative plural cbepontvovs, the accent could go back only to the second syllable from the end. As every vowel has its own natural pitch, and a frequent inter- change between e ( a high vowel) and (a low vowel) occurs in the Indo-European languages, it has been suggested that e originally went with the highest pitch accent, while appeared in syllables of a lower pitch. But if there is any foundation for the theory, which is by no means certain, its effects have been distorted and modified by all manner of analogical processes. Thus iroi.iJ.riv with acute accent and dainwv with the acute accent on the preceding syllable would correspond to the rule, so would dXrj^fe and e7ros, but there are many exceptions like 686s where the acute accent accompanies an vowel. Somewhat similar distinctions characterize syllables which are stressed. The strength of the expiration may be greatest either at the begin- ning, the end or the middle of the syllable, and, according as it is so, the accent is a falling, a rising, or a rising and falling one. Syllables in which the stress is produced continuously whether increasing or decreasing are called single-pointed syllables, those in which a variation in the stress occurs without being strong enough to break the syllable into two are called double- pointed syllables. These last occur in some English dialects, but are commonest in languages like Swedish and Lithuanian, which have a " sing-song " pronunciation. It is often not easy to decide whether a syllable is double-pointed or whether what we hear is really two-single-pointed syllables. There is no separ- ate notation for stress accent, but the acute (') is used for the increasing, the grave (') for the decreasing stress, and the circum- flex (") for the rising and falling (increasing and decreasing) and (*) for the opposite. A separate notation is much to be desired, as the nature of the two accents is so different, and could easily be devised by using S for the falling, (') for the rising stress, and "» for the combination of the two in one syllable. This would be clearer than the upright stroke ( ) preceding the stressed syllable, which is used in some phonetic works. The relation between the two accents in the same language at the same time is a subject which requires further investiga- tion. It is generally assumed that the chief stress and the chief pitch in a word coincide, but this is by no means certain for all cases, though the incidence of the chief stress accent in modern Greek upon the same syllable as had the chief pitch accent in ancient times suggests that the two did frequently fall upon the same syllable. On the other hand, in words like the Sanskrit saptd, the Gr. brra, the pitch accent which those languages indicate is upon a syllable which certainly, in the earliest times at least, did not possess the principal stress. For forms in other languages, like the Lat. septem or the Gothic sibun, show that the a of the final syllables in Sanskrit and Greek is the repre- sentative of a reduced syllable in which, even in the earliest times, the nasal alone existed (see under N for the history of these so-called sonant nasals). It is possible that sporadic changes of accent, as in the Gr. p.r)rt)p compared with the Sanskrit mala, is owing to the shifting of the pitch accent to the same syllable as the stress occupied. There is no lack of evidence to show that the stress accent also may shift its position in the history of a language from one syllable to another. In prehistoric times the stress in Latin must have rested upon the first syllable in all cases. Only on this hypothesis can be explained forms like peperci (perfect of parco) and collido (a compound of laedo). In historical times, when the stress in Latin was on the second syllable from the end of the word if that syllable was long, or on the third syllable from the end if the second from the end was short, we should have expected to find *peparci and *collaedo, for throughout the historical period the stress rested in these words upon the second syllable from the end. The causes for the change of position are not always easy to ascertain. In words of four syllables with a long penult and words of five syllables with a short penult there probably developed a secondary accent which in course of time replaced the earlier accent upon the first syllable. But the number of such long words in Latin is com- paratively small. It is no less possible that relations between the stress and pitch accents were concerned. For unless we are to regard the testimony of the ancient Latin grammarians as altogether untrustworthy there was at least in classical Latin a well-marked pitch as well as a stress accent. This question, which had long slumbered, has been revived by Dr J. Vendryes in his treatise entitled Recherches sur Phistoire et les eflets de I'intensite initiale en latin (Paris, 1902). In English there is a tendency to throw the stress on to the first syllable, which leads in time to the modification of borrowed words. Thus throughout the 18th century there was a struggle going on over the word balcony, which earlier was pronounced balcony. Swift is the first author quoted for the pronunciation bdlcony, and Cowper's balcony in "John Gilpin" is among the latest instances of the old pronunciation. Disregarding the Latin quantity of orator and ACCEPTANCE— ACCESSORY 113 senator, English by throwing the stress on the first syllable has converted them into orator and senator, while Scots lawyers speak also of a curator. How far French influence plays a part here is not easy to say. Besides the accent of the syllable and of the word, which have been already discussed, there remains the accent of the sentence. Here the problem is much more complicated. The accent of a word, whether pitch or stress, may be considerably modified in the sentence. From earliest times some words have become parasitic or enclitic upon other words. Pronouns more than most words are modified from this cause, but conjunctions like the Gr. re ("and "), the Lat. que, have throughout their whole history been enclitic upon the preceding word. A very important word may be enclitic, as in English don't, shan't. It is to be remembered that the unit of language is rather the sentence than the word, and that the form which is given to the word in the dictionary is very often not the form which it takes in actual speech. The divisions of words in speech are quite different from the divisions on the printed page. Sanskrit alone amongst languages has consistently recognized this, and preserves in writing the exact combinations that are spoken. Accent, whether pitch or stress, can be utilized in the sentence to express a great variety of meanings. Thus in English a sentence like You rode to Newmarket yesterday, which contains five words, may be made to express five different statements by putting the stress upon each of the words in turn. By putting the stress on you the person addressed is marked out as distinct from certain others, by putting it upon rode other means of locomotion to New- market are excluded, and so on. With the same order of words five interrogative sentences may also be expressed, and a third series of exclamatory sentences expressing anger, incredulity, &c, may be obtained from the same words. It is to be noticed that for these two series a different intonation, a different musical (pitch) accent appears from that which is found in the same words when employed to make a matter-of-fact statement. In languages like Chinese, which have neither compound words nor inflection, accent plays a very important part. As the words are all monosyllabic, stress could obviously not be so important as pitch as a help to distinguish different senses attached to the same vocable, and in no other language is variety of pitch so well developed as in Chinese. In languages which, like English, show comparatively little pitch accent it is to be noticed that the sentence tends to develop a more musical character under the influence of emotion. The voice is raised and at the same time greater stress is generally employed when the speaker is carried away by emotion, though the connexion is not essential and strong emotion may be expressed by a lowering as well as by a raising of the voice. In either case, however, the stress will be greater than the normal. Bibliography. — H. Sweet, Primer of Phonetics (1890, now in 3rd edition), § 96 ff., History of English Sounds (1888), §110 ff., and other works; E. Sievers, Grundziige der Phonetik (1893), § 53 2 ff- 1 O. Jespersen, Lehrbuch der Phonetik (1904), an abbreviated German translation of the author's larger work in Danish, § 216 ff. The books of Sievers and Jespersen give (especially Sievers) full references to the literature of the subject. For the accent system of the Indo- European languages see " Betonung " in Brugmann's Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen,vol.i. (1897), or, with considerable modifications, his Kurze vergleichende Grammatik der idg. Sprachen (1902), §§ 32-65 and 343"35°- (P- Gl.) ACCEPTANCE (Lat. accepiare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive), generally, a receiving or acknowledgment of receipt; in law, the act by which a person binds himself to comply with the request contained in a bill of exchange (q.v.), addressed to him by the drawer. In all cases it is understood to be a promise to pay the bill in money, the law not recognizing an acceptance in which the promise is to pay in some other way, e.g. partly in money and partly by another bill. Acceptance may be either general or qualified. A general acceptance is an engagement to pay the bill strictly according to its tenor, and is made by the drawee subscribing his name, with or without the word " ac- cepted," at the bottom of the bill, or across the face of it. Quali- fied acceptance may be a promise to pay on a contingency occur- ring, e.g. on the sale of certain goods consigned by the drawer to the acceptor. No contingency is allowed to be mentioned in the body of the bill, but a qualified acceptance is quite legal, and equally binding with a general acceptance upon the acceptor when the contingency has occurred. It is also qualified accept- ance where the promise is to pay only part of the sum mentioned in the bill, or to pay at a different time or place from those specified. As a qualified acceptance is so far a disregard of the drawer's order, the holder is not obliged to take it; and if he chooses to take it he must give notice to antecedent parties, acting at his own risk if they dissent. In all cases acceptance involves the signature of the acceptor either by himself or by some person duly authorized on his behalf. A bill can be accepted in the first instance only by the person or persons to whom it is addressed; but if he or they fail to do so, it may, after being protested for non-acceptance, be accepted by some one else " supra protest," for the sake of the honour of one or more of the parties concerned in it, and he thereupon acquires a claim against the drawer and all those to whom he could have resorted. ACCEPTILATION (from Lat. acceptilatio) , in Roman and Scots law, a verbal release of a verbal obligation. This formal mode of extinguishing an obligation contracted verbally received its name from the book-keeping term acceptilatio, entering a receipt, i.e. carrying it to credit. The words conveying the release had to correspond to, or strictly cover, the expressed obligation. Figuratively, in theology, • the word acceptilation means free remission or forgiveness of sins. ACCESS (Lat. accessus), approach, or the means of approach- ing. In law, the word is used in various connexions. The pre- sumption of a child's legitimacy is negatived if it be proved that a husband has not had access to his wife within such a period of time as would admit of his being the father. (See Legiti- macy.) In the law of easements, every person who has land adjoining a public road or a public navigable river has a right of access to it from his land. So, also, every person has a right of access to air and light from an ancient window. For the right of access of parents to children under the guardianship of the court, see Infant. ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach), in law, a method of acquiring property adopted from Roman law, by which, in things that have a close connexion with or dependence on one another, the property of the principal draws after it the property of the accessory, according to the principle, accessio cedet principali. Accession may take place either in a natural way, such as the growth of fruit or the pregnancy of animals, or in an artificial way. The various methods may be classified as (1) land to land by accretion or alluvion; (2) moveables to land (see Fixtures); (3) moveables to moveables; (4) moveables added to by the art or industry of man; this may be by speci- fication, as when wine is made out of grapes, or by confusion, or commixture, which is the mixing together of liquids or solids, respectively. In the case of industrial accession ownership is determined according as the natural or manufactured substance is of the more importance, and, in general, compensation is pay- able to the person who has been dispossessed of his property. In a historical or constitutional sense, the term " accession " is applied to the coming to the throne of a dynasty or line of sovereigns or of a single sovereign. " Accession " sometimes likewise signifies consent or acquies- cence. Thus, in the bankruptcy law of Scotland, where there is a settlement by a trust-deed, it is accepted on the part of each creditor by a "„deed of accession." ACCESSORY, a person guilty of a felonious offence, not as principal, but by participation; as by advice, command, aid or concealment. In certain crimes, there can be no accessories; all concerned being principals, whether present or absent at the time of their commission. These are treason, and all offences below the degree of felony, as specified in the Offences against the Person Act 1861. There are two kinds of accessories — before the fact, and after it. The first is he who commands or procures another to commit felony, and is not present himself; for if he be present, he is a principal. The second is he who receives, harbours, assists, or comforts any man that has done murder or felony, whereof he has knowledge. An accessory before the fact is liable to the same punishment as the principal; and there is now indeed no practical difference between such an accessory and a principal in regard either to indictment, trial or punishment. Acces- sories after the fact are in general punishable with imprisonment (with or without hard labour) for a period not exceeding two years, but in the case of murder punishable by penal servitude for life, or not less than three years, or by imprisonment (witb or without hard labour) to the extent of two years. H4 ACCIAJUOLI— ACCLIMATIZATION The law of Scotland makes no distinction between the acces- sory to any crime and the principal (see Art and Part). Except in the case of treason, accession after the fact is not noticed by the law of Scotland, unless as an element of evidence to prove previous accession. ACCIAJUOLI, DONATO (1428-1478), Italian scholar, was born at Florence in 1428. He was famous for his learning, especially in Greek and mathematics, and for his services to his native state. Having previously been entrusted with several important embassies, he became Gonfalonier of Florence in 1473. He died at Milan in 1478, when on his way to Paris to ask the aid of Louis XL on behalf of the Florentines against Pope Sixtus IV. His body was taken back to Florence, and buried in the church of the Carthusians at the public expense, and his daughters were portioned by his fellow-citizens, the fortune he left being, owing to his probity and disinterestedness, very small. He wrote a Latin translation of some of Plutarch's Lives (Flor- ence, 1478); Commentaries on Aristotle's Ethics and Politics; and the lives of Hannibal, Scipio and Charlemagne. In the work on Aristotle he had the co-operation of his master Argyropulus. ACCIDENCE (a mis-spelling of " accidents," from the Latin neuter plural accidentia, casual events) , the term for the gram- matical changes to which words are subject in their inflections as to gender, number, tense and case. It is also used to denote a book containing the first principles of grammar, and so of the rudiments of any subject or art. ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen), a word of widely variant meanings, usually something fortuitous and unexpected ; a happening out of the ordinary course of things. In the law of tort, it is defined as "an occurrence which is due neither to design nor to negligence "; in equity, as " such an unforeseen event, misfortune, loss, act or omission, as is not the result of any negligence or misconduct." So, in criminal law, " an effect is said to be accidental when the act by which it is caused is not done with the intention of causing it, and when its occurrence as a consequence of such act is not so probable that a person of ordinary prudence ought, under the circumstances, to take reasonable precaution against it " (Stephen, Digest of Criminal Law, art. 210). The word may also have in law the more extended meaning of an unexpected occurrence, whether caused by any one's negligence or not, as in the Fatal Accidents Act 1846, Notice of Accidents Act 1894. See also Contract, Criminal Law, Employers' Liability, Insurance, Tort, &c. In logic an " accident " is a quality which belongs to a subject but not as part of its essence (in Aristotelian language Kara ovjxBefi-qKos, the scholastic per accidens). Essential attributes are necessarily, or causally, connected with the subject, e.g. the sum of the angles of a triangle; accidents are not deducible from the nature, or are not part of the necessary connotation, of the subject, e.g. the area of a triangle. It follows that in- creased knowledge, e.g. in chemistry, may show that what was thought to be an accident is really an essential attribute, or vice versa. It is very generally held that, in reality, there is no such thing as an accident, inasmuch as complete knowledge would establish a causal connexion for all attributes. An accident is thus merely an unexplained attribute. Accidents have been classed as (1) " inseparable," i.e. universally present, though no causal connexion is established, and (2) " separable," where the connexion is neither causally explained nor universal. Propositions expressing a relation between a subject and an accident are classed as " accidental," " real" or " ampliative," as opposed to " verbal " or " analytical," which merely express a known connexion, e.g. between a subject and its connotation (q.v.). ACCIDENTALISM, a term used (1) in philosophy for any system of thought which denies the causal nexus and maintains that events succeed one another haphazard or by chance (not in the mathematical but in the popular sense). In metaphysics, accidentalism denies the doctrine that everything occurs or re- sults from a definite cause. In this connexion it is synonymous with Tychism (tvxv, chance), a term used by C. S. Peirce for the theories which make chance an objective factor in the process of the Universe. Opponents of this accidentalism main- tain that what seems to be the result of chance is in reality due to a cause or causes which, owing to the lack of imagination, knowledge or scientific instruments, we are unable to detect. In ethics the term is used, like indeterminism, to denote the theory that mental change cannot always be ascribed to previously ascertained psychological states, and that volition is not causally related to the motives involved. An example of this theory is the doctrine of the liberum arbitrium indifferentiae ("liberty of indifference"), according to which the choice of two or more alternative possibilities is affected neither by con- temporaneous data of an ethical or prudential kind nor by crystallized habit (character). (2) In painting, the term is used for the effect produced by accidental lights (Ruskin, Modern Painters, I. n. 4, iii. § 4, 287). (3) In medicine, it stands for the hypothesis that disease is only an accidental modification of the healthy condition, and can, therefore, be avoided by modifying external conditions. ACCIUS, a Latin poet of the 16th century, to whom is attri- buted a paraphrase of Aesop's Fables, of which Julius Scaliger speaks with great praise. ACCIUS, LUCIUS, Roman tragic poet, the son of a freedman, was born at Pisaurum in Umbria, in 170 b.c. The year of his death is unknown, but he must have lived to a great age, since Cicero {Brutus, 28) speaks of having conversed with him on literary matters. He was a prolific writer and enjoyed a very high reputation (Horace, Epistles, ii. 1, 56; Cicero, Pro Plancio, 24). The titles and considerable fragments (about 700 lines) of some fifty plays have been preserved. Most of these were free translations from the Greek, his favourite subjects being the legends of the Trojan war and the house of Pelops. The national history, however, furnished the theme of the Brutus and Decius, — the expulsion of the Tarquins and the self-sacrifice of Publius Decius Mus the younger. The fragments are written in vigorous language and show a lively power of description. Accius' wrote other works of a literary character: Didascalicon and Pragmaticon libri, treatises in verse on the history of Greek and Roman poetry, and dramatic art in particular; Parerga and Praxidica (perhaps identical) on agriculture; and an Annates . He also introduced innovations in orthography and grammar. See Boissier, Le Poete Accius, 1856; L. Miiller, De Accii fabulis Disputatio (1890) ; Ribbeck, Geschichte der romischen Dichtung (1892) ; editions of the tragic fragments by Ribbeck (1897), of the others by Bahrens (1886); Plessis, Poesie latine (1909). ACCLAMATION (Lat. acclamatio, a shouting at), in delibera- tive or electoral assemblies, a spontaneous shout of approval or praise. Acclamation is thus the adoption of a resolution or the passing of a vote of confidence or choice unanimously, in direct distinction from a formal ballot or division. In the Roman senate opinions were expressed and votes passed by acclamation in such forms as Omnes, omnes, Aequum est, Justum est, &c; and the praises of the emperor were celebrated in certain pre-arranged sentences, which seem to have been chanted by the whole body of senators. In ecclesiastical councils vote by acclamation is very common, the question being usually put in the form, placet or non placet. The Sacred College has sometimes elected popes by acclamation, when the cardinals simultaneously and without any previous consultation " acclaimed " one of their number as pontiff. A further ecclesiastical use of the word is in its application to set forms of praise or thanksgiving in church services, the stereotyped responses of the congregation. In modern parliamentary usage a motion is carried by acclamation when, no amendment being proposed, approval is expressed by shouting such words as Aye or Agreed. ACCLIMATIZATION, the process of adaptation by which animals and plants are gradually rendered capable of surviving and flourishing in countries remote from their original habitats, or under meteorological conditions different from those which they have usually to endure, and at first injurious to them. The subject of acclimatization is very little understood, and some writers have even denied that it can ever take place. It ACCLIMATIZATION IJ 5 is often confounded with domestication or with naturalization; but these are both very different phenomena. A domesticated animal or a cultivated plant need not necessarily be acclimatized; that is, it need not be capable of enduring the severity of the seasons without protection. The canary bird is domesticated but not acclimatized, and many of our most extensively culti- vated plants are in the same category. A naturalized animal or plant, on the other hand, must be able to withstand all the vicissitudes of the seasons in its new home, and it may therefore be thought that it must have become acclimatized. But in many, perhaps most cases of naturalization (see Appendix below) there is no evidence of a gradual adaptation to new conditions which were at first injurious, and this is essential to the idea of acclimatization. On the contrary, many species, in a new country and under somewhat different climatic conditions, seem to find a more congenial abode than in their native land, and at once flourish and increase in it to such an extent as often to exterminate the indigenous inhabitants. Thus L. Agassiz (in his work on Lake Superior) tells us that the road- side weeds of the north-eastern United States, to the number of 130 species, are all European, the native weeds having dis- appeared westwards; while in New Zealand there are, according to T. Kirk (Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, vol. ii. p. 131), no less than 250 species of naturalized plants, more than 100 of which spread widely over the country and often displace the native vegetation. Among animals, the European rat, goat and pig are naturalized in New Zealand, where they multiply to such an extejit as to injure and probably exterminate many native productions. In none of these cases is there any indica- tion that acclimatization was necessary or ever took place. On the other hand, the fact that an animal or plant cannot be naturalized is no proof that it is not acclimatized. It has been shown by C. Darwin that, in the case of most animals and plants in a state of nature, the competition of other organisms is a far more efficient agency in limiting their distribution than the mere influence of climate. We have a proof of this in the fact that so few, comparatively, of our perfectly hardy garden plants ever run wild; and even the most persevering attempts to naturalize them usually fail. Alphonse de Candolle (Geographic botanique, p. 798) informs us that several botanists of Paris, Geneva, and especially of Montpellier, have sown the seeds of many hundreds of species of exotic hardy plants, in what appeared to be the most favourable situations, but that in hardly a single case has any one of them become naturalized. Attempts have also been made to naturalize continental insects in Britain, in places where the proper food-plants abound and the conditions seem generally favourable, but in no case do they seem to have succeeded. Even a plant like the potato, so largely cultivated and so perfectly hardy, has not established itself in a wild state in any part of Europe. Different Degrees of Climatal Adaptation in Animals and Plants. — Plants differ greatly from animals in the closeness of their adaptation to meteorological conditions. Not only will most tropical plants refuse to live in a temperate climate, but many species are seriously injured by removal a few degrees of latitude beyond their natural limits. This is probably due to the fact, established by the experiments of A. C. Becquerel, that plants possess no proper temperature, but are wholly de- pendent on that of the surrounding medium. Animals, especially the higher forms, are much less sensitive to change of temperature, as shown by the extensive range from north to south of many species. Thus, the tiger ranges from the equator to northern Asia as far as the river Amur, and to the isothermal of 32 Fahr. The mountain sparrow (Passer montana) is abundant in Java and Singapore in a uniform equatorial climate, and also inhabits Britain and a con- siderable portion of northern Europe. It is true that most terrestrial animals are restricted to countries not possessing a great range of temperature or very diversified climates, but there is reason to believe that this is due to quite a different set of causes, such as the presence of enemies or deficiency of appro- priate food. When supplied with food and partially protected from enemies, they often show a wonderful capacity of enduring climates very different from that in which they originally flour- ished. Thus, the horse and the domestic fowl, both natives of very warm countries, flourish without special protection in almost every inhabited portion of the globe. The parrot tribe form one of the most pre-eminently tropical groups of birds, only a few species extending into the warmer temperate regions; yet even the most exclusively tropical genera are by no means delicate birds as regards climate. In the Annals and Magazine of Natural History for 1868 (p. 381) is a most interesting account, by Charles Buxton, of the naturalization of parrots at Northreps Hail, Norfolk. A considerable number of African and Ama- zonian parrots, Bengal parroquets, four species of white and rose crested cockatoos, and two species of crimson lories, remained at large for many years. Several of these birds bred, and they almost all lived in the woods the whole year through, refusing to take shelter in a house constructed for their use. Even when the thermometer fell 6° below zero, all appeared in good spirits and vigorous health. Some of these birds have lived thus ex- posed for many years, enduring the English cold easterly winds, rain, hail and snow, all through the winter — a marvellous contrast to the equable equatorial temperature (hardly ever less than 70 ) to which many of them had been accustomed for the first year or years of their existence. Similarly the recent ex- perience of zoological gardens, particularly in the case of parrots and monkeys, shows that, excluding draughts, exposure to changes of temperature without artificial heat is markedly beneficial as compared with the older method of strict protection from cold. Hardly any group of Mammalia is more exclusively tropical than the Quadrumana, yet, if other conditions are favourable, some of them can withstand a considerable degree of cold. Semnopithecus schistaceus was found by Captain Hutton at an elevation of 11,000 feet in the Himalayas, leaping actively among fir-trees whose branches were laden with snow-wreaths. In Abyssinia a troop of dog-faced baboons was observed by W. T. Blanford at 9000 feet above the sea. We may therefore conclude that the restriction of the monkey tribe to warm latitudes is probably determined by other causes than tempera- ture alone. Similar indications are given by the fact of closely allied species inhabiting very extreme climates. The recently extinct Siberian mammoth and woolly rhinoceros were closely allied to species now inhabiting tropical regions exclusively. Wolves and foxes are found alike in the coldest and hottest parts of the earth, as are closely allied species of falcons, owls, sparrows and numerous genera of waders and aquatic birds. A consideration of these and many analogous facts might induce us to suppose that, among the higher animals at least, there is little constitutional adaptation to climate, and that in their case acclimatization is not required. But there are numer- ous examples of domestic animals which show that such adapta- tion does exist in other cases. The yak of Thibet cannot long survive in the plains of India, or even on the hills below a certain altitude; and that this is due to climate, and not to the increased density of the atmosphere, is shown by the fact that the same animal appears to thrive well in Europe, and even breeds there readily. The Newfoundland dog will not live in India, and the Spanish breed of fowls in this country suffer more from frost than most others. When we get lower in the scale the adapta- tion is often more marked. Snakes, which are so abundant in warm countries, diminish rapidly as we go north, and wholly cease at lat. 62 . Most insects are also very susceptible to cold, and seem to be adapted to very narrow limits of temperature. From the foregoing facts and observations we may conclude, firstly, that some plants and many animals are not constitution- ally adapted to the climate of their native country only, but are capable of enduring and flourishing under a more or less exten- sive range of temperature and other climatic conditions; and, secondly, that most plants and some animals are, more or less closely, adapted to climates similar to those of their native habitats. In order to domesticate or naturalize the former 1. 1 6 ACCLIMATIZATION class in countries not extremely differing from that from which the species was brought, it will not be necessary to acclimatize, in the strict sense of the word. In the case of the latter class, however, acclimatization is a necessary preliminary to natural- ization, and in many cases to useful domestication, and we have therefore to inquire whether it is possible. Acclimatization by Individual Adaptation. — It is evident that acclimatization may occur (if it occurs at all) in two ways, either by modifying the constitution of the individual submitted to the new conditions, or by the production of offspring which may be better adapted to those conditions than their parents. The alteration of the constitution of individuals in this direction is not easy to detect, and its possibility has been denied by many writers. C. Darwin believed, however, that there were indica- tions that it occasionally occurred in plants, where it can be best observed, owing to the circumstance that so many plants are propagated by cuttings or buds, which really continue the existence of the same individual almost indefinitely. He ad- duced the example of vines taken to the West Indies from Madeira, which have been found to succeed better than those taken directly from France. But in most cases habit, however prolonged, appears to have little effect on the constitution of the individual, and the fact has no doubt led to the opinion that acclimatization is impossible. There is indeed little or no evi- dence to show that any animal to which a new climate is at first prejudicial can be so acclimatized by habit that, after sub- jection to it for a few or many seasons, it may live as healthily and with as little care as in its native country; yet we may, on general principles, believe that under proper conditions such an acclimatization would take place. Acclimatization by Variation. — A mass of evidence exists showing that variations of every conceivable kind occur among the offspring of all plants and animals, and that, in particular, constitutional variations are by no 'means uncommon. Among cultivated plants, for example, hardier and more tender varieties often arise. The following cases are given by C. Darwin: — Among the numerous fruit-trees raised in North America some are well adapted to the climate of the northern States and Canada, while others only succeed well in the southern States. Adaptation of this kind is sometimes very close, so that, for example, few English varieties of wheat will thrive in Scotland. Seed-wheat from India produced a miserable crop when planted by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley on land which would have produced a good crop of English wheat. Conversely, French wheat taken to the West Indies produced only barren spikes, while native wheat by its side yielded an enormous harvest. Tobacco in Sweden, raised from home-grown seed, ripens its seeds a month earlier than plants grown from foreign seed. In Italy, as .long as orange trees were propagated by grafts, they were tender; but after many of the trees were destroyed by the severe frosts of 1709 and 1763, plants were raised from seed, and these were found to be hardier and more productive than the former kinds. Where plants are raised from seed in large quantities, varieties always occur differing in constitution, as well as others differing in form or colour; but the former cannot be perceived by us unless marked out by their behaviour 1 under exceptional con- ditions, as in the following cases. After the severe winter of 1860-1861 it was observed that in a large bed of araucarias some plants stood quite unhurt among numbers killed around them. In C. Darwin's garden two rows of scarlet runners were entirely killed by frost, except three plants, which had not even the tips of their leaves browned. A very excellent example is to be found in Chinese history, according to E. R. Hue, who, in his V Empire chinois (torn. ii. p. 359), gives the following extract from the Memoirs of the Emperor Khang: — " On the 1st day of ihe 6th moon I was walking in some fields where rice had been sown to be ready for the harvest in the 9th moon. I observed by chance a stalk of rice which was already in ear. It was higher than all the rest, and was ripe enough to be gathered. I ordered it to be brought to me. The grain was very fine and well grown, which gave me the idea to keep it for a trial, and see if the following year it would preserve its precocity. It did so. All the stalks which came from it showed ear before the usual time, and were ripe in the 6th moon. Each year has multiplied the produce of the preceding, and for thirty years it is this rice which has been served at my table. The grain is elongate and of a reddish colour, but it has a sweet smell and very pleasant taste. It is called Yu-mi, Imperial rice, because it was first cultivated in my gardens. It is the only sort which can ripen north of the great wall, where the winter ends late and begins very early; but in the southern provinces, where the climate is milder and the land more fertile, two harvests a year may be easily obtained, and it is for me a sweet reflection to have procured this advantage for my people." Hue adds his testi- mony that this kind of rice flourishes in Manchuria, where no other will grow. We have here, therefore, a perfect example of acclimatization by means of a spontaneous constitutional variation. That this kind of adaptation may be carried on step by step to more and more extreme climates is illustrated by the following examples. Sweet-peas raised in Calcutta from seed imported from England rarely blossom, and never yield seed ; plants from French seed flower better, but are still sterile; but those raised from Darjeeling seed (originally imported from England) both flower and seed profusely. The peach is believed to have been tender, and to have ripened its fruit with difficulty, when first introduced into Greece; so that (as Darwin observes) in travelling northward during two thousand years it must have become much hardier. Sir J. Hooker ascertained the average vertical range of flowering plants in the Himalayas to b#40oo ft., while in some cases it extended to 8000 ft. The same species can thus endure a great difference of temperature; but the important fact is, that the individuals have become acclimatized to the altitude at which they grow, so that seeds gathered near the upper limit of the range of a species will be more hardy than those gathered near the lower limit. This was proved by Hooker to be the case with Himalayan conifers and rhododendrons, raised in Britain from seed gathered at different altitudes. Among animals exactly analogous facts occur. When geese were first introduced into Bogota they laid few eggs at long intervals, and few of the young survived. By degrees the fecundity improved, and in about twenty years became equal to what it is in Europe. The same author tells us that, according to Garcilaso, when fowls were first introduced into Peru they were not fertile, whereas now they are as much so as in Europe. C. Darwin adduced the following examples. Merino sheep bred at the Cape of Good Hope have been found far better adapted for India than those imported from England; and while the Chinese variety of the Ailanthus silk-moth is quite hardy, the variety found in Bengal will only flourish in warm latitudes. C. Darwin also called attention to the circumstance that writers of agricultural works generally recommend that animals should be removed from one district to another as little as possible. This advice occurs even in classical and Chinese agricultural books as well as in those of our own day, and proves that the close adaptation of each variety or breed to the country in which it originated has always been recognized. Constitutional Adaptation often accompanied by External Modification. — Although in some cases no perceptible alteration of form or structure occurs when constitutional adaptation to climate has taken place, in others it is very marked. C. Darwin collected a large number of cases in his Animals and Plants under Domestication. In hisflf ontributions to the Theory of Natural Selection (p. 167), A. R.Wallace has recorded cases of simultaneous variation among insects, apparently due to climate or other strictly local causes. He found that the butterflies of the family Papilionidae, and some others, became similarly modified in different islands and groups of islands. Thus, the species inhabiting Sumatra, Java and Borneo are almost always much smaller than the closely allied species of Celebes and the Moluccas; the species or varieties of the small island of Amboyna are larger than the same species or closely allied forms inhabiting the surrounding islands; the species found in Celebes possess a peculiar form of wing, quite ACCLIMATIZATION 117 distinct from that of the same or closely allied species of ad- jacent islands; and, lastly, numerous species which have. tailed wings in India and the western islands of the Archipelago, gradually lose the tail as we proceed eastward to New Guinea and the Pacific. Many of these curious modifications may, it is true, be due to other causes than climate only, but they serve to show how powerfully and mysteriously local conditions affect the form and structure of both plants and animals; and they render it probable that changes of constitution are also continually pro- duced, although we have, in the majority of cases, no means of detecting them. It is also impossible to determine how far the effects described are produced by spontaneous favourable varia- tions or by the direct action of local conditions; but it is prob- able that in every case both causes are concerned, although in constantly varying proportions. Selection and Survival of the Fittest as Agents in Naturalization. — We may now take it as an established fact that varieties of animals and plants occur, both in domesticity and in a state of nature, which are better or worse adapted to special climates. There is no positive evidence that the influence of new climatal conditions on the parents has any tendency to produce variations in the offspring better adapted to such conditions. Neither does it appear that this class of variations are very frequent. It is, however, certain that whenever any animal or plant is largely propagated constitutional variations will arise, and some of these will be better adapted than others to the climatal and other conditions of the locality. In a state of nature, every recurring severe winter or otherwise unfavourable season weeds out those individuals of tender constitution or imperfect structure which may have got on very well during favourable years, and it is thus that the adaptation of the species to the climate in which it has to exist is kept up. Under domestication the same thing occurs by what C. Darwin has termed "unconscious selection." Each cultivator seeks out the kinds of plants best suited to his soil and climate and rejects those which are tender or otherwise unsuitable. The farmer breeds from such of his stock as he finds to thrive best with him, and gets rid of those which suffer from cold, damp or disease. A more or less close adaptation to local conditions is thus brought about, and breeds or races are pro- duced which are sometimes liable to deterioration on removal even to a short distance in the same country, as in numerous cases quoted by C. Darwin (Animals and Plants under Domesti- cation). The Method of Acclimatization. — Taking into consideration the foregoing facts and illustrations, it may be considered as proved — 1st, That habit has little (though it appears to have some) definite effect in adapting the constitution of animals to a new climate; but that it has a decided, though still slight, influence in plants when, by'the process of propagation by buds, shoots or grafts, the individual can be kept under its influence for long periods; 2nd, That great and sudden changes of climate often check reproduction even when the health of the- individuals does not appear to suffer. In order, therefore, to have the best chance of acclimatizing any animal or plant in a climate very dis- similar from that of its native country, and in which it has been proved that the species in question cannot live and maintain itself without acclimatization, we must adopt some such plan as the following: — 1. We must transport as large a number as possible of adult healthy individuals to some intermediate station, and increase them as much as possible for some years. Favourable varia- tions of constitution will soon show themselves, and these should be carefully selected to breed from, the tender and unhealthy individuals being rigidly eliminated. 2. As soon as the stock has been kept a sufficient time to pass through all the ordinary extremes of climate, a number of the hardiest may be removed to the more remote station, and the same process gone through, giving protection if necessary while the stock is being increased, but as soon as a large number of healthy individuals are produced, subjecting them to all the vicissitudes of the climate. It can hardly be doubted that in most cases this plan would succeed. It has been recommended by C. Darwin, and at one of the early meetings of the Socitte Zoologique d' Acclimatation, at Paris, Isodore Geoffroy St Hilaire insisted that it was the only method by which acclimatization was possible. But in looking through the long series of volumes of Reports published by this society, there is no sign that any systematic attempt at acclimat- ization has even once been made. A number of foreign animals have been introduced, and more or less domesticated, and some useful exotics have been cultivated for the purpose of testing their applicability to French agriculture or horticulture; but neither in the case of animals nor of plants has there been any sys- tematic effort to modify the constitution of the species, by breed- ing largely and selecting the favourable variations that appeared. Take the case of the Eucalyptus globulus as an example. This is a Tasmanian gum-tree of very rapid growth and great beauty, which will thrive in the extreme south of France. In the Bulletin of the society a large number of attempts to introduce this tree into general cultivation in other parts of France are recorded in detail, with the failure of almost all of them. But no precautions such as those above indicated appear to have been taken in any of these experiments; and we have no intimation that either the society or any of its members are making systematic efforts to acclimatize the tree. The first step would be, to obtain seed from healthy trees growing in the coldest climate and at the greatest altitude in its native country, sowing these very largely, and in a variety of soils and situations, in a part of France where the climate is somewhat but not much more extreme. It is almost a certainty that a number of trees would be found to be quite hardy. As soon as these produced seed, it should be sown in the same district and farther north in a climate a little more severe. After an exceptionally cold season, seed should be collected from the trees that suffered least, and should be sown in various dis- tricts all over France. By such a process there can be hardly any doubt that the tree would be thoroughly acclimatized in any part of France, and in many other countries of central Europe; and more good would be effected by one well-directed effort of this kind than by hundreds of experiments with individual animals and plants, which only serve to show us which are the species that do not require to be acclimatized. Acclimatization of Man. — On this subject we have, unfortu- nately, very little direct or accurate information. The general laws of heredity and variation have been proved to apply to man as well as to animals and plants; and numerous facts in the distribution of races show that man must, in remote ages at least, have been capable of constitutional adaptation to climate. If the human race constitutes a single species, then the mere fact that man now inhabits every region, and is in each case consti- tutionally adapted to the climate, proves that acclimatization has occurred. But we have the same phenomenon in single varieties of man, such as the American, which inhabits alike the frozen wastes of Hudson's Bay and Tierra del Fuego, and the hottest regions of the tropics, — the low equatorial valleys and the lofty plateaux of the Andes. No doubt a sudden transfer- ence to an extreme climate is often prejudicial to man, as it is to most animals and plants; but there is every reason to believe that, if the migration occurs step by step, man can be acclimat- ized to almost any part of the earth's surface in comparatively few generations. Some eminent writers have denied this. Sir Ranald Martin, from a consideration of the effects of the climate of India on Europeans and their offspring, believed that there is no such thing as acclimatization. Dr Hunt, in a report to the British Association in 1861, argued that "time is no agent," and — " if there is no sign of acclimatization in one generation, there is no such process." But he entirely ignored the effect of favourable variations, as well as the direct influence of climate acting on the organization from infancy. Professor Theodor Waitz, in his Introduction to Anthropology, adduced many examples of the comparatively rapid constitu- tional adaptation of man to new climatic conditions. Negroes, for example,who have been for three or four generations acclimat- ized in North America, on returning to Africa become subject to n8 ACCLIMATIZATION the same local diseases as other unacclimatized individuals. He well remarked that the debility and sickening of Europeans in many tropical countries are wrongly ascribed to the climate, but are rather the consequences of indolence, sensual gratifica- tion and an irregular mode of life. Thus the English, who cannot give up animal food and spirituous liquors, are less able to sustain the heat of the tropics than the more sober Spaniards and Portuguese. The excessive mortality of European troops in India, and the delicacy of the children of European parents, do not affect the real question of acclimatization under proper conditions. They only show that acclimatization is in most cases necessary, not that it cannot take place. The best examples of partial or complete acclimatization are to be found where European races have permanently settled in the tropics, and have maintained themselves for several generations. There are, however, two sources of inaccuracy to be guarded against, and these are made the most of by the writers above referred, to, and are supposed altogether to invalidate results which are otherwise opposed to their views. In the first place, we have the possibility of a mixture of native blood having occurred; in the second, there have almost always been a succession of immigrants from the parent country, who continually intermingle with the families of the early settlers. It is maintained that one or other of these mixtures is absolutely necessary to enable Europeans to continue long to flourish in the tropics. There are, however, certain cases in which the sources of error above mentioned are reduced to a minimum, and cannot seri- ously affect the results; such as those of the Jews, the Dutch at the Cape of Good Hope and in the Moluccas, and the Spaniards in South America. The Jews are a good example of acclimatization, because they have been established for many centuries in climates very different from that of their native land; they keep themselves almost wholly free from intermixture with the people around them; and they are often so populous in a country that the inter- mixture with Jewish immigrants from other lands cannot seri- ously affect the local purity of the race. They have, for instance, attained a population of millions in such severe climates as Poland and Russia; in the towns of Algeria they have succeeded so conspicuously as to bring about an outburst of anti-semitism; and in Cochin-China and Aden they succeed in rearing children and forming permanent communities. In some of the hottest parts of South America Europeans are perfectly acclimatized, and where the race is kept pure it seems to be even improved. Some very valuable notes on this subject were furnished to the present writer by the well-known botanist, Richard Spruce, who resided many years in South America, but who was prevented by ill-health from publishing his researches (see A. R. Wallace, Notes of a Botanist, 1908). As a careful, judicious and accurate observer, both of man and nature, he had few superiors. He says: The white inhabitants of Guayaquil (lat. 2° 13' S.) are kept pure by careful selection. The slightest tincture of red or black blood bars entry into any of the old families who are descendants of Spaniards from the Provincias Vascongadas or those bordering the Bay of Biscay, where the morals are perhaps the purest (as regards the inter- course of the sexes) of any in Europe, and where for a girl, even of the poorest class, to have a child before marriage is the rarest thing possible. The consequence of this careful breeding is, that the women of Guayaquil are considered (and justly) the finest along the whole Pacific coast. They are often tall, sometimes very handsome, decidedly healthy, although pale, and assuredly prolific enough. Their sons are big, stout men, but when they lead inactive lives are apt to become fat and sluggish. Those of them, however, who have farms in the savannahs and are accustomed to take long rides in all weathers, and those whose trade obliges them to take frequent journeys in the mountainous interior, or even to Europe and North America, are often as active and as little burdened with superfluous flesh as a Scotch farmer. The oldest Christian town in Peru is Piura (lat. 5° S.), which was founded by Pizarro himself. The climate is very hot, especially in the three or four months following the southern solstice. In March 1843 the temperature only once fell as low as 83 during the whole month, the usual lowest night temperature being 85 . Yet people of all colours find it very healthy, and the whites are very prolific. I resided in the town itself nine months, and in the neighbourhood seven months more. The population (in i863-i864)wasabout io,ooo, of which not only a considerable proportion was white, but was mostly descended from the first emigrants after the conquest. Purity oi descent was not, however, quite so strictly maintained as at Guaya- quil. The military adventurers, who have often risen to high or even supreme rank in Peru, have not seldom been of mixed race, and fear or favour has often availed toprocure them an alliance with theoldest and pUrest-blooded families. These instances, so well stated by Spruce, seem to demonstrate the complete acclimatization of Spaniards in some of the hottest parts of South America. Although we have here nothing to do with mixed races, yet the want of fertility in these has been often taken to be a fact inherent in the mongrel race, and has been also sometimes held to prove that neither the European nor his half-bred offspring can maintain themselves in the tropics. The following observation is therefore of interest: — At Guayaquil for a lady of good family — married or unmarried — to be of loose morals is so uncommon, that when it does happen it is felt as a calamity by the whole community. But here, and perhaps in most other towns in South America, a poor girl of mixed race — especially if good-looking — rarely thinks of marrying one of her own class until she has — as the Brazilians say — "approveitada de sua mocidade " (made the most of her youth) in receiving presents from gentlemen. If she thus bring a good dowry to her husband, he does not care to inquire, or is not sensitive, about the mode in which it was acquired. The consequence of this indiscriminate sexual inter- course, especially if much prolonged, is to diminish, in some cases to paralyse, the fertility of the female. And as among people of mixed race it is almost universal, the population of these must fall off both in numbers and quality. The following example of divergent acclimatization of the same race to hot and cold zones is very interesting, and will conclude our extracts from Spruce's valuable notes: — One of the most singular cases connected with this subject that have fallen under my own observation, is the difficulty, or apparent impossibility, of acclimatizing the Red Indian in a certain zone of the Andes. Any person who has compared the physical characters of the native races of South America must be convinced that these have all originated in a common stirps. Many local differences exist, but none capable of invalidating this conclusion. The warmth yet shade-loving Indian of the Amazon; the Indian of the hot, dry and treeless coasts of Peru and Guayaquil, who exposes his bare head to the sun with as much zest as an African negro; the Indian of the Andes, for whom no cold seems too great, who goes constantly bare- legged and often bare-headed, through whose rude straw hut the piercing wind of the paramos sweeps and chills the white man to the very bones ; — all these, in the colour and texture of the skin, the hair and other important features, are plainly of one and the same race. Now there is a zone of the equatorial Andes, ranging between about 4000 and 6000 feet altitude, where the very best flavoured coffee is grown, where cane is less luxuriant but more saccharine than in the plains, and which is therefore very desirable to cultivate, but where the red man sickens and dies. Indians taken down from the sierra get ague and dysentery. Those of the plains find the tempera- ture chilly, and are stricken down with influenza and pains in the limbs. I have seen the difficulty experienced in getting farms culti- vated in this zone, on both sides of the Cordillera. The permanent residents are generally limited to the major-domo and his family; and in the dry season labourers are hired, of any colour that can be obtained — some from the low country, others from the highlands — for three, four, or five months, who gather in and grind the cane, and plant for the harvest of the following year; but the staff of resident Indian labourers, such as exists in the farms of the sierra, cannot be kept up in the Yungas, as these half-warm valleys are called. White men, who take proper precautions, and are not chronically soaked with cane-spirit, stand the climate perfectly, but the creole whites are still too much caballeros to devote themselves to agricultural work. In what is now the republic of Ecuador, the only peopled portions are the central valley, between the two ridges of the Andes — height 7000 to 12,000 feet — and the hot plain at their western base; nor do the wooded slopes appear to have been inhabited, except by scattered savage hordes, even in the time of the Incas. The Indians of the highlands are the descendants of others who have inhabited that region exclusively for untold ages ; and a similar affirmation may be made of the Indians of the plain. Now, there is little doubt that the progenitors of both these sections came from a temperate region (in North America) ; so that here we have one moiety ac- climatized to endure extreme heat, and the other extreme cold ; and at this day exposure of either to the opposite extreme (or even, as we have seen, to the climate of an intermediate zone) is always pernicious and often fatal. But if this great difference has been brought about in the red man, might not the same have happened to the white man? Plainly it might, time being given; for one cannot doubt that the inherent adaptability is the same in both, or (if not) that the white man possesses it in a higher degree. ACCLIMATIZATION 119 The observations of Spruce are of themselves almost conclu- sive as to the possibility of Europeans becoming acclimatized in the tropics; and if it is objected that this evidence applies only to the dark-haired southern races, we are fortunately able to point to facts, almost equally well authenticated and con- clusive, in the case of one of the typical Germanic races. In South Africa the Dutch have been settled and nearly isolated for over 200 years, and have kept themselves almost or quite free from native intermixture. They are still preponderatingly fair in complexion, while physically they are tall and strong. They marry young and have large families. The population, according to a census taken in 1798, was under 22,000. In 1865 it was near 182,000, the majority being of " Dutch, German or French origin, mostly descendants of original settlers." In more recent times, the conditions have been so greatly changed by immigration, that the later statistics cease to have a definite meaning with regard to acclimatization. We have here a population which doubled itself every twenty-two years; and the greater part of this rapid increase must certainly be due to the old European immigrants. In the Moluccas, where the Dutch have had settlements for 250 years, some of the inhabit- ants trace their descent to early immigrants; and these, as well as most of the people of Dutch descent in the east, are quite as fair as their European ancestors, enjoy excellent health, and are very prolific. But the Dutch accommodate themselves admirably to a tropical climate, doing much of their work early in the morning, dressing very lightly, and living a quiet, tem- perate and cheerful life. They also pay great attention to drainage and general cleanliness. In addition to these examples, it is obvious that the rapid increase of English-speaking popula- tions in the United States and in Australia is far greater than can be explained by immigration, and shows two conspicuous examples of acclimatization. On the whole, we seem justified in concluding that, under favourable conditions, and with a proper adaptation of means to the end in view, man may become acclimatized with at least as much certainty and rapidity (counting by generations rather than by years) as any of the lower animals. The greatest difficulty in his way is not temperature, but the presence of parasitic diseases to resist which his body has not been prepared, and modern knowledge is rapidly defining these dangers and the modes of avoiding them. (A. R. W.) Appendix The task of collecting information as to animals which have become permanently naturalized away from their native haunts is anything but easy, as few regular records have been kept by acclimatizers. Moreover, recorders of local fauna have been almost unanimous in ignoring the introduced forms, except when they have had occasion to comment on the effects, real or supposed, of these immigrants on aboriginal faunas. Mammals. — It is unnecessary here to dwell upon the world- wide distribution of the two rats Mus raltus and M. decumanus, and of the house-mouse M. musculus; their introduction has always been involuntary. Similarly nearly all our domestic mammals except the sheep have become feral somewhere or other, whether by intentional liberation or by escape; but the smaller ones more than the larger, such as pigs, goats, dogs and cats. This has been especially the case in Hawaii and New Zealand; in America, Australia and Hawaii, horses and cattle are also feral. Feral pigs are numerous in New Zealand. The domestic Indian buffalo (Bos bubalus) exists as a wild animal in North Australia; it is very liable to revert to a wild state, being little altered from its still-existing wild ancestor. A more curious case is that of the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius) , a beast only known in domestication, and that in arid countries; yet a number of these have become feral in the Spanish marshes, where they wade about like quadrupedal flamingoes. The red deer (Cervus elaphus) is now widely distributed as a wild animal over New Zealand, where also the fallow-deer (C. dama) and the Indian sambar (C. aristotelis or unicolor) have been introduced locally. The sambar, or one or other of its sub- species, has also been naturalized in Mauritius, and in the Marianne Islands in the open Pacific. The wide introduction of the rabbit, as a wild animal, is well known. Amounting to a serious pest in Australasian colonies, it is also established in the Falklands and Kerguelen; its presence in much of Europe is attributed to early acclimatization, as it seems anciently to have been confined to the Iberian peninsula. The hare has been established in New Zealand and Barbadoes. Few other rodents have been designedly naturalized, but the North American grey squirrel (Sciurus cinereus) appears to be established as a wild animal in Woburn Park, Bedfordshire, England, and may probably spread thence. To check the increase of the rabbit, stoats, weasels and pole- cats (the last in the form of the domesticated ferret) were intro- duced into New Zealand on a very large scale in the last quarter of the 19th century. They have spread widely, and have not confined their depredations to the rabbits, so that the indigenous flightless birds have suffered largely. Another carnivore of very similar habits, the Indian mongoose (Herpestus griseus or H. mungo), has been naturalized in Jamaica, whence it has been carried to other West Indian Islands, and in the Hawaiian group. It has also been tried, but unsuccessfully, in Australia. The first introduction into Jamaica took place in 1872, and ten years later the animal was credited with saving many thousands of pounds annually by its destruction of rats. But before an equal space of time had further elapsed, it had itself become a pest; the most recent information, however, is to the effect that its numbers are now on the decline, and that the disturbed faunal equilibrium is being readjusted. The civets, being celebrated for their odoriferous secretion, are likely animals to have been naturalized. W. T. Blanford {Fauna of British India, " Mammals ") thinks that the presence of the Indian form, Viverricula malaccensis, in Socotra, the Comoro Islands and Madagascar is due to the assistance of man. The common fox of Europe has been introduced into Australia, where it is destructive to the native fauna and to lambs. Among primates, a Ceylonese monkey (Macacus pilealus) has been naturalized in Mauritius for centuries, the circumstances of introduction being unknown. The common Australian "opossum" or phalanger (Tricho- surus vulpecula) has been naturalized in New Zealand, although very destructive to fruit trees; the value of its fur being probably the motive. It is said that the pelage of the New Zealand specimens is superior, as might be expected from the colder climate. Birds. — The introduction of mammals has been largely in- fluenced by economic conditions, when, indeed, it was not absolutely accidental and unavoidable; but in the case of birds it has been more gratuitous, so to speak, in many cases, and hence is looked upon with especial dislike by naturalists. The domestic birds have comparatively seldom become feral, doubt- less, as C. Darwin points out, from the reduction of their powers of flight in many cases. The guinea-fowl, however, has long been in this condition in Jamaica and St Helena, and the fowl in Hawaii and other Polynesian islands. The pheasant has been naturalized in the United States, New Zealand, Hawaii and St Helena. Its naturalization in western Europe is very ancient, but the race supposed to have been introduced by the Romans (Phasianus colchicus) has been much modified within the last century or two by the introduction of the ring-necked Chinese form (P. torquatus), which produces fertile hybrids with the old breed. Thus those acclimatized were usually, no doubt, of mixed blood, and further introductions of pure Chinese stock have tended to make the latter the dominant form, at any rate in the United States (where it is erroneously called Mongolian 1 ) and in New Zealand. In Hawaii and St Helena the ring-neck appears to have been the only pheasant introduced pure, but in the former the Japanese race (P. versicolor) is also naturalized. 1 The true Mongolian pheasant (P. mongolicus), a very different bird, has recently been introduced into England. 120 ACCLIMATIZATION The golden pheasant (Chrysolophus pictus) is locally estab- lished in the United States, as appear to be other pheasants of less common species. The Reeves' pheasant (P. reevesi) is at large on some English estates. Of the partridges, the continental red-leg (Caccabis rufa) is established in England, and its ally, the Asiatic chukore (C. chukar), in St Helena, as is the Cali- fornian quail (Lophortyx calij arnica ) in New Zealand and Hawaii. The latter, however, though thriving as an aviary bird, has failed at large in England, as did the bob-white (Ortyx virginianus) both there and in New Zealand. The desirable character of the grouse as game-birds has led to many attempts at their acclimatization, but usually these have been unsuccessful; the red grouse (Lagopus scoticus), how- ever, the only endemic British bird, is naturalized in some parts of Europe. Of waterfowl, the Canada goose (Branta canadensis) is natural- ized to a small extent in Britain, and also, to a less degree, the Egyptian goose (Chenalopex aegyptiacus) ; the latter bird also occurs wild in New Zealand. The modern presence of the black swan of Australia (Chenopis atrata) in New Zealand appears to be due to a natural irruption of the species about half a century ago as much as to acclimatization by man, if not more so. Birds of prey are, unjustly enough, regarded with so little favour that few attempts have been made to naturalize them; the continental little owl {Athene noctua), however, has for some time been well established in England, where it has hardly, if ever, appeared naturally. Pigeons have been very little naturalized; the tame bird has become feral locally in various countries, and the Chinese turtle- dove (Turtur chinensis) is established in Hawaii, as is the small East Indian zebra dove (Geopelia striata) in the Seychelles, and the allied Australian (G. tranquilla) in St Helena. There has also been very little naturalization of parrots, but the rosella parrakeet of Australia (Plalycercus eximius) is being propagated by escaped captives in the north island of New Zealand, and its ally the mealy rosella (P. pallidiceps) is locally wild in Hawaii, the stock in this case having descended from a single pair in- tentionally liberated. Attempts to naturalize that well-known Australian grass-parrakeet the budgerigar (Mclopsittacus un- dulatus) in England have so far proved abortive, and none of the species experimented with in Norfolk and Bedfordshire effected a settlement. The greyheaded love-bird (Agapornis cana) of Madagascar is established in the Seychelles. Some of the passerine birds have been the most widely distributed, especially the house-sparrow (Passer domesticus) , which is now an integral, and very troublesome, part of the fauna in the Australasian States and in North America. It is, in fact, as notorious an example of over-successful acclimatization as the rabbit, but in Hutton and Drummond's recent work on the New Zealand animals (London, 1905) it is not regarded in this light, considering that some very common exotic birds were needed to keep down the insects, which it certainly did. Even in the United States also, it has been found a useful destroyer of weed-seeds. The house-sparrow is also feral in Argentina, some of the West Indian islands, Hawaii and the Andamans. The allied tree-sparrow (P. montanus) has been locally naturalized in the United States; it is a more desirable bird, being less prolific and pugnacious, but it is expelled from towns by the house-sparrow. The so-called Java sparrow (Munia oryzivora), although a destructive bird to rice, has been widely distributed by accident or design, and is now found in several East Indian islands besides Java, in south China, St Helena, India, Zanzibar and the east African coast. An allied but much smaller weaver-finch, a form of the spice-bird (Munia nisoria punctata), is introduced and well distributed over the Hawaiian islands. The little rooibek of South Africa (Estrilda astrild) has been so long and well established in St Helena that it is known in the bird trade as the St Helena waxbill, and the brilliant scarlet weaver of Mada- gascar (Foudia madagascariensis) inhabits as an imported bird Mauritius, the Seychelles and even the remote Chagos Islands. Returning to the true finches, the only one which can compete with the house-sparrow in the extent of its distribution by man is the goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis), now established all over New Zealand, as well as in Australia, the United States and Jamaica. It bears a good character, and is one of the marked successes of naturalization. The redpoll (Acanthis linaria), chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs) and greenfinch (Chloris chloris). are established in New Zealand, the last named being a pest there, as is also the cirl-bunting (Emberiza cirlus) — the yellow-hammer (E. citrinella) being perhaps confused with this also. Among starlings, the Indian mynah (generally the house mynah, Acridotheres trislis, but some other species seem to have been confused with this) has been naturalized in the Andamans, Seychelles, Reunion, Australia, Hawaii and parts of New Zealand. Its alleged destructiveness to the Hawaiian avifauna seems open to doubt. The European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is naturalized in New Zealand, Australia and to some extent ii> the United States. Thrushes have not been widely introduced, but the song- thrush and blackbird ( Turdus musicus and Merula merula) are common in New Zealand; attempts were made, but unsuc- cessfully, to establish the latter in the United States. The so-called hedge-sparrow (Accentor modularis), really a member of this group, is one of the successful introductions into New Zealand. The robin (Erithacus rubecula) failed there. Rooks (Corvus frugilegus) and the Australian "magpie" or piping crow (Gymnorhina) are to be found in New Zealand, but only locally, especially the former. Reptiles and Amphibians. — Very little naturalization has been effected, or indeed apparently attempted, in regard to these groups, but the occurrence of the edible frog of the continent of Europe (Rana esculenta) as an introduced animal in certain British localities is well known. An Australian tree-frog (Hyla peronii) is naturalized in many parts of the north island of New Zealand. Fish. — The instances of naturalization in this class are few, but important. The common carp (Cyprinus carpio), originally a Chinese fish, has for centuries been acclimatized in Europe, where indeed it is in places a true domestic creature, with definite variations. It is, however, quite feral also, and has been introduced into North America. The Prussian carp (Carassius vulgaris) is established in New Zealand, and the nearly-allied goldfish, a domestic form (C. auratus) of Chinese origin, has been widely distributed as a pet, and is feral in some places. The gourami (Osphromenus olfax) of the East Indies has been established in Mauritius and Cayenne, being a valuable food- fish. The most important case of naturalization of fish is, however, the establishment of some Salmonidae in Tasmania and New Zealand. These are the common trout and sea-trout (Salmo fario and S. trutta) ; they attain a great size. So far, attempts to establish the true salmon in alien localities have been un- successful, but the American rainbow trout (S. irideus) has thriven in New Zealand, and the brook char of the same conti- nent (S. fontinalis) inhabits at least one stream there to the exclusion of the common trout. Invertebrates. — Many insects and other invertebrates, mostly noxious, have been accidentally naturalized, and some have been deliberately introduced, like the honey-bee, now feral in Australasia and North America, and the humble-bee, imported into New Zealand to effect the fertilization of red clover. The spread of the European house-fly has been deliberately encouraged in New Zealand, as wherever it penetrates the native flesh-fly, a more objectionable pest, disappears. The wide distribution of three common cockroaches (Peri- planeta americana, Blatta orientalis and Ectobia germanica) is well known, but these are chiefly house-insects. The common small white butterfly of Europe (Pontia or Pieris rapae) is now established in North America; and the march of the jigger, or foot-infesting flea (Sarcopsylla penetrans) of tropical America, across Africa, has taken place in quite recent years. ACCOLADE- -ACCOMMODATION 121 The Romans are credited with having purposely introduced the edible snail {Helix pomatia) into England, and the common garden snail and slugs {Helix aspersa, Limax agrestis and Arion hortensis) have been unwittingly established in New Zealand. In that country, also, the earthworms of Europe are noticed to replace native forms as the ground is broken. General Remarks. — A great deal has been said about the up- setting of the balance of nature by naturalization, and as to the ill-doing of exotic forms. But certain considerations should be borne in mind in this connexion. In the first place, naturaliza- tion experiments fail at least as often as they succeed, and often quite inexplicably. Thus, the linnet and partridge have failed to establish themselves in New Zealand. This may ultimately throw some light on the disappearance of native forms; for these have at times declined without any assignable cause. Secondly, native forms often disappear with the clearing off of the original forest or other vegetation, in which case their recession is to a certain extent unavoidable, and the fauna which has established itself in the presence of cultivation is needed to replace them. Thirdly, the ill effect of introduced forms on existing ones may often be due rather to the spread of disease and parasites than to actual attack; thus, in Hawaii the native birds have been found suffering from a disease which attacks poultry. And the recession of the New Zealand earthworms and flies before exotic forms probably falls under this category. As man can- not easily avoid introducing parasites, and must keep domestic animals and till the land, a certain disturbance in aboriginal faunas is absolutely unavoidable. Under certain circumstances, however, the native animals may recover, for in some cases they even profit by man's advent, and at times themselves become pests, like the Kea parrot {Nestor notabilis), which attacks sheep in New Zealand, and the bobolink or rice-bird {Dolichonyx oryzivorus) in North America. Finally, it should never be forgotten that the worst enemies of declining forms have been collectors who have not given these species the chance of recovering themselves. (F. Fn.) ACCOLADE (from Ital. accolata, derived from Lat. collum, the neck), a ceremony anciently used in conferring knighthood; but whether it was an actual embrace (according to the use of the modern French word accolade), or a slight blow on the neck or cheek, is not agreed. Both these customs appear to be of great antiquity. Gregory of Tours writes that the early kings of France, in conferring the gilt shoulder-belt, kissed the knights on the left cheek; and William the Conqueror is said to have made use of the blow in conferring the honour of knighthood on his son Henry. At first it was given with the naked fist, a veritable box on the ear, but for this was substituted a gentle stroke with the flat of the sword on the side of the neck, or on either shoulder as well. In Great Britain the sovereign, in conferring knighthood, still employs this latter form of accolade. " Accolade " is also a technical term in music-printing for a sort of brace joining separate staves; and in architecture it denotes a form of decoration on doors and windows. ACCOLTI, BENEDETTO (1415-1466), Italian jurist and his- torian, was born at Arezzo, in Tuscany, of a noble family, several members of which were distinguished like himself for their attain- ments in law. He was for some time professor of jurisprudence in the university of Florence, and on the death of the celebrated Poggio, in 1459, became chancellor of the Florentine republic. He died at Florence. In conjunction with his brother Leonardo, he wrote in Latin a history of the first crusade, entitled De Bello a Christianis contra Barbaros gesto pro Christi Sepulchro et Judaea recuperandis libri tres (Venice, 1432, translated into Italian, 1543, and into French, 1620), which, though itself of little interest, is said to have furnished Tasso with the historic basis for his Jerusalem Delivered. Another work of Accolti's — De Praestantia Virorum sui Aevi — was published at Parma in 1689. His brother Francesco (1418-1483) was also a distin- guished jurist, and was the author of Consilia seu responsa (Pisa, 1481); Commentaria super lib. ii. decretalium (Bologna, 1481); Commentaria (Pa via, 1493); de Balneis Puteolanis (1475). ACCOLTI, BERNARDO (1465-1536), Italian poet, born at Arezzo, was the son of Benedetto Accolti. Known in his own day as /' Unico Aretino, he acquired great fame as a reciter of impromptu verse. He was listened to by large crowds, com- posed of the most learned men and the most distinguished prelates of the age. Among others, Cardinal Bembo has left on record a testimony to his extraordinary talent. His high reputation with his contemporaries seems scarcely justified by the poems he published, though they give evidence of brilliant fancy. It is probable that he succeeded better in his ex- temporary productions than in those which were the fruit of deliberation. His works, under the title Virginia, Comedia, Capitoli e Strambotti di Messcr Bernardo Accolti Aretino, were published at Florence in 1513, and have been several times reprinted. ACCOLTI, PIETRO (1455-1532), brother of the preceding, known as the cardinal of Ancona, was born in Florence on the 15th of March 1455, and died at Rome on the 12th of December 1532 (Ciaconi, Vitae Pontificum, 1677, iii. 295). He was made bishop of Ancona, 1505, and cardinal on the 17th of March 1511, by Julius II. He was abbreviator under Leo X., and in that capacity drew up in 1520 the bull against Luther (L. Cardella, Memorie Storiche de' Cardinali, 1793, iii. 450). He held succes- sively the suburban sees of Albano and Sabina, also the sees of Cadiz, Maillezais, Arras and Cremona, and was made arch- bishop of Ravenna, 1524, by Clement VII. F. Cristofori {Storia dei Cardinali, 1888) and others have confused him with his nephew Benedetto (1497-1549), son of Michaele; who followed him in several of his preferments, was made cardinal, 1527, by Clement VII., and is known as a writer in behalf of papal claims and as a Latin poet. ACCOMMODATION (Lat. accommodare, to make fit, from ad, to, cum, with, and modus, measure), the process of fitting, adapting, adjusting or supplying with what is needed {e.g. housing). In theology the term " accommodation " is used rather loosely to describe the employment of a word, phrase, sentence or idea, in a context other than that in which it originally occurred; the actual wording of the quotation may be modified to a greater or lesser extent. Such accommodation, though sometimes purely literary or stylistic, generally has the definite purpose of instruc- tion, and is frequently used both in the New Testament and in pulpit utterances in all periods as a means of producing a reasonably accurate impression of a complicated idea in the minds of those who are for various reasons unlikely to compre- hend it otherwise. There are roughly three main kinds. (1) A later Biblical passage quotes from an earlier, partly as a literary device, but also with a view to demonstration. Some- times it is plain that the writer deliberately " accommodates " a quotation (cf. John xviii. 8, 9 with xvii. 12). But New Testament quotations of Old Testament predictions are often for us accommodations — striking or forced as the case may be — while the New Testament writer, " following the exegetical methods current among the Jews of his time, Matthew ii. 15, 18, xxvi. 31, xxvii. 9 " (S. R. Driver in Zechariah in Century Bible, pp. 259, 271), puts them forward as arguments. To say that he is merely " describing a New Testament fact in Old Testament phraseology " may be true of the result rather than of his design. (2) Much besides in the Bible — parable, metaphor, &c. — has been called an " accommodation," or divine conde- scension to human weakness. (3) German 18th-century rational- ism (see Apologetics) held that the Biblical writers made great use of conscious accommodation — intending moral common- places when they seemed to be enunciating Christian dogmas. Another expression for this, used, e.g., by J. S. Semler, is " econ- omy," which also occurs in the kindred sense of " reserve " (or of Disciplina Arcani — a modern term for the supposed early Catholic habit of reserving esoteric truths). Isaac Williams on Reserve in Religious Teaching, No. 80 of Tracts for the Times, made a great sensation; see R. W. Church's comments in The Oxford Movement. Strictly, accommodation (2) or (3) modifies, in form or in substance, the content of religious belief; reserve, 122 ACCOMMODATION BILL— ACCORSO from prudence or cunning, withholds part. " Economy " is used in both senses. ACCOMMODATION BILL. An accommodation bill, as its name implies, is a bill of exchange accepted and sometimes endorsed without any receipt of value in order to afford tem- porary pecuniary aid to the person accommodated. (See Bill of Exchange.) ACCOMPANIMENT {i.e. that which " accompanies "), a musical term for that part of a vocal or instrumental compo- sition added to support and heighten the principal vocal or instrumental part; either by means of other vocal parts, single instruments or the orchestra. The accompaniment may be obbligato or ad libitum, according as it forms an essential part of the composition or not. The term obbligato or obbligato accompaniment is also used for an independent instrumental solo accompanying a vocal piece. Owing to the early custom of only writing the accompaniment in outline, by means of a " figured bass," to be filled in by the performer, and to the changes in the number, quality and types of the instruments of the orchestra, " additional " accompaniments have been written for the works of the older masters; such are Mozart's " addi- tional " accompaniments to Handel's Messiah or those to many of the elder Bach's works by Robert Franz. In common parlance any support given, e.g. by the piano, to a voice or instrument is loosely called an accompaniment, which may be merely " vamped " by the introduction of a few chords, or may rise to the dignity of an artistic composition. In the history of song the evolution of the art side of an accompaniment is important, and in the higher forms the vocal and instrumental parts practi- cally constitute a duet, in which the instrumental part may be at least as important as that of the voice. ACCOMPLICE (from Fr. complice, conspirator, Lat. complex, a sharer, associate, complicare, to fold together; the ac- is possibly due to confusion with " accomplish," to complete, Lat. compter e, to fill up), in law, one who is associated with another or others in the commission of a crime, whether as principal or accessory. The term is chiefly important where one of those charged with a crime turns king's evidence in the expect- ation of obtaining a pardon for himself. Accordingly, as his evidence is tainted with self-interest, it is a rule of practice to direct a jury to acquit, where the evidence of an accomplice is not corroborated by independent evidence both as to the circumstances of the offence and the participation of the accused in it. An accomplice who has turned king's evidence usually receives a pardon, but has no legal right to exemption from punishment till he has actually received it. ACCORAMBONI, VITTORIA (1557-1585), an Italian lady famous for her great beauty and accomplishments and for her tragic history. She was born in Rome of a family belonging to the minor noblesse of Gubbio, which migrated to Rome with a view to bettering their fortunes. After refusing several offers of marriage for Vittoria, her father betrothed her to Francesco Peretti (1573), a man of no position, but a nephew of Cardinal Montalto, who was regarded as likely to become pope. Vittoria was admired and worshipped by all the cleverest and most brilliant men in Rome, and being luxurious and extravagant although poor, she and her husband were soon plunged in debt. Among her most fervent admirers was P. G. Orsini, duke of Bracciano, one of the most powerful men in Rome, and her brother Marcello, wishing to see her the duke's wife, had Peretti murdered (1 581) . The duke himself was suspected of complicity, inasmuch as he was believed to have murdered his first wife, Isabella de' Medici. Now that Vittoria was free he made her an offer of marriage, which she willingly accepted, and they were married shortly after. But her good fortune aroused much jealousy, and attempts were made to annul the marriage; she was even imprisoned, and only liberated through the interfer- ence of Cardinal Carlo Borromeo. On the death of Gregory XIII., Cardinal Montalto, her first husband's uncle, was elected in his place as Sixtus V. (1585); he vowed vengeance on the duke of Bracciano and Vittoria, who, warned in time, fled first to Venice and thence to Said in Venetian territory. Here the duke died in November 1585, bequeathing all his personal property (the duchy of Bracciano he left to his son by his first wife) to his widow. Vittoria, overwhelmed with grief, went to live in retirement at Padua, where she was followed by Lodovico Orsini, a relation of her late husband and a servant of the Vene- tian republic, to arrange amicably for the division of the pro- perty. But a quarrel having arisen in this connexion Lodovico hired a band of bravos and had Vittoria assassinated (22nd of December 1585). He himself and nearly all his accomplices were afterwards put to death by order of the republic. About Vittoria Accoramboni much has been written, and she has been greatly maligned by some biographers. Her story formed the basis of Webster's drama, The Tragedy of Paolo Giordano Ursini (1612), and of Ludwig Tieck's novel, Vittoria Accoramboni (1840); it is told more accurately in D. Gnoli's volume, Vittoria Accoramboni (Florence, 1870), and an excellent sketch of her life is given in Countess E. Martinengo-Cesaresco's Lombard Studies (London, 1902). (L. V.*) ACCORD (from Fr. accorder, to agree), in law, an agreement between two parties, one of whom has a right of action against the other, to give and accept in substitution for such right any good legal consideration. Such an agreement when executed discharges the cause of action and is called Accord and Satis- faction. ACCORDION (Fr. accordion; Ger. Handharmonica, Ziehhar- monica), a small portable reed wind instrument with keyboard, the smallest representative of the organ family, invented in 1829 by Damian, in Vienna. The accordion consists of a bellows of many folds, to which is attached a keyboard with from 5 to 50 keys. The keys on being depressed, while the bellows are being worked, open valves admitting the wind to free reeds, consisting of narrow tongues of metal riveted some to the upper, some to the lower board of the bellows, having their free ends bent, some inwards, some outwards. Each key produces two notes, one from the inwardly bent reed when the bellows are compressed, the other from the outwardly bent reed by suction (as in the American organ; see Harmonium) when the bellows are ex- panded. The pitch of the note is determined by the length and thickness of the reeds, reduction of the length tending to sharpen the note, while reduction of the thickness lowers it. The right hand plays the melody on the keyboard, while the left works the bellows and manipulates the two or three bass harmony keys, which sound the simple chords of the tonic and dominant. The archetype of the accordion is the cheng (q.v.), or Chinese organ, between which and the harmonium it forms a connecting link structurally, although not invented for some thirty years after the harmonium. The timbre of the accordion is coarse and devoid of beauty, but in the hands of a skilful performer the best instruments are not entirely without artistic merit. Improvements in the construction of the accordion produced the concertina (q.v.), melodion and melophone. See Adolf Mueller, Accordion-Schule oder vollstandige Anleitung, das Accordion in hurzer Zeit richtig spielen zu erlernen (Wien, 1834). See also Free Reed Vibrator. (K. S.) ACCORSO (Accursius), MARIANGELO (c. 1400-1 544), Italian critic, was born at Aquila, in the kingdom of Naples. He was a great favourite with Charles V., at whose court he resided for thirty-three years, and by whom he was employed on various foreign missions. To a perfect knowledge of Greek and Latin he added an intimate acquaintance with several modern lan- guages. In discovering and collating ancient manuscripts, for which his travels abroad gave him special opportunities, he displayed uncommon diligence. His work entitled Diatribae in Ausonium, Solinum et Ovidium (1524) is a monument of erudi- tion and critical skill. He was the first editor of the Letters of Cassiodorus, with his Treatise on the Soul (1538); and his edition of Ammianus Marcellinus (1533) contains five books more than any former one. The affected use of antiquated terms, introduced by some of the Latin writers of that age, is humorously ridiculed by him, in a dialogue in which an Oscan, a Volscian and a Roman are introduced as interlocutors (1531). Accorso was accused of plagiarism in his notes on Ausonius, a charge which, he most solemnly and energetically repudiated. ACCOUNT— ACCOUNTANTS 123 ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, com- putare, to calculate), counting, reckoning, especially of moneys paid and received, hence a statement made as to the receipt and payment of moneys; also any statement as to acts or con- duct, or quite simply any narrative report of events, &c. A further sense-development is that of esteem, consideration. As a stock-exchange term " account " is used in several senses. (1) The periodical settlements occurring, in London, monthly for British government and a few other first-class securities, and fortnightly for all others. The settlement extends over four days in mining shares and three days in other securities. The first day is the carry-over, " contango," or making-up, day, on which speculative commitments are carried over, or continued: that is, the bulls, who have bought stock for the rise, arrange the rate of interest that they have to give on their stock to a moneylender, or bear, who will pay for it or take it in for them; and the bears, who have sold for the fall, arrange the rate that they receive from the bulls or, if the stock is scarce and oversold, the backwardation or rate that they have to pay to holders of the stock who will lend it them to enable them to complete their bargains. On the second day, called ticket-day or name day, a ticket giving the name and address of the ultimate buyer and the firm which will pay for the stock is passed through the various intermediaries to the ultimate seller, so that the actual transfer of the stock can be made directly. In the mining market the passing of names takes two days. On the last day, account day, pay day or settling day, cheques are paid to meet speculative differences, or against the delivering of stock. (2) The period between two settlements. A nineteen-day account is one in which nineteen days elapse between one pay-day and another. (3) The volume or condition of commitments. A speculator is said to have a large account open when he has dealt heavily either for the rise or fall. A bull account exists in a stock or group of stocks when it or they have been bought for the rise by a large number of operators; in the contrary case, when there have been heavy sales for the fall, a bear account is developed. ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL, formerly an officer in the English Court of Chancery, who received all moneys lodged in court, and by whom they were deposited in bank and disbursed. The office was abolished by the Chancery Funds Act 1872, and the duties transferred to the paymaster-general (q.v.). ACCOUNTANTS. The term "accountant" is one to which, of late years, its original meaning has been more generally at- tributed — that of an expert in the science of book-keeping. It is sometimes adopted by book-keepers, but this is an erroneous application of the term ; it properly describes those competent to design and control the systems of accounts required for the record of the multifarious and rapid transactions of trade and finance. It assumes the possession of a wide knowledge of the principles upon which accountancy is based, which may be shortly described as constituting a science by means of which all mercantile and financial transactions, whether in money or in money's worth, including operations completed and engage- ments undertaken to be fulfilled at once or in a future, however remote, may be recorded; and this science comprises a know- ledge of the methods of preparing statistics, whether relating to finance or to any transactions or circumstances which can be stated by numeration, and of ascertaining or estimating on correct bases the cost of any operation whether in money, in commodities, in time, in life or in any wasting property. Gener- ally, accountancy may be described as being the science by means of which all operations, as far as they are capable of being shown in figures, are accurately recorded and their results ascertained and stated. The origin of the profession of accountancy in Great Britain is difficult to trace; auditors of accounts were naturally of very History. early existence, being mentioned as officers of im- portance in the statutes of Westminster in the reign of Edward I. The art of accountancy on a scientific principle must certainly have been understood in Italy before 1495, when Friar Luca dal Borgo published at Venice his treatise on book-keeping; but the first known English book on the science was published in London by John Gouge or Gough in 1543. It is described as A Profitable Treatyce called the Instrument or Boke to learn to knowe the good order of the kepyng of the famouse recon- ynge, called in Latin, Dare and Habere, and, in Englyshe, Debitor and Creditor. A short book of instruction was also published in 1588 by John Mellis of Southwark, in which he says, " I am but the renuer and reviver of an auncient old copie printed here in London the 14 of August 1543: collected, published, made, and set forth by one Hugh Oldcastle, Scholemaster, who, as appeareth by his treatise, then taught Arithmetike, and this booke in Saint OUaves parish in Marke Lane." John Mellis refers to the fact that the principle of accounts he explains (which is a simple system of double entry) is " after the forme of Venice." The very interesting and able book described as The Merchants Mirrour, or directions for the perfect ordering and keeping of his accounts; framed by way of Debitor and Creditor, after the (so tearmed) Italian manner, by Richard Dafforne, accountant, published in 1635, contains many references to early books on the science of ac- countancy. In a chapter in this book, headed " Opinion of Book-keeping's Antiquity," the author states, on the authority of another writer, that the form of book-keeping referred to had then been in use in Italy about two hundred years, "but that the same, or one in many parts very like this, was used in the time of Julius Caesar, and in Rome long before." He gives quotations of Latin book-keeping terms in use in ancient times, and refers to " ex Oratione Ciceronis pro Roscio Comaedo "; and he adds: " That the one side of their booke was used for Debitor, the other for Creditor, is manifest in a certaine place, Naturalis Historiae Plinii, lib. 2, cap. 7, where hee, speaking of Fortune, saith thus: Huic Omnia Expensa. .Huic Omnia Feruntur accepta et in tota Ratione mortalium sola Utramque Paginam facit." An early Dutch writer appears to have suggested that double- entry book-keeping was even in existence among the Greeks, pointing to scientific accountancy having been invented in remote times. There were several editions of Richard Dafforne's book printed — the second edition having been published in 1636, the third in 1656, and another was issued in 1684. The book is a very complete treatise on scientific accountancy, it was beautifully prepared and contains elaborate explanations; the numerous editions tend to prove that the science was highly appreciated in the 17th century. From this time there has been a continuous supply of literature on the subject, many of the authors styling themselves accountants and teachers of the art, and thus proving that the professional accountant was then known and employed. Very early in the 18th century the services of an accountant practising in the city of London were made use of in the course of an investigation into the trans- actions of a director of the South Sea Company, who had been dealing in the company's stock. During this investigation the accountant appears to have examined the books of at least two firms of merchants. His report is described Observations made upon examining the books of Sawbridge and Company, by Charles Snell, Writing Master and Accountant in Foster Lane, London. In 1799, when Holden's Triennial Directory of London, West- minster and Southwark was first published, 11 individuals and firms were therein described as accountants; in the same direc- tory, for the period 1809-1811, the number had risen to 24; and in that for 1822-1824, there were 73 firms of practising accountants recorded. The earliest English books dealing with scientific book-keeping were written at a time when the English and Dutch were very actively engaged in foreign trade, in succession to the Italian merchants of the 14th, 15th and 16th cen- ^°*™. turies; but it was not until the beginning of the 19th meat. century that, in consequence of the adoption of improved methods of manufacture and transit, resulting from the application of water and steam power to manufactures and methods of conveyance which largely increased the trade of Great Britain, the profession of an accountant became one which men of scientific knowledge and capacity adopted for 124 ACCOUNTANTS their business career. Corporations and companies were formed to carry out large operations previously either left to the state or not undertaken, and for the development of trades and manu- factures which were becoming less profitable when carried on by hand labour and with limited capital; and, for these, the services of public accountants were necessarily required to devise systems of accounts and methods of control, and to enable the results of the various transactions carried on to be ascertained with the least waste of power or chance of loss by negligence or fraud. The large number of companies formed in 1843 and 1844, when a great amount of capital was invested in railways and extensive speculation resulted, also added to the demand for the services of professional accountants. The Companies' Clauses Consoli- dation Act 1845 made provision for the audit of the accounts of companies regulated by act of parliament, and gave some extensive powers to the auditors, who are now, to a very large extent, selected from among professional accountants. The Companies Act of 1862 led to a large extension of the business of accountants, both as auditors and liquidators of companies; and the acts relating to bankruptcy passed between the years 1 83 1 and 1883 added to the work devolving on professional accountants. The Companies Act 1879, which affected banking companies, made provision for the audit of their accounts, and it has been found desirable, in most cases, to appoint professional accountants to this duty. The experience and professional knowledge of trained accountants have, in fact, been utilized by their appointment as auditors in the majority of joint-stock companies, whether manufacturing, banking, trading or created for any other purpose. Until the Companies Act 1900 was passed there was no general obligation upon limited companies to have auditors; this act not only requires that auditors shall be ap- pointed in all cases, but provides for their remuneration, and to a limited extent defines their rights and duties. The legis- lature evidently did not find it easy to formulate at all clearly the duties of auditors, and it seems reasonable to suppose that any general definition will prove an impossibility, as the work which auditors undertake must vary very widely, and depends largely upon the scope of the operations the accounts of which are to be examined. The duties of practising accountants cover a very wide area: they act as trustees, liquidators, receivers and managers of Duties. businesses, the owners of which are in default or their affairs in liquidation, both under the direction of the courts and by appointment of creditors and others; they are largely engaged as arbitrators, umpires and referees in differ- ences relating to matters of account or finance; they prepare the accounts of executors and trustees, and the necessary statements of affairs in cases of bankruptcy, both of firms and companies; they prepare accounts for prosecutions in cases of fraud and misconduct; and they are constantly called upon to unravel and properly state the accounts of complicated trans- actions. Their services are commonly required to certify the profits of businesses intended to be sold, either privately or to companies by means of a published prospectus; and, in cases of compulsory purchases of businesses by railway companies and public bodies, the statements of the profits of the businesses to be acquired are generally made by them. In a very large number of financial operations they are called upon to give ad- vice and prepare accounts, and in few business matters requiring arithmetical calculations or involving the investigation of figures, and particularly where a considerable acquaintanceship with the principles of law is needed, are their services not utilized. One of the most important duties undertaken by accountants is the audit of accounts, and this duty has, of late years, been widely extended. Originally, auditors were appointed to ex- amine and vouch statements of receipts and payments; but the provisions made in acts of parliament in relation to audit, and the requirements of most articles of association of limited com- Audltors. Ponies, put much graver responsibilities on auditors, who are now generally required to certify to the accuracy of balance sheets and of revenue and other accounts, the performance of which duties involves far more knowledge of accounts than was once required. The efficiency, in most cases, of audits conducted by skilled accountants has led the public to attach exceptional value to their audit certificates, and to demand extensive knowledge and ability in the conduct of the audit of the accounts of public companies. One other requirement which is generally regarded as indispensable, is that the work of audit should be very expeditiously performed; for it is easy to understand that, were the presentation of the accounts of a company and the distribution of dividends materi- ally delayed in consequence of the audit, much inconvenience would result, while the value of the criticism of the accounts of business operations would be much deteriorated if it could not be made very shortly after the accounts were closed. In these circumstances, in the cases of large concerns with wide ramifica- tions and numerous transactions, it is necessary that auditors should have the help of trained assistants, and thus the personal examination of details by the auditor himself is, to a large extent, rendered unnecessary and the cost of audit materially reduced. This delegation of duty by auditors is generally well understood, and is in accordance with the requirements of those concerned; but there has been a tendency of late years to enlarge the responsibilities of auditors to an extent which, if persisted in, might render it dangerous for men of reputation and means to accept the duties. While the number of practising accountants has of late years been steadily increasing and their services are correspondingly appreciated, the necessity for controlling those exer- cising the profession and for improving its status has izSion. naturally become apparent. The first important steps in this direction were taken by the accountants in Scotland — the Society of Accountants in Edinburgh being incorporated by royal charter in 1854; similar societies in Glasgow and Aberdeen being also incorporated by charter in 1855 and 1867. The Institute of Accountants was formed in London in 1870, but did not receive a royal charter until the nth May 1880, when all the then existing accountants' societies and institutes in England were incorporated as the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, and means were- provided by which all the then practising accountants in these countries could claim membership thereof. In the year 1885 the Society of Accountants and Auditors was incorporated, but has obtained no charter; this body, while numbering among its members a considerable number of practising accountants in the United Kingdom, also includes treasurers and accountants to cities and boroughs in England, as well as clerks to chartered and other accountants. A large proportion of its members also consists of accountants practising abroad. In 1888 an Institute of Chartered Accountants was formed in Ireland, and a great many institutes and societies have been formed in the British colonies and in the United States, some of which have local charters. It is curious to note, however, that, outside the United Kingdom, it was only in the British colonies that associations of practising accountants existed, until, in 1895, an Institute of Accountants (Nederlands Instituut van Accountants) was founded in Utrecht for Dutch accountants; when, although the principles of ac- countancy have been well understood and practised in Holland since the 16th century, and probably earlier, it was found necessary to borrow the words " accountant " and " account- ancy " from the English language to convey to the Dutch an idea of the meaning of the terms. Three others have since been formed, the Nederlandsche Academie van Accountants (1902); the Nationale Organisatie van Accountants (1903); and the Nederlandsche Bond van Accountants (1902). Sweden has a society, Svenska Revisorsamfundet, formed in 1899; Belgium, the Chambre Syndicate des Experts Comptables, founded in 1903. In South America, accountants have acquired a certain status in Argentina, Uruguay and Peru. In the United States the organization of professional account- ants is of quite recent growth. The first society formed in America was " The New York State Society of Certified Public Accountants," and shortly afterwards (in 1896) the New York state legislature passed an act authorizing the State university ACCOUTREMENT— ACCUMULATION "5' to confer the degree of certified public accountant (C.P.A.) on the members of the society, while requiring all subsequent entrants to pass an examination. This degree, . however, can be obtained, like other university degrees, without being a member of the society. Other states, notably Pennsylvania, Maryland, California, Illinois, Washington and New Jersey, have followed the example of New York. In 1903 the various state societies formed themselves into a federation. There is also an independent society of practising accountants, the American Association of Public Accountants, with objects similar to those of the federation, but steps have been taken to bring about an amalgamation between the two in order to form one central society to look after their common interests, without, however, interfering with the individual organization of the various state societies. See R. Brown, History of Accounting and Accountants (Edin- burgh), 1905, the most comprehensive book upon the subject; also G. W. Haskins, Accountancy, its Past and Present (U.S.A., 1900); S. S. Dawson, Accountant's Compendium; G. Lisle, Accounting in Theory and Practice (1899); F. W. Pixley, Auditors and their Lia- bilities (1901). The professional periodicals, The Accountant (vol. i., 1877); Accountant's Journal (vol. i., 1883-1884); The Accountants' Magazine (vol. i., 1897); Incorporated Accountants' Journal (vol. i., 1889-1890); Accountics (U.S.A., vol. i., 1897) may also be consulted, and also the Year-books of the Society of Accountants and Auditors, and of the Institute of Chartered Accountants. (J. G. Gr.) ACCOUTREMENT (a French word, probably derived from a and coustre or coutre, an old word meaning one who has charge of the vestments in a church), clothing, apparel; a term used especially, in the plural, of the military equipment of a soldier other than his arms and clothing. ACCRA, a port on the Gulf of Guinea in 5 31' N., 0° 12' W., since 1876 capital of the British Gold Coast colony. Population about 20,000, including some 150 Europeans. Accra is about 80 m. E. of Cape Coast (q.v.), the former capital of the colony. The name is derived from the Fanti word Nkran (an ant), by which designation the tribe inhabiting the surrounding district was formerly known. The town grew up around three forts established in close proximity — St James (British), Crevecceur (Dutch) and Christiansborg (Danish). The last named was ceded to Britain in 1850, Crevecceur not till 1871. Fort St James is now used as a signal station, lighthouse and prison. Accra preserves the distinctions of James Town, Ussher Town and Christiansborg, indicative of its tripartite origin. Ussher Town represents Crevecceur, the fort being renamed after H. T. Ussher, administrator of the Gold Coast (1867-1872). The sea frontage extends about three miles; there is, however, no har- bour, and steamers have to lie about a mile out, goods and passengers being landed in surf boats. The streets formerly consisted largely of mud hovels, but since a great fire in 1894, which destroyed large parts of James Town and Ussher Town, more substantial buildings have been erected. Christiansborg, the finest of the three forts, is the official residence of the governor of the colony. Westwards of the landing-place, where is the customs house, lies James Town. Beyond the fort are various public buildings leading to Otoo Street, the main thoroughfare, which runs two miles in a straight line to Christiansborg. This street contains a fine stone church built in 1895 lor the use of the Anglican community, a branch of the Bank of British West Africa, telegraph offices and the establishments of the principal trading firms. In Victoriaborg, a suburb of Ussher Town, are the residences of the principal officials, and here a racecourse has been laid out. (Accra is almost the only point along the Gold Coast where horses thrive.) Behind the town is rolling grass land, which gives place to the highlands of Aquapim and Akim. At Aburi in the Aquapim hills, 26 m. N. by E. of Accra, are the government sanatorium and botanical gardens. Accra, the first town in the Gold Coast colony to be raised (July 1, 1896) to the rank of a municipality, is governed by a town council with power to raise and spend money. The council consists in equal proportions of nominated and elected members, no racial distinctions being made. Accra is connected by cable with Europe and South Africa, and is the sea terminus of a railway serving the districts N.E., where are flourishing cocoa plantations. ACCRETION (from Lat. ad, to, and crescere, to grow), an addition to that which already exists; increase in any substance by the addition of particles from the outside. In law, the term is used for the increase of property caused by gradual natural additions, as on a river bank or seashore. '.'• ACCRINGTON, a market town and municipal borough in the Accrington parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 208 m. N.W. by N. from London, and 23 m. N. by W. from Manchester, on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1891) 38,603; (1901) 43,122. It lies in a deep valley on the Hindburn, a feeder of the Calder. Cotton spinning and printing works, cotton-mill machinery works, dye-works and chemical manufactures, and neighbouring collieries maintain the industrial population. The church of St James dates from 1763, and the other numerous places of worship and public buildings are all modern. The borough is under a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area 3427 acres. Accrington (Akerenton, Alkerington, Akerington) was granted by Henry de Lacy to Hugh son of Leofwine in Henry II. 's reign, but came again into the hands of the Lacys, and was given by them about 1200 to the monks of Kirkstall, who converted it into a grange. It again returned, however, to the Lacys in 1287, was granted in parcels, and like their other lands became merged in the duchy of Lancaster. In 1553 the commissioners of chantries sold the chapel to the inhabitants to be continued as a place of divine service. In 1836 Old and New Accrington were merely straggling villages with about 5000 inhabitants. By 1861 the population had grown to 17,688, chiefly owing to its position as an important railway junction. A charter of in- corporation was granted in 1878. The date of the original chapel is unknown, but it was probably an oratory which was an offshoot of Kirkstall Abbey. Ecclesiastically the place was dependent on Altham till after the middle of the 19th century. ACCUMULATION (from Lat. accumulare, to heap up), strictly a piling-up of anything; technically, in law, the continuous adding of the interest of a fund to the principal, for the benefit of some person or persons in the future. Previous to 1800, this accumulation of property was not forbidden by English law, provided the period during which it was to accumulate did not exceed that forbidden by the law against perpetuities, viz. the period of a life or lives in being, and twenty-one years afterwards. In 1800, however, the law was amended in conse- quence of the eccentric will of Peter Thellusson (173 7-1 797), an English merchant, who directed the income of his property, consisting of real estate of the annual value of about £5000 and personal estate amounting to over £600,000, to be accumulated during the lives of his children, grandchildren and great-grand- children, living at the time of his death, and the survivor of them. The property so accumulated, which, it is estimated, would have amounted to over £14,000,000, was to be divided among such descendants as might be alive on the death of the survivor of those lives during which the accumulation was to continue. The bequest was held valid {Thellusson v. Woodford, 1798, 4 Vesey, 237). In 1856 there was a protracted lawsuit as to who were the actual heirs. It was decided by the House of Lords (June 9, 1859) in favour of Lord Rendlesham and Charles Sabine Augustus Thellusson. Owing, however, to the heavy expenses, the amount inherited was not much larger than that originally bequeathed. To prevent such a disposition of property in the future, the Accumulations Act 1800 (known also as the "Thellusson Act") was passed, by which it was enacted that no property should be accumulated for any longer term than either (1) the fife of the settlor; or (2) the term of twenty-one years from his death; or (3) during the minority of any person living or en ventre sa mire at the time of the death of the grantor; or (4) during the minority of any person who, if of full age, would be entitled to the income directed to be accumulated. The act, however, did not extend to any provision for payment of the debts of the grantor or of any other person, nor to any provision for raising portions for the children of the settlor, or any person interested under the settlement, nor to any direction touching the produce 126 ACCUMULATOR of timber or wood upon any lands or tenements. The act was extended to heritable property in Scotland by the Entail Amend- ment Act 1848, but does not apply to property in Ireland. The act was further amended by the Accumulations Act 1892, which forbids accumulations for the purpose of the purchase of land for any longer period than during the minority of any person or persons who, if of full age, would be entitled to receive the income. (See also Trust and Perpetuity.) ; ACCUMULATOR, the term applied to a number of devices whose function is to store energy in one form or another, as for example, the hydraulic accumulator of Lord Armstrong (see Hydraulics, § 179)- In t he P resent article th f tom ls ., re " stricted to its use in electro-technology, in which it describes a special type of battery. The ordinary voltaic cell is made by bringing together certain chemicals, whose reaction main- tains the electric currents taken from the cell. When exhausted, such cells can be restored by replacing the spent materials, by a fresh " charge " of the original substances. But in some cases it is not necessary to get rid of the spent materials because they can be brought back to their original state by forcing a reverse current through the cell. The reverse current reverses the chemical action and re-establishes the original conditions thus enabling the cell to repeat its electrical work. Cells which can thus be " re-charged " by the action of a reverse current are called accumulators because they " accumulate the chemical work of an electric current. An accumulator is also known as a "reversible battery," "storage battery" or ' secondary battery " The last name dates from the early days of electro- lysis When a liquid like sulphuric acid was electrolysed for a moment with the aid of platinum electrodes, it was found that the electrodes could themselves produce a current when de- tached from the primary battery. Such a current was attri- buted to an " electric polarization " of the electrodes, and was regarded as having a secondary nature, the implication being that the phenomenon was almost equivalent to a storage 0] electricity. It is now known that the platinum electrodes stored, not electricity, but the products of electro-chemical decomposi- tion Hence if the two names, secondary and storage cells, are used, they are liable to be misunderstood unless the interpreta- tion now put on them be kept in mind. Reversible battery is an excellent name for accumulators. Sir W R Grove first used "polarization" effects in his gas battery but R. L. G. Plante (1834-1889) laid the foundation of modern methods. That he was clear as to the function of an accumulator is obvious from his declaration that the lead- sulphuric acid cell could retain its charge for a long time and had the power d'emmagasiner ainsi le travail chimique de la Pile voltaique: a phrase whose accuracy could not be excelled. Plante began his work on electrolytic polarization in 1859, nis obiect being to investigate the conditions under which its maxi- mum effects can be produced. He found that the greatest storage and the most useful electric effects were obtained by using lead plates in dilute sulphuric acid. After some " forming opera- tions described below, he obtained a cell having a high electro- motive force, a low resistance, a large capacity and almost perfect freedom from polarization. The practical value of the lead-peroxide-sulphuric-acid cell arises largely from the fact that not only are the active materials (lead and lead peroxide, Pb0 2 ) insoluble in the dilute acid but that the sulphate of lead formed from them in the course of dis- charge is also insoluble. Consequently, it remains fixed in the place where it is formed; and on the passage of the charging current, the original Pb0 2 and lead are reproduced in the places they originally occupied. Thus there is no material change in the distribution of masses of active material. Lastly, the active materials are in a porous, spongy condition, so that the acid is within reach of all parts of them. Plante carefully studied the changes which occur in the formation, charge and I discharge of the cell. In form ng, he placed two sheets charge ana } * sulphuric acid , separating them by narrow strip Plaati's f caoutc h uc (fig. 1). When a charging current is «"■ sent through the cell, the hydrogen liberated at one plate escapes, a small quantity possibly being spent in reducing the sur- face film of oxide generally found on lead. Some of the oxygen is always fixed on the other (positive) plate, forming a surface film ot peroxide. After a few minutes the current is reversed so that the first plate is peroxidized, and the peroxide previously formed on the second plate is reduced to metallic lead in a spongy state By repeated reversals, the surface of each plate is alter- nately peroxidized and reduced to metallic lead. In successive oxidations, the action pene- trates farther into the plate, furnishing each time a larger quantity of spongy Pb0 2 on Fig. 1. one plate and of spongy lead on the other. It follows that the duration of the successive charging currents also in- creases. At the beginning, a few minutes suffice; atthe.4 end, many hours are required. After the first six or eight cycles, Plante allowed a period of repose before reversing. He claimed that the PbO, formed by reversal after repose was more strongly adherent, and also more crystalline than if no repose were allowed The following figures show the relative amounts of oxygen absorbed by a given plate in successive charges (between one charge and the next the plate stood in repose for the time stated, then was 1 educed, and again chargpd as anode) : Separate Periods of Repose. 18 hours 2 days 4 " 2 Charge. First Second Third Fourth Fifth Relative Amount of Peroxide formed. i-o i-57 1-71 2-14 2-43 1 the £T\ coat-'-'j \ ereby I \ biting I V and so on for many days (Gladstone and Tribe, Chemistry of Secondary Batteries). Seeing that each plate is in turn oxidized and then reduced, it is evident that the spongy lead will increase at the same rate on the other plate of the cell. The process of "forming thus briefly described was not continued indefinitely, but only till a fair Proportion of the thickness of the plates was converted into the spong? material, Pb0 2 and Pb respectively. After this reversal was not permitted, the cell being put into use and always charged in driven direction. If the process of forming by .reversal be continued , tlfe positive plate is ultimately all converted into Pb0 2 and falls to P1 p C lante made excellent cells by this method, yet three objections wprp ure-ed aeainst them. They required too much time to torm , The spofgy masses (Pb0 2 more especially) fell off for want of me- chankar support, and the separating strips of caoutchouc were not likely to have a long life. The first advance was made by C. A. Faure (1881), who greatly short- ened the time required for " forming " by giving the plates a preliminary coat- L ing of red lead, whereby the slow process of biting into the metal was avoided. At the first charging, the red lead on the + electrode is changed to Pb0 2 , while that on the - electrode is reduced to spongy lead. Thus one continuous opera- tion, lasting perhaps sixty hours, takes the place _ of many reversals, which, with periods of repose, last as much as three months. Faure used felt as a sepa- rating membrane, but its ^ use was soon abolished by p IG 2> — Tudor positive plate. r^E. vUrT^Sellon, J W. Swana^^ support to the spongy masses, and does away with the necessity for felt &c They are more satisfactory, however, as supporters of sponS'lead ta of the peroxide, since at the point °f contact m the ktter case the acid gives rise to a local action which slowly destroys the grid. Disintegration follows sooner or later, though the attempts have not yet been successful enough to enable them to compete with the other forms. For many years the battle between the " Plante type aad ACCUMULATOR 127 Chloride cell. "w till in mm 1 the Faure or " pasted " type has been one in which the issue was doubtful, but the general tendency is towards a mixed type at the present time. There are many good cells, the value of all resting on the care exercised during the manufacture and also in the choice of pure materials. Increasing emphasis is laid on the purity of the water used to replace that lost by evaporation, distilled water generally being specified. The following descriptions will give a good idea of modern practice. The " chloride cell " has a Plante positive with a pasted negative. For the positive a lead casting is made, about 0-4 inch thick pierced by a number of circular holes about half an inch in diameter. Into each of these holes is thrust a roll or rosette of lead ribbon, which has been cut to the right breadth (equal to the thickness of the plate), then ribbed or gimped, and finally coiled into a rosette. The rosettes have sufficient spring to fix themselves in the holes of the lead plate, but are keyed in position by a hydraulic press. The plates are then " formed " by pass- ing a current for a long time. In a later pattern a kind of discontinuous longitudinal rib is put in the ribbon, and increases the capacity and life by strengthening the mass without interfering with the diffusion of acid. The negative plate was formerly obtained by reducing pastilles of lead chloride, but by a later mode of construction it is made by casting a grid with thin vertical ribs, connected horizontally by small bars of triangular section. The bars on the two faces are " staggered, " that is, those on one face are not opposite those on the other. The grid is pasted with a lead oxide paste and afterwards reduced; this is known as the " exide " negative. The larger sizes of negative plate are of a " box " type, formed by riveting together two grids and filling the intervening space m m &k eIS 'Mi ■..:*. &•# r* m <&% j-73 mi »£, V', '•: ' ~ 1 '*■■ >' m &tf \&a S*t S*- -- s .--' ."» ■ ■ ■ m mu% «l W* W'* iW ! i'M f^P^tf-,f\ m IgHi Hi UM t£*i i4? few Hi Fig. 3. — Tudor negative plate. y ■ * Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. with paste. A feature of the " chloride " cells is the use of separators made of thin sheets of specially prepared wood. These prevent short circuits arising from scales of active material or from the 'formation of " trees " of lead which sometimes grow across in certain forms of battery. The Tudor cell has positives formed of lead plates cast in one piece with a large surface of thin vertical ribs, intersected at intervals by horizontal ribs to give the plates strength Tudor cell. ^ withstand buc yi ng i n both directions (fig. 2). The thickness of the plates is about 0-4 inch, and the developed surface is about eight times that of a smooth plate of the same size. A thoroughly adherent and homogeneous coating of peroxide of lead is formed on this large surface by an improved Plante process. The negative plate (fig. 3) is composed of twp grids riveted together to form a shallow box; the outer surfaces are smooth sheets pierced with many small holes. The space between them is intersected by ribs and pasted (before riveting). Many of the E.P.S. cells, made by the Electrical Power Storage Company, are of the Faure or pasted type, but the Plante formation is used for the positives of two kinds of cell. The paste for the positive plates is a mixture of red lead with sulphuric acid; for the negative plates, litharge is substituted for red lead. Figs. 4 and E.P.S. cell. Hart cell. Fig. 7. 5 roughly represent the grids employed for the negative and positive plates respectively of a type used for lighting. Fig. 6 is the cross section of the casting used for the Plante positive of the larger cells for rapid discharge. Finer indentations on the side expose a large surface. Fig. 7 shows a complete cell. The Hart cell, as used for lighting, is a combination of the Plante and Faure (pasted) types. The plates hang by side lugs on glass slats, and ^re separated by three rows of glass tubes I inch diameter (fig. 8). The tubes rest in grooved teak wood blocks placed at the bottom of the glass boxes. The blocks also serve as base for a skeleton framework of the same material which surrounds and supports the section. Of course the wood has to be specially treated to withstand the acid. A special non-corrosive terminal is used. A coned bolt draws the lug ends of adjacent cells together, fitting in a corresponding tapered hole in the lugs, and thus increasing the contact area. The positive and negative tapers being different, a cell cannot be con- nected up in the wrong way. In America, in addition to some of the cells already described, there are types which are not found in England. Two may be described. The Gould cell is of the Plante type. A special effort is made to reduce local and other deleterious action by starting with perfectly homogeneous plates. They are formed from sheet lead blanks by suitable machines, which gradually raise the surface into a series of ribs and grooves. The sides and middle of the blank are left untouched and amply suffice to distribute the current over the surface of the plate. The grooves are very fine, and when the active material is formed in them by electro-chemical action, they hold it very securely. The Hatch cell has its positive enclosed in an envelope. A very shallow porous tray (made of kaolin and silica) is filled with Fig. 8. — Hart Accumulator. 128 ACCUMULATOR red lead paste, an electrode of rolled sheet lead is placed on its surface, and over this again is placed a second porous tray filled Hatch cell w ^ paste. The whole then looks like a thin earthen- ware box with the lug of the electrode projecting from one end. The negatives consist of sheet lead covered by active material. On assembling the plates, each negative is held between two positive " boxes," the outsides of which have pro- jecting vertical ribs. These press against the active material on the negative plates, and help to keep it in position. At the same time, the clearance between the ribs allows room for acid to circulate freely between the negative plate and the outer face of the positive envelope. Diffusion of the acid through this envelope is easy, as it is very porous and not more than ^j inch thick. Traction Cells. — Attempts to run tramcars by accumulators have practically all failed, but traction cells are employed for electric broughams and light vehicles for use in towns. There are no large deviations in manufacture except those imposed by limited space, weight and vibration. The plates are gener- ally thinner and placed closer together. The Plante positive is not used so much as in lighting types. The acid is generally a little stronger in order to get a higher electromotive force (e.m.f.). To prevent the active material from being shaken out of the grids, corrugated and perforated ebonite separators are placed between the plates. The " chloride " traction cell uses a special variety of wood separator: the " exide " type of plate is used for both positive and negative. Cells are now made to run 3000 or more miles before becoming useless. The specific output can be made as high as 10 or n watt-hours per pound of cell, but this involves a chance of shorter life. The average working requirement for heavy vehicles is about 50 watt-hours per 1000 lb per mile. Ignition Cells for motor cars are made on the same lines as traction cells, though of smaller capacity. As a rule two cells are put up in ebonite or celluloid boxes and joined in series so as to give a 4-volt battery, the pressure for which sparking coils are generally designed. The capacity ranges from 20 to 100 ampere- hours, and the current for a single cylinder engine will average one to one and a half amperes during the running intervals. General Features. — The tendency in stationary cells is to allow plenty of space below the plates, so that any active material which falls from the plates may collect there without risk of short-circuit, &c. More space is allowed between the plates, which means that (a) there is more acid within reach, and (b) a slight buckling is not so dangerous, and indeed is not so likely to occur. The plates are now generally made thicker than formerly, so as to secure greater mechanical rigidity. At the same time, the manufacturers aim at getting the active materials in as porous a state as possible. The figures with regard to specific output are difficult to classify. It would be most interesting to give the data in the form of watt-hours per pound of active material, and then to compare them with the theoretical values, but such figures are impossible in the nature of the case except in very special in- stances. For many purposes, long life and trustworthiness are more important than specific output. Except in the case of traction cells, therefore, the makers have not striven to reduce weight to its lowest values. Table I. shows roughly the weight of given types of cells for a given output in ampere hours. Table I. ^__^_____ Capacity in ampere-hours if Type of Cell. discharged in Weight of Cell. 9 hrs. 6 hrs. 3 hrs. 1 hr. Ordinary light- ing ... . 200 182 153 IOI 100 pounds. »> »» 420 380 300 210 200 „ u »» 1200 1080 880 600 670 „ Central station and High Rate 3500 3100 2500 1700 2000 „ ". " 6000 5400 4400 3000 3200 ,, Traction . . . 220 185 440 155 125 40 „ 90 ,. Influence of Temperature on Capacity. — These figures are true only at ordinary temperatures. In winter the capacity is diminished, in summer it is increased. The differences are due partly to change of liquid resistance but more especially to the difference in the rate at which acid can diffuse into or out of the pores: obviously this is greater at higher temperatures. The increase in capacity on warming is appreciable, and may amount to as much as 3% per degree centigrade (Gladstone and Hibbert, Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. xxi. 441; Heim, Electrician, Nov. 1901, p. 55; Liagre, L'Eclairage electrique, iooi,xxix. 150). Notwithstanding these results, it is not advisable to warm accumulators appreciably. At higher temperatures, local action is greatly increased and deterioration becomes more rapid. It is well, however, to avoid low winter temperatures. Working of Accumulators. — Whatever the type of cell may be, it is important to attend to the following working requirements: — (1) The cells must be fully equal to the maximum demand, both in dis- charge rate and capacity. (2) All the cells in one series ought to be equal in discharge rate and capacity. This involves similarity of treatment. (3) The cells are erected on strong wooden stands. Where floor space is too expensive, they can be erected in tiers ; but, if possible, this should be avoided. They ought to lie in rows, so ar- ranged that it is easy to get to one side (at least) of every cell, for examination and testing, and if need be to detach and remove it or its plates. Where a second tier is placed over the first, sufficient clearance space must be allowed for the plates to be lifted out of the lower boxes. The cells are insulated by supporting them on glass or mushroom-shaped oil insulators. If the containing vessels are made of glass, it is desirable to put them in wooden trays which dis- tribute the weight between the vessel and insulators. To prevent acid spray from filling the air of the room, a glass plate is arranged oyer each cell. The positive and negative sections are fixed in posi- tion with insulating forks or tubes, and the positive terminal of one cell is joined to the negative of the next by burning or bolting. If the latter method is adopted, the surfaces ought to be very clean and well pressed home. The joint ought to be covered by vaseline or varnish. When this has been done, examination ought to be made of each cell to see that the plates are evenly spaced, that the separators (glass tubes or ebonite forks between the plates) are in position and vertical, and that there are no scales or other adventi- tious matter connecting the plates. The floor of the cell ought to be quite clear; if anything lies there it must be removed. (4) To mix the solution a gentle stream of sulphuric acid must be poured into the water (not the other way, lest too great heating cause an accident). It is necessary to stir the whole as the mixing proceeds and to arrange that the density is about 1 190, or according to the recommendation of the maker. About five volumes of water ought to be taken to one volume of acid_. After mixing, allow to cool for two or three hours. The strong acid ought to be free from arsenic, copper and other similar impurities. The water ought to be as pure as can be obtained, distilled water being best ; rain water is also good. If potable water be employed, it will generally be improved by boiling, which removes some of the lime held in solution. The impurity in ordinary drinking water is very slight ; but as all cells lose by evaporation and require additions of water from time to time, there is a tendency for it to increase. The acid must not be put into the cells till everything is ready for charging. (5) A shunt- wound or separately-excited dynamo being ready and running so as to give at will 2-6 or 2-7 volts per cell, the acid is run into the cells. As soon as this is done, the dynamo must be switched on and charging commenced. The positive terminal of the dynamo must be joined to the positive terminal of the battery. If necessary, the + end of the machine must be found by a trial cell made of two plain lead sheets in dilute acid. It is im- portant also to maintain this first charging operation for a long time without a break. Twelve hours is a minimum time, twenty-four not too much. The charging is not even then complete, though a short interval is not so injurious as in the earlier stage. The full charge,, required varies with the cells, but in all types a full and practically " continuous first charge is imperatively necessary. During the early part of this charge the density of the acid may fall ; but after a time ought to increase, and finally reach the value desired for permanent working. Towards the end of the "formation " vigilant observation must be exercised. It is important to notice whether any cells are appreciably behind the others in voltage, density or gassing. Such cells may be faulty, and in any case they must be charged and tended till their condition is like that of the others. They ought not to go on the discharge circuit till this is assured. The examination of the cells before passing them as ready for discharge includes: — (a) Density of acid as shown by the hydrometer, (b) Voltage. This may be taken when charging or when idle. In the first case it ought to be from 2-4 to 2-6 volts, according to conditions. In the second case it ought to be just over 2 volts, provided that the observation is not taken too soon after switching off the charging current. For about half an hour after that is done, the e.m.f. has a transient high value, so that, if it be desired to get the proper E.M.F. of the cell, the observation must be taken thirty minutes after the charging ceases. ACCUMULATOR 129 ■(c) Eye observations of the plates and the acid between them. The positive plates ought to show a rich dark brown colour, the negatives a dull slate-blue, and the space between ought to be quite clear and free from anything like solid matter. All the positives ought to be alike, and similarly all the negatives. If the cells show similarity in these respects they will probably be in good working order. As to management, it is important to keep to certain simple rules, of which these are the chief: — (1) Never discharge below a potential difference of 1-85 (or in rapid discharge, 1-8) volt. (2) Never leave the cells discharged, if it be avoidable. (3) Give the cells a special full charging once a month. (4) Make a periodic examination of each cell, determining its E.M.F., density of acid, the condition of its plates and freedom from growth. Any incipient growth, however small, must be carefully watched. (5) If any cell shows signs of weakness, keep it off discharge till it has been brought back to full condition. See that it is free from any connexion between the plates which would cause short-circuiting ; the frame or support which carries the plates sometimes gets covered by a conducting layer. To restore the cell, two methods can be adopted. In private installations it may be dis- connected and charged by one or two cells reserved for the purpose ; or, as is preferable, it may be left in circuit, and a cell in good order put in parallel with it. This acts as a " milking " cell, not only pre- venting the faulty one from discharging, but keeping it supplied with a charging current till its potential difference (p.d.) is normal. Every battery attendant should be provided with a hydrometer and a voltmeter. The former enables him to determine from time to time the density of the acid in the cells; instruments specially con- structed for the purpose are now easily procurable, and it is desir- able that one be provided for every 20 or 25 cells. The voltmeter should read up to about 3 volts and be fitted with a suitable con- nector to enable contacts to be made quickly with any desired cell. A portable glow lamp should also be available, so that a full light can be thrown into any cell; a frosted bulb is rather better than a clear one for this purpose. He must also have some form of wooden scraper to remove any growth from the plates. The scraping must be done gently, with as little other disturbance as possible. By the ordinary operations which go on in the cell, small portions of the plates become detached. It is important that these should fall below the plates, lest they short-circuit the cell, and therefore suffi- cient space ought to be left between the bottom of the plates and the floor of the cell for these " scalings " to accumulate without touching the plates. It is desirable that they be disturbed as little as possible till their increase seriously encroaches on the free space. It sometimes happens that brass nuts or bolts, &c, are dropped into a cell; these should be removed at once, as their partial solu- tion would greatly endanger the negative plates. The level of the liquid must be kept above the top of the plates. Experience shows the advisability of using distilled water for this purpose. It may sometimes be necessary to replenish the solution with some dilute acid, but strong acid must never be added. The chief faults are buckling, growth, sulphating and disintegra- tion. Buckling of the plates generally follows excessive discharge, caused by abnormal load or by accidental short-circuiting. At such times asymmetry in the cell is apt to make some part of the plate take much more than its share of the current. That part then expands unduly, as explained later, and curvature is produced. The only remedy is to remove the plate, and press it back into shape as gently as possible. Growth arises generally from scales from one part falling on some other — say, on the negative. In the next charg- ing the scale is reduced to a projecting bit of lead, which grows still further because other particles rest on it. The remedy is, gently to scrape off any incipient growth. Sulphating, the formation of a white hard surface on the active material, is due to neglect or exces- sive discharge. It often yields if a small quantity of sulphate of soda be added to the liquid in the cell. Disintegration is due to local action, and there is no ultimate remedy. The end can be deferred by care in working, and by avoiding strains and excessive discharge as much as possible. Accumulators in Repose. — Accumulators contain only three active substances — spongy lead on the negative plate, spongy lead peroxide on the positive, and dilute sulphuric acid between Table II. Substance. Colour. Density. Specific Resistance. Lead .... slate blue u-3 0-0000195 ohm Peroxide of lead dark brown 9-28 5-6 to 6-8 „ Sulphuric acid I-2IO 1-37 after charge Sulphuric acid after discharge Sulphuric acid clear liquid I-I70 below 1-28 in pores . . . Sulphate of lead white 1-03 6-3 8-0 non-conductor. them. Sulphate of lead is formed on both plates during dis- charge and brought back to lead and lead peroxide again during '■S t lil I $ charge, and there is a consequent change in the strength of acid during every cycle. The chief properties of these substances are shown in Table II. The curve in fig. 9 shows the relative conductivity (reciprocal of resistance) of all the strengths of sulphuric acid solutions, and by its aid and the figures in the preceding table, the specific resist- ance of any given strength can be determined. The lead accumulator is subject to three kinds ,00c of local action. First and chiefly, local action on s6oo the positive plate, because of the contact between * lead peroxide and the lead grid which supports it. " x "> In carelessly made or roughly handled cells this , may be a very serious matter. It would be so 7 5r tSiT s- ~R.~Zo<' X \ 10 20 30 40 90 80 70 60 80 »a Fig. 9. in all circumstances if the lead sulphate formed on the exposed lead grid did not act as a covering for it. It explains why Plante found "repose" a useful help in "forming," and also why positive plates slowly disintegrate; the lead support is gradu- ally eaten through. Secondly, local action on the negative plate when a more electro-negative metal settles on the lead. This often arises when the original paste or acid contains metallic impurities. Similar impurity is also introduced by scraping copper wire, &c, near a battery. Thirdly, local action due to the acid varying in strength in different parts of a plate. This may arise on either plate and is set up because two specimens of either the same lead or the same peroxide give an e.m.f. when placed in acids of different strengths. J. H. Gladstone and W. Hibbert found that the e.m.f. depends on the difference of strength. With two lead plates, a maximum of about quarter volt was obtained, the lead in the weaker acid being positive. With two peroxide plates the maximum voltage was about 0-64, the plate in stronger acid being positive to that in weaker. The electromotive force i ] ' -* » J , , s s- - £21 J i\ !- - £ - " - f _ H - " C H (^ 1-9 : - -j *"in • 1 f\ f- V a ■n r h 2 A r 1 j z s 4 fa U J E to tl 100 Fig. 10. of a cell depends chiefly on the strength of the acid, as maybe seen from fig. 10 taken from Gladstone and Hibbert's paper (Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng., 1892). The observations with very strong acid were difficult to obtain, though even that with 98% acid marked X is believed to be trustworthy. C. Heim (Elek. Zeit, 1889), F. Streintz (Ann. Phys. Chem. xlvi. p. 449) and F. Dolezalek (Theory of Lead Accumulators, p. 55) have also given tables. It is only necessary to add to these results the facts illustrated by the following diffusion curves, in order to get a complete clue to the behaviour of an accumulator in active work. Fig. n shows the rate of diffusion from plates soaked in 1-175 acid and then placed in distilled water. It is from a paper by L. Duncan and H. Wiegand (Elec. World, N.Y., 1889), who were ii 13° ACCUMULATOR the first to show the importance of diffusion. About one half the acid diffused out in 30 minutes, a good illustration of the slowness of this process. The rate of diffusion is much the same for both positive and negative plates; but slower for discharged plates than for charged ones. Discharge ' affects the rate of diffusion on the lead plate more than on the peroxide plate. This is in accordance with the density values given in Table I. For while lead sulphate is formed in the pores of both plates, the consequent expansions (and obstructions) are different; 100 volumes of lead form 290 volumes of sulphate (a threefold § 30 n fif, ed £ "6 r0 tar jet ■v 20 § ,n i«° '£ gS. !_ i 10 ^ m eft IPS ed (t u ? 10 15 20 Time in m/nu/ea Fig. 11. expansion), a*nd 100 volumes of peroxide form 186 volumes of sulphate (a twofold expansion). The influence of diffusion on the electromotive force is illustrated by fig. 12. A cell was prepared with 20 % acid. It also held a porous pot contain- ing stronger acid, and into this the positive plate was suddenly transferred from the general body of liquid. The e.m.f. rose by diffusion of stronger acid into the pores. Curve I. in fig. 12 shows the rate of rise when the porous pot contained 34% acid; curve II. was obtained with the stronger (58%) acid (Gladstone and Hibbert, Phil. Mag., 1800). Of these two curves the first is more useful, because its conditions are nearer those which occur in practice. At the end of a discharge it is a common thing for the plates to be standing in 25% acid, while inside the pores the acid may not exceed 8% or 10%. If the discharge be stopped,- we have conditions somewhat like fig. 12, and the e.m.f. begins to rise. In one minute it has gone up by about 0-08 volt, &c. Charge arid Discharge. — The most important practical ques- tions concerning an accumulator are: — its maximum rate of working; its capacity at various discharge rates; its efficiency; and its length of life. Apart from mechanical injury all these depend primarily on the way the cell is made, and then on the method of charging and discharging. For each type and size of jcell there is a normal maximum discharging cur- rent. Up to this limit any current may be taken; beyond it, the cell may suffer if discharge be con- tinued for any appreciable time. The most important point to attend to is the voltage at which discharge shall cease. The potential difference at terminals must not fall below i-8o volt during discharge at ordinary rates (10 hours) or 1-75 to 1-70 volt for 1 or 2 hour rate. The reason underlying the figures is simple. These voltages indicate that the acid in the pores is not being renewed fast enough, and that if the discharge continue the chemical action will change: sulphate will not be formed in situ for want of acid. Any such change in action is fa»al to reversibility and therefore to life and constancy in capacity. To illustrate: when at slow dis- charge rates the voltage is i-8o volt, the acid in the pores has weakened to a mean value of about 2-5% (see fig. n), which is quite consistent with some part of the interior being practically pure water. With high discharge rates, something 1 1 :' k *' '".. ^ ' / / Is <*" 1.3+ V Time in MiflufeJ Fig. 12. like o-i volt may be lost in the cells, by ordinary ohmic fall, s» that a voltage reading of 1-75 means an e.m.f. of a little ovei i*8 volt, and a very weak density of the acid inside the pores. Guided by these figures, an engineer can determine what ought to be the permissible drop in terminal volts for any given working conditions. Messrs W. E. Ayrton, C. G. Lamb, E. W. Smith and M. W. Woods were the first to trace the working of a cell through varied conditions (Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng., 1890), and a brief resume of their results is given below. They began by charging and discharging between the limits of 2-4 and 1-6 volts. Fig. 13 shows a typical discharge curve. Noteworthy points are : — (1) At the beginning and at the end there is a rapid fall in P.D., with an intermediate period of fairly uniform value. (2) When the 21 Wirki iq 3 D . &■ c, •// \ Oi. :ch srg 3d ~u re it 10 An>p£ zc \ S =*. IS 16 •S. \ 17 Q \ H. ^ TIMl in Hi t/r. ft on Bt an nit q of Ok ch B rg? >■■' 1 2 3 a $ e 7 e 9 to a Fig. 13. p.D. reaches 1-6 volt the fall is so rapid that there is no advantage in continuing the action. When the P.D. had fallen to 1-6 volt the cell was automatically switched into a charging circuit, and with a current of 9 amperes yielded the curve in fig. 14. Here again there is a rapid variation in P.D. (in these cases a rise) at the beginning and end of the operation. The cells were now carried through the same cycle several times, giving almost identical values for each cycle. After some days, however, they became more and more difficult to charge, and the return on discharge was proportionately less. It became impossible to charge up to a P.D. of 2-4 volts, and finally the capacity fell away to half its first value. Examination showed that the plates were badly scaled, and that some of the scales had partially connected the plates. These scales were cleared away and the ex- periments resumed, limiting the fall of p.d. to 1-8 volt. The diffi- 2<* Wo •-fri tg >.L 01 Co II in ■i Cn grg inn C< trr, nt •9\ Ai T/X i\ t 23 £ V / . t ys r 2 2 Q «. 21 ZO Til W£ ioi rs < rot 1 S eg/, mi "9 or \.h. rgi C 1 . 3 ■ s t 7 ■ 9 1 // 1 2 13 1 * IS Fig. 14. culties then disappeared, showing that discharge to 1-6 volt caused injury that did not arise at a limit of 1-8. Before describing the new results it will be useful to examine these two cases in the light of the theory of e.m.f. already given. (a) Fall in e.m.f. at beginning of discharge. — At the moment when previous charging ceases the pores of the positive plate contain strong acid, brought there by the charging current. There is consequently a high e.m.f. But the strong acid begins to diffuse away at once and the e.m.f. falls rapidly. Even if the cell were not discharged this fall would occur, and if it were allowed to rest for thirty minutes or so the discharge would have begun with the dotted line (fig. 13). {V) Final rapid fall. — The pores being clogged by sulphate the plugs cannot get acid by diffusion, and when 5 % is reached the fall in e.m.f. is disproportionately large (see fig. 10). If discharge be stopped, there is an almost instantaneous diffusion inwards and a rapid rise in e.m.f. (c)The rise in e.m.f. at beginning and end of the charging is due to acid in the pores being strengthened, partly by diffusion, partly by formation of sulphuric acid from sulphate, and partly by electrolytic carrying of strong acid to the positive plate. The injurious results at 1-6 volt arise because then the pores contain water. The chemical reaction is altered, oxide or hydrate is formed, which will partially dissolve, to be changed to sulphate when the sulphuric acid subsequently diffuses in. But formed in this way it will not appear mixed with the active masses in the electrolytic paths, but more or less alone in the pores. In this position it will more or less block the passage and isolate some of the peroxide ACCUMULATOR I3 1 Further, when forming in the narrow passage its disruptive action will tend to force off the outer layers. It is evident that limitation of P.D. to 1-8 volt ought to prevent these injuries, because it pre- vents exhaustion of acid in the plugs. Fig. 15 shows the results obtained by study of successive periods of rest, the observations being taken between the limits of 2-4 and 1-8 volts. Curves A and B show the state and capacity at the beginning. After a 10 days' rest the capacity was smaller, but repeated cycles Discharges with 10 amperes . Charges with 9 amperes. 2-2 2-4 2-2 B S^ A 2-0 1-8 1-3 2.4 2-2 2.4 2-2 D C 2-0 s" 1-8 1-8 2-4 2-2 2-4 2-2 F e| 20 <~ 1-8 1-8 if 2-4 1 2-4 2-2 H ,C G 2-0 u 1-8 ■22-4 '■52-2 B2-0 g '- 8 2-4 2-2 J 2-0 >— 3 i\ 1-8 2-4 £ z 2-2 L K 2-0 1-8 2-4 2-4 2-2 M 2-0 *~ 1-8 2-4 2-4 2-2 P 2-0 ' 1-8 1-8 O12 34 567 8 9 10 11 01 2 84 567 88 10 11 Time in hours from beginning of discharge. Time in hours from beginning of charge. Fig. 15. of work brought it back to C and D. A second rest (10 days), followed by many cycles, then gave E and F. After a third rest(i6 days) and many cycles, G and H were obtained. After a fourth rest (16 days) the first discharge gave I and the first charge J. Repeated cycles brought the cells back to K and L. Curves M and N show first cycle after a fifth rest (16 days) ; O and P show the final restoration brought about by repeated cycles of work. The numbers given by the integration of some of these curves are stated in Table III. Table III. Capacity and Efficiency under Various Conditions of Working. Experiment. Discharge. Charge. Efficiency. Am- pere Hours. Watt Hours. Am- pere Hours. Watt Hours. Quan- tity. Energy. Normal cycle. Restoration after 1st rest Ditto, after 2nd rest . . Ditto, after 3rd rest . . Discharge ) immediately > after rest ; Restoration after 8 cycles 102 100 91 82-6 56-5 56-5 8o 201-7 179 176-7 1613 no-5 no-5 156-9 104-5 103-8 96-8 86-2 86-2 71-1 83-8 230-7 228-2 213-2 190-5 190-5 158-3 184-6 97-2 96-8 94- 1 95-8 65-5 79-6 95-5 87-4 85-8 82-8 84-7 58 1 69-6 85 The table shows that the efficiency in a normal cycle may be as high as 87-4%; that during a rest of sixteen days the charged ! Thio discharge is here compared with the charge that preceded the rest; in the next line the same discharge is compared with the charge folio-wing the rest. accumulator is so affected that about 30% of its charge is not available, and in subsequent cycles it shows a diminished capacity and efficiency; and that by repeated charges and discharges the capacity may be partially restored and the efficiency more completely so. These changes might be due to — (a) leakage or short-circuit, (&) some of the active material having fallen to the bottom of the cell or {c) some change in the active materials, (a) is excluded by the fact that the subsequent charge is smaller, and (b) by the continued in- crease of capacity during the cycles that follow the rest. Hence the third hypothesis is the one which must be relied upon. The change in the active materials has already been given. The formation of 7I Va, -iou S f T/K of D sell irgso.* C 'on oto 1 A 7*vt It \ II "la 'e ■th ") Ce 1. L 77 1-6 '*»#? N te *X " r* V \ , \* V*" t-r \ t\ \ * 1 J? * 1 * V 16 £ 3 1 ^_ L.S 2\ SI 7 I '10 1. -s 1,0 / s ao 2. S tiO zs Am oen ' Hluri Fig. 16. lead sulphate by local action on the peroxide plate and by direct action of acid on spongy metal on the lead plate explains the loss of energy shown in curve M, fig. 15, while the fact that it is probably formed, not in the path of the regular currents, but on the wall of the grid (remote from the ordinary action) , gives a probable explanation of the subsequent slow recovery. The action of the acid on the lead during rest must not be overlooked. We have seen that capacity diminishes as the discharge rate increases; that is, the available output increases as the current diminishes. R. E. B. Crompton's diagram illustrating this fact is given in fig. 16. At the higher rates the consumption of acid is too rapid, diffusion cannot maintain its strength in the pores, and the fall comes so much earlier. The resistance varies with the condition of the cell, as shown by the curves in fig. 17. It may be unduly increased by long or narrow lugs, and especially by dirty joints between the lugs. It is interesting to note that it increases at the end of both charge and discharge, and , 7 *-3 1. 010 J $ ly £ ' .,- ZQ h" "" OM ft s. r/u y'n lL /Si *ha 4 ~ r|S pj t j \ ISO S . $ 003 s N 19 77/1 t£ n JOL rs. *ro> t I "f nt. /nt Of w c t <&r. V f > \ ^ s }t£3 + 567e Time in Hours from beginning of Charge -. or Oiacharge Fig. 18. After discharge : — -f plate Liquid -2p). H 2 S0 4 "1 ~(x-p). Pb0 2 ~j , Ry-zjv. n 2 3vj 4 i 1 £.PbSOj ^ L(«+2£).H 2 J T \_p. PbS0 4 j —plate r{z-P), Pb - ] During charge, the substances are restored to their original con- dition: the equation is therefore reversed. An equation of this general nature was published by Gladstone and Tribe in 1882, when they first suggested the " sulphate " theory, which was based on very numerous analyses. Confirmation was given by E.Frankland in 1883, E. Reynier 1884, A. P. P. Crova and P. Garbe 1885, C. Heim and W. F. Kohlrausch 1889, W. E. Ayrton, &c, with G. H Robertson 1890, C. H. J. B. Liebenow 1897, F. Dolezalek 1897, and M. Mugdan 1899. Yet there has been, as Dolezalek says, an incomprehensible unwillingness to accept the theory, though no suggested alternative could offer good verifiable experimental foundation. Those who seek a full discussion will find it in Dolezalek's Theory of the Lead Accumulator. We shall take it that the sulphate theory is proved, and apply it to the conditions of charge and discharge. From the chemical theory it will be obvious that the acid in the pores of both plates will be stronger during charge than that outside. During discharge the reverse will be the case. Fig. 19 shows a curve >!-/ , »<3 SO 1; 1 -j °1 ' s rt e< 1 III I 12 (\ i K I z ' f* * £i -■ / A s . n. IS f« 2t A / D a ■c ill itt ^ H 1 — - '— / t T \Mi •1 h, \lli 4 rt ■n bt 9" rn V Oi L W V ■ M \rt P r £ * 5 6 7 t 10 11 i 13 w. 5 Fig. 19. of potential difference during charge, with others showing the con- current changes in the percentage of Pb0 2 and the density of acid. These increase almost in proportion to the duration of the current, and indicate the decomposition of sulphate and liberation of sul- phuric acid. There are breaks in the P.D. curve at A, B, C, D where the current was stopped to extract samples for analysis, &c. The fall in e.m.f. in this sh'ort interval is noteworthy; it arises from the diffusion of stronger acid out of the pores. The final rise of pressure is due to increase in resistance and the effect of stronger acid in the pores, this last arising partly from reduced sulphate and partly from the electrolytic convection of SCu (see also Dolezalek, Theory, p. 1 13) . Fig. 20 gives the data for discharge. The percentage of Pb0 2 and the density here fall almost in proportion to the duration of the current. The special feature is the rapid fall of voltage at the end. Several suggestions have been made about this phenomenon. The writer holds that it is due to the exhaustion of the acid in the pores. Plante, and afterwards Gladstone and Tribe, found a possible cause in the formation of a film of peroxide on the spongy lead. E. J. Wade has suggested a sudden readjustment of the spongy mass into a complex sulphate. To rebut these hypotheses it is only neces- sary to say that the fall can be deferred for a long time by pressing fresh acid into the pores hydrostatically (see Liebenow, Zeits. fur Elektrochem., 1897, iv. 61), or by working at a higher temperature. This increases the diffusion inwards of strong acid, and like the increase due to hydrostatic pressure maintains the e.m.f. The other suggested causes of the fall therefore fail. Fig. 20 also shows that when the discharge current was stopped at points A, B, C, D to extract samples, the voltage immediately rose, owing to inward diffusion of stronger acid. The inward diffusion of fresh acid also accounts for the recuperation found after a rest which follows either a complete discharge or a partial discharge at a very rapid rate. If the discharge be complete the recuperation refers only to the electro- motive force; the pressure falls at once on closed circuit. If dis- charge has been rapid, a rest will enable the cell to resume work because it brings fresh acid into the active regions. 2-1 Ml 90 SO £ 60^5 sof *°s 30 s yi !£ jd OH "•JiBI 1-8 S a: 14 "-r B Z^f££- i;-, T K IS A "1 \ ^^^, N \ 1 »a. £. 1 *3^ k -«ar \ -Li! — i__ »~ . •^m , ~ ' g V 11 O """ V — ■■//»■£ in hiur 1 1 "Oil *t.i 'in j c f t '« :h. ri 10 Hi, Pi r-t a >l * 3 4 5 6 7 S 6 10 II 12 13 1* 16 Fig. 20. As to the effect of repose on a charged cell, Gladstone and Tribe's experiments showed that peroxide of lead lying on its lead support suffers from a local action, which reduces one molecule of PbG 2 to sulphate at the same time that an atom of the grid below it is also changed to sulphate. There is thus not only a loss of the available peroxide, but a corrosion of the grid or plate. It is through this action that the supports gradually give way. On the negative plate an action arises between the finely divided lead and the sulphuric acid, with the result that hydrogen is set free : — Pb+H 2 S0 4 = PbS0 4 +H 2 . This involves a diminution of available spongy lead, or lossof capacity, occasionally with serious consequences. The capacity of the lead plate is reduced absolutely, of course, but its relative value is more seriously affected. In the discharge it gets sulphated too much, because the better positive keeps up the e.m.f. too long. In the succeeding charge, the positive is fully charged before the negative t and the differences between them tend to increase in each cycle. Kelvin and Helmholtz have shown that the e.m.f. of a voltaic cell can be calculated from the energy developed by the chemical action. For a dyad gram equivalent ( = 2 grams of hydrogen, 207 grams of lead, &c), the equation connecting them is EH I rydsL ~ "T *■ JT 46000 a L where E is the e.m.f. in volts, H is the heat developed by a dyad equivalent of the reacting substances, T is the absolute tempera- ture, and dE/dT is the temperature coefficient of the e.m.f. _ If the e.m.f. does not change with temperature, the second term is zero. The thermal values for the various substances formed and decom- posed are: — For Pb0 2 , 62400; for PbSOa, 216210; for H2SO4, 192920; and for H 2 0, 68400 calories. Writing the equation in its simplest form for strong acid, and ignoring the temperature co- efficient term, Pb0 2 +2H 2 SOi + Pb =2PbS0 4 + 2H 2 -62440-385840 +432420 + 136720 leaving a balance of 120860 calories. Dividing by 46000 gives 2-627 volts. The experimental value in strong acid, according to Gladstone and Hibbert, is 2-607 volts, a very close approximation. For other strengths of acid, the energy will be less by the quantity of heat evolved by dilution of the acid, because the chemical action must take th,e H2SO4 from the diluted liquid. The dotted curve in fig. 10 indicates the calculated e.m.f. at various points when this is taken into account. The difference between it and the con- tinuous curve must, if the chemical theory be correct, depend on the second term in the equation. The figure shows that the observed e.m.f. is above the theoretical for all strengths from 100 down to 5 %. Below 5 the position is reversed. The question remains, Can the temperature coefficient be obtained? This is difficult, because the ACCUMULATOR 133 value is so small, and it is not easy to secure a good cycle of obser- vations. Streintz has given the following values :— . IO 6 1-9223 140 1-9828 228 2-0031 335 2-0084 285 2-0105 255 2-078 130 2-2070 73 aK'fi, head), a term applied to several sects as having no head or leader; and in particular to a strict monophysite sect that separated itself, in the end of the 5th century, from the rule of the patriarch of Alexandria (Peter Mongus) , and remained " without king or bishop " till they were reconciled by Mark I. (799-819). 1 The term is also used to denote clerici vagrantes, i.e. clergy without title or benefice, picking up a living anyhow (cf. Hinschius i. p. 64). Certain persons in England during the reign of King Henry I. were called Acephali because they had no lands by virtue of which they could acknowledge a superior lord. The name is also given to certain legendary races described by ancient naturalists and geographers as having no heads, their mouths and eyes being in their breasts, generally identified with Pliny's Blemmyae. ACEPHALOUS, headless, whether literally or metaphorically, leaderless. The word is used literally in biology; and meta- phorically in prosody or grammar for a verse or sentence with a beginning wanting. In zoology, the mollusca are divided into cephalous and acephalous (Acephala), according as they have or have not an organized part of their anatomy as the seat of the brain and special senses. The Acephala, or Lamellibranchiata (q.v.), are commonly known as bivalve shell-fish. In botany the word is used for ovaries not terminating in a stigma. Acephalocyst is the name given by R. T. H. Laennec to the hydatid, immature or larval tapeworm. ACERENZA (anc. Aceruntia), a town of the province of Potenza, Italy, the seat of an archbishop, 155 m. N.E. of the station of Pietragalla, which is 9 m. N.W. of Potenza by rail, 2730 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 4499- Its situation is one of great strength, and it has only one entrance, on the south. It was occupied as a colony at latest by the end of the Republic, and its importance as a fortress was specially ap- preciated by the Goths and Lombards in the 6th and 7th cen- turies. It has a fine Norman cathedral, upon the gable of which is one of the best extant busts of Julian the Apostate. ACEROSE (from Lat. acus, needle, or acer, sharp), needle- shaped, a term used in botany (since Linnaeus) as descriptive of the leaves, e.g., of pines. From Lat. acus, chaff, comes also the distinct meaning of " mixed with chaff." ACERRA, a town and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, 9 m. N.E. from Naples by rail. Pop. (1901) 16,443. Tne town nes on tne "g nt bank of the Agno, which divides the province of Naples from that of Caserta, 90 ft. above the sea, in a fertile but somewhat marshy district, which in the middle ages was very malarious. The ancient name (Acerrae) was also borne by a town in Umbria and another in Gallia Transpadana (the latter now Pizzighettone on the Adda, 13 m. W.N.W. of Cremona). It became a city with Latin rights in 332 B.C. and later a municipium. It was destroyed by Hannibal in 216 B.C., but restored in 210; in 90 B.C. it served as the Roman headquarters in the Social war, and was successfully held against the insurgents. It received a colony under Augustus, but appears to have suffered rnuch from floods of the river Clanis. Under the Empire we hear no more of it, and no traces of antiquity, beyond inscriptions, remain. ACERRA, in Roman antiquity, a small box or pot for holding incense, as distinct from the turibulum (thurible) or censer in which incense was burned. The name was a'so given by the Romans to a little altar placed near the dead, on which incense was offered every day till the burial. In ecclesiastical Latin the term acerra is still applied to the incense boats used in the Roman ritual. ACETABULUM, the Latin word for a vinegar cup, an ancient Roman vessel, used as a liquid measure (equal to about half a gill) ; it is also a word used technically in zoology, by analogy for certain cup-shaped parts, e.g. the suckers of a mollusc, the socket of the thigh-bone, &c; and in botany for the receptacle of Fungi. ACETIC ACID {acidum aceticum), CH 3 -C0 2 H, one of the most important organic acids. It occurs naturally in the juice of 1 See Gibbon, ch. xlvii. (vol. v. p. 129 in Bury's ed.). many plants, and as the esters of n-hexyl and n-octyl alcohols in the seeds of Heracleum giganteum, and in the fruit of Hera- cleum sphondylium, but is generally obtained, on the large scale, from the oxidation of spoiled wines, or from the destructive distillation' of wood. In the former process it is obtained in the form of a dilute aqueous solution, in which also the colouring matters of the wine, salts, &c, are dissolved; and this impure acetic acid is what we ordinarily term vinegar (q.v.). Acetic acid (in the form of vinegar) was known to the ancients, who obtained it by the oxidation of alcoholic liquors. Wood- vinegar was discovered in the middle ages. Towards the close of the 18th century, A. L. Lavoisier showed that air was necessary to the formation of vinegar from alcohol. In 1830 J. B. A. Dumas converted acetic acid into trichloracetic acid, and in 1842 L. H. F. Melsens reconverted this derivative into the original acetic acid by reduction with sodium amalgam. The synthesis of trichloracetic acid from its elements was accomplished in 1843 by H. Kolbe; this taken in conjunction with Melsens's observation provided the first synthesis of acetic acid. An- hydrous acetic acid — glacial acetic acid — is a leafy crystalline mass melting at 16-7° C., and possessing an exceedingly pungent smell. It boils at n 8°, giving a vapour of abnormal specific gravity. It dissolves in water in all proportions with at first a contraction and afterwards an increase in volume. It is detected by heating with ordinary alcohol and sulphuric acid, which gives rise to acetic ester or ethyl acetate, recognized by its fragrant odour; or by heating with arsenious oxide, which forms the pungent and poisonous cacodyl oxide. It is a monobasic acid, forming one normal and two acid potassium salts, and basic salts with iron, aluminium, lead and copper. Ferrous and ferric acetates are used as mordants; normal lead acetate is known in commerce as sugar of lead (q.v.);- basic copper acetates are known as verdigris (q.v.). Pharmacology and Therapeutics. — Glacial acetic acid is occa- sionally used as a caustic for corns. The dilute acid, or vinegar, may be used to bathe the skin in fever, acting as a pleasant refrigerant. Acetic acid has no valuable properties for internal administration. Vinegar, however, which contains about 5 % acetic acid, is frequently taken as a cure for obesity, but there is no warrant for this application. Its continued employment may, indeed, so injure the mucous membrane of the stomach as to interfere with digestion and so cause a morbid and dangerous reduction in weight. The acetates constitute a valuable group of medicinal agents, the potassium salt being most frequently employed. After absorption into the blood, the acetates are oxidized to car- bonates, and therefore are remote alkalies, and are administered whenever it is desired to increase the alkalinity of the blood or to reduce the acidity of the urine, without exerting the dis- turbing influence of alkalies upon the digestive tract. The citrates act in precisely similar fashion, and may be substituted. They are somewhat more pleasant but more expensive. ACETO-ACETIC ESTER, C 6 H l0 O 3 or CH 3 -CO-CH 2 -COOC 2 H 5 , a chemical substance discovered in 1863 by A. Geuther, who showed that the chief product of the action of sodium on ethyl acetate was a sodium compound of composition C 6 H 9 3 Na, which on treatment with acids gave a colourless, somewhat oily liquid of composition CeHi O 3 . E. Frankland and B. F. Duppa in 1865 examined the reaction and concluded that Geuther-'s sodium salt was a derivative of the ethyl ester of acetone carboxylic acid and possessed the constitution CH 3 COCHNa-COOC 2 H 5 , This view was not accepted by Geuther, who looked upon his compound C6H10O3 as being an acid: J. Wislicenus also investigated the reaction very thoroughly and accepted the Frankland-Duppa formula (Annalen, 1877, 186, p. 163; 1877, 190, p. 257). The substance is best prepared by drying ethyl acetate over calcium chlorido and treating it with sodium wire, which is best introduced in one operation; the liquid boils and is then heated on a water bath for some hours, until the sodium all dissolves. After the reaction is completed, the liquid is acidified with dilute sulphuric acid (1:5) and then shaken 136 ACETONE— ACETOPHENONE with salt solution, separated from the salt solution, washed, dried and fractionated. The portion boiling between 175° and i8s°C. is redistilled. The yield amounts to about 30 % of that required by theory. A. Ladenburg and J. A. Wanklyn have shown that pure ethyl acetate free from alcohol will not react with sodium to produce aceto-acetic ester. L. Claisen, whose views are now accepted, studied the reactions of sodium ethylate and showed that if sodium ethylate be used in place of sodium in the above re- action the same result is obtained. He explains the reactions thus: CH 3 -C ^O / ONa \ oc H +NaOC 2 H 6 =CH 3 -CM)C 2 H5, N3C2H6 this reaction being followed by /ONa H . CH 3 -C^OC 2 H 5 +">CH-COOC 2 H 6 = 2C 2 H 6 OH+ X)C,H 5 H CH,-C(ONa):CHCOOC 2 H 6 ; and oh acidification this last substance gives aceto-acetic ester. Aceto-acetic ester is a colourless liquid boiling at i8i c C. ; it is slightly soluble in water, and when distilled undergoes some decomposition forming dehydracetic acid C 8 H 8 4 . It undoubtedly contains a- keto-group, for it reacts with hydro- cyanic acid, hydroxylamine, phenylhydrazine and ammonia; sodium bisulphite also combines with it to form a crystalline compound, hence it contains the grouping CH 3 -CO-. J. Wis- licenus found 1 that only one hydrogen atom in the -CH 2 - group is directly replaceable by sodium, and that if the sodium be then replaced by an alkyl group, the second hydrogen atom in the group can be replaced in the same manner. These alkyl substitution products are important, for they lead to the syn- thesis of many organic compounds, on account of the fact that they can be hydrolysed in two different ways, barium hydroxide or dilute sodium hydroxide solution giving the so- called ketone hydrolysis, whilst concentrated sodium hydroxide gives the acid hydrolysis. Ketone hydrolysis; — - CH 3 -CO-C(XY)-CO 2 C 2 H5-}CH 8 -CO-CH(XY)-fC 2 H 6 0H-|-CO 2 ; Acid hydrolysis: — CH 3 -CO-C(XY)-C0 2 C 2 H 6 ^CH 3 -C0 2 H+C 2 H 6 OH+CH(XY).COOH; (where X and Y = alkyl groups) . Both reactions occur to some extent simultaneously. Aceto- acetic ester is a most important synthetic reagent, having been used in the production of pyridines (q.v.), quinolines (q.v.), pyrazolones, furfurane (q.v.), pyrrols (q.v.), uric acid (q.v.), and many complex acids and ketones. For a discussion as to the composition, and whether it is to be regarded as possessing the " keto " form CH 3 -COCH 2 -COOC2H 6 or the "enol" form CH 3 -C(OH) : CH-COOC 2 H 6 , see Isomerism, and also papers by J. Wislicenus (Ann., 1877, 186, p. 163; 1877, 190, p. 257), A. Michael (Journ. Prak. Chem., 1887, [2] 37, p. 473), L. Knorr (Ann., 1886, 238, p. 147), W. H. Perkin, senr. (Journ. of Chem. Soc, 1892, 61, p. 800) and J. U. Nef (Ann., 1.891, 266, p. 70; 1892, 270, pp. 289, 333; 1893, 276, p. 212). ACETONE, or Dimethyl Ketone, CHs-COCHa, in chemistry, the simplest representative of the aliphatic ketones. It is present in very small quantity in normal urine, in the blood, and in larger quantities in diabetic patients. It is found among the products formed in the destructive distillation of wood, sugar, cellulose, &c, and for this reason it is always present in crude wood spirit, from which the greater portion of it may be re- covered by fractional distillation. On the large scale it is pre- pared by the dry distillation of calcium acetate (CH 3 C0 2 ) 2 Ca= CaC03+CH 3 COCH 3 . E. R. Squibb (Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc, 1895, 17, p. 187) manufactures it by passing the vapour of acetic acid through a rotating iron cylinder containing a mixture of pumice and precipitated barium carbonate, and kept at a temperature of from 500 C. to 6oo° C. The mixed vapours of acetone, acetic acid and water are then led through a condensing apparatus so that the acetic acid and water are first condensed, and then the acetone is condensed in a second vessel. The barium carbonate used in the process acts as a contact substance, since the temperature at which the operation is carried out is always above the decomposition point of barium : acetate. Crude acetone may be purified by converting it into the crystal- line sodium bisulphite compound, which is separated by filtration and then distilled with sodium carbonate. CH CH; 3 >C<°" T +Na 2 C0 3 = 2^ 8 >CO+2Na 2 S0 3 +C0 2 +H 2 0. 3 X N S0 3 Na CH 3 / It is then dehydrated and redistilled. Acetone is largely used in the manufacture of cordite (q.v.). For this purpose the crude distillate is redistilled over sulphuric acid and then fractionated. Acetone is a colourless mobile liquid of pleasant smell, boiling at 56-53°C, and has a specific gravity o-8i9(o°/4°C.). It is readily soluble in water, alcohol, ether, &c. In addition to its applica- tion in the cordite industry, it is used in the manufacture of chloroform (q.v.) and sulphonal, and as a solvent. It forms a hydrazone wdth phenyl hydrazine, and an oxime with hydroxyl- amine. Reduction by sodium amalgam converts it into iso- propyl alcohol; oxidation by chromic acid gives carbon dioxide and acetic acid. With ammonia it reacts to form di- and tri- acetOneamines. It also unites directly with hydrocyanic acid to form the nitrile of a-oxyisobutyric acid. By the action of various reagents such as lime, caustic potash, hydrochloric acid, &c, acetone is converted into condensation products, mesityl oxide C 6 Hi O, phorone C9H14O, &c, being formed. ' On distillation with sulphuric acid, it is converted into mesitylene CgH^symmetrical trimethyl benzene). Acetone has also been used in the artificial production of indigo. In the presence of iodine and an alkali it gives iodoform. Acetone has been employed medicinally in cases of dyspnoea. With potassium iodide, glycerin and water, it forms the preparation spirone, which has been used as a spray inhalation in paroxysmal sneezing and asthma. ACETOPHENONE, or Phenyl-Methyl Ketone, C 8 H 8 or C 6 H5CO-CH 3 , in chemistry, the simplest representative of the class of mixed aliphatic-aromatic ketones. It can be prepared by distilling a mixture of dry calcium benzoate and acetate, Ca(0 2 CC 6 H 6 ) 2 -|-(CH 3 C0 2 ) 2 Ca = 2CaC03+2C6H 5 CO-CH a , or by condensing benzene with acetyl chloride in the presence of anhy- drous aluminium, chloride (C. Friedel and J. M. Crafts), C 6 H 6 -r- CHsCOCl^HCl+CeHsCOCH;,. It crystallizes in colourless plates melting at 2o°C. and boiling at 202°C. ; it is insoluble in water, but readily dissolves in the ordinary organic solvents. It is reduced by nascent hydrogen to the secondary alcohol C 6 H 5 -CH-OH-CH3 phenyl-methyl-carbinol, and on oxidation forms benzoic acid. On the addition of phenylhydrazine it gives a phenylhydrazone, and with hydroxylamine furnishes an oxime ( g^>C = NOH melting at S9°C. This oxime under- goes a peculiar rearrangement when it is dissolved in ether and phosphorus pentachloride is added to the ethereal solution, the excess of ether distilled off and water added to the residue being converted into the isomeric substance acetanilide, C6H5NHCOCH3, a behaviour shown by many ketoximes and known as the Beckmann change (see Berichte, 1886, 19, p. 988). With sodium ethylate in ethyl acetate solution it forms the sodium derivative of benzoyl acetone, from which benzoyl acetone, C 6 H 5 -CO-CH 2 -CO-CH3, can be obtained by acidification with acetic acid. When heated with the halogens, acetophenone is substituted in the aliphatic portion of the nucleus; thus bromine gives phenacyl bromide, C 6 H 5 CO- CH 2 Br. Numerous derivatives of acetophenone have been prepared, one of the most import- ant being orthoaminoacetophenone, NH^-CeHj-CO-CHs, which is obtained by boiling orthoaminophenylpropiolic acid with water. It is a thick yellowish oil boiling between 242° C. and 25o°C. It condenses with acetone in the presence of caustic soda to aquinoline. Acetonyl-acetophenone, C6H 5 -CO-CH 2 -CH 2 -CO-CH 8i is produced by condensing phenacyl bromide with sodium aceto- acetate with subsequent elimination of carbon dioxide, and oh dehydration gives aa-phenyl-methyl-furfurane. Oxazoles (q.v.) are produced on condensing phenacyl bromide with acid-amides (M. Lewy, Berichte, 1887, 20, p. 2578). K. L. Paal has also ob- tained pyrrol derivatives by condensing acetophenone-aceto- acetic-ester with substances of the type NH 2 R. ACETYLENE r 37 ACETYLENE, klumene or ethine, a gaseous compound of carbon and hydrogen, represented by the formula C 2 H 2 . It is a colourless gas, having a density of 0-02. When properties, prepared by the action of water upon calcium carbide, it has a very strong and penetrating odour, but when it is thoroughly purified from sulphuretted and phosphuretted hydrogen, which are invariably present with it in minute traces, this extremely pungent odour disappears, and the pure gas has a not unpleasant ethereal smell. It can be condensed into the liquid state by cold or by pressure, and experiments by G. Ansdell show that if the gas be subjected to a pressure of 21-53 atmospheres at a temperature of o° C, it is converted into the liquid state, the pressure needed increasing with the rise of temperature, and decreasing with the lowering of the tempera- ture, until at —82° C. it becomes liquid under ordinary atmo- spheric pressure. The critical point of the gas is 37° C, at which temperature a pressure of 68 atmospheres is required for lique- faction. The properties of liquid and solid acetylene have been investigated by D. Mcintosh (Jour. Chem. Soc, Abs., 1907, i. 458). A great future was expected from its use in the liquid state, since a cylinder fitted with the necessary reducing valves would supply the gas to light a house for a considerable period, the liquid occupying about -rfo the volume of the gas, but in the United States and on the continent of Europe, where liquefied acetylene was made on the large scale, several fatal accidents occurred owing to its explosion under not easily explained con- ditions. As a result of these accidents M. P. E. Berthelot and L. J. G. Vieille made a series of valuable researches upon the explosion of acetylene under various conditions. They found that if liquid acetylene in a steel bottle be heated at one point by a platinum wire raised to a red heat, the whole mass decom- poses and gives rise to such tremendous pressures that no cylinder would be able to withstand them. These pressures varied from 71,000 to 100,000 lb. per square inch. They, moreover, tried the effect of shock upon the liquid, and found that the repeated dropping of the cylinder from a height of nearly 20 feet upon a large steel anvil gave no explosion, but that when the cylinder was crushed under a heavy blow the impact was followed, after a short interval of time, by an explosion which was manifestly due to the fracture of the cylinder and the ignition of the escap- ing gas, mixed with air, from sparks caused by the breaking of the metal. A similar explosion will frequently follow the breaking in the same way of a cylinder charged with hydrogen at a high pressure. Continuing these experiments, they found that in acetylene gas under ordinary pressures the decomposition brought about in one portion of the gas, either by heat or the firing in it of a small detonator, did not spread far beyond the point at which the decomposition started, while if the acetylene was compressed to a pressure of more than 30 lb on the square inch, the decomposition travelled throughout the mass and became in reality detonation. These results showed clearly that liquefied acetylene was far too dangerous for general introduction for domestic purposes, since, although the occasions would be rare in which the requisite temperature to bring about detonation would be reached, still, if this point were attained, the results would be of a most disastrous character. The fact that several accidents had already happened accentuated the risk, and in Great Britain the storage and use of liquefied acetylene are prohibited. When liquefied acetylene is allowed to escape from the cylinder in which it is contained into ordinary atmospheric pressure, some of the liquid assumes the gaseous condition with such rapidity as to cool the remainder below the temperature of — oo° C, and convert it into a solid snow-like mass. Acetylene is readily soluble in water, which at normal tem- perature and pressure takes up a little more than its own volume of the gas, and yields a solution giving a purple-red Solubility p rec ipitate with ammoniacal cuprous chloride and acetylene. a white precipitate with silver nitrate, these precipi- tates consisting of acetylides of the metals. The solubility of the gas in various liquids, as given by different observers, is — 100 Volumes of Brine Water Alcohol Paraffin Carbon disulphide Fusel oil Benzene Chloroform Acetic acid Acetone Volumes of Acetylene. absorb 5 „ no „ 600 150 100 „ 100 » 400 400 ,, 600 2500 It will be seen from this table that where it is desired to collect and keep acetylene over a liquid, brine, i.e. water saturated with salt, is the best for the purpose, but in practice it is found that, unless water is agitated with acetylene, or the gas bubbled through, the top layer soon gets saturated, and the gas then dissolves but slowly. The great solubility of acetylene in acetone was pointed out by G. Claude and A. Hess, who showed that acetone will absorb twenty-five times its own volume of acety- lene at a temperature of 15° C. under atmospheric pressure, and that, providing the temperature is kept constant, the liquid acetone will go on absorbing acetylene at the rate of twenty- five times its own volume for every atmosphere of pressure to which the gas is subjected. At first it seemed as if this discovery would do away with all the troubles connected with the storage of acetylene under pressure, but it was soon found that there were serious diffi- culties still to be overcome. The chief trouble was that acetone expands a small percentage of its own volume while it is absorb- ing acetylene ; therefore it is impossible to fill a cylinder with acetone and then force in acetylene, and still more impracticable only partly to fill the cylinder with acetone, as in that case the space above the liquid would be filled with acetylene under high pressure, and would have all the disadvantages of a cylinder containing compressed acetylene only. This difficulty was overcome by first filling the cylinder with porous briquettes and then soaking them with a fixed percentage of acetone, so that after allowing for the space taken up by the bricks the quantity of acetone soaked into the brick will absorb ten times the normal volume of the cylinder in acetylene for every atmo- sphere of pressure to which the gas is subjected, whilst all danger of explosion is eliminated. This fact having been fully demonstrated, acetylene dissolved in this way was exempted from the Explosives Act, and conse- quently upon this exemption a large business has grown up in the preparation and use of dissolved acetylene for lighting motor omnibuses, motor cars, railway carriages, lighthouses, buoys, yachts, &c, for which it is particularly adapted. Acetylene was at one time supposed to be a highly poisonous gas, the researches of A. Bistrow and O. Liebreich having apparently shown that it acts upon the blood in the same way as carbon monoxide to form a stable com- O pooertf"s pound. Very extensive experiments, however, made by Drs N. Grehant, A. L. Brociner, L. Crismer, and others, all con- clusively show that acetylene is much less toxic than carbon monoxide, and indeed than coal gas. When acetylene was first introduced on a commercial scale grave fears were entertained as to its safety, it being repre- sented that it had the power of combining with certain metals, more especially copper and silver, to properties. form acetylides of a highly explosive character, and that even with coal gas, which contains less than 1%, such copper compounds had been known to be formed in cases where the gas-distributing mains were composed of copper, and that accidents had happened from this cause. It was there- fore predicted that the introduction of acetylene on a large scale would be followed by numerous accidents unless copper and its alloys were rigidly excluded from contact with the gas. These fears have, however, fortunately proved to be unfounded, and ordinary gas fittings can be used with perfect safety with this gas. Acetylene has the property of inflaming spontaneously when brought in contact with chlorine. If a few pieces of carbide be dropped into saturated chlorine water the bubbles of gas take 138 ACETYLENE fire as they reach the surface, and if a jet of acetylene be passed up into a bottle of chlorine it takes fire and burns with a heavy red flame, depositing its carbon in the form of soot. If chlorine be bubbled up into a jar of acetylene standing over water, a violent explosion, attended with a flash of intense light and the deposition of carbon, at once takes place. When the gas is kept in a small glass holder exposed to direct sunlight, the sur- face of the glass soon becomes dimmed, and W. A. Bone has shown that when exposed for some time to the sun's rays it undergoes certain polymerization changes which lead to the deposition of a film of heavy hydrocarbons on the surface of the tube. It has also been observed by L. Cailletet and later by P. Villard that when allowed to stand in the presence of water at a low temperature a solid hydrate is formed. Acetylene is The poly readily decomposed by heat, polymerizing under its merization influence to form an enormous number of organic of compounds; indeed the gas, which can itself be directly acety one. p re p arec j f rom jt s constituents, carbon and hydrogen, under the influence of the electric arc, can be made the starting- point for the construction of an enormous number of different organic compounds of a complex character. In contact with nascent hydrogen it builds up ethylene; ethylene acted upon by sulphuric acid yields ethyl sulphuric acid; this can again be decomposed in the presence of water to yield alcohol, and it has also bean proposed to manufacture sugar from this body. Picric acid can also be obtained from it by first treating acety- lene with sulphuric acid, converting the product into phenol by solution in potash and then treating the phenol with fuming nitric acid. Acetylene is one of those bodies the formation of which is attended with the disappearance of heat, and it is for this reason Bndo- termed an " endothermic " compound, in contradis- thermic tinction to those bodies which evolve heat in their nature of formation, and which are called " exothermic." Such ace y ene. en( i thermic bodies are nearly always found to show con- siderable violence in their decomposition, as the heat of formation stored up within them is then liberated as sensible heat, and it is undoubtedly this property of acetylene gas which leads to its easy detonation by either heat or a shock from an explosion of ful- minating mercury when in contact with it under pressure. The observation that acetylene can be resolved into its constituents by detonation is due to Berthelot, who started an explosive wave in it by firing a charge of o-i gram of mercury fulminate. It has since been shown, however, that unless the gas is at a pressure of more than two atmospheres this wave soon dies out, and the decomposition is only propagated a few inches from the detonator. Heated in contact with air to a temperature of 480 C, acetylene ignites and burns with a flame, the appearance of which varies with the way in which it is brought in contact with the air. With the gas in excess a heavy lurid flame emitting dense volumes of smoke results, whilst if it be driven out in a sufficiently thin sheet, it burns with a flame of intense brilliancy and almost perfect whiteness, by the light of Which colours can be judged as well as they can by daylight. Having its ignition point below that of ordinary gas, it can be ignited by any red- hot carbonaceous matter, such as the brightly glowing end of a cigar. For its complete combustion a volume of acetylene needs approximately twelve volumes of air, forming as products of combustion carbon dioxide and water vapour. When, however, the air is present in much smaller ratio the combustion is incom- plete, and carbon, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and water vapour are produced. This is well shown by taking a cylinder one-half full of acetylene and one-half of air; on apply- ing a light to the mixture a lurid flame runs down the cylinder and a cloud of soot is thrown up, the cylinder also being thickly coated with it, and often containing a ball of carbon. If now, after a few moments' interval to allow some air to diffuse into the cylinder, a taper again be applied, an explosion takes place, due to a mixture of carbon monoxide and air. It is probable that when a flame is smoking badly, distinct traces of carbon monoxide are being produced, but when an acetylene flame burns properly the products are as harmless as those of coal gas, and, light for light, less in amount. Mixed with air, like every other combustible gas, acetylene forms an explosive mixture. F. Clowes has shown that it has a wider range of ex- plosive proportions when mixed with air than any of the other combustible gases, the limiting percentages being as follows: — Acetylene 3 to 82 Hydrogen 5 to 72 Carbon monoxide 13 to 75 Ethylene 4 to 22 Methane 5 to 13 The methods which can be and have been employed from time to time for the formation of acetylene in small quantities are exceedingly numerous. Before the commercial pro- duction of calcium carbide made it one of the most ^tom- easily obtainable gases, the processes which were most duct loo. largely adopted for its preparation in laboratories were: — first, the decomposition of ethylene bromide by dropping it slowly into a boiling solution of alcoholic potash, and purifying the evolved gas from the volatile bromethylene by washing it through a second flask containing a boiling solution of alcoholic potash, or by passing it over moderately heated soda lime; and, second, the more ordinarily adopted process of passing the products of incomplete combustion from a Bunsen burner, the flame of which had struck back, through an ammoniacal solution of cuprous chloride, when the red copper acetylide was produced. This on being washed and decomposed with hydrochloric acid yielded a stream of acetylene gas. This second method of pro- duction has the great drawback that, unless proper precautions are taken to purify the gas obtained from the copper acetylide, it is always contaminated with certain chlorine derivatives of acetylene. Edmund Davy first made acetylene in 1836 from a compound produced during the manufacture of potassium from potassium tartrate and charcoal, which under certain conditions yielded a black compound decomposed by water with consider- able violence and the evolution of acetylene. This compound was afterwards fully investigated by J. J. Berzelius, who showed it to be potassium carbide. He also made the corresponding sodium compound and showed that it evolved the same gas, whilst in 1862 F. Wohler first made calcium carbide, and found that water decomposed it into lime and acetylene. It was not, however, until 1892 that the almost simultaneous discovery was made by T. L. Willson in America and H. Moissan in France that if lime and carbon be fused together at the temperature of the electric furnace, the lime is reduced to calcium, which unites with the excess of carbon present to form calcium carbide. The cheap production of this material and the easy liberation by its aid of acetylene at once gave the gas a position of com- mercial importance. In the manufacture of calcium carbide in the electric furnace, lime and anthracite of the Manutac* highest possible degree of purity are employed. A ture of good working mixture of these materials may be taken "aichim as being 100 parts by weight of lime with 68 parts by weight of carbonaceous material. About i-8 lb of this is used up for each pound of carbide produced. The two principal processes utilized in making calcium carbide by electrical power are the ingot process and the tapping process. In the former, the anthracite and lime are ground and carefully mixed in the right proportions to suit the chemical actions involved. The arc is struck in a crucible into which the mixture is allowed to flow, partially filling it. An ingot gradually builds up from the bottom of the crucible, the carbon electrode being raised from time to time automatically or by hand to suit the diminution of resistance due to the shortening of the arc by the rising ingot. The crucible is of metal and considerably larger than the ingot, the latter being surrounded by a mass of un- reduced material which protects the crucible from the intense heat. When the ingot has been made and the crucible is full, the latter is withdrawn and another substituted. The process is not continuous, but a change of crucibles only takes two or three minutes under the best conditions, and only occurs every ten or fifteen hours. The essence of this process is that the coke and lime are only heated to the point of combination, and are not ACETYLENE 139 " boiled " after being formed. It is found that the ingot of caldum carbide formed in the furnace, although itself consisting of pure crystalline calcium carbide, is nearly always surrounded by a crust which contains a certain proportion of imperfectly converted constituents, and therefore gives a lower yield of acetylene than the carbide itself. In breaking up and sending out the carbide for commercial work, packed in air-tight drums, the crust is removed by a sand blast. A statement of the amount made per kilowatt hour may be misleading, since a certain amount of loss is of necessity entailed during this process. For instance, in practical working it has been found that a furnace return of o- 504 lb per kilowatt hour is brought down to 0-406 lb per kilowatt hour when the material has been broken up, sorted and packed in air-tight drums. In the tapping process a fixed crucible is used, lined with carbon, the electrode is nearly as big as the crucible and a much higher current density is used. The carbide is heated to complete liquefaction and tapped at short intervals. There is no unreduced material, and the process is considerably simplified, while less expensive plant is required. The run carbide, however, is never so rich as the ingot carbide, since an excess of lime is nearly always used in the mixture to act as a flux, and this remaining in the carbide lowers its gas- yielding power. Many attempts have been made to produce the substance without electricity, but have met with no commercial success. Calcium carbide, as formed in the electric furnace, is a beauti- ful crystalline semi-metallic solid, having a density of 2-22, and showing a fracture which is often shot with iridescent iTcaUum colours - lt can be kept unaltered in dry air, but the carbide. smallest trace of moisture in the atmosphere leads to the evolution of minute quantities of acetylene and gives it a distinctive odour. It is infusible at temperatures up to 2000 C, but can be fused in the electric arc. When heated to a temperature of 245 C. in a stream of chlorine gas it becomes incandescent, forming calcium chloride and liberating carbon, and it can also be made to burn in oxygen at a dull red heat, leaving behind a residue of calcium carbonate. Under the same conditions it becomes incandescent in the vapour of sulphur, yielding calcium sulphide and carbon disulphide; the vapour of phosphorus will also unite with it at a red heat. Acted upon by water it is at once decomposed, yielding acetylene and calcium hydrate. Pure crystalline calcium carbide yields 5-8 cubic feet of acetylene per pound at ordinary temperatures, but the carbide as sold commercially, being a mixture of the pure crystalline material with the crust which in the electric furnace surrounds the ingot, yields at the best 5 cubic feet of gas per pound under proper conditions of generation. The volume of gas obtained, however, depends very largely upon the form of apparatus used, and while some will give the full volume, other apparatus will only yield, with the same carbide, 3! feet. The purity of the carbide entirely depends on the purity of the material used in its manufacture, and before this fact had been fully grasped by manufacturers, and only the purest material obtainable em- ployed, it contained notable quantities of compounds which during its decomposition by water yielded a somewhat high pro- ImpurlUes. P ort i°n of impurities in the acetylene generated from it. Although at the present time a marvellous im- provement has taken place all round in the quality of the carbide produced, the acetylene nearly always contains minute traces of hydrogen, ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen, phos- phuretted hydrogen, silicon hydride, nitrogen and oxygen, and sometimes minute traces of carbon monoxide and dioxide. The formation of hydrogen is caused by small traces of metallic calcium occasionally found free in the carbide, and cases have been known where this was present in such quantities that the evolved gas contained nearly 20 % of hydrogen. This takes place when in the manufacture of the carbide the material is kept too long in contact with the arc, since this overheating causes the dissociation of some of the calcium carbide and the solution of metallic calcium in the remainder. The presence of free hydrogen is nearly always accompanied by silicon hydride formed by the combination of the nascent hydrogen with the silicon in the carbide. The. ammonia found in the acetylene is probably partly due to the presence of magnesium nitride in the carbide. On decomposition by water, ammonia is produced by the action of steam or of nascent hydrogen on the nitride, the quantity formed depending very largely upon the temperature at which the carbide is decomposed. The formation of nitrides and cyanamides by actions of this kind and their easy conversion into ammonia is a useful method for fixing the nitrogen of the atmosphere and rendering it available for manurial purposes. Sulphuretted hydrogen, which is invariably present in com- mercial acetylene, is formed by the decomposition of aluminium sulphide. A. Mourlot has shown that aluminium sulphide, zinc sulphide and cadmium sulphide are the only sulphur compounds which can resist the heat of the electric furnace without decom- position or volatilization, and of these aluminium sulphide is the only one which is decomposed by water with the evolu- tion of sulphuretted hydrogen. In the early samples of carbide this compound used to be present in considerable quantity, but now rarely more than ^ % is to be found. Phosphuretted hydrogen, one of the most important impurities, which has been blamed for the haze formed by the combustion of acetylene under certain conditions, is produced by the action of water upon traces of calcium phosphide found in carbide. Although at first it was no uncommon thing to find J % of phosphuretted hydrogen present in the acetylene, this has now been so reduced by the use of pure materials that the quantity is rarely above 0-15 %, and it is often not one-fifth of that amount. In the generation of acetylene from calcium carbide and water, all that has to be done is to bring these two nenera- compounds into contact, when they mutually react tion of upon each other with the formation of lime and acety- acetylene lene, while, if there be sufficient water present, the lime *°? H combines with it to form calcium hydrate. Calcium carbide. CaC 2 + Water. Acetylene. H 2 = C 2 H 2 + Lime. CaO Lime. Water. Calcium hydrate. CaO + H 2 = Ca(HO) 2 The decomposition of the carbide by water may be brought about either by bringing the water slowly into contact with an excess of carbide, or by dropping the carbide into an excess of water, and these two main operations again may be varied by innumerable ingenious devices by which the rapidity of the contact may be modified or even eventually stopped. The result is that although the forms of apparatus utilized for this purpose are all based on the one fundamental principle of bringing about the contact of the carbide with the water which is to enter into double decomposition with it, they have been multiplied in number to a very large extent by the methods employed in order to ensure control in working, and to get away from the dangers and inconveniences which are inseparable from a too rapid generation. In attempting to classify acetylene generators some authori- ties have divided them into as many as six different classes, but this is hardly necessary, as they may be divided into two main classes — first, those in which water is brought in contact with the carbide, the carbide being in excess during the first portion of the operation; and, second, those in which the carbide is thrown into water, the amount of water present being always in excess. The first class may again be subdivided into generators in which the water rises in contact with the carbide, in which it drips upon the carbide, and in which a vessel full of carbide is lowered into water and again with- drawn as generation becomes excessive. Some of these generators are constructed to make the gas only as fast as it is consumed at the burner, with the object of saving the expense and room which would be involved by a storage-holder. Generators with devices for regulating and stopping at will the action going on are generally termed " automatic." Another set merely aims at developing the gas from the carbide and putting it into a storage- holder with as little loss as possible, and these are termed Genera- tors. 140 ACHAEA " non-automatic." The points to be attained in a good generator are: — 1. Low temperature of generation. 2. Complete decomposition of the carbide. 3. Maximum evolution of the gas. 4. Low pressure in every part of the apparatus. 5. Ease in charging and removal of residues. 6. Removal of all air from the apparatus before generation of the gas. When carbide is acted upon by water considerable heat is evolved; indeed, the action develops about one-twentieth of the heat evolved by the combustion of carbon. As, however, the temperature developed is a function of the time needed to complete the action, the degree of heat attained varies with every form of generator, and while the water in one form may never reach the boiling-point, the carbide in another may become red-hot and give a temperature of over 800° C. Heating in a generator is not only a source of danger, but also lessens the yield of gas and deteriorates its quality. The best forms of generator are either those in which water rises slowly in contact with the carbide, or the second main division in which the car- bide falls into excess of water. It is clear that acetylene, if it is to be used on a large scale as a domestic illuminant, must undergo such processes of purifica- tion as will render it harmless and innocuous to' health ttoa ca " and property, and the sooner it is recognized as ab- solutely essential to purify acetylene before consuming it the sooner will the gas acquire the popularity it deserves. The only one of the impurities which offers any difficulty in removal is the phosphuretted hydrogen. There are three sub- stances which can be relied on more or less to remove this com- pound, and the gas to be purified may be passed either through acid copper salts, through bleaching powder or through chromic acid. In experiments with these various bodies it is found that they are all of them effective in also ridding the acetylene of the ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen, provided only that the surface area presented to the gas is sufficiently large. The method of washing the gas with acid solutions of copper has been patented by A. Frank of Charlottenburg, who finds that a concentrated solution of cuprous chloride in an acid, the liquid being made into a paste with kieselgiihr, is the most effective. Where the production of acetylene is going on on a small scale this method of purification is undoubtedly the most convenient one, as the acid present absorbs the ammonia, and the copper salt converts th» phosphuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen into phosphates and sulphides. The vessel, however, which contains this mixture has to be of earthenware, porcelain or enamelled iron on account of the free acid present; the gas must be washed after purification to remove traces of hydro- chloric acid, and care must be taken to prevent the complete neutralization of the acid by the ammonia present in the gas. The second process is one patented by Fritz Ullmann of Geneva, who utilizes chromic acid to oxidize the phosphuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen and absorb the ammonia, and this method of purification has proved the most successful in practice, the chromic acid being absorbed by kieselgiihr and the material sold under the name of "Heratol." The third process owes its inception to G. Lunge, who recom- mends the use of bleaching powder. Dr P. Wolff has found that when this is used on the large scale there is a risk of the ammonia present in the acetylene forming traces of chloride of nitrogen in the purifying-boxes, and as this is a compound which deton- ates with considerable local force, it occasionally gives rise to explosions in the purifying apparatus. If, however, the gas be first passed through a scrubber so as to wash out the ammonia this danger is avoided. Dr Wolff employs purifiers in which the gas is washed with water containing calcium chloride, and then passed through bleaching-powder solution or other oxidizing material. When acetylene is burnt from a 000 union jet burner, at all ordinary, pressures a smoky flame is obtained, but on the pres- sure being increased to 4 inches a magnificent flame results, free from smoke, and developing an illuminating value of 240 candles per s cubic feet of gas consumed. Slightly higher values have been obtained, but 240 may be taken as the average value under these conditions. When acetylene was first introduced as a commercial illuminant in England, very small union jet nipples were utilized for its consumption, but after burning for a short time these nipples began to carbonize, the flame being distorted, and then smoking occurred with the formation of a heavy deposit of soot. While these troubles were being experienced in England, attempts had been made in America to use acetylene diluted with a certain proportion of air which permitted it to be burnt in ordinary flat flame nipples; but the danger of such admixture being recognized, nipples of the same class as those used in England were employed, and the same troubles ensued. In France, single jets made of glass were first employed, and then P. Resener, H. Luchaire, G. Ragot and others made burners in which two jets of acetylene, coming from two tubes placed some little distance apart, impinged and splayed each other out into a butterfly flame. Soon afterwards, J. S. Billwiller introduced the idea of sucking air into the flame at or just below the burner tip, and at this juncture the Naphey or Dolan burner was introduced in America, the principle em- ployed being to use two small and widely separated jets instead of the two openings of the union jet burner, and to make each a minute bunsen, the acetylene dragging in from the base of the nipple enough air to surround and protect it while burning from contact with the steatite. This class of burner forms a basis on which all the later constructions of burner have been founded, but had the drawback that if the flame was turned low, insufficient air to prevent carbonization of the burner tips was drawn in, owing to the reduced flow of gas. This fault has now been reduced by a cage of steatite round the burner tip, which draws in sufficient air to prevent deposition. When acetylene was first introduced on a commercial scale attempts were made to utilize its great heat of combustion by using it in conjunction with oxygen in the oxy- hydrogen blowpipe. It was found, however, that when g?Z'i eae using acetylene under low pressures, the burner tip blowpipe. became so heated as to cause the decomposition of some of the gas before combustion, the jet being choked up by the carbon which deposited in a very dense form; and as the use of acetylene under pressures greater than one hundred inches of water was prohibited, no advance was made in this direction. The introduction of acetylene dissolved under pressure in acetone contained in cylinders filled with porous material drew attention again to this use of the gas, and "by using a special construction of blowpipe an oxy-acetylene flame is produced, which is far hotter than the oxy-hydrogen flame, and at the same time is so reducing in its character that it can be used for the direct autogenous welding of steel and many minor metallurgical processes. References. — F. H. Leeds and W. A. Butterfield, Calcium Carbide and Acetylene (1903); F. Dommer, L' Acetylene et ses appli- cations (1896); V. B. Lewes, Acetylene (1900); F. Liebetanz, Calcium-carbid und Acetylen (1899); G. Pelissier, L'Udairage t V acetylene (1897) ; C. de Perrodil, Le carbure de calcium et V acetylene (1897). For a complete list of the various papers and memoirs on Acetylene, see A. Ludwig's Fiihrer durch die gesammte Calcium- carbid-und-Acetylen-Literatur, Berlin. (V. B. L.) ACHAEA, a district on the northern coast of the Peloponnese, stretching from the mountain ranges of Erymanthus and Cyllene on the S. to a narrow strip of fertile land on the N., border- ing the Corinthian Gulf, into which the mountain Panachaicus projects. Achaea is bounded on the W. by the territory of Elis, on the E. by that of Srcyon, which, however, was sometimes included in it. The origin of the name has given rise to much speculation; the current theory is that the Achaeans (q.v.) were driven back into this region by the Dorian invaders of the Peloponnese, Another Achaea, in the south of Thessaly, called sometimes Achaea Phthiotis, has been supposed to be the cradle of the race. In Roman times the name of the province of Achaea was given to the whole of Greece, except Thessaly, Epirus, and Acarnania. Herodotus (i. 145) mentions the twelve cities of Achaea; these met as a religious confederacy in the ACHAEAN LEAGUE— ACHAEANS 141 temple of Poseidon Heliconius at Helice; for their later history see Achaean League. During the middle ages, after the Latin conquest of the Eastern Empire, Achaea was a Latin princi- pality, the first prince being William de Champlitte (d. 1209). It survived, with various dismemberments, until 1430, when the last prince, Centurione Zaccaria, ceded the remnant of it to his son-in-law, Theodorus II., despot of Mistra. In 1460 it was conquered, with the rest of the Morea, by the Turks. In modern times the coast of Achaea is mainly given up to the currant industry; the currants are shipped from Patras, the second town of Greece, and from Aegion (Vostitza). ACHAEAN LEAGUE, a confederation of the ancient towns of Achaea. Standing isolated on their narrow strips of plain, these towns were always exposed to the raids of pirates issuing from the recesses of the north coast of the Corinthian Gulf. It was no doubt as a protection against such dangers that the earliest league of twelve Achaean cities arose, though we are nowhere explicitly informed of its functions other than the common worship of Zeus Amarius at Aegium and an occasional arbitra- tion between Greek belligerents. Its importance grew in the 4th century, when we find it fighting in the Theban wars (368- 362 B.C.), against Philip (338) and Antipater (330). About 288 Antigonus Gonatas dissolved the league, which had furnished a useful base for pretenders against Cassander's regency; but by 280 four towns combined again, and before long the ten surviving cities'of Achaea had renewed their federation. Anti- gonus' preoccupation during the Celtic invasions, Sparta's prostration after the Chremonidean campaigns, the wealth amassed by Achaean adventurers abroad and the subsidies of Egypt, the standing foe of Macedonia, all enhanced the league's importance. Most of all did it profit by the statesmanship of Aratus (q.v.), who initiated its expansive policy, until in 228 it comprised Arcadia, Argolis, Corinth and Aegina. Aratus probably also organized the new federal constitution, the character of which, owing to the scanty and somewhat perplexing nature of our evidence, we can only approximately determine. The league embraced an indefinite number of city- states which maintained their internal independence practically undiminished, and through their several magistrates, assemblies and law-courts exercised all traditional powers of self-govern- ment. Only in matters of foreign politics and war was their competence restricted. The central government, like that of the constituent cities, was of a democratic cast. The chief legislative powers resided in a popular assembly in which every member of the league over thirty years of age could speak and vote. This body met for three days in spring and autumn at Aegium to discuss the league's policy and elect the federal magistrates. Whatever the number of its attendant burgesses, each city counted but one on a division. Extraordinary assemblies could be convoked at any time or place on special emergencies. A council of 120 unpaid delegates, selected from the local councils, served partly as a committee for preparing the assembly's programme, partly as an administrative board which received embassies, arbitrated between contending cities and exercised penal jurisdiction over offenders against the constitution. But perhaps some of these duties concerned the dicastae and gerousia, whose functions are nowhere described. The chief magistracy was the strategia (tenable every second year), which combined with an unre- stricted command in the field a large measure of civil authority. Besides being authorized to veto motions, the strategus (general) had practically the sole power of introducing measures before the assembly. The ten elective demiurgi, who presided over this body, formed a kind of cabinet, and perhaps acted as departmental chiefs. We also hear of an under-strategus, a secretary, a cavalry commander and an admiral. All these higher officers were unpaid. Philopoemen (q.v.) transferred the seat of assembly from town to town by rotation, and placed dependent communities on an equal footing with their former suzerains. The league prescribed uniform laws, standards and coinage; it summoned contingents, imposed taxes and fined or coerced refractory members. . The first federal wars were directed against Macedonia; in 266- 263 the league fought in the Chremonidean league, in 243-241 against Antigonus Gonatas and Aetolia, between 239 and 229 with Aetolia against Demetrius. A greater danger arose (227-223) from the attacks of Cleomenes III. (q.v.). Owing to Aratus's irresolute generalship, the indolence of the rich burghers and the inadequate provision for levying troops and paying mercen- aries, the league lost several battles and much of its territory; but rather than compromise with the Spartan Gracchus the assembly negotiated with Antigonus Doson, who recovered the lost districts but retained Corinth for himself (223-221). Simi- larly the Achaeans could not check the incursions of Aetolian adventurers in 220-218, and when Philip V. came to the rescue he made them tributary and annexed much of the Peloponnese. Under Philopoemen the league with a reorganized army routed the Aetolians (210) and Spartans (207, 201). After their bene- volent neutrality during the Macedonian war the Roman general, T. Quinctius Flamininus, restored all their lost possessions and sanctioned the incorporation of Sparta and Messene (191), thus bringing the entire Peloponnese under Achaean control. The league even sent troops to Pergamum against Antiochus (190). The annexation of Aetolia and Zacynthus was forbidden by Rome. Moreover, Sparta and Messene always remained un- willing members. After Philopoemen's death the aristocrats initiated a strongly philo-Roman policy, declared war against King Perseus and denounced all sympathizers with Macedonia. This agitation induced the Romans to deport 1000 prominent Achaeans, and, failing proof of treason against Rome, to detain them seventeen years. These hostages, when restored in 150, swelled the ranks of the proletariate opposition, whose leaders, to cover their maladministration at home, precipitated a war by attacking Sparta in defiance of Rome. The federal troops were routed in central Greece by Q. Caecilius Metellus Mere- donicus, and again near Corinth by L. Mummius Achaicus (146). The Romans now dissolved the league (in effect, if not in name), and took measures to isolate the communities (see Polybius). Augustus instituted an Achaean synod comprising the dependent cities of Peloponnese and central Greece; this body sat at Argos and acted as guardian of Hellenic sentiment. The chief defect of the league lay in its lack of proper provision for securing efficient armies and regular payment of imposts, and for dealing with disaffected members. Moreover, owing to difficulties of travel, the assembly and magistracies were practi- cally monopolized by the rich, who shaped the federal policy in their own interest. But their rule was mostly judicious, and when at last they lost control the ensuing mob-rule soon ruined the country. On the other hand, it is the glory of the Achaean league to have combined city autonomy with an organized central administration, and in this way to have postponed the entire destruction of Greek liberty for over a century. Chief Sources. — Polybius (esp. bks. ii., iv., v., xxiii., xxviii.),who is followed by Livy (bks. xxxii.-xxxv., xxxviii., &c); Pausanias vii. 9-24; Strabo viii. 384; E. Freeman, Federal Government, i. (ed. 1893, London), chs. v.-ix. ; M. Dubois, Les ligues Hlolienne el Acheenne (Paris, 1885); A. Holm, Greek History, iv. ; G. Hertzberg, Ge- schichte Griechenlands unter den Romern, i. (Leipzig, 1866); L. Warren, Greek Federal Coinage (London, 1863); E. Hicks, Greek Historical Inscriptions (Oxford, 1892), 169, 187, 198, 201; W. Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum (Leipzig, 1898-1901), 236, 282, 316; H. Francotte in Musee Beige (1906), pp. 4-20. See also art. Rome, History, ii. " The Republic," sect. B(b). (M. O. B. C.) ACHAEANS ('Axatot, Lat. Achivi), one of the four chief divisions of the ancient Greek peoples, descended, according to legend, from Achaeus, son of Xuthus, son of Hellen. This Hesiodic genealogy connects the Achaeans closely with the Ionians, but historically they approach nearer to the Aeolians. Some even hold that Aeolus is only a form of Achaeus. In the Homeric poems (1000 B.C.) the Achaeans are the master race in Greece; they are represented both in Homer and in all later traditions as having come into Greece about three generations before the Trojan war (1184 B.C.), i.e. about 1300 B.C. They found the land occupied by a people known by the ancients as Pelasgians, who continued down to classical times the main 142 ACHAEMENES— ACHENWALL element in the population even in the states under Achaean and later under Dorian rule. In some cases it formed a serf class, e.g. the Penestae in Thessaly, the Helots in Laconia and the Gymnesii at Argos, whilst it practically composed the whole population of Arcadia and Attica, which never came under either Achaean or Dorian rule. This people had dwelt in the Aegean from the Stone Age, and, though still in the Bronze Age at the Achaean conquest, had made great advances in the useful and ornamental arts. They were of short stature, with dark hair and eyes, and generally dolichocephalic. Their chief centres were at Cnossus (Crete), in Argolis, Laconia and Attica, in each being ruled by ancient lines of kings. In Argolis Proetus built Tiryns, but later, under Perseus, Mycenae took the lead until the Achaean conquest. All the ancient dynasties traced their descent from Poseidon, who at the time of the Achaean conquest was the chief male divinity of Greece and the islands. The Pelasgians probably spoke an Indo-European language adopted by their conquerors with slight modifications. (See further Pelasgians for a discussion of other views.) The Achaeans, on the other hand, were tall, fair-haired and grey-eyed, and their chiefs traced their descent from Zeus, who with the Hyperborean Apollo was their chief male divinity. They first appear at Dodona, whence they crossed Pindus into Phthiotis. The leaders of the Achaean invasion were Pelops, who took possession of Elis, and Aeacus, who became master of Aegina and was said to have introduced there the worship of Zeus Panhellenius, whose cult was also set up at Olympia. They brought with them iron, which they used for their long swords and for their cutting implements; the costume of both sexes was distinct from that of the Pelasgians; they used round shields with a central boss instead of the 8-shaped or rectangular shields of the latter; they fastened their garments with brooches, an^ burned their dead instead of burying them as did the Pelas- gians. They introduced a special style of ornament (" geo- metric ") instead of that of the Bronze Age, characterized by spirals and marine animals and plants. The Achaeans, or Hellenes, as they were later termed, were on this hypothesis one of the fair-haired tribes of upper Europe known to the ancients as Keltoi (Celts), who from time to time have pressed down over the Alps into the southern lands, successively as Achaeans, Gauls, Goths and Franks, and after the conquest of the indigenous small dark race in no long time died out under climatic conditions fatal to their physique and morale. The culture of the Homeric Achaeans corresponds to a large extent with that of the early Iron Age of the upper Danube (Hailstatt) and to the early Iron Age of upper Italy (Villanova). See W. Ridgeway, The Early Age of Greece (1901), for a detailed discussion of the evidence; articles by Ridgeway and J. L. Myres in the Classical Review,' vol. xvi., 1902, pp. 68-93, ! 35- See also J. B. Bury's History of Greece (1902), and art. in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xv., 1895, pp. 217 foil.; G. G. A. Murray, Rise of the Greek Epic (1907), chap, ii.; Andrew Lang, Homer and his Age (1906); G. Busolt, Griech. Gesch. ed. 2, vol. i. p. 190 (1893); D. B. Monro's ed. of the Iliad (1901), pp. 484-488. (W. Ri.) ACHAEMENES (Hakhamani), the eponymous ancestor of the royal house of Persia, the Achaemenidae, " a clan <£pijTpi? of the Pasargadae " (Herod, i. 125), the leading Persian tribe. According to Darius in the Behistun inscription and Herod, iii. 75, vii. 11, he was the father of Tei'spes, the great-grandfather of Cyrus. Cyrus himself, in his proclamation to the Babylonians after the conquest of Babylon, does not mention his name. Whether he really was a historical personage, or merely the mythical ancestor of the family, cannot be decided. According to Aelian {Hist. anim. xii. 21), he was bred by an eagle. We learn from Cyrus's proclamation that Tei'spes and his successors had become kings of Anshan, i.e. a part of Elam (Susiana), where they ruled as vassals of the Median kings, until Cyrus the Great in 550 B.C. founded the Persian empire. After the death of Cambyses, the younger line of the Achaemenidae came to the throne with Darius, the son of Hystaspes, who was, like Cyrus, the great-grandson of Tei'spes. Cyrus, Darius and all the later kings of Persia call themselves Achaemenides (Hakhd- manishiya) . With Darius III. Codomannus the dynasty became extinct and the Persian empire came to an end (330). The ad- jective Achaemenius is used by the Latin poets as the equivalent of "Persian" (Horace, Odes, ii. 12, 21). See Persia. The name Achaemenes is borne by a son of Darius I., brother of Xerxes. After the first rebellion of Egypt, he became satrap of Egypt (484 B.C.) ; he commanded the Persian fleet at Salamis, and was (460 B.C.) defeated and slain by Inarus, the leader of the second rebellion of Egypt. ACHARD, FRANZ CARL (1753-1821), Prussian chemist, was born at Berlin on the 28th of April 1753, and died at Kunern, in Silesia, on the 20th of April 182 1. He was a pioneer in turn- ing to practical account A. S. Marggraf 's discovery of the presence of sugar in beetroot, and by the end of the 18th century he was producing considerable quantities of beet-sugar, though by a very imperfect process, at Kunern, on an estate which was granted him about 1800 by the king of Prussia. There too he carried on a school of instruction in sugar-manufacture, which had an international reputation. For a time he was director of the physics class of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, and he published several volumes of chemical and physical resea~ches, discovering among other things a method of working platinum. ACHARIUS, ERIK (1757-1819), Swedish botanist, was born on the 10th of October 1757, and in 1773 entered Upsala Uni- versity, where he was a pupil of Linnaeus. He graduated M.D. at Lund in 1782, and in 1801 was appointed professor of botany at Wadstena Academy. He devoted himself to the study of lichens, and all his publications were connected with that class of plants, his Lichenogrdphia Universalis (Gottingen, 1804) being the most important. He died at Wadstena on the 13th of August 1 8 1 9. ACHATES, the companion of Aeneas in Virgil's Aeneid. The expression " fidus Achates " has become proverbial for a loyal and devoted companion. ACHELOUS (mod. Aspropotamo, " white river "), the largest river in Greece (130 m.). It rises in Mt. Pindus, and, dividing Aetolia from Acarnania, falls into the Ionian Sea. In the lower part of its course the river winds through fertile, marshy plains. Its water is charged with fine mud, which is deposited along its banks and at its mouth, where a number of small islands (Echi- nades) have been formed. It was formerly called Thoas, from its impetuosity; and its upper portion was called by some Inachus, the name Achelous being restricted to the shorter eastern branch. Achelous is coupled with Ocean by Homer (II. xxi. 193) as chief of rivers, and the name is given to several other rivers in Greece. The name appears in cult and in mythology as that of the typical river -god; a familiar legend is that of his contest with Heracles for Deianira. ACHENBACH, ANDREAS (1815- ), German landscape painter, was born at Cassel in 1815. He began his art education in 1827 in Diisseldorf under W. Schadow and at the academy. In his early work he followed the pseudo-idealism of the German romantic school, but on removing to Munich in 1835, the stronger influence of L. Gurlitt turned his talent into new channels, and he became the founder of the German realistic school. Although his landscapes evince too much of his aim at picture-making and lack personal temperament, he is a master of technique, and is historically important as a reformer. A number of his finest works are to be found at the Berlin National Gallery, the New Pinakothek in Munich, and the galleries at Dresden, Darmstadt, Cologne, Diisseldorf, Leipzig and Hamburg. His brother, Oswald Achenbach (1827-1905), was bom at Diisseldorf and received his art education from Andreas. His landscapes generally dwell on the rich and glowing effects of colour which drew him to the Bay of Naples and the neighbour- hood of Rome. He is represented at most of the important German galleries of modern art. ACHENWALL, GOTTFRIED (17 19-1772), German statistician, was born at Elbing, in East Prussia, in October 17 19. He studied at Jena, Halle and Leipzig, and took a degree at the last-named university. He removed to Marburg in 1746, where for two years he read lectures on history and on the law of nature and of nations. Here, too, he commenced those inquiries ACHERON— ACHILLES H3 in statistics by which his name became known. In 1748 he was given a professorship at Gottingen, where he resided till his death in 1772. His chief works were connected with statistics. The Slaalsverfassung der heutigen vornehmsten europaischen Reiche appeared first in 1749, and revised editions were pub- lished in 1762 and 1768. ACHERON, in Greek mythology, the son of Gaea or Demeter. As a punishment for supplying the Titans with water in their contest with Zeus, he was turned into a river of Hades, over which departed souls were ferried by Charon. - The name (mean- ing the river of " woe ") was eventually used to designate the whole of the lower world (Stobaeus, Eel. Phys. i. 41, §§ 50, 54). ACHIACHARUS, a name occurring in the book of Tobit (i. 21 f.) as that of a nephew of Tobit and an official at the court of Esarhaddon at Nineveh. There are references in Rumanian, Slavonic, Armenian, Arabic and Syriac literature to a legend, of which the hero is Ahikar (for Armenian, Arabic and Syriac, see The Story of Ahifcar, F. C. Conybeare, Rendel Harris and Agnes Lewis, Camb. 1898), and it was pointed out by George Hoffmann in 1880 that this Ahikar and the Achiacharus of Tobit are iden- tical. It has been contended that there are traces of the legend even in the New Testament, and there is a striking similarity between it and the Life of Aesop by Maximus Planudes (ch. xxiii.-xxxii.). An eastern sage Acha'icarus is mentioned by Strabo. It would seem, therefore, that the legend was un- doubtedly oriental in origin, though the relationship of the various versions can scarcely be recovered. See the Jewish Encyclopaedia and the Encyclopaedia Biblica; also M. R. James in The Guardian, Feb. 2, 1898, p. 163 f. ACHILL ("Eagle"), the largest island off Ireland, separated from the Curraun peninsula of the west coast by the narrow Achill Sound. Pop. (1901) 4929. It is included in the county Mayo, in the western parliamentary division. Its shape is triangular, and its extent is 15 m. from E. to W. and 12 from N. to S. The area is 57 sq. m. The island is mountainous, the highest points being Slieve Croaghaun (2192 ft.) in the west, and Slievemore (2204 ft.) in the north; the extreme western point is the bold and rugged promontory of Achill Head, and the north- western and south-western coasts consist of ranges of magnifi- cent cliffs, reaching a height of 800 ft. in the cliffs of Minaun, near the village of Keel on the south. The seaward slope of Croaghaun is abrupt and in parts precipitous, and its jagged flanks, together with the serrated ridge of the Head and the view over the broken coast-line and islands of the counties Mayo and Galway, attract many visitors to the island during summer. Desolate bogs, incapable of cultivation, alternate with the mountains; and the inhabitants earn a scanty subsistence by fishing and tillage, or by seeking employment in England and Scotland during the harvesting. The Congested Districts Board, however, have made efforts to improve the condition of the people, and a branch of the Midland Great Western railway to Achill Sound, together with a swivel bridge across the sound, improved communications and make for prosperity. Dugort, the principal village, contains several hotels. Here is a Protest- ant colony, known as " the Settlement " and founded in 1834. There are antiquarian remains (cromlechs, stone circles and the like) at Slievemore and elsewhere. ACHILLES (Gr. 'AxtXXeus), one of the most famous of the legendary heroes of ancient Greece and the central figure of Homer's Iliad. He was said to have been the son of Peleus, king of the Myrmidones of Phthia in Thessaly, by Thetis, one of the Nereids. His grandfather Aeacus was, according to the legend, the son of Zeus himself. The story of the childhood of Achilles in Homer differs from that given by later writers. Ac- cording to Homer, he was brought up by his mother at Phthia with his cousin and intimate friend Patroclus, and learned the arts of war and eloquence from Phoenix, while the Centaur Chiron taught him music and medicine. When summoned to the war against Troy, he set sail at once with his Myrmidones in fifty ships. Post-Homeric sources add to the legend certain picturesque details which bear all the evidence of their primitive origin, and which in some cases belong to the common stock of Indo- Ger- manic myths. According to one of these stories Thetis used to lay the infant Achilles every night under live coals, anointing him by day with ambrosia, in order to make him immortal. Peleus, having surprised her in the act, in alarm snatched the boy from the flames; whereupon Thetis fled back to the sea in anger (Apollodorus iii. 13; Apollonius Rhodius iv. 869). According to another story Thetis dipped the child in the waters, of the river Styx, by which his whole body became invulnerable, except that part of his heel by which she held him; whence the proverbial "heel of Achilles " (Statius, Achilleis, i. 269). With this may be compared the similar story told of the northern hero Sigurd. The boy was afterwards entrusted to the care of Chiron, who, to give him the strength necessary for war, fed him with the entrails of lions and the marrow of bears and wild boars. To prevent his going to the siege of Troy, Thetis disguised him in female apparel, and hid him among the maidens at the court of King Lycomedes in Scyros; but Odysseus, coming to the island in the disguise of a pedlar, spread his wares, including a spear and shield, before the king's daughters, among whom was Achilles. Then he caused an alarm to be sounded; whereupon the girls fled, but Achilles seized the arms, and so revealed him- self, and was easily persuaded to follow the Greeks (Hyginus, Fab. 96; Statius, Ach. i.; Apollodorus, I.e.). This story may be compared with the Celtic legend of the boyhood of Peredur or Perceval. During the first nine years of the war as described in the Iliad, Achilles ravaged the country round Troy, and took twelve cities. In .the tenth year occurred the quarrel with Agamemnon. In order to appease the wrath of Apollo, who had visited the camp with a pestilence, Agamemnon had restored Chryseis, his prize of war, to her father, a priest of the god, but as a compensation deprived Achilles, who had openly demanded this restoration, of his favourite slave Briseis. Achilles withdrew in wrath to his tent, where he consoled himself with music and singing, and refused to take any further part in the war. During his absence the Greeks were hard pressed, and at last he so far relaxed his anger as to allow his friend Patroclus to personate him, lending him his chariot and armour. The slaying of Patroclus by the Trojan hero Hector roused Achilles from his indifference; eager to avenge his beloved comrade, he sallied forth, equipped with new armour fashioned by Hephaestus, slew Hector, and, after dragging his body round the walls of Troy, restored it to the aged King Priam at his earnest entreaty. The Iliad concludes with the funeral rites of Hector. It makes no mention of the death of Achilles, but hints at its taking place "before the Scaean gates." In the Odyssey (xxiv. 36. 72) his ashes are said to have been buried in a golden urn, together with those of Patroclus, at a place on the Hellespont, where a tomb was erected to his memory; his soul dwells in the lower world, where it is seen -by Odysseus. The contest between Ajax and Odysseus for his arms is also mentioned. The Aethiopis of Arctinus of Miletus took up the story of the Iliad. It told how AchilLes, having slain the Amazon Penthesileia and Memnon, king of the Aethiopians, who had come to the assistance of the Trojans, was himself slain by Paris (Alexander), whose arrow was guided by Apollo to his vulnerable heel (Virgil, Aen. vi. 57; Ovid, Met. xii. 600). Again, it is said that Achilles, enamoured of Polyxena, the daughter of Priam, offered to join the Trojans on condition that he received her hand in marriage. This was agreed to; Achilles went unarmed to the temple of Apollo Thymbraeus, and was slain by Paris (Dictys iv. 11). According to some, he was slain by Apollo himself (Quint. Smyrn. iii. 61; Horace, Odes, iv. 6, 3). Hyginus (Fab. 107) makes Apollo assume the form of Paris. Later stories say that Thetis snatched his body from the pyre and conveyed it to the island of Leuke, at the mouth of the Danube, where he ruled with Iphigeneia as his wife; or that he was carried to the Elysian fields, where his wife was Medea or Helen. He was worshipped in many places: at Leuke, where he was honoured with offerings and games; in Sparta, Elis, and especially Sigeum on the Hellespont, where his famous tumulus was erected. 144 ACHILLES TATIUS— ACHIN Achilles is a typical Greek hero; handsome, brave, celebrated for his fleetness of foot, prone to excess of wrath and grief, at the same time he is compassionate, hospitable, full of affection for his mother and respect for the gods. In works of art he is represented, like Ares, as a young man of splendid physical pro- portions, with bristling hair like a horse's mane and a slender neck. Although the figure of the hero frequently occurs in groups — such as the work of Scopas showing his removal to the island of Leuke by Poseidon and Thetis, escorted by Nereids and Tritons, and the combat over his dead body in the Aeginetan sculptures — no isolated statue or bust can with certainty be identified with him; the statue in the Louvre (from the Villa Borghese), which was thought to have the best claim, is generally taken for Ares or possibly Alexander. There are many vase and wall paintings and bas-reliefs illustrative of incidents in his life. Various etymologies of the name have been suggested: " with- out a lip " (&, x e '^ 0$ )> Achilles being regarded as a river-god, a stream which overflows its banks, or, referring to the story that, when Thetis laid him in the fire, one of his lips, which he had licked, was consumed (Tzetzes on Lycophron, 178); " restrainer of the people " («x«-^a°s) ; " healer of sorrow " (dxe-Xonos) ; "the obscure" (connected with ax Ms, "mist"); "snake- born " («x ts )i tne snake being one of the chief forms, taken by Thetis. The most generally received view makes him a god of light, especially of the sun or of the lightning. See E. H. Meyer, Indogermanische Mythen, ii., Achilleis, 1887; F. G. Welcker, Der epische Cyclus, 1865-1882; articles in Pauly- Wissowa, Real-Encyclopadie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des Antiquites and Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; see also T. W. Allen in Classical Review, May 1906; A. E. Crawley, J. G. Frazer, A. Lang, Ibid., June, July 1893, on Achilles in Scyros. In the article Greek Art, fig. 12 re- presents the conflict over the dead body of Achilles. ACHILLES TATIUS, of Alexandria, Greek rhetorician, author of the erotic romance, the Adventures of Leucippe and Cleitophon, flourished about a.d. 450, perhaps later. Suidas, who alone calls him Statius, says that he became a Christian and eventually a bishop — like Heliodorus, whom he imitated — but there is no evidence of this. Photius, while severely criticizing his lapses into indecency, highly praises the conciseness and clearness of his style, which, however, is artificial and laboured. Many of the incidents of the romance are highly improbable, and the char- acters, except the heroine, fail to enlist sympathy. The descrip- tive passages and digressions, although tedious and introduced without adequate reasons, are the best part of the work. The large number of existing MSS. attests its popularity. (Ediiio princeps, 1601; first important critical edition by Jacobs, 182 1; later editions by Hirschig, 1856; Hercher, 1858. There are translations in many languages; in English by Anthony H[odges], 1638, and R. Smith, 1855. See also Romance.) Suidas also ascribes to this author an Etymology, a Miscel- laneous History of Famous Men, and a treatise On the Sphere. Part of the last is extant under the title of An Introduction to the Phaenomena of Aratus. But if the writer is the prudentissimus Achilles referred to by Firmicus Maternus (about 336) in his Matheseos libri, iv. 10, 17 (ed. Kroll), he must have lived long before the author of Leucippe. The fragment was first pub- lished in 1567, then in the Uranologion of Petavius, with a Latin translation, 1630. Nothing definite is known as to the author- ship of the other works, which are lost. ACHILLINI, ALESSANDRO (1463-1512), Italian philosopher, born on the 29th of October 1463 at Bologna, was celebrated as a lecturer both in medicine and in philosophy at Bologna and Padua, and was styled the second Aristotle. His philosophical works were printed in one volume folio, at Venice, in 1508, and reprinted with considerable additions in 1545, 1551 and 1568. He was also distinguished as an anatomist (see Anatomy), among his writings being Corporis humani Anatomia (Venice, 1516-1524), and Anatomicae Annotationes (Bologna, 1520). He died at Bologna on the 2nd of August 1512. His brother, Giovanni Filoteo Achillini (1466-1533), was the author of 77 Viridario and other writings, verse and prose, and his grand-nephew, Claudio Achillini (15 74-1640), was a lawyer who achieved some notoriety as a versifier of the school of the Secentisti. ACHIMENES (perhaps from the Gr. dx<*'M £I ^s> an Indian plant used in magic), a genus of plants, natural order Gesneraceae (to which .belong also Gloxinia and Streptocarpus), natives of tropical America, and well known in cultivation as stove or warm greenhouse plants. They are herbaceous perennials, generally with hairy serrated leaves and handsome flowers. The corolla is tubular with a spreading limb, and varies widely in colour, being white, yellow, orange, crimson, scarlet, blue or purple. A large number of hybrids exist in cultivation. The plants are grown in the stove till the flowering period, when they may be removed to the greenhouse. They are propagated by cuttings, or from the leaves, which are cut off and pricked in well- drained pots of sandy soil, or by the scales from the underground tubes, which are rubbed off and sown like seeds, or by the seeds, which are very small. ACHIN (Dutch Atjeh), a Dutch government forming the northern extremity of the island of Sumatra, having an esti- mated area of 20,544 sq. m. The government is divided into three assistant-residencies — the east coast, the west coast and Great Achin. The physical geography (see Sumatra) is imper- fectly understood. Ranges of mountains, roughly parallel to the long axis of. the island, and characteristic of the whole of it, appear to occupy the interior, and reach an extreme height of about 1 2,000 ft. in the south-west of the government. The coasts are low and the rivers insignificant, rising in the coast ranges and flowing through the coast states (the chief of which are Pedir, Gighen and Samalanga on the N.; Edi, Perlak and Langsar on the E.; K-luwah, Rigas and Melabuh on the W.). The chief ports are Olehleh, the port of Kotaraja or Achin (formerly Kraton, now the seat of the Dutch government), Segli on the N., Edi on the E., and Analabu or Melabuh on the W. Kotaraja lies near the northern extremity of the island, and consists of detached houses of timber and thatch, clustered in enclosed groups called kampongs, and buried in a forest of fruit-trees. It is situated nearly 3 m. from the sea, in the valley of the Achin river, which in its upper part, near Seli- mun, is 3 m. broad, the river having a breadth of 99 ft. and a depth of 1 1 ft.; but in its lower course, north of its junction with the Krung Daru, the valley broadens to 125 m. The marshy soil is covered by rice-fields, and on higher ground by kampongs full of trees. The river at its mouth is 327 ft. broad and 20-33 ft- deep, but before it lies a sandbank covered at low water by a depth of only 4 ft. The Dutch garrison in Kotaraja occupies the old Achinese citadel. The town is connected by rail with Olehleh, and the line also extends up the valley. The construction of another railway has been undertaken along the east coast. The following industries are of some importance — gold-working, weapon-making, silk-weaving, the making of pottery, fishing and coasting trade. The annual value of the exports (chiefly pepper) is about £58,000; of the imports, from £165,000 to £250,000. The population of Achin in 1898 was estimated at 535,432, of whom328 were Europeans, 3933 Chinese, 30 Arabs, and 372 other foreign Asiatics. The Achinese, a people of Malayan stock but darker, some- what taller and not so pleasant-featured as the true Malays; regard themselves as distinct from the other Sumatrans. Their nobles claim Arab descent. They were at one time Hinduized, as is evident from their traditions, the many Sar*krit words in their language, and their general appearance, which suggests Hindu as well as Arab blood. They are Mahommedans, and although Arab influence has declined, their nobles still wear the Moslem flowing robe and turban (though the women go un- veiled), and they use Arabic script. The chief characteristic is their love of fighting; every man is a soldier and every village has its army. They are industrious and skilful agriculturists, metal-workers and weavers. They build excellent ships. Their chief amusements are gambling and opium-smoking. Their social organization is communal. They live in kampongs, which combine to form mukims, districts or hundreds (to use the nearest English term), which again combine to form sagis, of which ACHOLI— ACID r 45 there are three. Achin Uterature, unlike the language, is en- tirely Malay; it includes poetry, a good deal of theology and several chronicles. Northern Sumatra was visited by several European travellers in the middle ages, such as Marco Polo, Friar Odorico and Nicolo Conti. Some of these as well as Asiatic writers mention Lambri, a state which must have nearly occupied the position of Achin. But the first voyager to visit Achin, by that name, was Alvaro Tellez, a captain of Tristan d'Acunha's fleet, in 1506. It was then a mere dependency of the adjoining state of Pedir; and the latter, with Pasei, formed the only states on the coast whose chiefs claimed the title of sultan. Yet before twenty years had passed Achin had not only gained independence, but had swallowed up all other states of northern Sumatra. It attained its climax of power in the time of Sultan Iskandar Muda (1607-1636), under whom the subject coast extended from Aru opposite Malacca round by the north to Benkulen on the west coast, a sea-board of not less than 1100 miles; and besides this, the king's supremacy was owned by the large island of Nias, and by the continental Malay states of Johor, Pahang, Kedah and Perak. The chief attraction of Achin to traders in the 17th century must have been gold. No place in the East, unless Japan, was so abundantly supplied with gold. The great repute of Achin as a place of trade is shown by the fact that to this port the first Dutch (1599) and first English (1602) commercial ventures to the Indies were directed. Sir James Lancaster, the English commodore, carried letters from Queen Elizabeth to the king of Achin, and was well received by the prince then reigning, Alauddin Shah. Another exchange of letters took place be- tween King James I. and Iskandar Muda in 1613. But native caprice and jealousy of the growing force of the European nations in these seas, and the rivalries between those nations themselves, were destructive of sound trade; and the English factory, though several times set up, was never long maintained. The French made one great effort (1621) to establish relations with Achin, but nothing came of it. Still the foreign trade of Achin, though subject to interruptions, was important. William Dampier (c. 1688) and others speak of the number of foreign merchants settled there — English, Dutch, Danes, Portuguese, Chinese, &c. Dampier says the anchorage was rarely without ten or fifteen sail of different nations, bringing vast quantities of rice, as well as silks, chintzes, muslins and opium. Besides the Chinese merchants settled at Achin, others used to come annually with the junks, ten or twelve in number, which arrived in June. A regular fair was then established, which lasted two months, and was known as the China camp, a great resort of foreigners. Hostilities with the Portuguese began from the time of the first independent king of Achin; and they had little remission till the power of Portugal fell with the loss of Malacca (1641). Not less than ten times before that event were armaments despatched from Achin to reduce Malacca, and more than once its garrison was hard pressed. One of these armadas, equipped by Iskandar Muda in 1615, gives an idea of the king's resources. It consisted of 500 sail, of which 250 were galleys, and among these a hundred were greater than any then used in Europe. Sixty thousand men were embarked. On the death of Iskandar's successor in 1641, the widow was placed on the throne; and as a female reign favoured the oligarchical tendencies of the Malay chiefs, three more queens were allowed to reign successively. In 1699 the Arab or fana- tical party suppressed female government, and put a chief of Arab blood on the throne. The remaining history of Achin was one of rapid decay. After the restoration of Java to the Netherlands in 1816, a good deal of weight was attached by the neighbouring British colonies to the maintenance of influence in Achin; and in 18 19 a treaty of friendship was concluded with the Calcutta govern- ment which excluded other European nationalities from fixed residence in Achin. When the British government, in 1824, made a treaty with the Netherlands, surrendering the remaining British settlements in Sumatra in exchange for certain posses- sions on the continent of Asia, no reference was made in the articles to the Indian treaty of 1819; but an understanding was exchanged that it should be modified, while no proceedings hostile to .Achin should be attempted by the Dutch. This reservation was formally abandoned by the British government in a convention signed at the Hague on the 2nd of November 1871; and in March 1873 the government of Batavia declared war upon Achin. Doubtless there was provo- cation, for the sultan of Achin had not kept to the understanding that he was to guarantee immunity from piracy to foreign traders; but the necessity for war was greatly doubted, even in Holland. A Dutch force landed at Achin in April 1873, an d attacked the palace. It was defeated with considerable loss, including that of the general (Kohler). The approach of the south-west monsoon precluded the immediate renewal of the attempt; but hostilities were resumed, and Achin fell in January 1874. The natives, however, maintained themselves in the interior, inaccessible to the Dutch troops, and carried on a guerilla warfare. General van der Heyden appeared to have subdued them in 1878-81, but they broke out again in 1896 under the traitor Taku Umar, who had been in alliance with the Dutch. He died shortly afterwards, but the trouble was not ended. General van Hentsz carried on a successful campaign in 1898 seq., but. in 1901, the principal Achinese chiefs on the north coast having surrendered, the pretender-sultan fled to the Gajoes, a neighbouring inland people. Several expeditions involving heavy fighting were necessary against these in 1901-4, and a certain amount of success was achieved, but the pretender escaped, revolt still smouldered and hostilities were continued. See P. J. Veth, Atchin en zijne betrekkingen tot Nederland (Leyden, 1873); J. A. Kruijt, Atjeh en de Aljehers (Leyden, 1877); Kielstra, Beschrijving van den Atjeh-oorlog (The Hague, 1885) ; Van Langen, Aljeh's Wesskust, Tijdschrift Aardrijko, Genotktsch. (Amsterdam, 1888), p. 226; Renaud, Jaarboek van het Mynwezen (1882); J. Jacobs, Het famille-en Kampongleven op Groot Atjeh (Leyden, 1894) ; C. Snouck Hurgronje, De Atjehers (Batavia, 1894). ACHOLI, a negro people of the upper Nile valley, dwelling on the east bank of the Bahr-el-Jebel, about a hundred miles north of Albert Nyanza. They are akin to the Shilluks of the White Nile. They frequently decorate the temples or cheeks with wavy or zigzag scars, and also the thighs with scrolls; some pierce the ears. Their dwelling-places are circular huts with a high peak, furnished with a mud sleeping-platform, jars of grain and a sunk fireplace. The interior walls are daubed with mud and decorated with geometrical or conventional designs in red, white or grey. The Acholi are good hunters, using nets and spears, and keep goats, sheep and cattle. In war they use spears and long, narrow shields of giraffe or ox hide. Their dialect is closely allied to those of the Alur, Lango and Ja-Luo tribes, all four being practically pure Nilotic. Their religion is a vague fetishism. By early explorers the Acholi were called Shuli, a name now obsolete. ACHROMATISM (Gr. a-, privative, xP&M a > colour), in optics, the property of transmitting white light, without decomposing it into the colours of the spectrum; " achromatic lenses " are lenses which possess this property. (See Lens, Aberration and Photography.) ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour), the name loosely applied to any sour substance; in chemistry it has a more precise meaning, denoting a substance containing hydrogen which may be replaced by metals with the formation of salts. An acid may therefore be regarded as a salt of hydrogen. Of the general characters of acids we may here notice that they dissolve alkaline substances, certain metals, &c, neutralize alkalies and redden many blue and violet vegetable - colouring matters. The ancients probably possessed little knowledge indeed of acids. Vinegar (or impure acetic acid), which is produced when wine is allowed to stand, was known to both the Greeks and Romans, who considered it to be. typical of acid substances; this is philologically illustrated by the words o£bs, acidus, sour, and 8£os, acetus, vinegar. Other acids became known during the alchemistic period; and the first attempt at a generalized 146 ACID conception of these substances was made by Paracelsus, who supposed them to contain a principle which conferred the properties of sourness and solubility. Somewhat sirrfilar views were promoted by Becher, who named the principle acidum primogenium, and held that it was composed of the Para- celsian elements " earth" and "water." At about the same time Boyle investigated several acids; he established their general reddening of litmus, their solvent power of metals and basic substances, and the production of neutral bodies, or salts, with alkalies. Theoretical conceptions were revived by Stahl, who held that acids were the fundamentals of all salts, and the erroneous idea that sulphuric acid was the principle of all acids. The phlogistic theory of the processes of calcination and com- bustion necessitated the view that many acids, such as those produced by combustion, e.g. sulphurous, phosphoric, carbonic, &c, should be regarded as elementary substances. This prin- ciple more or less prevailed until it was overthrown by Lavoisier's doctrine that oxygen was the acid-producing element; Lavoisier being led to this conclusion by the almost general observation that acids were produced when non-metallic elements were burnt. The existence of acids not containing oxygen was, in itself, sufficient to overthrow this idea, but, although Berthollet had shown, in 1789, that sulphuretted hydrogen (or hydro- sulphuric acid) contained no oxygen, Lavoisier's theory held its own until the researches of Davy, Gay-Lussac and Thenard on hydrochloric acid and chlorine, and of Gay-Lussac on hydro- cyanic acid, established beyond all cavil that oxygen was not essential to acidic properties. In the Lavoisierian nomenclature acids were regarded as binary oxygenated compounds, the associated water being relegated to the position of a mere solvent. Somewhat similar views were held by Berzelius, when developing his dualistic conception of the composition of substances. In later years Berzelius renounced the " oxygen acid " theory, but not before Davy, and, almost simultaneously, Dulong, had submitted that hydrogen and not oxygen was the acidifying principle. Oppo- sition to the " hydrogen-acid " theory centred mainly about the hypothetical radicals which it postulated; moreover, the electro- chemical theory of Berzelius exerted a stultifying influence on the correct views of Davy and Dulong. In Berzelius' system + - potassium sulphate is to be regarded as K2O.SO3; electrolysis should simply effect the disruption of the positive and negative components, potash passing with the current, and sulphuric acid against the current. Experiment showed, however, that instead of only potash appearing at the negative electrode, hydrogen is also liberated; this is inexplicable by Berzelius's theory, but readily explained by the " hydrogen-acid " theory. By this theory potassium is liberated at the negative electrode and combines immediately with water to form potash and hydrogen. Further and stronger support was given when J. Liebig promoted his doctrine of polybasic acids. Dalton's idea that elements preferentially combined in equiatomic proportions had as an immediate inference that metallic oxides contained one atom of the metal to one atom of oxygen, and a simple ex- pansion of this conception was that one atom of oxide combined with one atom of acid to form one atom of a neutral salt. This view, which was specially supported by Gay-Lussac and Leopold Gmelin and accepted by Berzelius, necessitated that all acids were monobasic. The untenability of this theory was proved by Thomas Graham's investigation of the phosphoric acids; for he then showed that the ortho- (ordinary), pyro- and meta- phosphoric acids contained respectively 3, 2 and 1 molecules of " basic water " (which were replaceable by metallic oxides) and one molecule of phosphoric oxide, P 2 O5. Graham's work was developed by Liebig, who called into service many organic acids — citric, tartaric, cyanuric, comenic and meconic— and showed that these resembled phosphoric acid; and he estab- lished as the criterion of polybasicity the existence of com- pound salts with different metallic oxides. In formulating these facts Liebig at first retained the dualistic conception of the structure of acids; but he shortly afterwards perceived that this view lacked generality since the halogen acids, which con- tained no oxygen but yet formed salts exactly similar in pror>- erties to those containing oxygen, could not be so regarded. This and other reasons led to his rejection of the dualistic hypo- thesis and the adoption, on the ground of probability, and much more from convenience, of the tenet that " acids are parti- cular compounds of hydrogen, in which the latter can be re- placed by metals "; while, on the constitution of salts, he held that " neutral salts are those compounds of the same class in which the hydrogen is replaced by its equivalent in metal. The substances which we at present term anhydrous acids (acid oxides) only become, for the most part, capable of forming salts with metallic oxides after the addition of water, or they are compounds which decompose these oxides at somewhat high temperatures." The hydrogen theory and the doctrine of polybasicity as enunciated by Liebig is the fundamental characteristic of the modern theory. A polybasic acid contains more than one atom of hydrogen which is replaceable by metals; moreover, in such an acid the replacement may be entire with the formation of normal salts, partial with the formation of acid salts, or by two or more different metals with the formation of compound salts (see Salts). These facts may be illustrated with the aid of orthophosphoric. acid, which is tribasic: — Acid. Normal salt. Acid salts. H 3 PO„. Ag 3 P0 4 . Na 2 HP0 4 ; NaH 2 P0 4 . Phosphoric Silver phosphate. Acid sodium acid. phosphates. Compound salts. Mg(NH 4 )P0 4 ; Na(NH 4 )HP0 4 . Magnesium ammonium Microcosmic phosphate ; salt. Reference should be made to the articles Chemical Action, Thermochemistry and Solutions, for the theory of the strength or avidity of acids. Organic Acids. — Organic acids are characterized by the presence of the monovalent group — CO-OH, termed the carboxyl group, in which the hydrogen atom is replaceable by metals with the formation of salts, and by alkyl radicals with the formation of esters. The basicity of an organic acid, as above denned, is determined by the number of carboxyl groups present Oxy-acids are carboxylic acids which also contain a hydroxyl group; similarly we may have aldehyde-acids, ketone-acids, &c Since the more important acids are treated under their own headings, or under substances closely allied to them, we shall here confine ourselves to general relations. Classification. — It is convenient to distinguish between ali- phatic and aromatic acids; the first named being derived from open-chain hydrocarbons, the second from ringed hydrocarbon nuclei. Aliphatic monobasic acids are further divided according to the nature of the parent hydrocarbon. Methane and its homologues give origin to the " paraffin " or " fatty series " of the general formula C„H 2 ,i+iCOOH, ethylene gives origin to the acrylic acid series, C„H 2 „-iCOOH, and soon. Dibasic acids of the paraffin series of hydrocarbons have the general formula C„H 2 (C00H) 2 n ; malonic and succinic acids are important members. The isomerism which occurs as soon as the molecule contains a few carbon atoms renders any classification based on empirical molecular formulae somewhat ineffective; on the other hand, a scheme based on molecular structure would involve more detail than it is here possible to give. For further informa- tion, the reader is referred to any standard work on organic chemistry. A list of the acids present in fats and oils is given in the article Oils. Syntheses of Organic- Acids. — The simplest syntheses are un- doubtedly those in which a carboxyl group is obtained directly from the oxides of carbon, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. The simplest of all include: (1) the synthesis of sodium oxalate by passing carbon dioxide over metallic sodium heated to 350°— 360 ; (2) the synthesis of potassium formate from moist carbon dioxide and potassium, potassium carbonate being obtained simultaneously; (3) the synthesis of potassium acetate and propionate from carbon dioxide and sodium methide and sodium ACID ALIUS— ACINACES 147 ethide; (4) the synthesis of aromatic acids by the interaction of carbon dioxide, sodium and a bromine substitution derivative; and (5) the synthesis of aromatic oxy-acids by the interaction of carbon dioxide and sodium phenolates (see Salicylic Acid). Carbon monoxide takes part in the syntheses of sodium formate from sodium hydrate, or soda lime (at 2oo°-22o°), and of sodium acetate and propionate from sodium methylate and sodium ethylate at i6o°-2oo°. Other reactions which introduce carb- oxyl groups into aromatic groups are: the action of carbonyl chloride on aromatic hydrocarbons in the presence of aluminium chloride, acid-chlorides being formed which are readily decom- posed by water to give the acid; the action of urea chloride Cl-CO-NH 2 , cyanuric acid (CONH)3, nascent cyanic acid, or carbanile on hydrocarbons in the presence of aluminium chloride, acid-amides being obtained which are readily decomposed to give the acid. An important nucleus-synthetic reaction is the saponification of nitriles, which may be obtained by the interac- tion of potassium cyanide with a halogen substitution derivative or a sulphonic acid. Acids frequently result as oxidation products, being almost invariably formed in all cases of energetic oxidation. There are certain reactions, however, in which oxidation can be success- fully applied to the synthesis of acids. Thus primary alcohols and aldehydes, both of the aliphatic and aromatic series, readily yield on oxidation acids containing the same number of carbon atoms. These reactions may be shown thus: — RCH 2 OH -> R-CHO -> R-CO-OH. In the case of aromatic aldehydes, acids are also obtained by means of " Cannizzaro's reaction " (see Benzaldehyde). An important oxidation synthesis of aromatic acids is from hydro- carbons with aliphatic side chains; thus toluene, or methyl- benzene, yields benzoic acid, the xylenes, or dimethyl-benzene, yield methyl-benzoic acids and phthalic acids. Ketones, secondary alcohols and tertiary alcohols yield a mixture of acids on oxidation. We may also notice the disruption of un- saturated acids at the double linkage into a mixture of two acids, when fused with potash. In the preceding instances the carboxyl group has been synthesized or introduced into a molecule; we have now to consider syntheses from substances already containing carboxyl groups. Of foremost importance are the reactions termed the malonic acid and the aceto-acetic ester syntheses; these are discussed under their own headings. The electrosyntheses call for mention here. It is apparent that metallic salts of organic acids would, in aqueous solution, be ionized, the positive ion being the metal, and the negative ion the acid residue. Esters, how- ever, are not ionized. It is therefore apparent that a mixed salt and ester, for example K0 2 C-CH 2 -CH2-C0 2 C 2 H 5 , would give only two ions, viz. potassium and the rest of the molecule. If a solu- tion of potassium acetate be electrolysed the products are ethane, carbon dioxide, potash and hydrogen; in a similar manner, normal potassium succinate gives ethylene, carbon dioxide, potash and hydrogen; these reactions may be represented: — CH 3 -C0 2 |K CH 3 C0 2 K" CH 2 -C0 2 |K CH 2 C0 2 K" CHrCOjiK CH 3 C0 2 K - CH 2 -C0 2 JK CH 2 C0 2 K' By electrolysing a solution of potassium ethyl succinate, K0 2 C(CH 2 ) 2 C0 2 C 2 H,, the K0 2 C- groups are split off and the two residues -(CH^CO^Hs combine to form the ester (CH 2 )4(C0 2 C2H 5 ) 2 . In the same way, by electrolysing a mix- ture of a metallic salt and an ester, other nuclei may be con- densed; thus potassium acetate and potassium ethyl succinate yield CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 C02C 2 H 5 . Reactions. — Organic acids yield metallic salts with bases, and ethereal salts or esters (g.v.), RCOOR', with alcohols. Phosphorus chlorides give acid chlorides, R-COC1, the hy- droxyl group being replaced by chlorine, and acid anhydrides, (R-CO) 2 0, a molecule of water being split off between two carboxyl groups. The ammonium salts when heated lose one molecule of water and are converted into acid-amides, RCONH 2 , which by further dehydration yield nitriles, R- CN. The calcium salts distilled with calcium formate yield aldehydes (q.v.); distilled with soda-lime, ketones (q.v.) result. ACIDALIUS, VALENS (1567-1595), German scholar and critic, was born at Wittstock in Brandenburg. After studying at Rostock, Greifswald and Helmstedt, and residing about three years in Italy, he settled at Breslau, where he is said to have embraced the Roman Catholic religion. Early in 1595 he ac- cepted an invitation to Neisse, about fifty miles from Breslau, where he died of brain fever on the 25th of May, at the age of twenty-eight. His excessive application to study, and the attacks made upon him in connexion with a pamphlet of which he was reputed the author, doubtless hastened his premature end. Acidalius wrote notes on Velleius Paterculus (1590), Curtius (1594), the panegyrists, Tacitus and Plautus, published after his death. See Leuschner, Commentatio de A. V. Vita, Moribus, et Scriptis ('757) I F. Adam, " Der Neisser Rektor," in Bericht der Philomathie in Neisse (1872). ACID-AMIDES, chemical compounds which may be considered as derived from ammonia by replacement of its hydrogen with acidyl residues, the substances produced being known as primary, secondary or tertiary amides, according to the number of hydrogen atoms replaced. Of these compounds, the primary amides of the type R-CO-NH 2 are the most important. They may be prepared by the dry distillation of the ammonium salts of the acids (A. W. Hofmann, Ber., 1882, 15, p. 977), by the partial hydrolysis of the nitriles, by the action of ammonia or ammonium carbonate on acid chlorides or anhydrides, or by heating the esters (q.v.) with ammonia. They are solid crystalline compounds (formamide excepted) which are at first soluble in water, the solubility, however, decreasing as the carbon content of the molecule increases. They are easily hydrolysed, breaking up into their components when boiled with acids or alkalies. They form compounds with hydrochloric acid when this gas is passed into their ethereal solution; these compounds, however, are very unstable, being readily decomposed by water. On the other hand, they show faintly acid properties since the hydrogen of the amido group can be replaced by metals to give such com- pounds as mercury acetamide (CH 3 CONH) 2 Hg. Nitrous acid decomposes them, with elimination of nitrogen and the formation of the corresponding acid, RCO-NH 2 +ONOH = R-COOH+N 2 +H 2 0. When distilled with phosphoric anhydride they yield nitriles. By the action of bromine and alcoholic potash on the amides, they are converted into amines containing one carbon atom less than the original amide, a reaction which possesses great theoretical importance (A. W. Hofmann), R-CONH 2 -> R-CONHBr -^ R-NH 2 +K 2 C0 3 +KBr+H 2 0. Formamide, H-CONH 2 , is a liquid readily soluble in water, boiling at about 195° C. with partial decomposition. Acetamide, CH 3 -CONH 2 , is a white deliquescent crystalline solid, which melts at 82-83° C. and boils at 222° C. It is usually prepared by distilling ammonium acetate. It is readily soluble in water and alcohol, but insoluble in ether. Benzamide, CeHfCONHj, crystallizes in leaflets which melt at 130° C. It is prepared by the action of ammonium carbonate on benzoyl chloride. It yields a silver salt which with ethyl iodide forms benzimido- ethyl ether, C 6 H 5 C : (NH)-OC 2 H 5 , a behaviour which points to the silver salt as being derived from the tautomeric imido- benzoic acid, C 6 H 5 C : (NH)-OH (J. Tafel, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 104). On the preparation of the substituted amides from the corre- sponding sodamides see A. W. Titherley (Journ. Chem. Soc, 1901, 59, p. 391). The secondary and tertiary amides of the types (RCO) 2 NH and (RCO) 3 N may be prepared by heating the primary amides or the nitriles with acids or acid anhydrides to 200 C. Thiamides of the type R-CSNH 2 are known, and result by the addition of sulphuretted hydrogen to the nitriles, or by the action of phosphorus pentasulphide on the acid-amides. They readily decompose on heating, and are easily hydrolysed by alkalies; they possess a somewhat more acid character than the acid-amides. ACINACES (from the Greek), an ancient Persian sword, short 14? ACINETA-^-ACKNOWLEDGMENT and straight, and "worn, contrary to the Roman fashion, on the right side, or sometimes in front of the body, as shown in the bas-reliefs found at Persepolis. Among the Persian nobility it was frequently made of gold, being worn as a badge of dis- tinction. The acinaces was an object of religious worship with the Scythians and others (Herod, iv. 62). ACIKETA (so named by C. G. Ehrenberg), a genus of suctorial Infusoria characterized by the possession of a stalk and cup- shaped sheath or theca for the body, and endogenous -budding. 0. Butschli has separated off the genus Metacineta (for A. mysta- cina), which reproduces by direct bud-fission. ACINUS (Lat. for a berry), a term in botany applied to such fruits as the blackberry or raspberry, composed of small seed- like berries, and also to those berries themselves, or to grape- stones. By analogy, acinus is applied in anatomy to similar granules or glands, or lobules of a gland. ACIREALE, a town and episcopal see of the province of Catania, Sicily; from the town of the same name it is distant 9 m. N. by E. Pop. (1901) 35,418. It has some importance as a thermal station, and the springs were used by the Romans. It takes its name from the river Acis, into which, according to the legend, Acis, the lover of Galatea, was changed after he had been slain by Polyphemus. The rocks which Polyphemus hurled at Ulysses are identified with the seven Scogli de' Ciclopi, or Faraglioni, a little to the south of Acireale. ACIS, in Qreek mythology, the son of Pan (Faunus) and the nymph Symaethis, a beautiful shepherd of Sicily, was the lover of the Nereid Galatea. His rival the Cyclops Polyphemus sur- prised them together, and crushed him to pieces with a rock. His blood, gushing forth from beneath, was metamorphosed by Galatea into the river bearing his name (now Fiume di Jaci), which was celebrated for the coldness of its waters (Ovid, Met. xiii. 750; Silius Italicus, Punica, xiv. 221). ACKERMAN, FRANCIS (c. 1335-1387), Flemish soldier and diplomatist, was born at Ghent, and about 1380 became promi- nent during the struggle between the burghers of that town and Louis II. (de Male), count of Flanders. He was partly respon- sible for inducing Philip van Artevelde to become first captain of the city of Ghent in 1382, and at the head of some troops scoured the surrounding country for provisions and thus saved Ghent from being starved into submission. By his diplomatic abilities he secured the assistance of the citizens of Brussels, Louvain and Liege, and, having been made admiral of the Flemish fleet, visited England and obtained a promise of help from King Richard II. After Artevelde's death in November 1382, he acted as leader of the Flemings, gained several victories and increased his fame by skilfully conducting a retreat from Damme to Ghent in August 1385. He took part in the conclu- sion of the treaty of peace between Ghent and Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, the successor of Count Louis, in December 1385. Trusting in Philip, and ignoring the warnings of his friends, Ackerman remained in Flanders, and was murdered at Ghent on the 22nd of July 1387, leaving a memory of chivalry and generosity. See Jean Froissart, Chronigues, edited by S. Luce and G. Raynaud (Paris, 1869-1897); Johannes Brandon, Chronodromon , edited by K. de Lettenhove in the Chronigues relatives a I'histoire de la Belgique sous la domination des dues de Bourgogne (Brussels, 1870). ACKERMANN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB (1756-1801), German physician, was born at Zeulenroda, in Upper Saxony, on the 1 7 th of February 1756, and died at Altdorf on the 9th of March 1801. At the age of fifteen he became a student of medicine at Jena under E. G. Baldinger, whom he followed to Gottingen in 1773, and afterwards he studied for two years at Halle. A few years' practice at Stendal (1778-1799), where there were numerous factories, enabled him to add many valuable original observations to his translation (1780-1783) of Bernardino Ramazzini's (1633-1714) treatise on diseases of artificers. In 1786 he became professor of medicine at the university of Altdorf, in Franconia, occupying first the chair of chemistry, and then, from 1794 till bis death in 1801, that of pathology and therapeutics. He wrote Imtitutiones Historiae Medicinae (Nuremberg, 1792) and Institutiones Therapiae Generalis (Nuremberg and Altdorf, 1784-1795), besides various handbooks and translations. ACKERMANN, LOUISE VICTORINE CHOQUET (1813-1890), French poet, was born in Paris on the 30th of November 1813. Educated by her father in the philosophy of the Encyclopaedists, Victorine Choquet went to Berlin in 1838 to study German, and there married in 1843 Paul Ackermann, an Alsatian philologist. After little more than two years of happy married life her husband died, and Madame Ackermann went to live at Nice with a favourite sister. In 1855 she published Contes en vers, and in 1862 Contes el poisies. Very different from these simple and charming contes is the work on which Madame Ackermann's real reputation rests. She published in 1874 Poisies, premieres poisies, poisies phUosophiques, a volume of sombre and powerful verse, expressing her revolt against human suffering. The volume was enthusiastically reviewed in the Revue des deux mondes for May 1871 by E. Caro, who, though he deprecated the impiite desespirie of the verses, did full justice to their vigour and the excellence of their form. Soon after the publication of this volume Madame Ackermann removed to Paris, where she gathered round her a circle of friends, but published nothing further except a prose volume, the Pensees d'un solitaire (1883), to which she prefixed a short autobiography. She died at Nice on the 2nd of August 1890. See also Anatole France, La vie litteraire, 4th series (1892) ; the comte d'Haussonville, Mme. Ackermann (1882); M. Citoleux, La poesie philosophique au XlXe. siecle (vol. i., Mme. Ackermann d'apres de nombreux documents inedits, Paris, 1906). ACKERMANN, RUDOLPH (1764-1834), Anglo-German in- ventor and publisher, was born on the 20th of April 1764 at Schneeberg, in Saxony. He had been a saddler and coach- builder in different German cities, Paris and London for ten years before, in 1795, he established a print-shop and drawing-school in the Strand. Ackermann set up a lithographic press, and applied it in 181 7 to the illustration of his Repository of Arts, Literature, Fashions,' &c. (monthly until 1828 when forty volumes had appeared). Rowlandson and other distinguished artists were regular contributors. He also introduced the fashion of the once popular English Annuals, beginning in 1825 with Forget-me-not; and he published many illustrated volumes of topography and travel, The Microcosm of London (3 vols., 1808- 1811), Westminster Abbey (2 vols., 1812), The Rhine (1820), The World in Miniature (43 vols., 1821-1826), &c. Ackermann was an enterprising man ; he patented (1801) a method for rendering paper and cloth waterproof, erected a factory at Chelsea for the purpose and was one of the first to illuminate his own premises with gas. Indeed the introduction of lighting by gas owed much to him. After the battle of Leipzig Ackermann collected nearly a quarter of a million sterling for the German sufferers. He died at Finchley, near London, on the 30th of March 1834. ACKNOWLEDGMENT (from the old acknow, a compound of on- and know, to know by the senses, which passed through the forms oknow, aknow and acknow; acknowledge is formed on analogy of "knowledge"), an admission that something has been given or done, a term used in law in various connexions. The acknowledgment of a debt, if in writing signed by the debtor or his agent, is sufficient to take it out of the Statutes of Limita- tions. The signature to a will by a testator, if not made in the presence of two witnesses, may be afterwards acknowledged in their presence. The acknowledgment by a woman married before 1882 of deeds for the conveyance of real property not her separate property, requires to be made by her before a judge of the High Court or of a county court or before a perpetual or special commissioner. Before such an acknowledgment can be received, the judge or commissioner is required to examine her apart from her husband, touching her knowledge of the deed, and to ascertain whether she freely and voluntarily consents to it. An acknowledgment to the right of the production of deeds of conveyance is an obligation on the vendor, when he retains any portion of the property to which the deeds relate, and is entitled to retain the deeds, to produce them from time to time at the request of the person to whom the acknowledgment is given, ACLAND— ACNE [49 to allow copies to be made, and to undertake for their safe custody (Conveyancing Act 1881, s. 9). The term "acknow- ledgment " is, in the United States, applied to the certificate of a public officer that an instrument was acknowledged before him to be the deed or act of the person who executed it. " Acknowledgment money " is the sum paid in some parts of England by copyhold tenants on the death of the lord of the manor. ACLAND, CHRISTIAN HENRIETTA CAROLINE (1750-1815), usually called Lady Harriet Acland, was born on the 3rd of January 1750, the daughter of the first earl of Ilchester. In 1770 she married John Dyke Acland, who as a member of parlia- ment became a vigorous supporter of Lord North's policy towards the American colonies, and, entering the British army in 1774, served with Burgoyne's expedition as major in the 20th regiment of foot. Lady Harriet accompanied her husband, and, when he was wounded at Ticonderoga, nursed him in his tent at the front. In the second battle of Saratoga Major Acland was afain badly wounded and subsequently taken prisoner. Lady Harriet was determined to be with him, and underwent great hardship to accomplish her object, proving herself a courageous and devoted wife. A story has been told that being provided with a letter from General Burgoyne to the American general Gates, she went up the Hudson river in an open boat to the enemy's lines, arriving late in the evening. The American out- posts threatened to fire into the boat if its occupants stirred, and Lady Harriet had to wait eight " dark and cold hours," until the sun rose, when she at last received permission to join her husband. Major Acland died in 1778, and Lady Harriet on the 21st of July 181 5. ACLAND, SIR HENRY WENTWORTH, Bart. (1815-1900), English physician and man of learning, was born near Exeter on the 23rd of August 181 5, and was the fourth son of Sir Thomas Dyke Acland (1787-1871). Educated at Harrow and at Christ Church, Oxford, he was elected fellow of All Souls in 1840, and then studied medicine in London and Edinburgh. Returning to Oxford, he was appointed Lee's reader in anatomy at Christ Church in 1845, an d in 1851 Radcliffe librarian and physician to the Radcliffe infirmary. Seven years later he became regius professor of medicine, a post which he retained till 1894. He was also a curator of the university galleries and of the Bodleian Library, and from 1858 to 1887 he represented his university on the General Medical Council, of which he served as president from 1874 to 1887. He was created a baronet in 1890, and ten years later, on the 16th of October 1900, he died at his house in Broad Street, Oxford. Acland took a leading part in the revival of the Oxford medical school and in introducing the study of natural science into the university. As Lee's reader he began to form a collection of anatomical and physiological preparations on the plan of John Hunter, and the establishment of the Oxford University museum, opened in 1861, as a centre for the en- couragement of the study of science, especially in relation to medicine, was largely due to his efforts. " To Henry Acland," said his lifelong friend, John Ruskin, " physiology was an en- trusted gospel of which he was the solitary preacher to the heathen," but on the other hand his thorough classical training preserved science at Oxford from too abrupt a severance from the humanities. In conjunction with Dean Liddell, he revolu- tionized the study of art and archaeology, so that the cultivation of these subjects, for which, as Ruskin declared, no one at Oxford cared before that time, began to flourish in the university. Acland was also interested in questions of public health. He served on the royal commission on sanitary laws in England and Wales in 1869, and published a study of the outbreak of cholera at Oxford in 1854, together with various pamphlets on sanitary matters. His memoir on the topography of theTroad, with panoramic plan (1839), was among the fruits of a cruise which he made in the Mediterranean for the sake of his health. ACHE (Gr. cik^ 1 ?, point), the highest point attainable; first used as an English word by Ben Jonson. ACMITE, or Aegirite, a mineral of the pyroxene (q.v.) group, which may be described as a soda -pyroxene, being essentially a sodium and ferric metasilicate, NaFe(Si0 3 ) 2 . In its crystallo- graphic characters it is close to ordinary pyroxene (augite and diopside), being monoclinic and having nearly the same angle between the prismatic cleavages. There are, however, important differences in the optical characters: the birefringence of acmite is negative, the pleochroism is strong and the extinction angle on the plane of symmetry measured to the vertical axis is small (3°~5°)- The hardness is 6-65, and the specific gravity 3'S5- Crystals are elongated in the direction of the vertical axis, and are blackish green (aegirite) or dark brown (acmite) in colour. Being isomorphous with augite, crystals intermediate in com- position between augite or diopside and aegirite are not un- common, and these are known as aegirine-augite or aegirine- diopside. Acmite is a characteristic constituent of igneous rocks rich in soda, such as nepheline-syenites, phonolites, &c. It was first discovered as slender crystals, sometimes a foot in length, in the pegmatite veins of the granite of Rundemyr, near Kongsberg in Norway, and was named by F. Stromeyer in 1821 from the Gr. aKfiij, a point, in allusion to the pointed terminations of the crystals. Aegirite (named from Aegir, the Scandinavian sea -god) was described in 1835 from the elaeolite-syenite of southern Norway. Although exhibiting certain varietal differ- ences, the essential-identity of acmite and aegirite has long been established, but the latter and more recent name is perhaps in more general use, especially among petrologists. ACNE, a skin eruption produced by inflammation of the sebaceous glands and hair follicles, the essential point in the disease being the plugging of the mouths of the sebaceous follicles by a " comedo," familiarly known as " blackhead." It is now generally acknowledged that the cause of this disease is the organism known as bacillus acnes. It shows itself in the form of red pimples or papules, which may become pustular and be attended with considerable surrounding irritation of the skin. This affection is likewise most common in early adult life, and occurs on the chest and back as well as on the face, where it may, when of much extent, produce considerable disfigurement. It is apt to persist for months or even years, but usually in time disappears entirely, although slight traces may remain in the form of scars or stains upon the skin. Eruptions of this kind are sometimes produced by the continued internal use of certain drugs, such as the iodide or bromide of potassium. In treating this condition the face should first of all be held over steaming water for several minutes, and then thoroughly bathed. The blackheads should next be removed, not with the finger-nail, but with an inexpensive little instrument known as the " comedo expressor." When the more noticeable of the blackheads have been expressed, the face should be firmly rubbed for three or four minutes with a lather made from a special soap composed of sulphur, camphor and balsam of Peru. Any lather remaining on the face at the end of this time should be wiped off with a soft handkerchief. As this treatment might give rise to some irritation of the skin, it should be replaced every fourth night by a simple application of cold cream. Of drugs used internally sulphate of calcium, in pill, £ grain three times a day, is a very useful adjunct to the preceding. The patient should take plenty of exercise in the fresh air, a very simple but nourishing diet, and, if present, constipation and anaemia mustibe suitably treated. Rosacea, popularly known as acne rosacea, is a more severe and troublesome disorder, a true dermatitis with no relation to the foregoing, and in most cases secondary to seborrhea of the scalp. It is characterized by great redness of the nose and cheeks, accompanied by pustular enlargements on the surface of the skin, which produce marked disfigurement. Although often seen in persons who live too freely, it is by no means con- fined to such, but may arise in connexion with disturbances of the general health, especially of the function of digestion, and in females with menstrual disorders. It is apt to be exceed- ingly intractable to treatment, which is here too, as in the pre- ceding form, partly local and partly constitutional. Of internal remedies preparations of iodine and of arsenic are sometimes found of service. *5° ACOEMETI— ACOMINATUS ACOEMETI (Gr. o.koI juntos, sleepless), an order of Eastern monks who celebrated the divine service without intermission day or night. This was done by dividing the communities into choirs, which relieved each other by turn in the church. Their first monastery was established on the Euphrates, in the begin- ning of the 5th century, and soon afterwards one was founded in Constantinople. Here also, c. 460, was founded by the consular Studius the famous monastery of the Studium, which was put in the hands of the Acoemeti and became their chief house, so that they were sometimes called Studites. At Agaunum (St Maurice in the Valais) a monastery was founded by the Bur- gundian king Sigismund, in 515, in which the perpetual office was kept up; but it is doubtful whether this had any connexion with the Eastern Acoemeti. The Constantinopolitan Acoemeti took a prominent part in the Christological controversies of the 5th and 6th centuries, at first strenuously opposing Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, in his attempted compromise with the monophysites; but after- wards, in Justinian's reign, falling under ecclesiastical censure for Nestorian tendencies. See the article in Dictionary of Christian Antiquities; Wetzer und Welte, Kirchenlexicon (2nd ed.) ; and Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklo- pddie (3rd ed.) ; also the general histories of the time. (E. C. B.) ACOLYTE (Gr. o.k6\ov8os, follower), the last of the four minor orders in the Roman Church. As an office it appears to be of local origin, and is entirely unknown in the Eastern Church, with the exception of the Armenians who borrowed it from the West. Before the council of Nicaea (325) it was only to be found at Rome and Carthage. When in 2 5 1 Pope Cornelius, in a letter to Fabius of Antioch, mentions among the Roman clergy forty-two acolytes, placing them after the subdeacons and before the other minor officials (see Eusebius, Hist. Ecc. lib. v. cap. 43), he gives no hint that the office was a new one, but speaks of them as hold- ing an already established position. Their institution has there- fore to be sought for at an earlier date than his pontificate. It is possible that the Liber Ponlificalis refers to the office under the Latin synonym, when it says of Pope Victor (186-197) that he made sequentes cleros, a term — sequens — which Pope Gaius (283-293) uses in the sense of acolyte. While the office was well known in Rome, there is nothing to prove that it was also an order through which, as to-day, every candidate to the priest- hood must pass. The contrary is a fact proved by many monu- mental inscriptions and authentic statements. Though the office is found at Carthage, and St Cyprian (2oo?-2 58) makes many references to acolytes, whom he used to carry his letters, this seems to be the only place in Africa where they were known. Tertullian, while speaking of readers and exorcists, says nothing about acolytes; neither does St Augustine. The Irish Church did not know them; and in Spain the council of Toledo (400) makes no mention either of the office or of the order. The Statuta Ecclesiae Antiqua (falsely called the Canons of the Fourth Council of Carthage in 397), a Gallican collection, originating in the province of Aries at the beginning of the 6th century, mentions the acolyte, but does not give, as in the case of the other orders, any form for the ordination. The Roman books are silent, and there is no mention of it in the collection known as the Leonine Sacramentary; while in the so-called Gelasian Mass- book, which, as we have it, is full of Gallican additions made to St Gregory's reform, there is the same silence, though in one MS. of the 10th century given by Muratori we find a form for the ordination of an acolyte. While there is frequent mention of the acolyte's office in the Ordines Romani, it is only in the Ordo VIII. (which is not earlier than the 7 th century) that we find the very simple form for admitting an acolyte to his office. At the end of the mass the cleric, clad in chasuble and stole and bearing a linen bag on one arm, comes before the pope or bishop and receives a blessing. There is no collation of power or order but a simple admission to- an office. The evidence available, there- fore, points to the fact that the acolyte was only a local office and was not a necessary step or order for every candidate. In England, though the ecclesiastical organization came from Rome and was directed by Romans, we find no trace of such an office or order until the time of Ecgbert of York (767), the friend of Alcuin and therefore subject to Gallican influence. The Pontifical known as Ecgbert's shows that it was then in use both as an office and as an order, and Aelfric (1006) in both his pastoral epistle and canons mentions the acolyte. The conclusion, then, which seems warranted by the evidence, is that the acolyte was an office only at Rome, and, becoming an order in the Gallican Church, found its way as such into the Roman books at some period before the fusion of the two rites under Charlemagne. The duties of the acolyte, as given in the Roman Pontifical, are identical with those mentioned in the Statuta Ecclesiae Antiqua of Aries: " It is the duty of acolytes to carry the candle- sticks, to light the lamps of the church, to administer wine and water for the Eucharist." It might seem, from the number forty- two mentioned by Pope Cornelius, that at Rome the acolytes were divided among the seven ecclesiastical regions of the city; but we have no proof that, at that date, there were six acolytes attached to each region. From the ancient division of the Roman acolytes into Palatini, or those in attendance on the pope at the Lateran palace, Stationarii, or those who served at the churches where there was a " station," and Regionarii, or those attached directly to the regions, it would seem that the number forty-two was only the actual number then existing and not an official number. We get a glimpse of their duties from the Ordines Romani. When the pope rode in procession to the station an acolyte, on foot, preceded him, bearing the holy chrism; and at the church seven regionary acolytes with candles went before him in the procession to the altar, while two others, bearing the vessel that contained a pre-consecrated Host, presented it for his adoration. During the mass an acolyte bore the thurible {Ordo VI.) and three assisted at the washing of the hands. At the moment of communion the acolytes received in linen bags the consecrated Hosts to carry to the assisting priests. This office of bearing the sacrament is an ancient one, and is mentioned in the legend of Tarcisius, the Roman acolyte, who was martyred on the Appian Way while carrying the Hosts from the cata- combs. The official dress of the acolyte, according to Ordo V., was a close-fitting linen garment (camisia) girt about him, a napkin hanging from the left side, a white tunic, a stole (orarium) and a chasuble (planeta) which he took off when he sang on the steps of the ambone. At the present day, despite the earnest wish of the council of Trent (Sess. xxiii. cap. 17 d.r.), the acolyte, while remaining an order, has ceased to be essentially a clerical office, since the duties are now performed, almost everywhere, by laymen. The office has been revived, though unofficially, in the Church of England, as a result of the Tractarian movement. See Morin, Commentarius in sacris Ecclesiae ordinationibus (Antwerp, 1685), ii. p. 209, iii. p. 152; Martene, De Antiquis Ec- clesiae ritibus (Antwerp, 1739), ii. pp. 47 and 86; Mabillon, Musaeum Italicum II. for the Ordines Romani; Muratori, Liturgia Romana Vetus; Cabrol, Dictionnaire d'archeologie chretienne et de litureie, vol. i. col. 348-536. (E. Tn.) ACOMINATUS (Akominatos), MICHAEL (c. 1 140-1220), Byzantine writer and ecclesiastic, was born at Chonae (the ancient Colossae). At an early age he studied at Constantinople, and about 1 175 was appointed archbishop of Athens. After the capture of Constantinople by the Franks and the establishment of the Latin empire (1204), he retired to the island of Ceos, where he died. He was a versatile writer, and composed homilies, speeches and poems, which, with his correspondence, throw considerable light upon the miserable condition of Attica and Athens at the time. His memorial to Alexis III. Angelus on the abuses of Byzantine administration, the poetical lament over the degeneracy of Athens and the monodes on his brother Nicetas and Eustathius, archbishop of Thessalonica, deserve special mention. Edition of his works by S. Lambros (1879-1880) ; Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cxl.; see also A. Ellissen, Michael Akominatos (1846), con- taining several pieces with German translation ; F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Alhen im Mittelalter, i. (1889); G. Finlay, History of Greece, iv. pp. 133-134 (1877). His younger brother Nicetas (Niketas), sometimes called Choniates, who accompanied him to Constantinople, took up ACONCAGUA— ACONITE 151 politics as a career. He held several appointments under the Angelus emperors (amongst them that of " great logothete " or chancellor) and was governor of the " theme " of Philippopolis at a critical period. After the fall of Constantinople he fled to Nicaea, where he settled at the court of the emperor Theodoras Lascaris, and devoted himself to literature. He died between 1 2 10 and 1220. His chief work is his History, in 21 books, of the period from 1180 to 1206. In spite of its florid and bombastic style, it is of considerable value as a record (on the whole im- partial) of events of which he was either an eye-witness or had heard at first hand. Its most interesting portion is the de- scription of the capture of Constantinople, which should be read with Villehardouin's and Paolo Rannusio's works on the same subject. The little treatise On the Statues destroyed by the Latins (perhaps, as we have it, altered by a later writer) is of special interest to the archaeologist. His dogmatic work(9?j(7aL'p6s 'Op0o5ofias, Thesaurus Orthodoxae Fidei), although it is extant in a complete form in MS., has only been published in part. It is one of the chief authorities for the heresies and heretical writers of the 1 2th century. Editions: History, editio princeps, H. Wolf (1557); and in the Bonn Corpus Scriptorum Hist. Byz., 1st ed.,Bekker (1835) ; Rhetorical Pieces in C. Sathas, Mee-aiuvUri Bi/9\io077kt), i. (1872); Thesaurus in Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cxxxix., cxl. ; see also C. A. Sainte-Beuve, " Geoffroy de Villehardouin " in Causeries du Lundi, ix. ; S. Reinach, " La fin de l'empire grec " in Esquisses Archeologiques (1888); C. Neumann, Griechische Geschichtsschreiber im 12. Jahrhundert (1888); Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. Ix. ; and (for both Michael and Nicetas) C. Krumbacher, Geschichle der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897). ACONCAGUA, a small northern province of central Chile, bounded N. by Coquimbo, E. by Argentina, S. by Santiago and Valparaiso and W. by the Pacific. Its area is officially com- puted at 5487 sq. m. Pop. (1895) 113,165; (1902, official esti- mate based on civil registry returns) 131,255. The province is very mountainous, and is traversed from east to west by the broad valley of the Aconcagua river. The climate is hot and dry, the rainfall being too small to influence climatic conditions. The valleys are highly fertile, and where irrigation is employed large crops are easily raised. Beyond the limits of irrigation the country is semi-barren. Alfalfa and grapes are the principal products, and considerable attention is given to the cultivation of other fruits, such as figs, peaches and melons. The " Vale of Quillota," through which the railway passes between Valparaiso and Santiago, is celebrated for its gardens. The Aconcagua river rises on the southern slope of the volcano Aconcagua, flows eastward through a broad valley, or bay in the mountains, and enters the Pacific 12 m. north of Valparaiso. The river has a course of about 200 m., and its watsrs irrigate the best and most populous part of the province. Two other rivers — the Ligua and Choapa — traverse the province, the latter forming the northern boundary line. The capital is San Felipe, on the Aconcagua river; it had a population of 11,313 in 1895, and an estimated population of 11,660 in 1902. The other chief town is Santa Rosa de los Andes (est. pop. 6854), which is a principal station on the Transandine branch of the state railway. The only port in the province is Los Vilos, in lat. 32 S., from which a railway 40 m. long runs north-east to the valley of the Choapa. Another short line connects Cabildo, in the valley of the Ligua, with the state railway. ACONCIO, GIACOMO (1492-1566?), pioneer of religious tolera- tion, was born at Trent, it is said, on the 7th of September 1492. He was one of the Italians like Peter Martyr and Bernar- dino Ochino who repudiated papal doctrine and ultimately found refuge in England. Like them, his revolt against Romanism took an extremer form than Luthcranism, and after a temporary residence in Switzerland and at Strassburg, he arrived in England soon after Elizabeth's accession. He had studied law and theology, but his profession was that of an engineer, and in this capacity he found employment with the English government. He was granted an annuity of £60 on the 27th of February 1560, and letters of naturalization on the 8th of October 1561 (Cal. Slate Papers, Dom. Ser., Addenda, 1547-1566, p. 495), and was for some time occupied with draining Plumstead marshes, for which object various acts of parliament were passed at this time {Lords'' Journals, vol. i., and Commons' Journals, vol. L, passim). In 1 564 he was sent to report on the fortifications of Berwick {Cal. St. Pap. For. Ser. 1 564-1 565, passim; Acts P.C., 1 558-1 570, p. 146); his report is now in the Record Office {C.S.P. For., 1564-1565,^.512). But his real importance depends upon his contribution to the history of religious toleration. Before reaching England he had published a treatise on the methods of investigation, De Methodo, hoc est, de recte investigandarum tradendarumque Scientiarum ratione (Basel, 1558, 8vo); and his critical spirit placed him outside all the recognized religious societies of his time. On his arrival in London he had joined the Dutch Reformed Church in Austin Friars, but he was " infected with Anabaptistical and Arian opinions " and was excluded from the sacrament by Grindal, bishop of London. The real nature of his heterodoxy is revealed in his Stratagemata Satanae, published in 1565 and translated into various languages. The " stratagems of Satan " are the dogmatic creeds which rent the Christian church. Aconcio sought to find the common denominator of the various creeds; this was essential doctrine, the rest was immaterial. To arrive at this common basis, he had to reduce dogma to a low level, and his result was generally repudiated. Even Selden applied to Aconcio the remark ubi bene, nil melius; ubi male, nemo pejus. The dedication of such a work to Queen Elizabeth illus- trates the tolerance or religious laxity during the early years of her reign. Aconcio found another patron in the earl of Leicester, and died about 1566. Authorities. — Gough's Index to Parker Soc. Publ. ; Strype's Grindal, pp. 62, 66; Bayle's Dictionnaire ; G. Tiraboschi, Storia delta le.tt. italiana (Florence, 1805-1813); Osterreichisch.es Biogr. Lexikon; Nouvelle biogr. generate; Diet. Nat. Biogr. (A. F. P.) ACONITE {Aconitum) , a genus of plants belonging to the • natural order Ranunculaceae, the buttercup family, commonly known as aconite, monkshood or wolfsbane, and embracing about 60 species, chiefly natives of the mountainous parts of the northern hemisphere. They are distinguished by having one of the five blue or yellow coloured sepals (the posterior one) in the form of a helmet; hence the English name monkshood. Two of the petals placed under the hood of the calyx are sup- ported on long stalks, and have a hollow spur at their apex, containing honey. They are handsome plants, the tall stem being crowned by racemes of showy flowers. Aconitum Napellus, common monkshood, is a doubtful native of Britain, and is of therapeutic and toxicological importance. Its roots have occa- sionally been mistaken for horse-radish. The aconite has a short underground stem, from which dark-coloured tapering roots descend. The crown or upper portion of the root gives rise to new plants. When put to the lip, the juice of the aconite root produces a feeling of numbness and tingling. The horse-radish root, which belongs to the natural order Cruciferae, is much longer than that of the aconite, and it is not tapering; its colour is yellowish, and the top of the root has the remains of the leaves on it. Many species of aconite are cultivated in gardens, some having blue and others yellow flowers. A conitum lycoctonum, wolfsbane, is a yellow-flowered species common on the Alps of Switzerland. The roots of Aconitum ferox supply the famous Indian (Nepal) poison called bikh, bish or nabee. It contains considerable quantities of the alkaloid pseudaconitine, which is the most deadly poison known. Aconitum palmatum yields another of the celebrated bikh poisons. The root of Aconitum luridum, of the Himalayas, is said to be as virulent as that of A. ferox or A . Napellus. As garden plants the aconites are very ornamental, hardy perennials. They thrive well in any ordinary garden soil, and will grow beneath the shade of trees. They are easily propa- gated by divisions of the root or by seeds; great care should be taken not to leave pieces of the root about owing to its very poisonous character. Chemistry.- — The active principle of Aconitum Napellus is the alkaloid aconitine, first examined by P. L. Geiger and Hesse {Ann., 1834, 7, p. 267). Alder Wright and A. P. Luff obtained 152 ACONTIUS— ACORN apoaconitine, aconine and benzoic acid by hydrolysis; while, in 1892, C. Ehrenberg and A. Purftirst {Journ. Prat. Chem., 1892, 45 , p. 604) observed acetic acid as a hydrolytic product. This, and allied alkaloids, have formed the subject of many investigations by Wyndham Dunstan and his pupils in England, and by Martin Freund and Paul Beck in Berlin. But their constitution is not yet solved, there even being some divergence of opinion as to their empirical formulae. Aconitine (C33H45NO13, according to Dunstan; C34H47NO11, according to Freund) is a crystalline base, soluble in alcohol, but very sparingly in water; its alco- holic solution is dextrorotatory, but its salts are laevorotatory. When heated it loses water and forms pyraconitine. Hydrolysis gives acetic acid and benzaconine, the chief constituent of the alkaloids picraconitine and napelline; further hydrolysis gives aconine. Pseudaconitine, obtained from AconUum ferox, gives on hydrolysis acetic acid and veratrylpseudaconine, the latter of which suffers further hydrolysis to veratric acid and pseud- aconine. Japaconitine, obtained from the Japanese aconites, known locally as " kuza-uzu," hydrolyses to japbenzaconine, which further breaks down to benzoic acid and japaconine. Other related alkaloids are lycaconitine and myoctonine which occur in wolfsbane, Aconitum lycoctonum. The usual test for solutions of aconitine consists in slight acidulation with acetic acid and addition of potassium permanganate, which causes the formation of a red crystalline precipitate. In 1905, Dunstan and his collaborators discovered two new aconite alkaloids, indaconi- tine in " mohri " {Aconitum chasmanthum, Stapf), and bikh- aconitine in " bikh " {Aconitum spicatum); he also proposes to classify these alkaloids according to whether they yield benzoic or veratric acid on hydrolysis {Jour. Chem. Soc, 1905, 87, pp. 1620, 1650). 'From the root of Aconitum Napellus are prepared a liniment and a tincture. The dose of the latter (Brit. Pharmacop.) is of importance as being exceptionally small, for it is not advisable to give more than at most five drops at a time. The official preparation is an ointment which contains one part of the alka- loid in fifty. It must be used with extreme care, and in small quantities, and it must not be used at all where cuts or cracks are present in the skin. Pharmacology of Aconite and Aconitine. — Aconite first stimu- lates and later paralyses the nerves of pain, touch and tempera- ture, if applied to the skin, broken or unbroken, or to a mucous membrane; the initial tingling therefore gives place to a long- continued anaesthetic action. Taken internally aconite acts very notably on the circulation, the respiration and the nervous system. The pulse is slowed, the number of beats per minute being actually reduced, under considerable doses, to forty, or even thirty, per minute. The blood-pressure synchronously falls, and the heart is arrested in diastole. Immediately before arrest the heart may beat much faster than normally, though with extreme irregularity, and in the lower animals the auricles may be observed occasionally to miss a beat, as in poisoning by veratrine and colchicum. The action of aconitine on the circu- lation is due to an initial stimulation of the cardio-inhibitory centre in the medulla oblongata (at the root of the vagus nerves), and later to a directly toxic influence on the nerve-ganglia and muscular fibres of the heart itself. The fall in blood-pressure is not due to any direct influence on the vessels. The respiration becomes slower owing to a paralytic action on the respiratory centre and, in warm-blooded animals, death is due to this action, the respiration being arrested before the action of the heart. Aconite further depresses the activity of all nerve-terminals, the sensory being affected before the motor. In small doses it therefore tends to relieve pain, if this be present. The activity of the spinal cord is similarly depressed. The pupil is at first contracted, and afterwards dilated. The cerebrum is totally unaffected by aconite, consciousness and the intelligence re- maining normal to the last. The antipyretic action which con- siderable doses of aconite display is not specific, but is the result of its influence on the circulation and respiration and of its slight diaphoretic action. Therapeutics. — The indications for its employment are limited, but definite. It is of undoubted value as a local anodyne in sciatica and neuralgia, especially in ordinary facial or trigeminal neuralgia. The best method of application is by rubbing in a small quantity of the aconitine ointment until numbness is felt, but the costliness of this preparation causes the use of the aconite liniment to be commonly resorted to. This should be painted on the affected part with a camel's hair brush dipped in chloroform, which facilitates the absorption of the alkaloid. Aconite is indicated for internal administration whenever it is desirable to depress the action of the heart in the course of a fever. Formerly used in every fever, and even in the septic states that constantly followed surgical operations in the pre-Listerian epoch, aconite is now employed only in the earliest stage of the less serious fevers, such as acute tonsilitis, bronchitis and, notably, laryngitis. The extreme pain and rapid swelling of the vocal cords — with threatened obstruction to the respiration — that characterize acute laryngitis may often be relieved by the sedative action of this drug upon the circulation. In order to reduce the pulse to its normal rate in these cases, without at the same time lessening the power of the heart, the drug must be given in doses of about two minims of the tincture every half- hour and then every hour until the pulse falls to the normal rate. Thereafter the drug must be discontinued. It is probably never right to give aconite in doses much larger than that named. There is one condition of the heart itself in which aconite is sometimes useful. Whilst absolutely contra-indicated in all cases of valvular disease, it is of value in cases of cardiac hyper- trophy with over-action. But the practitioner must be assured that neither valvular lesion nor degeneration of the myocardium is present. Toxicology. — In a few minutes after the introduction of a poisonous dose of aconite, marked symptoms supervene. The initial signs of poisoning are referable to the alimentary canal. There is a sensation of burning, tingling and numbness in the mouth, and of burning in the abdomen. Death usually super- venes before a numbing effect on the intestine can be observed. After about an hour there is severe vomiting. Much motor weakness and cutaneous sensations similar to those above de- scribed soon follow. The pulse and respiration steadily fail, death occurring from asphyxia. As in strychnine poisoning, the patient is conscious and clear-minded to the last. The only post-mortem signs are those of asphyxia. The treatment is to empty the stomach by tube or by a non-depressant emetic. The physiological antidotes are atropine and digitalin or strophanthin, which should be injected subcutaneously in maximal doses. Alcohol, strychnine and warmth must also be employed. ACONTIUS (Gr. Akontios), in Greek legend, a beautiful youth of the island of Ceos, the hero of a love-story told byCallimachus in a poem now lost, which forms the subject of two of Ovid's Heroides (xx., xxi.). During the festival of Artemis at Delos, Acontius saw Cydippe, a well-born Athenian maiden of whom he was enamoured, sitting in the temple of the goddess. He wrote on an apple the words, " I swear by the sacred shrine of the goddess that I will marry you," and threw it at her feet. She picked it up, and mechanically read the words aloud, which amounted to a solemn undertaking to carry them out. Unaware of this, she treated Acontius with contempt; but, although she was betrothed more than once, she always fell ill before the wed- ding took place. The Delphic oracle at last declared the cause of her illnesses to be the wrath of the offended goddess; where- upon her father consented to her marriage with Acontius (Aris- taenetus, Epistolae, i. 10; Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses, i., tells the story with different names). ACORN, the fruit of the oak-tree; a word also used, by analogy with the shape, in nautical language, for a piece of wood keeping the vane on the mast-head. The etymology of the word (earlier akerne, and acharn) is well discussed in the New English Dictionary. It is derived from a word (Goth, akran) which meant " fruit," originally " of the unenclosed land," and so of the most important forest produce, the oak. Chaucer speaks of " achornes of okes." By degrees, popular etymology connected ACORUS CALAMUS— ACOUSTICS 153 the word both with " corn " and " oak-horn," and the spelling changed accordingly. ACORUS CALAMUS, sweet-sedge or sweet-flag, a plant of the natural order Araceae, which shares with the Cuckoo Pint (Arum) the representation in Britain of that order of Monocotyledons. The name is derived from acorus, Gr. ckopos, the classical name for the plant. It was the Calamus aromaticus of the medieval druggists and perhaps of the ancients, though the latter has been referred by some to the Citron grass, Andropogon Nardus. The spice " Calamus " or " Sweet-cane " of the Scrip- tures, one of the ingredients of the holy anointing oil of the Jews, was perhaps one of the fragrant species of A ndropogon. The plant is a herbaceous perennial with a long, branched root-stock creeping through the mud, about f inch thick, with short joints and large brownish leaf-scars. At the ends of the branches are tufts of flat, sword-like, sweet-scented leaves 3 or 4 ft. long and about an inch wide, closely arranged in two rows as in the true Flag (Iris); the tall, flowering stems (scapes), which very much resemble the leaves, bear an apparently lateral, blunt, tapering spike of densely packed, very small flowers. A long leaf (spathe) borne immediately below the spike forms an appar- ent continuation of the scape, though really a lateral outgrowth from it, the spike of flowers being terminal. The plant has a wide distribution, growing in wet situations in the Himalayas, North America, Siberia and various parts of Europe, including Eng- land, and has been naturalized in Scotland and Ireland. Though regarded as a native in most counties of England at the present day, where it is now found thoroughly wild on sides of ditches, ponds and rivers, and very abundantly in some districts, it is probably not indigenous. It seems to have been spread in western and central Europe from about the end of the 16th century by means of botanic gardens. The botanist Clusius (Charles de l'Escluse or Lecluse, 1526-1609) first cultivated it at Vienna from a root received from Asia Minor in 15 74, and distributed it to other botanists in central and western Europe, and it was probably introduced into England about 1596 by the herbalist Gerard. It is very readily propagated by means of its branch- ing root-stock. It has an agreeable odour, and has been used medicinally. The starchy matter contained in its rhizome is associated with a fragrant oil, and it is used as hair-powder. Sir J. E. Smith (Eng. Flora, ii. 158, 2nd ed., 1828) mentions it as a popular remedy in Norfolk for ague. In India it is used as an insectifuge, and is administered in infantile diarrhoea. It is an ingredient in pot-pourri, is employed for flavouring beer and is chewed to clear the voice; and its volatile oil is employed by makers of snuff and aromatic vinegar. The rhizome of Acorus Calamus is sometimes adulterated with that of Iris Pseudacorus, which, however, is distinguishable by its lack of odour, a stringent taste and dark colour. ACOSTA, JOSfi DE (iS39?-i6oo), Spanish author, was born at Medina del Campo about the year 1539. He joined the Jesuits in 1551, and in 1571 was sent as a missionary to Peru; he acted as provincial of his order from 1576 to 1581, was appointed theological adviser to the council of Lima in 1582, and in 1583 published a catechism in Quichua and Aymara — the first book printed in Peru. Returning to Spain in 1587, and placing him- self at the head of the opposition to Acquaviva, Acosta was im- prisoned in 1 592-1 593; on his submission in 1594 he became superior of the Jesuits at Valladolid, and in 1598 rector of the Jesuit college at Salamanca, where he died on the 15th of Feb- ruary 1600. His treatise De natura novi orbis libri duo (Sala- manca, 1 588-1 589) may be regarded as the preliminary draft of his celebrated Historia natural y moral de las Indias (Seville, 1500) which was speedily translated into Italian (1596), French (1597), Dutch (1598), German (1601), Latin (1602) and English (1604). The Historia is in three sections: books I. and II. deal with generalities; books III. and IV. with the physical geography and natural history of Mexico and Peru; books V., VI. and VII. with the religious and political institutions of the aborigines. Apart from his sophistical defence of Spanish colonial policy, Acosta deserves high praise as an acute and diligent observer whose numerous new and valuable data are set forth in a vivid style. Among his other publications are De procttranda salute Indorum libri sex (Salamanca, 1588), De Christo revelato libri novem (Rome, 1590), De temporibus novissimis libri quatuor (Rome, 1590), and three volumes of sermons issued respectively in 1596, 1597 and 1599. Authorities. — Tos6 R. Carricido, El P. Jose de Acosta y su imporlancia en la literatura cientifica espaMola (Madrid, 1899); C. Sommervogel, Bibliotheque de la Compagnie de Jesus, PremOre Partie (Brussels and Paris, 1890), vol. i., col. 31-42; and Edward Grimston's translation of the Historia reprinted (1880) for the Hakluyt Society with introduction and notes by Sir Clements R. Markham. (J. F.-K.) ACOSTA, URIEL (d. 1647), a Portuguese Jew of noble family, was born at Oporto towards the close of the 16th century. His father being a convert to Christianity, Uriel was brought up in the Roman Catholic faith, and strictly observed the rites of the church till the course of his inquiries led him, after much painful doubt, to abandon the religion of his youth for Judaism. Passing over to Amsterdam, he was received into the synagogue, having his name changed from Gabriel to Uriel. His wayward dis- position found, however, no satisfaction in the Jewish fold. He came into conflict with the authorities of the synagogue and was excommunicated. Unlike Spinoza (who was about fifteen at the time of Acosta 's death), Acosta was not strong enough to stand alone. Wearied by his melancholy isolation, he was driven to seek a return to the Jewish communion. Having re- canted his heresies, he was readmitted after an excommunication of fifteen years, but was soon excommunicated a second time. After seven years of exclusion, he once more sought admission, and, on passing through a humiliating penance, was again received. His vacillating autobiography, Exemplar Humanae Vitae, was published with a "refutation" by Limborch in 1687, and republished in 1847. In this brief work Acosta declares his opposition both to Christianity and Judaism, though he speaks with the more bitterness of the latter religion. The only authority which he admits is the lex naturae. Acosta was not an original thinker, but he stands in the direct line of the rational' Deists. His history forms the subject of a tale and of a tragedy by Gutzkow. Acosta committed suicide in 1647. The significance of his career has been much exaggerated. ACOTYLEDONES, the name given by Antoine Laurent de Jussieu in 1789 to the lowest class in his Natural System of Botany, embracing flowerless plants, such as ferns, lycopods, horse-tails, mosses, liverworts, sea-weeds, lichens and fungi. The name is derived from the absence of a seed-leaf or cotyledon. Flowering plants bear a seed containing an embryo, with usually one or two cotyledons, or seed-leaves; while in flowerless plants there is no seed and therefore no true cotyledon. The term is synonymous with Cryptogams, by which it was replaced in later systems of classification. ACOUSTICS (from the Gr. anobeiv to hear), a title frequently given to the science of sound, that is, to the description and theory of the phenomena which give rise to the sensation of sound (q.v.). The term " acoustics " might, however, with advantage be reserved for the aspect of the subject more im- mediately connected with hearing. Thus we may speak appro- priately of the acoustic quality of a room or hall, describing it as good or bad acoustically, according as speaking is heard in it easily or with difficulty. When a room has bad acoustic quality we can almost always assign the fault to large smooth surfaces on the walls, floor or ceiling, which reflect or echo the voice of the speaker so that the direct waves sent out by him at any instant are received by a hearer with the waves sent out previ- ously and reflected at these smooth surfaces. The syllables overlap, and the hearing is confused. The acoustic quality of a room may be improved by breaking up the smooth surfaces by curtains or by arrangement of furniture. The echo is then broken up into small waves, none of which may be sufficiently distinct to interfere with the direct voice. Sometimes a sound- ing-board over the head of a speaker improves the hearing probably by preventing echo from a smooth wall behind him. A large bare floor is undoubtedly bad for acoustics, for when a room is filled by an audience the hearing is much improved. 154 ACQUI— ACRE Wires are frequently stretched across a room overhead, probably with the idea that they will prevent the voice from reaching the roof and being reflected there, but there is no reason to suppose that they are efficient. The only cure appears to consist in breaking up the reflecting surfaces so that the reflexion shall be much less regular and distinct. Probably drapery assists by absorbing the sound to some extent, and thus it lessens the echo besides breaking it up. (J. H. P.) ACQUI, a city and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Alessandria; from the town of that name it is 21 m. S.S.W. by rail. Pop. (1901) 13,786. Its warm sulphur springs are still resorted to; under the name of Aquae Statiellae tlrey were famous in Roman times, and Paulus Diaconus and Liut- prand speak of the ancient bath establishment. In the neigh- bourhood of the town are remains of the aqueduct which sup- plied it. The place was connected by road with Alba Pompeia and Augusta Taurinorum. The tribe of the Statielli, to whom the district belonged, had joined the Romans at an early period, but was attacked in 173 and in part transferred to the north of the Po. The town possesses a fine Gothic cathedral. ACR£, or Aquiry, a river of Brazil and principal tributary of the Purus, rising on the Bolivian frontier and flowing easterly and northerly to a junction with the Purus at 8° 45' S. lat. The name is also applied to a district situated on the same river and on the^former (1867) boundary line between Bolivia and Brazil. The region, which abounds in valuable rubber forests, was settled by Bolivians between 1870 and 1878, but was in- vaded by Brazilian rubber collectors during the next decade and became tributary to the rubber markets of Manaos and Para. In 1899 the Bolivian government established a custom-house at Puerto Alonso, on the Acre river, for the collection of export duties on rubber, which precipitated a conflict with the Brazilian settlers and finally brought about a boundary dispute between the two republics. In July 1899 the Acreanos declared their independence and set up a republic of their own, but in the following March they were reduced to submission by Brazil. Various disorders followed until Brazil decided to occupy Puerto Alonso with a military force. The boundary dispute was finally settled at Petropolis on the 17 th of November 1903 through the purchase by Brazil of the rubber-producing territory south to about the nth parallel, estimated at more than 60,000 sq. m. ACRE, ' Akka, or St Jean d'Acre, the chief town of a govern- mental district of Palestine which includes Haifa, Nazareth and Tiberias. It stands on a low promontory at the northern ex- tremity of the Bay of Acre, 80 m. N. N.W. from Jerusalem, and 25 m. S. of Tyre. The population is about 11,000; 8000 being Moslems, the remainder Christians, Jews, &c. It was long regarded as the " Key of Palestine," on account of its command- ing position on the shore of the broad plain that joins the inland plain of Esdraelon, and so affords the easiest entrance to the interior of the country. But trade is now passing over to Haifa, at the south side of the bay, as its harbour offers a safer road- stead, and is a regular calling place for steamers. Business, rapidly declining, is still carried on in wheat, maize, oil, sesame, &c, in the town market. There are few buildings of interest, owing to the frequent destructions the town has undergone. The wall, which is now ruinous and has but one gate, dates from the crusaders: the mosque was built by Jezzar Pasha (d. 1804) from materials taken from Caesarea Palaestina: his tomb is within. Acre is the seat of the head of the Babist religion. History. — Few towns have had a more chequered or calami- tous history. Of great antiquity, it is probably to be identified with the 'Aak of the tribute-lists of Tethmosis (Thothmes) III. (c. 1500 B.C.), and it is certainly the Akka of the Tell el-Amarna correspondence. To the Hebrews it was known as Acco (Re- vised Version spelling), but it is mentioned only once in the Old Testament, namely Judges i. 31, as one of the places from which the Israelites did not drive out the Canaanite inhabitants. Theoretically it was in the territory of the tribe of Asher, and Josephus assigns it by name to the district of one of Solomon's provincial governors. Throughout the period of Hebrew domina- tion, however, its political connexions were always with Syria rather than with Palestine proper: thus, about 725 B.C. it joined Sidon and Tyre in a revolt against Shalmaneser IV. It had a stormy experience during the three centuries preceding the Christian era. The Greek historians name it Ake (Josephus calls it also Akre); but the name was changed to Ptolemais, probably by Ptolemy Soter, after the partition of the kingdom of Alexander. Strabo refers to the city as once a rendezvous for the Persians in their expeditions against Egypt. About 165 B.C. Simon Maccabaeus defeated the Syrians in many battles in Galilee, and drove them into Ptolemais. About 153 B.C. Alex- ander Balas, son of Antiochus Epiphanes, contesting the Syrian crown with Demetrius, seized the city, which opened its gates to him. Demetrius offered many bribes to the Maccabees to obtain Jewish support 'against his rival, including the revenues of Ptolemais for the benefit of the Temple, but in vain. Jonathan threw in his lot with Alexander, and in 150 B.C. he was received by him with great honour in Ptolemais. Some years later, however, Tryphon, an officer of the Syrians, who had grown suspicious of the Maccabees, enticed Jonathan into Ptolemais and there treacherously took him prisoner. The city was also assaulted and captured by Alexander Jannaeus, by Cleopatra and by Tigranes. Here Herod built a gymnasium, and here the Jews met Petronius, sent to set up statues of the emperor in the Temple, and persuaded him to turn back. St Paul spent a day in Ptolemais. The Arabs captured the city in a.d. 638, and lost it to the crusaders in n 10. The latter made the town their chief port in Palestine. It was re-taken by Saladin in 1187, besieged by Guy de Lusignan in 1189 (see below), and again captured by Richard Cceur de Lion in 1 191. In 1229 it was placed under the control of the knights of St John (whence one of its alternative names), but finally lost by the Franks in 1 291. The Turks under Sultan Seliml. captured the city in 151 7, after which it fell into almost. total decay. Maundrell in 1697 found it a complete ruin, save for a khan occupied by some French merchants, a mosque and a few poor cottages. Towards the end of the 18th century it seems to have revived under the comparatively beneficent rule of Dhahar el-Amir, the local sheikh: his successor, Jezzar Pasha, governor of Damascus, improved and fortified it, but by heavy imposts secured for him- self all the benefits derived from his improvements. About 1780 Jezzar peremptorily banished the French trading colony, in spite of protests from the French government, and refused to receive a consul. In 1799 Napoleon, in pursuance of his scheme for raising a Syrian rebellion against Turkish domination, ap- peared before Acre, but after a siege of two months (March-May) was repulsed by the Turks, aided by Sir W. Sidney Smith and a force of British sailors. Jezzar was succeeded on his death by his son Suleiman, under whose milder rule the town advanced in prosperity till 1831, when Ibrahim Pasha besieged and reduced the town and destroyed its buildings. On the 4th of November 1840 it was bombarded by the allied British, Austrian and French squadrons, and in the following year restored to Turkish rule. Battle of Acre. — The battle of 1189, fought on the ground to the east of Acre, affords a good example of battles of the Crusades. The crusading army under Guy of Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, which was besieging Acre, gave battle on the 4th of October 1189 to the relieving army which Saladin had collected. The Christian army consisted of the feudatories of the kingdom of Jerusalem, numerous small contingents of European crusaders and the military orders, and contingents from Egypt, Turkestan, Syria and Mesopotamia fought under Saladin. The Saracens lay in a semicircle east of the town facing inwards towards Acre. The Christians opposed them with crossbowmen in first line and the heavy cavalry in second. At Arsuf the Christians fought coherently; here the battle began with a disjointed combat between the Templars and Saladin's right wing. The crusaders were so far successful that the enemy had to send up reinforce- ments from other parts of the field. Thus the steady advance of the Christian centre against Saladin's own corps, in which the crossbows prepared the way for the charge of the men-at-arms, met with no great resistance. But the victors scattered to plunder. Saladin rallied his men, and, when the Christians ACRK— ACRON 155 began to retire with their booty, let loose his light horse upon them. No connected resistance was offered, and the Turks slaughtered the fugitives until checked by the fresh troops of the Christian right wing. Into this fight Guy's reserve, charged with holding back the Saracens in Acre, was also drawn, and, thus freed, 5000 men sallied out from the town to the north- ward; uniting with the Saracen right wing, they fell upon the Templars, who suffered severely in their retreat. In the end the crusaders repulsed the relieving army, but only at the cost of 7000 men. (R. A. S. M.) ACRE, a land measure used by English-speaking races. Derived from the Old Eng. acer and cognate with the Lat. ager, Gr. aypos, Sans, ajras, it has retained its original meaning " open country," in such phrases as " God's acre," or a church- yard, " broad acres," &c. As a measure of land, it was first defined as the amount a yoke of oxen could plough in a day; statutory values were enacted in England by acts of Edward I., Edward III., Henry VIII. and George IV., and the Weights and Measures Act 1878 now defines it as containing 4840 sq. yds. In addition to this " statute " or " imperial acre," other " acres " are still, though rarely, used in Scotland, Ireland, Wales and certain English counties. The Scottish acre con- tains 6150-4 sq. yds.; the Irish acre 7840 sq. yds.; in Wales, the land measures erw (4320 sq. yds.), slang (3240 sq. yds.) and paladr are called "acres"; the Leicestershire acre (2308J sq. yds.), Westmoreland acre (6760 sq. yds.) and Cheshire acre (10,240 sq. yds.) are examples of local values. ACRIDINE, C13H9N, in chemistry, a heterocyclic ring com- pound found in crude coal-tar anthracene. It may be separated by shaking out with dilute sulphuric acid, and then precipitating the sulphuric acid solution with potassium bichromate, the resulting acridine bichromate being decomposed by ammonia. It was first isolated in 1890 by C. Graebe and H. Caro {Ann., 1871, 158, p. 265). Many synthetic processes are known for the production of acridine and its derivatives. A. Bernthsen {Ann., 1884, 224, p. 1) condensed diphenylamine with fatty acids, in the presence of zinc chloride. Formic acid yields acridine, and the higher homologues give derivatives substituted at the meso carbon atom, N N' + HCOOH->C 6 H5/|\C 6 H 6 ->C6H4<|>C 6 H4 CHO CH N N + CH 3 COOH->C 6 H 6 /|\C 6 H5^>C 6 H 4 <|>C 6 H4 COCH 3 C(CH 3 ) Acridine may also be obtained by passing the vapour of phenyl- ortho-toluidine through a red-hot tube (C. Graebe, Ber., 1884, x 7> P- W ); by condensing diphenylamine with chloroform, in presence of aluminium chloride (0. Fischer, Ber., 1884, 17, p. 102) ; by passing the vapours of orthoaminodiphenylmethane over heated litharge (O. Fischer) ; by heating salicylic aldehyde with aniline and zinc chloride to 260 C. (R. Mohlau, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 2452) ; and by distilling acridone over zinc dust (C. Graebe, Ber., 1892, 25, p. 1735). Acridine and its homologues are very stable compounds of feebly basic character. They combine readily with the alkyl iodides to form alkyl acridinium iodides, which are readily trans- formed by the action of alkaline potassium ferricyanide to N-alkyl acridones. Acridine crystallizes in needles which melt at no° C. It is characterized by its irritating action on the skin, and by the blue fluorescence shown by solutions of its salts. On oxidation with potassium permanganate it yields acridinic acid (quinoline -o-/3-dicarboxylic acid) C 9 H 5 N(COOH)2. Numerous derivatives of acridine are known and may be prepared by methods analogous to those used for the formation of the parent base. For the preparation of the naphthacridines, see F.Ullmann, German Patents 117472, 118439, I2 7.586, 128754, and also Ber., 1902, 35, pp. 316, 2670. Phenyl-acridine is the parent base of chrysaniline, which is the chief constituent of the dye- stuff phosphine (a bye-product in the manufacture of rosaniline) . Chrysaniline (diamino-phenylacridine) forms red-coloured salts, CH 6 -NH-C 6 Hr which dye silk and wo61 a fine yellow; and the solutions of the salts are characterized by their fine yellowish-green fluorescence. It was synthesized by O. Fischer and G. Koerner (Ber., 1884, 17, p. 203) by condensing ortho-nitrobenzaldehyde with aniline, the resulting ortho-nitro-para-diamino-triphenylmethane being reduced to the corresponding orthoamino compound, which on oxidation yields chrysaniline. Benzoflavin, an isomer of chrys- aniline, is. also a dye-stuff, and has been prepared by K. Oehler (English Patent96i4)from meta-phenylenediamine and benzalde- hyde. These substances condense to form tetra-aminotriphenyl- methane, which, on heating with acids, loses ammonia and yields diaminodihydrophenylacridine, from which benzoflavin is ob- tained by oxidation. It is a yellow powder, soluble in hot water. The formulae of these substances are: — /\/N\/\ NH 2 H 2 N /\c NH, Chrysaniline. /\/N\/\ Ml \/\ c /\/ 1 /\ u Benzoflavin. NH 2 ACRO (or Acron), HELENIUS, Roman grammarian and com- mentator, probably flourished at the end of the 2nd century a.d. He wrote commentaries on Terence and perhaps Persius. A collection of scholia on Horace, originally anonymous in the earlier MSS., and on the whole not of great value, was wrongly attributed to him at a much later date, probably during the 15th century. It has been published by Pauly (1861) and Hauthal (1866), together with the other Horace scholia. See Pseudoacronis Scholia in Horatium Vetusliora, ed. O. Keller (1902-1904). ACROBAT (Gr. &.Kpoj3aTetv, to walk on tiptoe), originally a rope-dancer; the word is now used generally to cover pro- fessional performers on the trapeze, &c, contortionists, balancers and tumblers. Evidence exists that there were very skilful performers on the tight-rope (funambuli) among the ancient Romans. Modern rope-walkers {e.g. Blondin) or wire-dancers generally use a pole, loaded at the ends, or some such assistance in balancing, and by shifting this are enabled to maintain, or readily to recover, their equilibrium. ACROGENAE (" growing at the apex "), an obsolete botanical term, originally applied to the higher Cryptogams (mosses and ferns), which were erroneously distinguished from the lower (Algae and Fungi) by apical growth of the stem. The lower Cryptogams were contrasted as Amphigenae (" growing all over "), a misnomer, as apical growth is common 'among them. ACROLITHS (Gr. anpokidoi, i.e. ending in stone), statues of a transition period in the history of plastic art, in which the trunk of the figure was of wood, and the head, hands and feet of marble. The wood was concealed either by gilding or, more commonly, by drapery, and the marble parts alone were exposed. Acroliths are frequently mentioned by Pausanias, the best known specimen being the Athene Areia of the Plataeans. ACROMEGALY, the name given to a disease characterized by a true hypertrophy (an overgrowth involving both bony and soft parts) of the terminal parts of the body, especially of the face and extremities (Gr. anpov, point, and fxeyas, large). It is more frequent in the female sex, between the ages of 25 and 40. Its causation is generally associated with disturbances in the pituitary gland, and an extract of this body has been tried in the treatment, as one of the recent developments in organo- therapeutics; thyroid extract has also been used, but without marked success, on the apparent analogy of acromegaly with myxoedema. ACRON, a Greek physician, born at Agrigentum in Sicily, was contemporary with Empedocles, and must therefore have lived in the 5 th century before Christ. The successful measure of lighting large fires, and purifying the air with perfumes, to put a stop to the plague in Athens (430 B.C.), is said to have origin- ated with him; but this has been questioned on chronological i 5 6 ACROPOLIS— ACT grounds. Suidas gives the titles of several medical works written by him in the Doric dialect. ACROPOLIS (Gr. a/cpos, top, ir6Xts, city), literally the upper part of a town. For purposes of defence early settlers naturally chose elevated ground, frequently a hill with precipitous sides, and these early citadels became in many parts of the world the nuclei of large cities which grew up on the surrounding lower ground. The word Acropolis, though Greek in origin and asso- ciated primarily with Greek towns (Athens, Argos, Thebes, Corinth) , may be applied generically to all such citadels (Rome, Jerusalem, many in Asia Minor, or even Castle Hill at Edin- burgh). The most famous is that of Athens, which, by reason of its historical associations and the famous buildings erected upon it, is generally known without qualification as the Acropolis (see Athens). ACROPOLlTA (AkropolItes), GEORGE (1217-1282), Byzan- tine historian and statesman, was born at Constantinople. At an early age he was sent by his father to the court of John Ducas Batatzes (Vatatzes), emperor of Nicaea, by whom and by his successors (Theodorus II. Lascaris and Michael VIII. Palaeo- logus) he was entrusted with important state missions. The office of " great logothete " or chancellor was bestowed upon him in 1244. As commander in the field in 1257 against Michael Angelus, despot of Epirus, he showed little military capacity. He was captured and kept for two years in prison, from which he was released by Michael Palaeologus. Acropolita's most important political task was that of effecting a reconciliation between the Greek and Latin Churches, to which he had been formerly opposed. In 1273 he was sent to Pope Gregory X., and in the following year, at the council of Lyons, in the emperor's name he recognized the spiritual supremacy of Rome. In 1282 he was sent on an embassy to John IL, emperor of Trebizond, and died in the same year soon after his return. His historical work (XpowKi) Xvyy pa4>ri, Annates) embraces the period from the capture of Constantinople by the Latins (1204) to its recovery by Michael Palaeologus (1261), thus forming a con- tinuation of the work of Nicetas Acominatus. It is valuable as written by a contemporary, whose official position as great logothete, military commander and confidential ambassador afforded him frequent opportunities of observing the course of events. Acropolita is considered a trustworthy authority as far as the statement of facts is concerned, and he is easy to under- stand, although he exhibits special carelessness in the construc- tion of his sentences. He was also the author of several shorter works, amongst them being a funeral oration on John Batatzes, an epitaph on his wife Eirene and a panegyric of Theodorus II. Lascaris of Nicaea. While a prisoner at Epirus he wrote two treatises on the procession of the Holy Ghost ('Einropawis, Pro- cessio Spirilus Sancti). Editio princeps by Leo Allatius (1651), 'with the editor's famous treatise De Georgiis eorumque Scriptis; editions in the Bonn Corpus Scriptorum Hist. Byz., by I. Bekker (1836), and Migne, Patrologia Graeca, cxl.; in the Teubner series by A. Heisenberg (1903), the second volume of which contains a full life, with bibliography; see also C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897). ACROSTIC (Gr. cUpos, at the end, and ot'lxos, line or verse) , a short verse composition, so constructed that the initial letters of the lines, taken consecutively, form words. The fancy for writing acrostics is of great antiquity, having been common among the Greeks of the Alexandrine period, as well as with the Latin writers since Ennius and Plautus, many of the argu- ments of whose plays were written with acrostics on their respec- tive titles. One of the most remarkable acrostics was contained in the verses cited by Lactantius and Eusebius in the 4th century, and attributed to the Erythraean sibyl, the initial letters of which form the words T^crous Xpurros Qeov wos ol, the Brothers. The site presented attractive possibilities. A steep hill led down Buckingham Street to the river-side, and the plan was to raise against it, upon a terrace formed of massive arches and vaults and facing the river, a dignified quarter of fine streets and stately buildings, suggestive of the Spalato ruins. In spite of many difficulties, pecuniary and otherwise (the undertaking was completed from the proceeds of a lottery), money was raised and the work pushed on; in five years the Adelphi terrace stood complete, and the fine houses were eagerly sought after by artists and men of letters. Splendid, however, as the terrace and its houses are, both in conception and execution, the underground work which upholds them is perhaps more remarkable still. The vast series of arched vaults has been described by a modern writer as a very town, which, during the years that they were open, formed subterranean streets leading to the river and its wharves. In many places the arches stand in double tiers. In time these " streets " obtained a bad name as the haunt of suspicious characters, and they have long been enclosed and let as cellars. Between 1773 and 1778 the brothers issued a fine series of folio engravings and descriptions of the designs for many of their most important works, which included several great public buildings and numberless large private houses; a fine volume was published in 1822. For the remain- ing years of Robert's life the practice of the firm was the most extensive in the country; his position was unquestioned, and when he died in 1792 he was laid to rest in Westminster Abbey almost as a matter of course. The art of Robert Adam was extraordinarily many-sided and prolific, and it is difficult to give a condensed appreciation of it. As an architect he was strongly under Roman and Italian in- fluences, and his style and aims were exotic rather than native. But this does not detract from their merit, nor need it diminish our estimate of his genius. It was, indeed, the most signal triumph of that genius that he was able so to mould and adapt classical models as to create a new manner of the highest charm and distinction. Out of simple curvilinear farms, of which he principally preferred the oval, he evolved combinations of extra- ordinary grace and variety, and these entered into every detail of his work. In his view the architect was intimately concerned with the furniture and the decorations of a building, as - well as with its form and construction, and this view he carried rigor- ously into practice, and with astonishing success. Nothing was too small and unimportant for him — summer-houses and dog- kennels came as readily to him as the vast facades of a terrace in town or a great country house. But he never permitted minute details to obscure the main lines of a noble design. Whatever care he might have expended upon the flowing curves of a moulding or a decoration, it was strictly kept in its place; it contributed its share and no more to the total effect. He made a distinct step forward in giving shape to the idea of imparting the unity of a single imposing structure to a number of private bouses grouped in a block which is so characteristic a feature of modern town building, and though at times he failed in the breadth of grasp needful to carry out such an idea on a large scale, he has left us some fine examples of what can be accom- plished in this direction. A delightful but theoretically Unde- sirable characteristic of his work is the use of stucco. Upon it he moulded delicate forms in subtle and beautiful proportions. His " compo " was used so successfully that the patent was in- fringed: many of his moulds still exist and are in constant use. That most difficult feature, the column, he handled with enthusi- asm and perfect mastery; he studied and wrote of it with minute pains, while his practice showed his grasp of the subject by all avoidance of bare imitation of the classic masters who first brought it to perfection. His work might be classic in form, but it was independently developed by himself. It would be im- possible here to give a list of the innumerable works which he executed. In London, of course, the Adelphi stands pre-emi- nent; the screen and gate of the Admiralty and part of Fitzroy Square are by him, Portland Place, and much of the older portion of Finsbury Circus, besides whole streets of houses in the west end. There are the famous country houses of Lord Mansfield at Caen Wood, Highgate and Luton Hoo, and decora- tions and additions to many more. Robert Adam — with, there is reason to suspect, some help from his brother James — has left as deep and enduring a mark upon English furniture as upon English architecture. Down to his time carving was the dominant characteristic of the mobiliary art, but thenceforward the wood-worker declined in importance. French influence disposed Robert Adam to the development of painted furniture with inlays of beautiful exotic woods, and many of his designs, especially for sideboards, are extremely attractive, mainly by reason of their austere simplicity. Robert Adam was no doubt at first led to turn his thoughts towards furniture by his desire to see his light, delicate, graceful interiors, with their large sense of atmosphere and their refined and finished detail, filled with plenishings which fitted naturally into his scheme. His own taste developed as he went on, but he was usually extremely successful, and cabinetmakers are still reproducing his most effective designs. In his furniture he made lavish use of his favourite decorative motives — wreaths and paterae, the honey- suckle, and that fan ornament which he used so constantly. Thus an Adam house is a unique product of English art. From fagade to fire-irons, from the chimneys to the ca'rpets, every- thing originated in the same order of ideas, and to this day an Adam drawing-room is to English what a Louis Seize room is to French art. In nothing were the Adams more successful than in mantelpieces and doors.' The former, by reason of their simplicity and the readiness with which the " compo " orna- ments can be applied and painted, are still made in cheap forms in great number. The latter were most commonly executed in a rich mahogany and are now greatly sought after. The extent to which the brothers worked together is by no means clear — indeed, there is an astonishing dearth of information regarding this remarkable family, and it is a reproach to English art litera- ture that no biography of Robert Adam has ever been published. John Adam succeeded to his father's practice as an architect in Edinburgh. James Adam studied in Rome, and eventually was closely associated with Robert; William is variously said to have been a banker and an architect. (J. P.-B.) ADAH, WILLIAM (1751-1839), British lawyer and politician, eldest son of John Adam of Blair-Adam, Kinross-shire, and nephew of the architect noticed above, was born on the 2nd of August 1751, studied at the universities of Edinburgh and Glasgow, and passed at the Scottish bar in 1773. Soon after- wards he removed to England, where he entered parliament in 1774, and in 1782 was called to the common law bar. He withdrew from parliament in 1795, entered it again in 1806 as representative of the united counties of Clackmannan and Kinross, and continued a member, with some interruptions, till 181 1. He was a Whig and a supporter of the policy of Fox. At the English bar he obtained a very considerable practice. He was successively attorney and solicitor-general to the prince of Wales, one of the managers of the impeachment of Warren Hastings, and one of the counsel who defended the first Lord Melville when impeached. During his party's brief tenure of office in 1806 he was chancellor of the duchy of Cornwall, and 174 ADAMANT— ADAMS was afterwards a privy councillor and lord-lieutenant of Kinross- shire. In 1814 he became a baron of Exchequer in Scotland, and was chief commissioner of the newly established jury-court for the trial of civil causes, from 1815 to 1830, when it was merged in the permanent supreme tribunal. He died at Edinburgh on the 17th of February 1839. ADAMANT (from Gr. aSa/ias, untameable), the modern diamond (q.v.), but also a name given to any very hard substance. The Greek word is used by Homer as a personal epithet, and by Hesiod for the hard metal in armour, while Theophrastus applies it to the hardest crystal. By an etymological confusion with the Lat. adamare, to have an attraction for, it also came to be associated with the loadstone; but since the term was displaced by " diamond " it has had only a figurative and poetical use. ADAMAWA, a country of West Africa, which lies roughly between 6° and 11° N., and n° and 15 E., about midway between the Bight of Biafra and Lake Chad. It is now divided between the British protectorate of Nigeria (which includes the chief town Yola, q.v.) and the German colony of Cameroon. This region is watered by the Benue, the chief affluent of the Niger, and its tributary the Faro. Another stream, the Yedseram, flows north-east to Lake Chad. The most fertile parts of the country are the plains near the Benue, about 800 ft. above the sea. South and east of the river the land rises to an elevation of 1600 ft., a"nd is diversified by numerous hills and groups of mountains. These ranges contain remarkable rock formations, towers, battlements and pinnacles crowning the hills. Chief of these formations is a gigantic pillar some 450 ft. high and 150 ft. thick at the base. It stands on the summit of a high conical hill. Mount Alantika, about 25 miles south-south-east of Yola, rises from the plain, an isolated granite mass, to the height of 6000 ft. The country, which is very fertile and is covered with luxuriant herbage, has many villages and a considerable popu- lation. Durra, ground-nuts, yams and cotton are the principal products, and the palm and banana abound. Elephants are numerous and ivory is exported. In the eastern part of the country the rhinoceros is met with, and the rivers swarm with crocodiles and with a curious mammal called the ayu, bearing some resemblance to the seal. Adamawa is named after a Fula Emir Adama, who in the early years of the 19th century conquered the country. To the Hausa and Bornuese it was previously known as Fumbina (or South- land). The inhabitants are mainly pure negroes such as the Durra, Batta and Dekka, speaking different languages, and all fetish-worshippers. They are often of a very low type, and some of the tribes are cannibals. Slave-trading was still active among them in the early years of the 20th century. The Fula (q.v.), who first came into the country about the 15th century as nomad herdsmen, are found chiefly in the valleys, the pagan tribes holding the mountainous districts. There are also in the country numbers of Hausa, who are chiefly traders, as well as Arabs and Kanuri from Bornu. The emir of Yola, in the period of Fula lord- ship, claimed rights of suzerainty over the whole of Adamawa, but the country, since the subjection of the Fula (c. 1900), has consisted of a number of small states under the control of the British and Germans. Garua on the upper Benue, 65 m. east of Yola, is the headquarters of the German administration for the region and the chief trade centre in the north of Adamawa. Yoko is one of the principal towns in the south of the country, and in the centre is the important town of Ngaundere. After Heinrich Barth, who explored the country in 1851, the first traveller to penetrate Adamawa was the German, E. R. Flegel (1882). It has since been traversed by many expeditions, notably that of Baron von Uechtritz and Dr Siegfried Passarge (1893-1894). An interesting account of Adamawa, its peoples and history, is given by Heinrich Barth in his Travels in North and Central Africa (new edition, London, 1890), and later information is contained in S. Passarge's Adamawa (Berlin, 1895). (See also Cameroon and Nigeria, and the bibliographies there given.) ADAMITES, or Adamians, a sect of heretics that flourished in North Africa in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Basing itself prob- ably on a union of certain gnostic and ascetic doctrines, this sect pretended that its members were re-established in Adam's state of original inhocency. They accordingly rejected the form of marriage, which, they said, would never have existed but for sin, and lived in absolute lawlessness, holding that, whatever they did, their actions could be neither good nor bad. During the middle ages the doctrines of this obscure sect, which did not itself exist long, were revived in Europe by the Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit. ADAMNAN, or Adomnan (c. 624-704), Irish saint and historian, was born at Raphoe, Donegal, Ireland, about the year 624. In 679 he was elected abbot of Hy or Iona, being ninth in succession from the founder, St Columba. While on a mission to the court of King Aldfrith of Northumberland in 686, he was led to adopt the Roman rules with regard to the time for celebrating Easter and the tonsure, and on his return to Iona he tried without success to enforce the change upon the monks. He died on the 23rd of September 704. Adamnan wrote a Life of St Columba, which, though abounding in fabulous matter, is of great interest and value. The best editions are those published by W. Reeves (1857, new edit. Edinburgh, 1874) and by J. T. Fowler (Oxford, 1894). Adamnan's other well-known work, De Locis Sanctis (edited by P. Geyer, Itinera Hierosolymitana saeculi, iii.-viii., &c, 1898; vol. 39 of Bienna Corpus Script. Ecc. Latin) was based, according to Bede, on information received from Arculf, a French bishop, who, on his return from the Holy Land, was wrecked on the west coast of Britain, and was enter- tained for a time at Iona. This was first published at Ingolstadt in 1619 by J. Gretser, who also defended Baronius' acceptance of Arculf's narrative against Casaubon. An English translation by G. J. R. Macpherson, Arculf us' Pilgrimage in the Holy Land, was published by the Pilgrim's Text Society (London, 1889). For full bibliography see U. Chevalier, Reperl. des sources historiques (1903), p. 40. ADAMS, ANDREW LEITH (1827-1882), Scottish naturalist and palaeontologist, the second son of Francis Adams of Ban- chory, Aberdeen, was born on the 21st of March 1827, and was educated to the medical profession. As surgeon in the Army Medical Department from 1848 to 1873, he utilized his oppor- tunities for the study of natural history in India and Kashmir, in Egypt, Malta, Gibraltar and Canada. His observations on the fossil vertebrata of the Maltese Islands led him eventually to give special study to fossil elephants, on which he became an ac- knowledged authority. In 1872 he was elected F.R.S. In 1873 he was chosen professor of zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin, and in 1878 professor of natural history in Queen's College, Cork, a post which he held until the close of his life. He died at Queenstown on the 29th of July 1882. Publications. — Notes of a Naturalist in the Nile Valley andMalta (London, 1870); other works of travel; Monograph on the British Fossil Elephants (Palaeontographical Soc), (London. 1877-1881). ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS (1807-1886), American diplo- matist, son of John Quincy Adams, and grandson of John Adams, was born in Boston on the 18th of August 1807. His father, having been appointed minister to Russia, took him in 1809 to St Petersburg, where he acquired a perfect familiarity with French, learning it as his native tongue. After eight years spent in Russia and England, he attended the Boston Latin School for four years, and in 1825 graduated at Harvard. He lived two years in the executive mansion, Washington, during his father's presidential term, studying law and moving in a society where he met Webster, Clay, Jackson and Randolph. Returning to Boston, he devoted ten years to business and study, and wrote for the North American Rediew. He also undertook the management of his father's pecuniary affairs, and actively supported him in his contest in the House of Representatives for the right of petition and the anti-slavery cause. In 1835 he wrote an effective and widely read political pamphlet, entitled, after Edmund Burke's more famous work, An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs. He was a member of the Massachusetts general court from 1840 to 1845,. sitting for three years in the House of Representatives and for two years in the Senate;' and in 1846-1848 he edited a party journal, the Boston Whig. In 1848 he was prominent in politics as a " Conscience Whig," ADAMS r 75 presiding over the Buffalo Convention which formed the Free Soil party and nominated Martin Van Buren for president and himself for vice-president. He was a Republican member of the Thirty-Sixth Congress, which assembled on the 5th of December 1859, and during the second session, from the 3rd of December i860 to the 4th of March 1861, he represented Massa- chusetts in the Congressional Committee of Thirty-three at the time of the secession of seven of the Southern states. His selec- tion by the chairman of this committee, Thomas Corwin, to present to the full committee certain propositions agreed upon by two-thirds of the Republican members, and his calm and able speech of the 31st of January 1861 in the House, served to make him conspicuous before congress and the country. Together with William H. Seward, he stood for the Republican policy of concession; and, while he was criticized severely and. charged with inconsistency in view of his record as a "Conscience Whig," he was of the same mind as President Lincoln, willing to con- cede non-essentials, but holding rigidly to the principle, properly understood, that there must be no extension of slavery. He believed that as the Republicans were the victors they ought to show a spirit of conciliation, and that the policy of righteousness was likewise one of expediency, since it would have for its result the holding of the border slave states with the North until the 4th of March, when the Republicans could take possession of the government atj Washington. With the incoming of the new administration Secretary Seward secured for Adams the appoint- ment of minister to Great Britain. So much sympathy was shown in England for the South that his path was beset with difficulties ; but his mission was to prevent the interference of Great Britain in the struggle; and while the work of Lincoln, Seward and Sumner, and the cause of emancipation, tended to this end, the American minister was insistent and unyielding, and knew how to present his case forcibly and with dignity. He laboured with energy and discretion to prevent the sailing of the "Alabama "; and, when unsuccessful in this, he persistently urged upon the British government its responsibility for the destruction of American merchant vessels by the privateer. In his own diary he shows that underneath his calm exterior were serious trouble and keen anxiety; and, in fact, the strain which he underwent during the Civil War made itself felt in later years. Adams was instrumental in getting Lord John Russell to stop the "Alexandra," and it was his industry and pertinacity in argument and remonstrance that induced Russell to order the detention in September 1863 of the two ironclad rams in- tended for the Confederate States. Adams remained in Eng- land until May 1868. His last important work was as a member, in 1871-1872, of the tribunal of arbitration at Geneva which dis- posed of the "Alabama" claims. His knowledge of the subject and his fairness of mind enabled him to render his country and the cause of international arbitration valuable service. He died at Boston on the 21st of November 1886. He edited the works of John Adams (10 vols., 1850-1856), and the Memoirs 0} John Quincy Adams (i2vo\s., 1874-1877). See the excellent biography (Boston, 1900), in the "American Statesmen Series," by his son, Charles Francis Adams, Jr. (J. F. R.) ADAMS, HENRY (1838- ), American historian, son of Charles Francis Adams and grandson of John Quincy Adams, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 16th of February 1838. He graduated at Harvard in 1858, and from 1861 to 1868 was private secretary to his father. From 1870 to 1877 he was assistant professor of history at Harvard and from 1870 to 1876 was editor of the North American Review. He is considered to have been the first (in 1874-1876) to conduct historical seminary work in the United States. His great work is his History of the United States (1801 to 1817) (9 vols., 1889-1891), which is incom- parably the best work yet published dealing with the administra- tions of Presidents Jefferson and Madison. It is particularly notable for its account of the diplomatic relations of the United States during this period, and for its essential impartiality. Adams also published : Life of Albert Gallatin (1879), John Randolph (1882) in the "American Statesmen Series," and Historical Essays (1891) ; besides editing Documents Relating to New England Federalism (1877), and the Writings of Albert Gallatin (3 volumes, 1879). In collaboration with his elder brother Charles Francis Adams, Jr., he published Chapters of Erie and Other Essays (1871), and, with H. C. Lodge, Ernest Young and J. L. Laughlin, Essays in Anglo-Saxon Law {xS^6). His elder brother, John Quincy Adams (1833-1894), a graduate of Harvard (1853), practised law, and was a Demo- cratic member for several terms of the Massachusetts general court. In 1872 he was nominated for vice-president by the Democratic faction that refused to support Horace Greeley. Another brother, Charles Francis Adams, Jr. (1835- ), born in Boston on the 27th of May 1835, graduated at Harvard in 1856, and served on the Union side in the Civil War, receiving in 1865 the brevet of brigadier-general in the regular army. He was president of the Union Pacific railroad from 1884 to 1890, having previously become widely known as an authority on the management of railways. In 1900-1901 he was president of the American Historical Association. Among his writings are : Railroads, Their Origin and Problems (1878); Three Episodes of Massachusetts History (1892) ; a biography of his father, Charles Francis Adams (1900) ; Lee at Appomattox and Other Papers (1902) ; Theodore Lyman and Robert Charles Winthrop, Jr., Two Memoirs (1906) ; and Three Phi Beta Kappa Addresses (1907). Another brother, Brooks Adams (1848- ), born in Quincy, Massachusetts, on the 24th of June 1848, graduated at Harvard in 1870, and until 1881 practised law. His writings include : The Emancipation of Massachusetts (1887) ; The Law of Civiliza- tion and Decay (1895) ; America's Economic Supremacy (1900) ; and The New Empire (1902). ADAMS, HENRY CARTER (1852- ), American economist, was born at Davenport, Iowa, on the 31st of December 1852. He was educated at Iowa College and Johns Hopkins University, of which latter he was fellow and lecturer (1880- 188 2). He was afterwards a lecturer in Cornell University, and in 1887 became professor of political economy and finance in the university of Michigan. He also became statistician to the Interstate Com- merce Committee and was in charge of the transportation department in the' 1900 census. His principal works are The State in Relation to Industrial Action (1887); Taxation in the United States, 1787 to 1816 (1884) ; Public Debts (1887) ; The Science of Finance (1888) ; Economics and Jurisprudence (1897). ADAMS, HERBERT (1858- ), American sculptor, was .born at West Concord, Vermont, on the 28th of January 1858. He was educated at the Worcester (Massachusetts) Institute of Technology, and at the Massachusetts Normal Art School, and in 1885-1890 he was a pupil of Antonin Mercie in Paris. In 1890- 1898 he was an instructor in the art school of Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, New York. In 1906 he was elected vice-president of the National Academy of Design, New York. He experi- mented successfully with some polychrome busts and tinted marbles, notably in the "Rabbi's Daughter" and a portrait of Miss Julia Marlowe, the actress ; and he is at his best in his portrait busts of women, the best example being the study, completed in 1887, of Miss A. V. Pond, whom he afterwards married. Among his other productions are a fountain for Fitch- burg, Massachusetts (1888) ; a number of works for the Con- gressional Library, Washington, including the bronze doors ("Writing ") begun by Olin Warner, and the statue of Professor Joseph Henry ; memorial tablets for the Boston State House ; a memorial to Jonathan Edwards, at Northampton, Mass.. - statues of Richard Smith, the type-founder, in Philadelphia, and of William Ellery Channing, in Boston (1902) ; and the Vanderbilt memorial bronze doors for St Bartholomew's Church, New York. ADAMS, HERBERT BAXTER (1850-1901), American his- torian and educationalist, was born at Shutesbury (near Amherst), Massachusetts, on the 16th of April 1850. He graduated at Amherst, at the head of his class, in 1872 ; and between 1873 and 1876 he studied political science, history and economics at Gottingen, Berlin and Heidelberg, Germany, re- ceiving the degree of Ph,D,at Heidelberg in 1876, with the highest 176 ADAMS honours (summa cum laude). From 1876 almost until his death he was connected with the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, being in turn a fellow, an associate in history (1878- 1883), an associate professor (1883-1891) and after 1891 pro- fessor of American and institutional history. In addition he was lecturer on history in Smith College, Northampton, Massa- chusetts, in 1 8 78-1 88 1, and for many years took an active part in Chautauqua work. In 1884, also, he was one of the founders of the American Historical Association, of which he was secretary until 1000. In 1882 he founded the " Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science," and at the time of his death some forty volumes had been issued under his editorship. After 1887 he also edited for the United States Bureau of Educa- tion the series of monographs entitled " Contributions to Ameri- can Educational History," he himself preparing the College of William and Mary (1887), and Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia (1888). It was as a teacher, however, that Adams rendered his most valuable services, and many American his- torical scholars owe their training and to a considerable extent their enthusiasm to him. He died at Amherst, Massachusetts, on the 30th of July 1901. In addition to the monographs mentioned above, he published: Maryland's Influence in Founding a National Commonwealth (1877); Methods of Historical Study (1884); Maryland's Influence upon Land Cessions to the United States (1885); and the Life and Writings of Jared Sparks (2 vols., Boston, 1893), his most important work. See Herbert B. Adams: Tributes of Friends (Baltimore, 1902), extra volume (xxiii.) of "Studies in Historical and Political Science." ADAMS, JOHN (1735-1826), second president of the United States of America, was born on the 30th of October 1735 in what is now the town of Quincy, Massachusetts. His father, a farmer, also named John, was of the fourth generation in descent from Henry Adams, who emigrated from Devonshire, England, to Massachusetts about 1636; his mother was Susanna Boylston Adams. Young Adams graduated from Harvard College in 1755, and for a time taught school at Worcester and studied law in the office of Rufus Putnam. In 1758 he was admitted to the bar. From an early age he developed the habit of writing descriptions of events and impressions of men. The earliest of these is his report of the argument of James Otis in the superior court of Massachusetts as to the constitutionality of writs of assistance. This was in 1761, and the argument inspired him with zeal for the cause of the American colonies. Years afterwards, when an old man, Adams undertook to write out at length his recollections of this scene; it is instructive ta compare the two accounts. John Adams had none of the qualities of popular leadership which were so marked a characteristic of his second cousin, Samuel Adams; it was rather as a constitutional lawyer that he influenced the course of events. He was impetuous, intense and often vehement, unflinchingly courageous, devoted with his whole soul to the cause he had espoused; but his vanity, his pride of opinion and his inborn contentiousness were serious handicaps to him in his political career. These qualities were particularly manifested at a later period — as, for example, during his term as president. He first made his influence widely felt and became conspicuous as a leader of the Massachusetts Whigs during the discussions with regard to the Stamp Act of 1765. In that year he drafted the instructions which were sent by the town of Braintree to its representatives in the Massachusetts legislature, and which served as a model for other towns in draw- ing up instructions to their representatives; in August 1765 he contributed anonymously four notable articles to the Boston Gazette (republished separately in London in 1768 as A Disser- tation on the Canon and Feudal Law) , in which he argued that the opposition of the colonies to the Stamp Act was a part of the never-ending struggle between individualism and corporate authority; and in December 1765 he delivered a speech before the governor and council in which he pronounced the Stamp Act invalid on the ground that Massachusetts being without representation in parliament, had not assented to it. In 1768 he removed to Boston. Two years later, with that degree of moral courage which was one of his distinguishing characteristics, as it has been of his descendants, he, aided by Josiah Quincy, Jr., defended the British soldiers who were arrested after the "Boston Massacre," charged with causing the death of four persons, in- habitants of the colony. The trial resulted in an acquittal of the officer who commanded the detachment, and most of the soldiers; but two soldiers were found guilty of manslaughter. These claimed benefit of clergy and were branded in the hand and released. Adams's upright and patriotic conduct in taking the unpopular side in this case met with its just reward in the follow- ing year, in the shape of his election to the Massachusetts House of Representatives by a vote of 418 to 118. John Adams was a member of the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1778. In June 1775, with a view to promoting the union of the colonies, he seconded the nomination of Washington as commander-in-chief of the army. His influence in congress was great, and almost from the beginning he was impatient for a separation of the colonies from Great Britain. On the 7 th of June 1776 he seconded the famous resolution introduced by Richard Henry Lee (q.v .) that " these colonies are, and of a right ought to be, free and independent states," and no man championed these resolutions (adopted on the 2nd of July) so eloquently and effectively before the congress. On the 8th of June he was appointed on a committee with Jefferson, Franklin, Livingston and Sherman to draft a Declaration of Independence; and although that document was by the request of the committee written by Thomas Jefferson, it was John Adams who occupied the foremost place in the debate on its adoption. Before this question had been disposed of, Adams was placed at the head of the Board of War and Ordnance, and he also served on many other important committees. In 1778 John Adams sailed for France to supersede Silas Deane in the American commission there. But just as he em- barked that commission concluded the desired treaty of alliance, and soon after his arrival he advised that the number of com- missioners be reduced to one. His advice was followed and he returned home in time to be elected a member of the convention which framed the Massachusetts constitution of 1780, still the organic law of that commonwealth. With James Bowdoin and Samuel Adams, he formed a sub-committee which drew up the first draft of that instrument, and most of it probably came from John Adams's pen. Before this work had been completed he was again sent to Europe, having been chosen on the 27th of September 1779 as minister plenipotentiary for negotiating a treaty of peace and a treaty of commerce with Great Britain. Conditions were not then favourable for peace, however; the French government, moreover, did not approve of the choice, inasmuch as Adams was not sufficiently pliant and tractable and was from the first suspicious of Vergennes; and subse- quently Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Jay and Henry Laurens were appointed to co-operate with Adams. Jefferson, however, did not cross the Atlantic, and Laurens took little part in the negotiations. This left the management of the business to the other three. Jay and Adams distrusted the good faith of the French government. Outvoting Franklin, they decided to break their instructions, which required them to 'make the most candid confidential communications on all subjects to the ministers of our generous ally, the king of France; to undertake nothing in the negotiations for peace or truce without their knowledge or concurrence; and ultimately to govern yourself by their advice and opinion"; and, instead, they dealt directly with the British commissioners, without con- sulting the French ministers. Throughout the negotiations Adams was especially determined that the right of the United States to the fisheries along the British-American coast should be recognized. Political conditions in Great Britain, at the moment, made the conclusion of peace almost a necessity with the British ministry, and eventually the American negotiators were able to secure a peculiarly favourable treaty. This preliminary treaty was signed on the 30th of November 1782. Before these negotiations began, Adams had spent some time in the Nether- lands. In July 1780 he had been authorized to execute the ADAMS 177 duties previously assigned to Henry Laurens, and at the Hague was eminently successful, securing there recognition of the United States as an independent government (April 19, 1782), and negotiating both a loan and, in October 1782, a treaty of amity and commerce, the first of such treaties between the United States and foreign powers after that of February 1778 with France. In 1785 John Adams was appointed the first of a long line of able and distinguished American ministers to the court of St James's. When he was presented to his former sovereign, George III. intimated that he was aware of Mr Adams's lack of confidence in the French government. Replying, Mr Adams ad- mitted it, closing with the outspoken sentiment: " I must avow to your Majesty that I have no attachment but to my own country " — a phrase which must have jarred upon the monarch's sensibilities. While in London Adams published a work entitled A Defence of the Constitution of Government of the United States (1787). In this work he ably combated the views of Turgot and other European writers as to the viciousness of the frame- work of the state governments. Unfortunately, in so doing, he used phrases savouring of aristocracy which offended many of his countrymen, — as in the sentence in which he suggested that " the rich, the well-born and the able " should be set apart from other men in a senate. Partly for this reason, while Washing- ton had the yote of every elector in the first presidential election of 1789, Adams received only thirty-four out of sixty- nine. As this was the second largest number he was declared vice-president, but he began his eight years in that office (1789- 1797) with a sense of grievance and of suspicion of many of the leading men. Differences of opinion with regard to the policies to be pursued by the new government gradually led to the forma- tion of two well-defined political groups — the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans — and Adams became recognized as one of the leaders, second only to Alexander Hamilton, of the former. In 1796, on the refusal of Washington to accept another election, Adams was chosen president, defeating Thomas Jeffer- son; though Alexander Hamilton and other Federalists had asked that an equal vote should be cast for Adams and Thomas Pinckney, the other Federalist in the contest, partly in order that Jefferson, who was elected vice-president, might be excluded altogether, and partly, it seems, in the hope that Pinckney should in fact receive more votes than Adams, and thus, in accordance with the system then obtaining, be elected president, though he was intended for the second place on the Federalist ticket. Adams's four years as chief magistrate (1 797-1801) were marked by a succession of intrigues which embittered all his later life; they were marked, also, by events, such as the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts, which brought discredit on the Federal- ist party. Moreover, factional strife broke out within the party itself; Adams and Hamilton became alienated, and members of Adams's own cabinet virtually looked to Hamilton rather than to the president as their political chief. The United States was, at this time, drawn into the vortex of European complica- tions, and Adams, instead of taking advantage of the militant spirit which was aroused, patriotically devoted himself to securing peace with France, much against the wishes of Hamilton and of Hamilton's adherents in the cabinet. In 1800, Adams was again the Federalist candidate for the presidency, but the distrust of him in his own party, the popular disapproval of the Alien and Sedition Acts and the popularity of his opponent, Thomas Jefferson, combined to cause his defeat. He then re- tired into private life. On the 4th of July 1826, on the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, he died at Quincy. Jefferson died on the same day. In 1764 Adams had married Miss Abigail Smith (1744-1818), the daughter of a Congregational minister at Weymouth, Massa- chusetts. She was a woman of much ability, and her letters, written in an excellent English style, are of great value to students of the period in which she lived. President John Quincy Adams was their eldest son. Authorities. — C. F. Adams, The Works of John Adams, with Life (10 vols., Boston, 1850-1856) ; John and Abigail Adams, Familiar Letters during the Revolution (Boston, 1875) '< J- T. Morse, John Adams (Boston, 1885: later edition, 1899), in the " American States- men Series"; and Mellen Chamberlain, John Adams, the States- man of the Revolution; with other Essays and Addresses (Boston, 1898). (E. Ch.) ADAMS, JOHN COUCH (1819-1892), British astronomer, was born at Lidcot farmhouse, Laneast, Cornwall, on the 5th of June 1819. His father, Thomas Adams, was a tenant farmer; his mother, Tabitha Knill Grylls, inherited a small estate at Bad- harlick. From the village school at Laneast he went, at the age of twelve, to Devonport, where his mother's cousin, the Rev. John Couch Grylls, kept a private school. His promise as a mathematician induced his parents to send him to the university of Cambridge, and in October 1839 he entered as a sizar at St John's College. He graduated B.A. in 1843 as the senior wrangler and first Smith's prizeman of his year. While still an under- graduate he happened to read of certain unexplained irregularities in the motion of the planet Uranus, and determined to investi- gate them as soon as possible, with a view to ascertaining whether they might not be due to the action of a remote undiscovered planet. Elected fellow of his college in 1843, he at once proceeded to attack the novel problem. It was this: from' the observed perturbations of a known planet to deduce by calculation, assum- ing only Newton's law of gravitation, the mass and orbit of an unknown disturbing body. By September 1845 he obtained his first solution, and handed to Professor Challis, the director of the Cambridge Observatory, a paper giving the elements of what he described as " the new planet." On the 21st of October 1845 he left at Greenwich Observatory, for the information of Sir George Airy, the astronomer- royal, a similar document, still preserved among the archives. A fort- night afterwards Airy wrote asking for information about a point in the solution. Adams, who thought the query unessential, did not reply, and Airy for some months took no steps to verify by telescopic search the results of the young mathematician's investigation. Meanwhile, Leverrier, on the 10th of November 1845, presented to the French Academy a memoir on Uranus, showing that the existing theory failed to account for its motion. Unaware of Adams's work, he attempted a like inquiry, and on the 1st of June 1846, in a second memoir, gave the position, but not the mass or orbit, of the disturbing body whose existence was presumed. The longitude he assigned differed by only i° from that predicted by Adams in the document which Airy possessed. The latter was struck by the coincidence, and men- tioned it to the Board of Visitors of the Observatory, James Challis and Sir John Herschel being present. Herschel, at the ensuing meeting of the British Association early in September, ventured accordingly to predict that a new planet would shortly be discovered. Meanwhile Airy had in July suggested to Challis that the planet should be sought for with the Cambridge equa- torial. The search was begun by a laborious method at the end of the month. On the 4th and 12 th of August, as afterwards appeared, the planet was actually observed; but owing to the want of a proper star-map it was not then recognized as planet- ary. Leverrier, still ignorant of these occurrences, presented on the 31st of August 1846 a third memoir, giving for the first time the mass and orbit of the new body. He communicated his results by letter to Dr Galle, of the Berlin Observatory, who at once examined the suggested region of the heavens. On the 23rd of September he detected near the predicted place a small star unrecorded in the map, and next evening found that it had a proper motion. No doubt remained that " Leverrier's planet " had been discovered. On the announcement of the fact, Herschel and Challis made known that Adams had already calculated the planet's elements and position. Airy then at length published an account of the circumstances, and Adams's memoir was printed as an appendix to the Nautical Almanac. A keen contro- versy arose in France and England as to the merits of the two astronomers. In the latter country much surprise was expressed at the apathy of Airy; in France the claims made for an unknown Englishman were resented as detracting from the credit due to Leverrier's achievement. As the indisputable facts became 178 ADAMS known, the world recognized that the two astronomers had in- dependently solved the problem of Uranus, and ascribed to each equal glory. The new planet, at first called Leverrier by F. Arago, received by general consent the neutral name of Neptune. Its mathematical prediction was not only an unsurpassed intellectual feat; it showed also that Newton's law of gravitation, which Airy had almost called in question, prevailed even to the utmost bounds of the solar system. The honour of knighthood was offered to Adams when Queen Victoria visited Cambridge in 1847; but then, as on a subsequent occasion, his modesty led him to decline it. The Royal Society awarded him its Copley medal in 1848. In the same year the members of St John's College commemorated his success by founding in the university an Adams prize, to be given biennially for the best treatise on a mathematical subject. In 1851 he became president of the Royal Astronomical Society. His lay fellowship at St John's College came to an end in 1852, and the existing statutes did not permit of his re-election. But Pembroke College, which possessed greater freedom, elected him in the following year to a lay fellowship, and this he held for the rest of his life. In 1858 he became professor of mathematics at St Andrews, but lectured only for a session, when he vacated the chair for the Lowndean professorship of astronomy and geometry at Cambridge. Two years later he succeeded Challis as director of the Observatory, where he resided until his death. Although Adams's researches on Neptune were those which attracted widest notice, the work he subsequently performed in relation to gravitational astronomy and terrestrial magnetism was not less remarkable. Several of his most striking contribu- tions to knowledge originated in the discovery of errors or fallacies in the work of his great predecessors in astronomy. Thus in 1852 he published new and accurate tables of the moon's parallax, which superseded J. K. Burckhardt's, and supplied corrections to the theories of M. C. T. Damoiseau, G. A. A. Plana and P. G. D. de Pontecoulant. In the following year his memoir on the secular acceleration of the moon's mean motion partially invalidated Laplace's famous explanation, which had held its place unchallenged for sixty years. At first, Leverrier, Plana and other foreign astronomers controverted Adams's result; but its soundness was ultimately established, and its fundamental importance to this branch of celestial theory has only developed further with time. For these researches the Royal Astronomical Society awarded him its gold medal in 1866. The great meteor shower of 1866 turned his attention to the Leonids, whose probable path and period had already been discussed by Professor H. A. Newton. Using a powerful and elaborate analysis, Adams ascertained that this cluster of meteors, which belongs to the solar system, traverses an elon- gated ellipse in S3i years, and is subject to definite perturbations from the larger planets, Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus. These results were published in 1867. Ten years later, when Mr. G. W. Hill of Washington expounded a new and beautiful method for dealing with the problem of the lunar motions, Adams briefly announced his own unpublished work in the same field, which, following a parallel course had confirmed and supplemented Hill's. In 1874-1876 he was president of the Royal Astronomical Society for the second time, when it fell to him to present the gold medal of the year to Leverrier. The determination of the constants in Gauss's theory of terrestrial magnetism occupied him at intervals for over forty years. The calculations involved great labour, and were not published during his lifetime. They were edited by his brother, Professor W. Grylls Adams, and appear in the second volume of the collected Scientific Papers. Numerical computation of this kind might almost be described as his pastime. The value of the constant known as Euler's, and the Bernoullian numbers up to the 62nd, he worked out to an unimagined degree of accuracy. For Newton and his writings he had a boundless admiration; many of his papers, indeed, bear the cast of Newton's thought. He laboured for many years at the task of arranging and cataloguing the great collection of Newton's unpublished mathematical writings, presented in 1872 to the university by Lord Portsmouth, and wrote the account of them issued in a volume by the University Press in 1888. The post of astronomer-royal was offered him in 1881, but he preferred to pursue his peaceful course of teaching and research in Cambridge. He was British delegate to the International Prime Meridian Conference at Washington in 1884, when he also attended the meetings of the British Association at Montreal and of the American Association at Philadelphia. Five years later his health gave way, and after a long illness he died at the Cambridge Observatory on the 21st of January 1892, and was buried in St Giles's cemetery, near his home. He married in 1863 Miss Eliza Bruce, of Dublin, who survived him. An inter- national committee was formed for the purpose of erecting a monument to his memory in Westminster Abbey; and there, in May 1895, a portrait medallion, by Albert Bruce Joy, was placed near the grave of Newton, and adjoining the memorials of Darwin and of Joule. His bust, by the same sculptor, stands opposite that of Sir John Herschel in the hall of St John's College, Cambridge. Herkomer's portrait is in Pembroke College; and Mogford's, painted in 1851, is in the combination room of St John's. Another bust, taken in his youth, belongs to the Royal Astronomical Society. A memorial tablet, with an inscription by Archbishop Benson, is placed in the Cathedral at Truro; and Mr Passmore Edwards erected a public institute in his honour at Launceston, near his birthplace. The Scientific Papers of John Couch Adams, 4to, vol. i. (1896), and vol. ii. (1900), edited by William Grylls Adams and Ralph Allen Sampson, with a memoir by Dr J. W. L. Glaisher, were published by the Cambridge University Press. The first volume contains his previously published writings; the second those left in manuscript, including the substance of his lectures on the Lunar Theory. A col- lection, virtually complete, of Adams's papers regarding the dis- covery of Neptune was presented by Mrs Adams to the library of St John's College. A description of them by Professor Sampson was inserted in the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society (vol. liv. p. 143). Consult: Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Soc, liii. 184; Observatory, xv. 174; Nature, xxxiv. 565, xlv. 301; Astr. Journal, No. 254; R. Grant, Hist, of Physical Astronomy, p. 168; Edinburgh Review, No. 381, p. 72. ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY (1 767-1848), eldest son of President John Adams, sixth president of the United States, was born on the nth of July 1767, m mat part of Braintree that is now Quincy, Massachusetts, and was named after John Quincy (1689- 1767), his mother's grandfather, who was for many years a prominent member of the Massachusetts legislature. In 1778, and again in 1780, young Adams accompanied his father to Europe; studying in Paris in 17 78-1 7 79 and at the university of Leiden in 1780. In 1780, also, he began to keep that diary which forms so conspicuous a record of the doings of himself and his contemporaries. In 1781, at the age of fourteen, he accompanied Francis Dana (1743-18 n), American envoy to Russia, as his private secretary; but Dana was not received by the Russian government, and in 1782 Adams joined his father at Paris, where he acted as " additional secretary " to the American commissioners in the negotiation of the treaty of peace which concluded the War of American Independence. Instead of accompanying his father to London, he, of his own choice, returned to Massachusetts, graduated at Harvard College in 1787, three years later was admitted to practise at the bar and at once opened an office in Boston. A series of papers written by him in which he controverted some of Thomas Paine's doc- trines in the Rights of Man, and later another series in which he ably supported the neutral policy of the administration toward France and England, led to his appointment by Wash- ington as minister to the Netherlands in May 1794. There was little for him to do at the Hague, but in the absence of a minister at London, he transacted certain public business with the English foreign secretary. In 1796 Washington appointed him minister to Portugal, but before his departure thither his father John Adams became president and changed his destination to Berlin (1797). While there, he ' negotiated (1799) a treaty of amity and- commerce with Prussia. On Thomas Jefferson's election to the presidency in 1800, the elder Adams recalled his son, who returned home in 1801. The next year, he was elected ADAMS 179 to the Massachusetts senate, and in 1803 was sent to Washington as a member of the Senate of the United States. Up to this time, John Quincy Adams was regarded as belong- ing to the Federalist party, but he now found its general policy displeasing to him, was frowned upon, as the son of his father, by the followers of Alexander Hamilton, and found himself nearly powerless as an unpopular member of an unpopular minority. He was not now, and indeed never was, a strict party man. On the first important question that came before him in the Senate, the acquisition of Louisiana, he voted with the Republicans, regardless of the opposition of his own section. In December 1807 he warmly seconded Jefferson's suggestion of an embargo and vigorously urged instant action, saying: "The president has recommended the measure on his high responsibility. I would not consider, I would not deliberate; I would act ! " Within five hours the Senate had passed the Embargo Bill and sent it to the House. The support of a measure so unpopular in New England caused him to be hated by the Federalists there and cost him his seat in the Senate; his suc- cessor was chosen on the 3rd of June 1808, several months before the usual time of filling the vacancy, and five days later Adams resigned. In the same year he attended the Republican con- gressional caucus which nominated Madison for the presidency, and thus definitely joined the Republicans. From 1806 to 1809 Adams was professor of rhetoric and oratory at Harvard. In 1809 President Madison sent Adams to Russia to represent the United States. He arrived at St Petersburg at the psycho- logical moment when the tsar had made up his mind to break with Napoleon. Adams therefore met with a favourable recep- tion and a disposition to further the interests of American com- merce in every possible way. On the outbreak of the war between the United States and England in 181 2, he was still at St Petersburg. In September of that year, the Russian govern- ment suggested that the tsar was willing to act as mediator between the two belligerents. Madison precipitately accepted this proposition and sent Albert Gallatin and James Bayard to act as commissioners with Mr Adams; but England would have nothing to do with it. In August 1814, however, these gentle- men, with Henry Clay and Jonathan Russell, began negotiations with English commissioners which resulted in the signature of the treaty of Ghent on the 24th of December of that year. After this Adams visited Paris, where he witnessed the return of Napoleon from Elba, and then went to London, where, with Henry Clay and Albert Gallatin, he negotiated (1815) a " Con- vention to Regulate Commerce and Navigation." Soon after- wards he became U.S. minister to Great Britain, as his father had been before him, and as his son, Charles Francis Adams, was after him. After accomplishing little in London, he returned to the United States in the summer of 181 7 to become secretary of state in the cabinet of President Monroe. As secretary of state, Adams played the leading part in two most important episodes, — the acquisition of Florida and the promulgation of the Monroe Doctrine. Ever since the acquisi- tion of Louisiana successive administrations had sought to include a part at least of Florida in that purchase. In 1819, after long negotiations, Adams succeeded in bringing the Spanish minister to the point of signing a treaty in which the Spaniards abandoned all claims to territory east of the Mississippi, and the United States relinquished all claim to what is now known as Texas. Before the Spanish government ratified the treaty in 1820, Mexico, including Texas, had thrown off allegiance to the mother country, and the United States had occupied Florida by force of arms. The Monroe Doctrine (g.v.) rightly bears the name of the president who in 1823 assumed the responsibility for its promulgation; but it was primarily the work of John Quincy Adams. The eight years of Monroe's presidency (181 7-1825) are known as the " Era of Good Feeling." As his second term drew to a close, there was a great lack of good feeling among his official advisers, three of whom — Adams, secretary of state, Calhoun, secretary of war, and Crawford, secretary of the treasury — aspired to succeed him in his high office. In addition, Henry Clay and Andrew Jackson were also candidates. Calhoun was nominated for the vice-presidency. Of the other four, Jackson received 99 electoral votes, Adams 84, Crawford 41, and Clay 37; as no one had a majority, the decision was made by the House of Representatives, which was confined in its choice to the three candidates who had received the largest number of votes. Clay, who was speaker of the House of Repre- sentatives, and had for years assumed a censorious attitude toward Jackson, cast his influence for Adams and thereby secured his election on the first ballot. A few days later Adams offered Clay the secretaryship of state, which was accepted. The wholly unjust and baseless charge of " bargain and corrup- tion " followed, and the feud thus created between Adams and Jackson greatly influenced the history of the United States. Up to this point Adams's career had been almost uniformly successful, but his presidency (1825-1829) was in most respects a failure, owing to the virulent opposition of the Jacksonians; in 1828 Jackson was elected president over Adams. It was during his administration that irreconcilable differences devel- oped between the followers of Adams and the followers of Jack- son, the former becoming known as the National Republicans, who with the Anti-Masons were the precursors of the Whigs. In 1829 Adams retired to private life in the town of Quincy; but only for a brief period, for in 1830, largely by Anti-Masonic votes, he was elected a member of the national House of Repre- sentatives. On its being suggested to him that his acceptance of this position would degrade an ex-president, Adams replied that no person could be degraded by serving the people as a representative in congress or, he added, as a selectman of his town. His service in congress from 183 1 until his death is, in some respects, the most noteworthy part of his career. Through- out he was conspicuous as an opponent of the extension of slavery, though he was never technically an abolitionist, and in particular he was the champion in the House of Representatives of the right of petition at a time when, through the influence of the Southern members, this right was, in practice, denied by that body. His prolonged fight for the repeal of the so-called " Gag Laws " is one of the most dramatic contests in the history of congress. The agitation for the abolition of slavery, which really began in earnest with the establishment of the Liberator by William Lloyd Garrison in 1831, soon led to the sending of innumerable petitions to congress for the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia, over which the Federal government had jurisdiction, and for other action by congress with respect to that institution. These petitions were generally sent to Adams for presentation. They aroused the anger of the pro- slavery members of congress, who, in 1836, brought about the passage of the first " Gag Rule," the Pinckney Resolution, presented by Henry L. Pinckney, of South Carolina. It pro- vided that all petitions relating to slavery should be laid on the table without being referred to committee or printed; and, in substance, this resolution was re-adopted at the beginning of each of the immediately succeeding sessions of congress, the Patton Resolution being adopted in 1837, the Atherton Resolu- tion, or " Atherton Gag," in 1838, and the Twenty-first Rule in 1840 and subsequently until repealed. Adams contended that these " Gag Rules " were a direct violation of the First Amend- ment to the Federal Constitution, and refused to be silenced on the question, fighting for repeal with indomitable courage, in spite of the bitter denunciation of his opponents. Each year the number of anti-slavery petitions received and presented by him increased; perhaps the climax was in 1837, when Adams presented a petition from twenty-two slaves, and, when threat- ened by his opponents with censure, defended himself with remarkable keenness and ability. At each session, also, the majority against him decreased until in 1844 his motion to repeal the Twenty-first Rule was carried by a vote of 108 to 80 and his battle was won. On the 21st of February 1848, after having suffered a previous stroke of apoplexy, he fell insensible on the floor of the Representatives' chamber, and two days later died. Few men in American public life have possessed more intrinsic worth, more independence, more public spirit and more ability than Adams, but throughout his political career he was i8o ADAMS handicapped by a certain reserve, a certain austerity and cool- ness of manner, and by his consequent inability to appeal to the imaginations and affections of the people as a whole. He had, indeed, few intimate political or personal friends, and few men in American history have, during their lifetime, been regarded with so much hostility and attacked with so much rancour by their political opponents. Authorities. — J. T. Morse, John Quincy Adams (Boston, 1883; new edition, 1899); Josiah Quincy, Memoir of the Life of John Quincy Adams (Boston, 1858); C. F. Adams (ed.), Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, comprising portions of his diary from 1795 to 1848 (12 vols., Philadelphia, 1874-1877). (E. Ch.) ADAMS, SAMUEL (1722-1803), American statesman, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the 27th of September 1722. He was a second cousin to the elder John Adams. His father, whose Christian name was also Samuel, was a wealthy and prominent citizen of Boston, who took an active part in the politics of the town, and was a member of the Caucus (or Caulker's) Club, with which the political term "caucus" is said to have originated; his mother was Mary Fifield. Young Adams graduated from Harvard College in 1740, and three years later, on attaining the degree of A.M., chose for his thesis, "Whether it be Lawful to resist the Supreme Magistrate, if the Commonwealth cannot otherwise be preserved." Which side he took, and how the argument proceeded, is not known, but the subject was one which well forecasted his career. He began the study of law in response to his father's advice; he discontinued it in response to his mother's disapproval. He repeatedly failed in business, notably as manager of a malt-house, largely because of his incessant attention to politics; but in the Boston town- meeting he became a conspicuous example of the efficiency of that institution for training in statecraft. He has, indeed, been called the "Man of the Town Meeting." About 1748 he began to take an important part in the affairs of the town, and became a leader in the debates of a political club which he was largely instrumental in organizing, and to whose weekly publication, the Public Advertiser, he contributed numerous articles. From 1756 to 1764 he was one of the town's tax-collectors, but in this office he was unsuccessful, his easy business methods resulting in heavy arrears. Samuel Adams first came into wider prominence at the begin- ning of the Stamp Act episode, in 1 764, when as author of Boston's instructions to its representatives in the general court of Massa- chusetts he urged strenuous opposition to taxation by act of parliament. The next year he was for the first time elected to the lower house of the general court, in which he served until 1774, after 1766 as clerk. As James Otis's vigour and influence declined, Adams took a more and more prominent place in the revolutionary councils; and, contrary to the opinion of Otis and Benjamin Franklin, he declared that colonial representation in parliament was out of the question and advised against any form of compromise. Many of the Massachusetts revolutionary docu- ments, including the famous "Massachusetts Resolves" and the circular letter to the legislatures of the other colonies, are from his pen; but owing to the fact that he usually acted as clerk to the House of Representatives and to the several committees of which he was a member, documents were written by him which expressed the ideas of the committee as a whole. There can be no question, however, that Samuel Adams was one of the first, if not the first, of American political leaders to deny the legislative power of parliament and to desire and advocate separation from the mother country. To promote the ends he had in view he suggested non-im- portation, instituted the Boston committees of correspondence, urged that a Continental Congress be called, sought out and introduced into public service such allies as John Hancock, Joseph Warren and Josiah Quincy, and wrote a vast number of articles for the newspapers, especially the Boston Gazette, over a multitude of signatures. He was, in fact, one of the most voluminous and influential political writers of his time. His style is clear, vigorous and epigrammatic; his arguments are characterized by strength of logic, and, like those of other patriots, are, as the dispute advances, based less on precedent and documentary authorities and more on " natural right." Although he lacked oratorical fluency, his short speeches, like his writings, were forceful; his plain dress and unassuming ways helped to make him extremely popular with the common people, in whom he. had much greater faith than his cousin John had; and, above all, he was an eminently successful manager of men. Shrewd, wily, adroit, unfailingly tactful, an adept in all the arts of the politician, he is considered to have done more than any other one man, in the years immediately preceding the War of Independence, to mould and direct public opinion in his community. The intense excitement which followed the "Boston Massacre" Adams skilfully used to secure the removal of the soldiers from the town to a fort in the harbour. He it was, also, who managed the proceedings of the "Boston Tea Party," and later he was moderator of the convention of Massachusetts towns called to protest against the Boston Port Bill. One of the objects of the expedition sent by Governor Thomas Gage to Lexington ( was the capture of Adams and John Hancock, temporarily staying in Lexington, and when Gage issued his proclamation of pardon on June 12 he excepted these two, whose offences, he said, were "of too flagitious a Nature to admit of any other Consideration than that of condign Punishment." As a delegate to the Continental Congress, from 1774 to 1781, Samuel Adams continued vigorously to oppose any concession to the British government; strove for harmony among the several colonies in the common cause; served on numerous committees, among them that to prepare a plan of confederation; and signed the Declaration of Independence. But he was rather a de- structive than a constructive statesman, and his most important service was in organizing the forces of revolution before 1775. In 1779 he was a member of the convention which framed the constitution of Massachusetts that was adopted in 1780, and is still, with some amendments, the organic law of the commonwealth and one of the oldest fundamental laws in existence. He was one of the three members of the sub-committee which actually drafted that instrument; and although John Adams is generally credited with having performed the principal part of that task, Samuel Adams was probably the author of most of the bill of rights. In 1788, Samuel Adams was a member of the Massa- chusetts convention to ratify the Constitution of the United States. When he first read that instrument he was very much opposed to the consolidated government which it provided, but was induced to befriend it by resolutions which were passed at a mass meeting of Boston mechanics or "tradesmen" — his own firmest supporters — and by the suggestion that its ratification should be accompanied by a recommendation of amendments designed chiefly to supply the omission of a bill of rights. With- out his aid it is probable that the constitution would not have been ratified by Massachusetts. From 1789 to 1794 Adams was lieutenant-governor of his state, and from 1794 to 1797 was governor. After the formation of parties he became allied with the Democratic-Republicans rather than with the Federalists. He died on the 2nd of October 1803, at Boston. Authorities. — Life and Public Services of Samuel Adams (3 vols., Boston, 1865), by W. V. Wells, Adams's great-grandson — a valuable biography, containing a mass of information, but noticeably biassed ; J. K. Hosmer's Samuel Adams (Boston, 1885), an excellent short biography in the "American Statesmen Series"; M. C. Tyler's Literary History of the American Revolution (2 vols., New York, 1897) ; and H. A. Cushing (ed.), The Writings of Samuel Adams (4 vols., New York, 1904-1908). (E. Ch.) ADAMS, THOMAS (d. c. 1655), English divine, was, in 1612, "a preacher of the gospel at Willington," in Bedfordshire, where he is found until 1614, and whence issued his Heaven and Earth Reconciled, The Devil's Banquet and other works. Ini6i4-i6i5 he was at Wingrave, in Buckinghamshire, probably as vicar, and published a number of works in quick succession; in 161 8 he held the preachership at St Gregory's, under St Paul's Cathedral, and was "observant chaplain" to Sir Henry Montague, the lord chief justice of England. These bare facts we gather from epistles-dedicatory and epistles to the reader, and title-pages. ADAMS— AD AMSON 181 These epistles show him to have been on the most friendly terms with some of the foremost men in state and church, though his ardent protestantism offended Laud and hindered his preferment. His " occasionally " printed sermons, when collected in 1629, placed him beyond all comparison in the van of the preachers of England, and had something to do with shaping John Bunyan. He equals Jeremy Taylor in brilliance of fancies, and Thomas Fuller in wit. Robert Southey calls him " the prose Shakespeare of Puritan theologians." His numerous works dis- play great learning, classical and patristic, and are unique in their abundance of stories, anecdotes, aphorisms and puns. His works were edited in J. P. Nichol's Puritan Divines, by J. Angus and T. Smith (3 vols. 8vo, 1862). ADAMS, WILLIAM (d. 1620), English navigator, was born at Gillingham, near Chatham, England. When twelve years old he was apprenticed to the seafaring life, afterwards entering the British navy, and later serving the company of Barbary merchants for a number of years as master and pilot. Attracted by the Dutch trade with India, he shipped as pilot major with a little fleet of five ships despatched from the Texel in 1598 by a company of Rotterdam merchants. The vessels, boats ranging from 75 to 250 tons and crowded with men, were driven to the coast of Guinea, where the adventurers attacked the island of Annabon for supplies, and finally reached the straits of Magellan. Scattered by stress of weather the following spring the " Charity," with Adams on" board, and the "Hope," met at length off the coast of Chile, where the captains of both vessels lost their lives in an encounter with the Indians. In fear of the Spaniards, the remaining crews determined to sail across the Pacific. On this voyage the " Hope " was lost, but in April 1600 the " Charity," with a crew of sick and dying men, was brought to anchor off the island of Kiushiu, Japan. Adams was summoned to Osaka and there examined by Iyeyasu, the guardian of the young son of Taiko Sama, the ruler, who had just died. His knowledge of ships and shipbuilding, and his nautical smattering of mathematics, raised him in the estimation of the shogun, and he was subse- quently presented with an estate at Hemi near Yokosuka; but was refused permission to return to England. In 161 1 news came to him of an English settlement in Bantam, and he wrote asking for help. In 1613 Captain John Saris arrived at Hirado in the ship " Clove " with the object of establishing a trading factory for the East India Company, and after obtaining the necessary concessions from the shogun, Adams postponed his voyage home (permission for which had now been given him) in order to take a leading part, under Richard Cocks, in the organization of this new English settlement. He had already married a Japanese woman, by whom he had a family, and the latter part of his life was spent in the service of the English trading company, for whom he undertook a number of voyages to Siam in 1616, and Cochin China in 1617 and 1618. He died on the 16th of May 1620, some three years before the dissolution of the English factory. His Japanese title was Anjin Sama, and his memory was preserved in the naming of a street in Yedo, Anjin Cho (Pilot Street), and by an annual celebration on June 15 in his honour. See England's Earliest Intercourse with Japan, by C. VV. Hillary (1905) ; Letters written by the English Residents in Japan, ed. by N. Murakami (1900, containing Adams's Letters reprinted from Memorials of the Empire of Japan, ed. by T. Rundall, Hakluyt Society, 1850); Diary of Richard Cocks, with preface by N. Mura- kami (1899, reprinted from the Hakluyt Society ed. 1883); R. Hildreth's Japan (1855) ; J. Harris's Navigantium atque Itinerantium Bibliotheca (1764), i. 856; Voyage of John Saris, ed. by Sir E. M. Satow (Hakluyt Society, 1900) ; Asiatic Society of Japan Trans- actions, xxvi. (sec. 1898) pp. I and 194, where four more hitherto unpublished letters of Adams are given ; Collection of State Papers; East Indies, China and Japan. The MS. of his logs written during his voyages to Siam and China is in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. ADAMS, a township in the extreme N. of Berkshire count}', N.W. Massachusetts, U.S.A., having an area of 23 sq. m. Pop. (1880) 5591; (1890) 9213; (1900) 11,134, of whom 4376 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 13,026. It includes a poruoi. of the valley of the Hoosac river, extending to the Hoosac Range on the E., and on the W. to Mt. Williams (3040 ft.), and Greylock Mountain (353.2 ft.), partly in Williamstown, and the highest point in the state. The valley portion is level and con- tains several settlement centres, the largest of which, a busy industrial village (manufactures of cotton and paper), bears the same name as the township, and is on a branch of the Boston and Albany railroad. The village is the nearest station to Grey- lock, which can be easily ascended, and affords fine views of the Hoosac and Housatonic valleys, the Berkshire Hills and the Green Mountains; the mountain has been a state timber reser- vation since 1898. The township's principal industry is the manu- facture of cotton goods, the value of which in 1905 ($4,621,261) was 84-1% of the value of the township's total factory pro- ducts; in 1905 no other place in the United States showed so high a degree of specialization in this industry. The township (originally "East Hoosuck") was surveyed and defined in 1749. Fort Massachusetts, at one time within its bounds, was de- stroyed in 1746 by the French. An old Indian trail between the Hudson and Connecticut valley ran through the township, and was once a leading outlet of the Berkshire country. Adams was incorporated in 1778, and was named in honour of Samuel Adams, the revolutionary leader. Part of Adams was included in the new township of Cheshire in 1793, and North Adams was set off as a separate township in 1878. ADAM'S APPLE, the movable projection, more prominent in males than females, formed in the front part of the throat by the thyroid cartilage of the larynx. The name was given from a legend that a piece of the forbidden fruit lodged in Adam's throat. The "Adam's apple" is one of the particular points of attack in the Japanese system of self-defence known as jiu-jitsu. ADAM'S BRIDGE, or Rama's Bridge, a chain of sandbanks extending from the island of Manaar, near the N.W. coast of Ceylon to the island of Rameswaram, off the Indian coast, and lying between the Gulf of Manaar on the S.W. and Palk Strait on the N.E. It is more than 30 m. long and offers a serious impediment to navigation. Some of the sandbanks are dry; and no part of the shoal has a greater depth than 3 or 4 ft. at high water, except three tortuous and intricate channels which have recently been dredged to a sufficient depth to admit the passage of vessels, so as to obviate the long journey round the island of Ceylon which was previously necessary. Geological evidence shows that this gap was once bridged by a continuous isthmus which according to the temple records was breached by a violent storm in 1480. Operations for removing the ob- stacles in the channel and for deepening and widening it were begun as long ago as 1838. A service of the British India Steam Navigation Company's steamers has been established between Negapatam and Colombo through Palk Strait and this narrow passage. ADAM SCOTUS (fl. 1180), theological writer, sometimes called Adam Anglicus or Anglo-Scotus, was born in the south of Scotland in the first half of the 12th century. About n 50 he was a Premonstratensian canon at St Andrews, and some twenty years later abbot and bishop of Candida Casa (Whithorn) in Galloway. He gained a European reputation for his writings, which are of mystico-ascetic type, and include an account of the Premonstratensian order, a collection of festival sermons, and a Soliloquia de instructione discipuli, formerly attributed to his contemporary, Adam of St Victor. ADAMSON, PATRICK (1537-1592), Scottish divine, arch- bishop of St Andrews, was born at Perth. He studied philo- sophy, and took the degree of M.A. at St Andrews. After being minister of Ceres in Fife for three years, in 1566 he set out for Paris as tutor to the eldest son of Sir James Macgill, the clerk- general. In June of the same year he wrote a Latin poem on the birth of the young prince James, whom he described as serenissimus princeps of France and England. The French court was offended, and he was confined for six months. He was released only through the intercession of Queen Mary of Scotland and some of the principal nobility, and retired with his pupil to Bourges. He was in this city at the time of the massacre of St Bartholomew at Paris, and lived concealed for seven months in a public-house, the aged master of which, in reward for his charity to a heretic, was thrown from the roof. While in this l82 ADAMSON— ADANA " Sepulchre," he wrote his Latin poetical version of the book of Job, and his tragedy of Herod in the same language. In 1572 or 1573 he returned to Scotland, and became minister of Paisley. In 1575 he was appointed by the General Assembly one of the commissioners to settle the jurisdiction and policy of the church; and the following year he was named, with David Lindsay, to report their proceedings to the earl of Morton, then regent. In 1576 his appointment as archbishop of St Andrews gave rise to a protracted conflict with the - Presbyterian party in the Assembly. He had previously published a catechism in Latin verse dedicated to the king, a work highly approved even by his opponents, and also a Latin translation of the Scottish Confession of Faith. In 1 578 he submitted himself to the General Assembly, which procured him peace for a little time, but next year fresh accusations were brought against him. He took refuge in St Andrews Castle, where "a wise woman," Alison Pearson, who was ultimately burned for witchcraft, cured him of a serious illness. In 1 583 he went as James's ambassador to the court of Elizabeth, and is said to have behaved rather badly. On his return he took strong parliamentary measures against Presby- terians, and consequently ( at a provincial synod held at St Andrews in April 1586, he was accused of heresy and excom- municated, but at the next General Assembly the sentence was remitted as illegal. In 1587 and 1588, however, fresh accusa- tions were brought against him, and he was again excommuni- cated, though afterwards on the inducement of his old opponent, Andrew Melville, the sentence was again remitted. Meanwhile he had published the Lamentations of Jeremiah, and the book of Revelation in Latin verse, which he dedicated to the king, complaining of his hard usage. But James was unmoved by his application, and granted the revenue of his see to the duke of Lennox. For the rest of his life Adamson was supported by charity; he died in 1592. His recantation of Episcopacy (1590) is probably spurious. Adamson was a man of many gifts, learned and eloquent, but with grave defects of character. His collected works, prefaced by a fulsome panegyric, in the course of which it is said that " he was a miracle of nature, and rather seemed to be the immediate production of God Almighty than born of a woman," were produced by his son-in-law, Thomas Wilson, in 1619. ADAMSON, ROBERT (1852-1902), Scottish philosopher, was born in Edinburgh on the 19th of January 1852. His father was a solicitor, and his mother was the daughter of Matthew Buist, factor to Lord Haddington. In 185s Mrs Adamson was left a widow with small means, and devoted herself entirely to the education of her six children. Of these, Robert was successful from the first. At the end of his school career he entered the university of Edinburgh at the age of fourteen, and four years later graduated with first-class honours in mental philosophy, with prizes in every department of the faculty of Arts. He completed his university successes by winning the Tyndall- Bruce scholarship, the Hamilton fellowship (1872), the Ferguson scholarship (1872) and the Shaw fellowship (1873). After a short residence at Heidelberg (1871), where he began his study of German philosophy, he returned to Edinburgh as assistant first to Henry Calderwood and later to A. Campbell Fraser; he joined the staff of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (9th ed.) (1874) and studied widely in the Advocates' Library. In 1876 he came to England as successor to W. S. Jevons in the chair of logic and philosophy, at Owens College, Manchester. In 1883 he received the honorary degree of LL.D. In 1893 he went to Aberdeen, and finally in 1895 to the chair of logic at Glasgow, which he held till his death on the 5th of February 1902. His wife, Margaret Duncan, the daughter of a Manchester merchant, was a woman of kindred tastes, and their union was entirely happy. It is matter for regret to the student that Adamson's active labours in the lecture room precluded him from systematic pro- duction. His writings consisted of short articles, of which many appeared in the Encyclopaedia Britannica (9th ed.) and in Mind, a volume on Kant and another on Fichte. At the time of his death he was writing a History of Psychology, and had promised a work on Kant and the Modern Naturalists. Both in his life and in his writings he was remarkable for impartiality. It was his peculiar virtue that he could quote his opponents without warping their meaning. From this point of view he would have been perhaps the first historian of philosophy of his time, had his professional labours been less exacting. Except during the first few years at Manchester, he delivered his lectures without manu- scripts. In 1903, under the title The Development of Modern Philosophy and Other Essays, his more important lectures were published with a short biographical introduction by Prof. W. R. Sorley of Cambridge University (see Mind, xiii. 1904, p. 73 foil.). Most of the matter is taken verbatim from the note-book of one of his students. Under the same editorship there appeared, three years later, his Development of Greek Philosophy. In addition to his professional work, he did much administrative work for Victoria University and the university of Glasgow. In the organization of Victoria University he took a foremost part, and, as chairman of the Board of Studies at Owens College, he presided over the general academical board of the Victoria University. At Glasgow he was soon elected one of the repre- sentatives on the court, and to him were due in large measure the extension of the academical session and the improved equipment of the university. Throughout his lectures, Adamson pursued the critical and his- torical method without formulating a constructive theory of his own. He felt that any philosophical advance must be based on the Kantian methods. It was his habit to make straight for the ultimate issue, disregarding half-truths and declining compromise. He left a hypo- thesis to be worked out by others ; this done, he would criticize with all the rigour of logic, and with a profound distrust of imagina- tion, metaphor and the attitude known as the will-to-believe. As he grew older his metaphysical optimism waned. He felt that the increase of knowledge must come in the domains of physical science. But this empirical tendency as regards science never modified his metaphysical outlook. He has beencalled Kantian and Neo- Kantian, Realist and Idealist (by himself, for he held that appearance and reality are co-extensive and coincident). At the same time, in his criticism of other views he was almost typical of Hegelian idealism. All processes of reasoning or judgment (i.e. all units of thought) are (1) analysable only by abstraction, and (2) are compound of deduc- tion and induction, i.e. rational and empirical. An illustration of his empirical tendency is found in his attitude to the Absolute and the Self. The " Absolute " doctrines he regarded as a mere disguise of failure, a dishonest attempt to clothe ignorance in the pretentious garb of mystery. The Self as a primary, determining entity, he would not therefore admit. He represented an empiricism which, so far from refuting, was actually based on, idealism, and yet was alert to expose the fallacies of a particular idealist construction (see his essay in Ethical Democracy, edited by Dr Stanton Coit). ADAM'S PEAK, a mountain in Ceylon, about 45 miles E. from Colombo, in N. lat. 6° 55', E. long. 80° 30'. It rises steeply to a height of 7352 feet, and commands a magnificent prospect. Its conical summit terminates in an oblong platform, 74 ft. by 24, on which there is a hollow, resembling the form of a human foot, 5 ft. 4 in. by 2 ft. 6 in.; and this has been consecrated as the footprint of Buddha. The margin of this supposed footprint is ornamented with gems, and a wooden canopy protects it from the weather. It is held in high veneration by the Sinhalese, and numerous pilgrims ascend to the sacred spot, where a priest resides to receive their offerings and bless them on their departure. By the Mahommedans the impression is regarded as that of the foot of Adam, who here, according to their tradition, fulfilled a penance of one thousand years; while the Hindus claim it as that of their god Siva. ADANA. (1) A vilayet in the S.E. of Asia Minor, which includes the ancient Cilicia. The mountain districts are rich in unexploited mineral wealth, and the fertile coast-plain, which produces cotton, rice, cereals, sugar and much fruit, and affords abundant pasturage, is well watered by the rivers that descend from the Taurus range. Imports and exports pass through Mersina (q.v.). (2) The chief town of the vilayet, situated in the alluvial plain about 30 m. from the sea in N. lat. 37 1', E. long. 35° 18', on the right bank of the Seihan (Sihun, anc. Sarus), which is navigable by small craft as far as the town. Adana is connected with Tersus and Mersina by a railway built in 1887, and has a magnificent stone bridge, which carries the road to Missis and the east, and dates in parts from the time of Justinian, but was restored first in 743 a.d. and called Jisr al-Walid after ADANSON— ADDAX 183 the Omayyad caliph of that name, and again in 840 by the Caliph Mutasim. There are, also, a ruined castle founded by Harun al-Rashid in 782, fine fountains, good buildings, river-side quays, cotton mills and an American mission with church and schools. Adana, which retains its ancient name, rose to import- ance as a station on the Roman military road to the East, and was at one time a rival of Tarsus. The town was largely rebuilt by Mansur in 758, and during subsequent centuries it often changed hands and suffered many vicissitudes. Its position, commanding the passage of the mountains to the north of Syria, rendered it important as a military station in the contest between the Egyptians and the Turks in 1832. After the defeat of the Turkish army at Konia it was granted to Ibrahim Pasha, and though the firman announcing his appointment named him only muhassil, or collector of the crown revenue, it continued to be held by the Egyptians till the treaty of July 1840 restored it to the Porte. The chief productions of the province are cotton, corn, sesame and wool, which are largely exported. The population of the town is greatly mixed, and, having a large element of nomads in it, varies much from time to time. At its maximum it reaches nearly 50,000. (D. G. H.) ADANSON, MICHEL (1727-1806), French naturalist, of Scottish descent, was born on the 7th of April 1727, at Aix, in Provence. After leaving the College Sainte Barbe in Paris, he was employed in the cabinets of R. A. F. Reaumur and Bernard de Jussieu, as well as in the Jardin des Plantes. At the end of 1748 he left France on an exploring expedition to Senegal, which from the unhealthiness of its climate was a terra incognita to naturalists. His ardour remained unabated during the five years of his residence in Africa. He collected and described, in greater or less detail, an immense number of animals and plants; col- lected specimens of every object of commerce; delineated maps of the country; made systematic meteorological and astrono- mical observations; and prepared grammars and dictionaries of the languages spoken on the banks of the Senegal. After his return to Paris in 1754 he made use of a small portion of the materials he had collected in his Histoire naturelle du Slnigal (Paris, 1757). This work has a special interest from the essay on shells, printed at the end of it, where Adanson proposed his universal method, a system of classification distinct from those of Buffon and Linnaeus. He founded his classification of all organized beings on the consideration of each individual organ. As each organ gave birth to new relations, so he established a corresponding number of arbitrary arrangements. Those beings possessing the greatest number of similar organs were referred to one great division, and the relationship was considered more remote in proportion to the dissimilarity of organs. In 1763 he published his Families naturelles des plantes. In this work he developed the principle of arrangement above mentioned, which, in its adherence to natural botanical relations, was based on the system of J. P. Tournefort, and had been anticipated to some extent nearly a century before by John Ray. The success of this work was hindered by its innovations in the use of terms, which were ridiculed by the defenders of the popular sexual system of Linnaeus; but it did much to open the way for the establishment, by means principally of A. L. de Jussieu's Genera Plantarum (1789), of the natural method of the classification of plants. In 1774 Adanson submitted to the consideration of the Academy of Sciences an immense work, extending to all known beings and substances. It consisted of 27 large volumes of manuscript, employed in displaying the general relations of all these matters, and their distribution; 150 volumes more, occupied with the alphabetical arrangement of 40,000 species; a vocabulary, containing 200,000 words, with their explanations; and a number of detached memoirs, 40,000 figures and 30,000 specimens of the three kingdoms of nature. The committee to which the inspection of this enormous mass was entrusted strongly recommended Adanson to separate and publish all that was peculiarly his own, leaving out what was merely compilation. He obstinately rejected this advice; and the huge work, at which he continued to labour, was never published. He had been sleeted a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1759, and he latterly subsisted on a small pension it had conferred on him. Of this he was deprived in the dissolution of the Academy by the Constituent Assembly, and was consequently reduced to such a depth of poverty as to be unable to appear before the French Institute when it invited him to take his place among its mem- bers. Afterwards he was granted a pension sufficient to relieve his simple wants. He died at Paris after months of severe suffering, on the 3rd of August 1806, requesting, as the only decoration of his grave, a garland of flowers gathered from the fifty-eight families he had differentiated — " a touching though transitory image," says Cuvier, " of the more durable monument which he has erected to himself in his works." Besides the books already mentioned he published papers on the ship-worm, the baobab tree, the Adansonia digitata of Linnaeus, the origin of the varieties of cultivated plants, and gum-producing trees. ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to), a process of fitting, or modifying, a thing to other uses, and so altering its form or original purpose. In literature there may be, e.g., an adaptation of a novel for a drama, or in music an arrangement of a piece for two hands into one for four, &c. In biology, ac- cording to the doctrine of evolution, adaptation plays a prominent part as the process by which an organism or species of organisms becomes modified to suit the conditions of its life. Every change in a living organism involves adaptation; for in all cases life consists in a continuous adjustment of internal to external relations. Every living organism reacts to its environment; if the reaction is unfavourable, disability leading to ultimate extinction is the result. If the reaction is favourable, its result is called an adaptation. How far such adaptations are produced afresh in each generation, whether or no their effects are trans- mitted to descendants and so directly modify the stock, to what extent adaptations characteristic of a species or variety have come about by selection of individuals capable, in each genera- tion, of responding favourably, or how far by the selection of individuals fortuitously suitable to the environment, or, how far, possibly by the inheritance of the responses to the environ- ment, are problems of biology not yet definitely solved. ADDA (anc. Addua), a river of North Italy. Its true source is in some small lakes near the head of the Fraele glen, but its volume is increased by the union with several smaller streams, near the town of Bormio, at the Raetian Alps. Thence it flows first S.W., then due W., through the fertile Valtellina (q.v.), passing Tirano, where the Poschiavino falls in on the right, and Sondrio, where is the junction with the Malero, right. It falls into the Lake of Como, at its northern end, and mainly forms that lake. On issuing from its south-eastern or Lecco arm, it crosses the plain of Lombardy, and finally, after a course of about 150 m., joins the Po, 8 m. above Cremona. The lower course of the Adda was formerly the boundary between the territories of Venice and of Milan; and on its banks several important battles have been fought, notably that of Lodi, where Napoleon defeated the Austrians in 1796. (W. A. B. C.) ADDAMS, JANE (i860- ), American sociologist, was born at Cedarville, Illinois, on the 6th of September i860. After graduating at Rockford (Illinois) Female Seminary (now Rock- ford College) in 1881, she spent several years in the study of economic and sociological questions in both Europe and America, and in 1889 with Miss Ellen Gates Starr established in Chicago, Illinois, the social settlement known as Hull House, of which she became the head-worker. The success of this settlement, which became a great factor for good in the city, was principally due to Miss Addams's rare executive skill and practical common-sense methods. Her personal participation in the life of the community is exemplified in her acceptance of the office of inspector of streets and alleys under the municipal government. She became widely known as a lecturer and writer on social problems and published Democracy and Social Ethics (1902), Newer Ideals of Peace (1907), and The Spirit of Youth a-nd the City Streets (1909). ADDAX, a genus of antelopes, with one species (A. nasomacu- latus) from North Africa and Arabia. It is a little over 3 ft. high, yellowish white in colour, with a brown mane and a fringe of the same hue on the throat. Both sexes carry horns, ADDER— ADDISON which are ringed and form an open spiral. The addax is a desert antelope, and in habits probably resembles the gemsbuck. It is hunted by the Arabs for its flesh and to test the speed of their horses and greyhounds; it is during these hunting parties that the young are captured for menagerie purposes. ADDER, a name for the common viper (Viper a cevus), ranging from Wales to Saghalien island, and from Caithness to the north of Spain. The puff-adder (Bitis s. Echidna arietans) of nearly the whole of Africa, and the death-adder (Acanthophis antarcticus) from Australia to the Moluccas, are both very poisonous (see Viper). The word was in Old Eng. nadre, later nadder or naddre; in the 14th century " a nadder " was, like" a napron," wrongly divided into " an adder." It appears with the generic meaning of " serpent " in the older forms of many Teutonic languages, cf. Old High Ger. natra; Goth, nadrs. It is thus used in the Old Eng. version of the Scriptures for the devil, the " serpent " of Genesis. ADDISON, JOSEPH (1672-1719), English essayist, poet and man of letters, eldest son of Lancelot Addison, later dean of Lichfield, was born at his father's rectory of Milston in Wiltshire, on the 1 st of May 1672. ' After having passed through several schools, the last of which was the Charterhouse, he went to Oxford when he was about fifteen years old. He was first entered a commoner of Queen's College, but after two years was elected to a demyship of Magdalen College, having been recom- mended by his skill in Latin versification. He took his master's degree in 1693, and subsequently obtained a fellowship which he held until 1711. His first literary efforts were poetical, and, after the fashion of his day, in Latin. Many of these are pre- served in the Musae Anglicanae (1691-1699), and obtained aca- demic commendation from academic sources. But it was a poem in the third volume of Dryden's Miscellanies, followed in the next series by a translation of the fourth Georgic, which brought about his introduction to Tonson the bookseller, and (probably through Tonson) to Lord Somers and Charles Montagu. To both of these distinguished persons he contrived to commend himself by An Account of the Greatest English Poets (1694), An Address to King William (1695), after Namur, and a Latin poem entitled Pax Gulielmi (1697), on the peace of Ryswick, with the result that in 1699 he obtained a pension of £300 a year, to enable him (as he afterwards said in a memorial addressed to the crown) " to travel and qualify himself to serve his Majesty." In the summer of 1690 he crossed into France, where, chiefly for the purpose of learning the language, he remained till the end of 1 700; and after this he spent a year in Italy. In Switzerland, on his way home, he was stopped by receiving notice that he was to attend the army under Prince Eugene, then engaged in the war in Italy, as secretary from the king. But his Whig friends were already tottering in their places; and in March 1702 the death of King William at once drove them from power and put an end to the pension. Indeed Addison asserted that he never received but one year's payment of it, and that all the other expenses of his travels were defrayed by himself. He was able, however, to visit a great part of Germany, and did not reach Holland till the spring of 1703. His prospects were now suffi- ciently gloomy: he entered into treaty, oftener than once, for an engagement as a travelling tutor; and the correspondence in one of these negotiations has been preserved. Tonson had recom- mended him as the best person to attend in this character Lord Hertford, the son of the duke of Somerset, commonly called " The Proud." The duke, a profuse man in matters of pomp, was economical in questions of education. He wished Addison to name the salary he expected; this being declined, he an- nounced, with great dignity, that in addition to travelling expenses he would give a hundred guineas a year; Addison accepted the munificent offer, saying, however, that he could not find his account in it otherwise than by relying on his Grace's future patronage; and his Grace immediately intimated that he would look out for some one else. In the autumn of 1703 Addison returned to England. The works which belong to his residence on the continent were the earliest that showed him to have attained maturity of skill and genius. There is good reason for believing that his tragedy of Cato, whatever changes it may afterwards have suffered, was in great part written while he lived in France, that is, when he was about twenty-eight years of age. In the winter of 1701, amidst the stoppages and discomforts of a journey across Mt. Cenis, he composed, wholly or partly, his rhymed Letter from Italy to Charles Montagu. This contains some fine touches of description, and is animated by a noble tone of classical enthusiasm. While in Germany he wrote his Dialogues on Medals, which, however, were not published till after his death. These have much liveliness of style and something of the gay humour which the author was afterwards to exhibit more strongly; but they show little either of antiquarian learning or of critical ingenuity. In tracing out parallels between passages of the Roman poets and figures or scenes which appear in ancient sculptures, Addison opened the easy course of inquiry which was afterwards prosecuted by Spence; and this, with the appa- ratus of spirited metrical translations from the classics, gave the work a likeness to his account of his travels. This account, entitled Remarks on Several Parts of Italy, &°c. (1705), he sent home for publication before his own return. It wants altogether the interest of personal narrative: the author hardly ever appears. The task in which he chiefly busies himself is that of exhibiting the illustrations which the writings of the Latin poets, and the antiquities and scenery of Italy, mutually give and re- ceive. Christian antiquities and the monuments of later Italian history had no interest for him. With the year 1704 begins a second era in Addison's life, which extends to the summer of 17 10, when his age was thirty- eight. This was the first term of his official career; and though very barren of literary performance, it not only raised him from indigence, but settled definitely his position as a public man. His correspondence shows that, while on the continent, he had been admitted to confidential intimacy by diplomatists and men of rank; immediately on his return he was enrolled in the Kit-Cat Club, and brought thus and otherwise into communica- tion with the gentry of the Whig party. Although all accounts agree in representing him as a shy man, he was at least saved from all risk of making himself disagreeable in society, by his unassuming manners, his extreme caution and that sedulous desire to oblige, which his satirist Pope exaggerated into a positive fault. His knowledge and ability were esteemed so highly as to confirm the expectations formerly entertained of his usefulness in public business; and the literary fame he had already acquired soon furnished an occasion for recommending him to public employment. Though the Whigs were out of office, the administration which succeeded them was, in all its earlier changes, of a complexion so mixed and uncertain that the influence of their leaders was not entirely lost. Not long after Marlborough's great victory at Blenheim, it is said that Godolphin, the lord treasurer, expressed to Lord Halifax a desire to have the great duke's fame extended by a poetical tribute. Halifax seized the opportunity of recommending Addison as the fittest man for the duty; stipulating, we are told, that the service should not be unrewarded, and doubtless satisfy- ing the minister that his protege possessed other qualifications for office besides dexterity in framing heroic verse. The Cam- paign (December 1704), the poem thus written to order, was received with extraordinary applause; and it is probably as good as any that ever was prompted by no more worthy in- spiration. It has, indeed, neither the fiery spirit which Dryden threw into occasional pieces of the sort, nor the exquisite polish that would have been given by Pope, if he had stooped to make such uses of his genius; but many of the details are pleasing; and in the famous passage of the Angel, as well as in several others, there is even something of force and imagination. The consideration covenanted for by the poet's friends was faithfully paid. A vacancy occurred by the death of another celebrated man, John Locke; and Addison was appointed one of the five commissioners of appeal in Excise. The duties of the place must have been as light for him as they had been for his predecessor, for he continued to hold it with all the appointments ADDISON 185 he subsequently received from the same ministry. But there is no reason for believing that he was more careless than other public servants in his time; and the charge of incompetency as a man of business, which has been brought so positively against him, cannot easily be true as to this first period of his official career. Indeed, the specific allegations refer exclusively to the last years of his life; and, if he had not really shown practical ability in the period now in question, it is not easy to see how he, a man destitute alike of wealth, of social or fashion- able liveliness and of family interest, could have been promoted, for several years, from office to office, as he was, till the fall of the administration to which he was attached. In 1706 he became one of the under-secretaries of state, serving first under Sir Charles Hedges, who belonged to the Tory section of the govern- ment, and afterwards under Lord Sunderland, Marlborough's son-in-law, and a zealous follower of Addison's early patron, Somers. The work of this office, however, like that of the commissionership, must often have admitted of performance by deputy; for in 1707, the Whigs having become stronger, Lord Halifax was sent on a mission to the elector of Hanover ; and, besides taking Vanbrugh the dramatist with him as king- at-arms, he selected Addison as his secretary. In 1708 Addison entered parliament, sitting at first for Lostwithiel, but after- wards for Malmesbury, which he represented from 17 10 till his death. Here unquestionably he did fail. What part he may have taken in the details of business we are not informed; but he was always a silent member, unless it be true that he once attempted to speak and sat down in confusion. In 1708 Lord Wharton, the father of the notorious duke, having been named lord-lieutenant of Ireland, Addison became his secretary, re- ceiving also an appointment as keeper of records. This event happened only about a year and a half before the dismissal of the ministry. But there are letters showing that Addison made himself acceptable to some of the best and most distinguished persons in Dublin; and he escaped without having any quarrel with Swift, his acquaintance with whom had begun some time before. In his literary history those years of official service are almost a blank, till we approach their close. Besides furnishing a pro- logue to Steele's comedy of The Tetider Husband (1705), he admittedly gave him some assistance in its composition; he defended the government in an anonymous pamphlet on The Present State of the War (1707); he united compliments to the all-powerful Marlborough with indifferent attempts at lyrical poetry in his opera of Rosamond; and during the last few months of his tenure of office he contributed largely to the Taller. His entrance on this new field nearly coincides with the beginning of a new period in his life. Even the coalition-ministry of Godolphin was too Whiggish for the taste of Queen Anne; and the Tories, the favourites of the court, gained, both in parlia- mentary power and in popularity out of doors, by a combination of lucky accidents, dexterous management and divisions and double-dealing among their adversaries. The real failure of the prosecution of Addison's old friend Sacheverell completed the ruin of the Whigs; and in August 17 10 an entire revolution in the ministry had been completed. The Tory administration which succeeded kept its place till the queen's death in 1714, and Addison was thus left to devote four of the best years of his life, from his thirty-ninth year to his forty-third, to occupations less lucrative than those in which his time had recently been frittered away, but much more conducive to the extension of his own fame and to the benefit of English literature. Although our information as to his pecuniary affairs is very scanty, we are entitled to believe that he was now independent of literary labour. He speaks, in an extant paper, of having had (but lost) property in the West Indies; and he is understood to have inherited something from a younger brother, who had been governor of Madras. In 1711 he purchased, for £10,000, the estate of Bilton, near Rugby — the place which afterwards be- came the residence of Mr Apperley, better known by his assumed name of " Nimrod." During those four years he produced a few political writings. Soon after the fall of the ministry, he started the Whig Examiner in opposition to the Tory Examiner, then conducted by Prior, and afterwards the vehicle of Swift's most vehement invectives against the party he had once belonged to. These are certainly the most ill-natured of Addison's writings, but they are neither lively nor vigorous, and the paper died after five numbers (14th* September to 12th October 17 10). There is more spirit in his allegorical pamphlet, The Trial and Conviction of Count Tariff. But from the autumn of 17 10 till the end of 17 14 his principal employment was the composition of his celebrated periodical essays. The honour of inventing the plan of such compositions, as well as that of first carrying the idea into execution, belongs to Richard Steele, who had been a schoolfellow of Addison at the Charterhouse, continued to be on intimate terms with him after- wards and attached himself with his characteristic ardour to the same political party. When, in April 1709, Steele published the first number of the Taller, Addison was in Dublin, and knew nothing of the design. He is said to have detected his friend's authorship only by recognizing, in the sixth number, a critical remark which he remembered having himself communicated to Steele. Shortly afterwards he began to furnish hints and sugges- tions, assisted occasionally and finally wrote regularly. Accord- ing to Mr Aitken (Life of Steele, i. 248), he contributed 42 out of the total of 271 numbers, and was part-author of 36 more. The Taller exhibited, in more ways than one, symptoms of being an experiment. For some time the projector, imitating the news- sheets in form, thought it prudent to give, in each number, news in addition to the essay; and there was a want, both of unity and of correct finishing, in the putting together of the literary materials. Addison's contributions, in particular, are in many places as lively as anything he ever wrote; and his style, in its more familiar moods at least, had been fully formed before he returned from the continent. But, as compared with his later pieces, these are only what the painter's loose studies and sketches are to the landscapes which he afterwards constructs out of them. In his invention of incidents and characters, one thought after another is hastily used and hastily dismissed, as if he were putting his own powers to the test or trying the effect of various kinds of objects on his readers; his most ambitious flights, in the shape of allegories and the like, are stiff and inanimate; and his favourite field of literary criticism is touched so slightly, as to show that he still wanted confidence in the taste and knowledge of the public. The Taller was dropped in January 1711, but only to be followed by the Spectator, which was begun on the 1st day of March, and appeared every week-day till the 6th day of December 1 71 2. It had then completed the 555 numbers usually collected in its first seven volumes, and of these Addison wrote 274 to Steele's 236. He co-operated with Steele constantly from the very opening of the series; and they devoted their whole space to the essays. They relied, with a confidence which the extra- ordinary popularity of the work fully justified, on their power of exciting the interest of a wide audience by pictures and reflexions drawn from a field which embraced the whole compass of ordi- nary life and ordinary knowledge, no kind of practical themes being positively excluded except such as were political, and all literary topics being held admissible, for which it seemed possible to command attention from persons of average taste and infor- mation. A seeming unity was given to the undertaking, and curiosity and interest awakened on behalf of the conductors, by the happy invention of the Spectator's Club, for which Steele made the first sketch. The figure of Sir Roger de Coverley, how- ever, the best even in the opening group, is the only one that was afterwards elaborately depicted; and Addison was the author of most of the papers in which his oddities and amiabilities are so admirably delineated. Six essays are by Steele, who gives Sir Roger's love-story, and one paper by Budgell describes a hunting party. To Addison the Spectator owed the most natural and elegant, if not the most original, of its humorous sketches of human character and social eccentricities, its good-humoured satires on ridiculous features in manners and on corrupt symptoms in public taste; these topics, however, making up a department i86 ADDISON in which Steele was fairly on a level with his more famous co- adjutor. But Steele had neither learning, nor taste, nor critical acuteness sufficient to qualify him for enriching the series with such literary disquisitions as those which Addison insinuated so often into the lighter matter of his essays, and of which he gave 'an elaborate specimen in his criticism on Paradise Lost. Still farther beyond the powers of Steele were those speculations on the theory of literature and of the processes of thought analogous to it, which, in the essays " On the Pleasures of the Imagination," Addison prosecuted, not, indeed, with much of philosophical depth, but with a sagacity and comprehensiveness which we shall undervalue much unless we remember how little of philosophy was to be found in any critical views previously propounded in England. To Addison, further, belong those essays which (most frequently introduced in regular alternation in the papers of Saturday) rise into the region of moral and religious meditation, and tread the elevated ground with a step so graceful as to allure the reader irresistibly to follow; sometimes, as in the " Walk through Westminster Abbey," enlivening solemn thought by gentle sportiveness ; sometimes flowing on with an uninterrupted sedateness of didactic eloquence, and sometimes shrouding sacred truths in the veil of ingenious allegory, as in the " Vision of Mirza." While, in short, the Spectator, if Addison had not taken part in it, would probably have been as lively and humor- ous as it was, and not less popular in its own day, it would have wanted some of its strongest claims on the respect of posterity, by being at once lower in its moral tone, far less abundant in literary knowledge and much less vigorous and expanded in thinking. In point of style, again, the two friends resemble each other so closely as to be hardly distinguishable, when both are dealing with familiar objects, and writing in a key not rising above that of conversation. But in the higher tones of thought and composition Addison showed a mastery of language raising him very decisively, not above Steele only, but above all his con- temporaries. Indeed, it may safely be said, that no one, in any age of English literature, has united, so strikingly as he did, the colloquial grace and ease which mark the style of an accom- plished gentleman, with the power of soaring into a strain of expression nobly and eloquently dignified. On the cessation of the Spectator, Steele set on foot the Guar- dian, which, started in March 1713, came to an end in October, with its 175th number. To this series Addison gave 53 papers, being a very frequent writer during the latter half of its progress. None of his essays here aim so high as the best of those in the Spectator; but he often exhibits both his cheerful and well- balanced humour and his earnest desire to inculcate sound principles of literary judgment. In the last six months of the year 1714, the Spectator received its eighth and last volume; for which Steele appears not to have written at all, and Addison to have contributed 24 of the 80 papers. Most of these form, in the unbroken seriousness both of their topics and of their manner, a contrast to the majority of his essays in the earlier volumes; but several of them, both in this vein and in one less lofty, are among the best known, if not the finest, of all his essays. Such are the " Mountain of Miseries " ; the antediluvian novel of " Shalum and Hilpa"; the " Reflections by Moonlight on the Divine Perfections." In April 17 13 Addison brought on the stage, very reluctantly, as we are assured, and can easily believe, his tragedy of Cato. Its success was dazzling; but this issue was mainly owing to the concern which the politicians took in the exhibition. The Whigs hailed it as a brilliant manifesto in favour of constitutional free- dom. The Tories echoed the applause, to show themselves enemies of despotism, and professed to find in Julius Caesar a parallel to the formidable Marlborough. Even with such ex- trinsic aids, and the advantage derived from the established fame of the author, Cato could never have been esteemed a good dramatic work, unless in an age in which dramatic power and insight were almost extinct. It is poor even in its poetical elements, and is redeemed only by the finely solemn tone of its moral reflexions and the singular refinement and equable smooth- ness of its diction. That it obtained the applause of Voltaire must be ascribed to the fact that it was written in accordance with the rules of French classical drama. The literary career of Addison might almost be held as closed soon after the death of Queen Anne, which occurred in August 1 7 14, when he had lately completed his 42nd year. His own life extended only five years longer; and in this closing portion of it we are reminded of his more vigorous days by nothing but a few happy inventions interspersed in political pamphlets, and the gay fancy of a trifling poem on Kneller's portrait of George I. The lord justices who, previously chosen secretly by the elector of Hanover, assumed the government on the queen's demise, were, as a matter of course, the leading Whigs. They appointed Addison to act as their secretary. He next held, for a very short time, his former office under the Irish lord-lieu- tenant; and, late in 1716, he was made one of the lords of trade. In the course of the previous year had occurred the first of the only two quarrels with friends, into which the prudent, good- tempered and modest Addison is said to have ever been betrayed. His adversary on this occasion was Pope, who, a few years before, had received, with an appearance of humble thankfulness, Addison's friendly remarks on his Essay on Criticism (Spectator, No. 253); but who, though still very young, was already very famous, and beginning to show incessantly his literary jealousies and his personal and party hatreds. Several little misunder- standings had paved the way for a breach, when, at the same time with the first volume of Pope's Iliad, there appeared a translation of the first book of the poem bearing the name of Thomas Tickell. Tickell, in his preface, disclaimed all rivalry with Pope, and declared that he wished only to bespeak favour- able attention for his contemplated version of the Odyssey. But the simultaneous publication was awkward; and Tickell, though not so good a versifier as Pepe, was a dangerous rival, as being a good Greek scholar. Further, he was Addison's Under-Secre- tary and confidential friend; and Addison, cautious though he was, does appear to have said (quite truly) that Tickell's trans- lation was more faithful than the other. Pope's anger could not be restrained. He wrote those famous lines in which he de- scribes Addison under the name of Atticus, and although it seems doubtful whether he really sent a copy to Addison himself, he afterwards went so far as to profess a belief that the rival translation was really Addison's own. Addison, it is pleasant to observe, was at the pains, in his Freeholder, to express hearty approbation of the Iliad of Pope, who, on the contrary, after Addison's death, deliberately printed his matchlessly malignant verses in the" Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot." In 17 16 there was acted, with little success, Addison's comedy of The Drummer, or the Haunted House. It contributes very little to his fame. From September 171 5 to June 1716 he defended the Hanoverian succession, and the proceedings of the government in regard to the rebellion, in a paper called the Freeholder, which he wrote entirely himself, dropping it with the 55th number. It is much better tempered, not less spirited and much more able in thinking than his Examiner. The finical man of taste does indeed show himself to be sometimes weary of discussing con- stitutional questions; but he aims many enlivening thrusts at weak points of social life and manners; and the character of the Fox-hunting Squire, who is introduced as the representative of the Jacobites, is drawn with so much humour and force that we regret not being allowed to see more of him. In August 1 7 16, when he had completed his 44th year, Addison married Charlotte, countess-dowager of Warwick, a widow of fifteen years' standing. She seems to have forfeited her jointure by the marriage, and to have brought her husband nothing but the occupancy of Holland House at Kensington. The assertion that the courtship was a long one is probably as erroneous as the contemporary rumour that the marriage was unhappy. Such positive evidence as exists tends rather to the contrary. What seems clear is, that, from obscure causes, — among which it is alleged a growing habit of intemperance was one, — Addison's health was shattered before he took the last, and certainly the most unwise, step in his ascent to political power. ADDISON'S DISEASE 187 For a considerable time dissensions had existed in the ministry; and these came to a crisis in April 1717, when those who had been the real chiefs passed into the ranks of the opposition. Townshend was dismissed, and Walpole anticipated dismissal by resignation. There was now formed, under the leadership of General Stanhope and Lord Sunderland, an administration which, as resting on court-influence, was nicknamed the "German ministry." Sunderland, Addison's former superior, became one of the two principal secretaries of state; and Addison him- self was appointed as the other. His elevation to such a post had been contemplated on the accession of George I., and pre- vented, we are told, by his own refusal; and it is asserted, on the authority of Pope, that his acceptance now was owing only to the influence of his wife. Even if there is no ground, as there probably is not, for the allegation of Addison's inefficiency in the details of business, his unfitness for such an office in such circumstances was undeniable and glaring. It. was impossible that a government, whose secretary of state could not open his lips in debate, should long face an opposition headed by Robert Walpole. The decay of Addison's health, too, was going on rapidly, being, we may readily conjecture, precipitated by anxiety, if no worse causes were at work. Ill-health was the reason assigned for retirement, in the letter of resignation which he laid before the king in March 17 18, eleven months after his appointment. He received a pension of £1500 a year. Not long afterwards the divisions in the Whig party alienated him from his oldest friend. The Peerage Bill, introduced in February 17 19, was attacked, on behalf of the opposition, in a weekly paper called the Plebeian, written by Steele. Addison answered the attack in the Old Whig, and this helium plusquam civile — as Johnson calls it — was continued, with increased acrimony, through two or three numbers. How Addison* who was dying, felt after this painful controversy we are not told directly; but the Old Whig was excluded from that posthumous collection of his works (1 721-17 26) for which his executor Tickell had received from him authority and directions. It is said that the quarrel in politics rested on an estrangement which had been growing for some years. According to a rather nebulous story, for which Johnson is the popular authority, Addison, or Addison's lawyer, put an execution for £100 in Steele's house by way of reading his friend a lesson on his extravagance. This well-meant interference seems to have been pardoned by Steele, but his letters show that he resented the favour shown to Tickell by Addison and his own neglect by the Whigs. The disease under which Addison laboured appears to have been asthma. It became more violent after his retirement from office, and was now accompanied by dropsy. His deathbed was placid and resigned, and comforted by those religious hopes which he had so often suggested to others, and the value of which he is said, in an anecdote of doubtful authority, to have now inculcated in a parting interview with his step-son. He died at Holland House on the 17th of June 1710, six weeks after having completed his 47th year. His body, after lying in state, was interred in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey. Addison's life was written in 1843 by Lucy Aikin. This was reviewed by Macaulay in July of the same year. A more modern study is that m the " Men of Letters " series by W. J. Courthope (1884). There is a convenient one-volume edition of the Spectator, by Henry Morley (Routledge, 1868), and another in 8 vols. (1897-1898) by G. Gregory Smith. Of the Tatter there is an edition by G. A. Aitken in 8 vols. (1898). A complete edition of Addison's works (based upon Hurd) is included in Bohn's British Classics. (W. S. ; A. D.) ADDISON'S DISEASE, a constitutional affection manifesting itself in an exaggeration of the normal pigment of the skin, asthenia, irritability of the gastro-intestinal tract, and weakness and irregularity of the heart's action: these symptoms being due to loss of function of the suprarenal glands. It is important to note, however, that Addison's Disease may occur without pigmentation, and pigmentation without Addison's Disease. The condition was first recognized by Dr Thomas Addison of Guy's Hospital, who in 1855 published an important work on The Constitutional and Local Effects of Diseases of the Suprarenal Capsules. Sir Samuel Wilks worked zealously in obtaining re- cognition for these observations in England, and Brown-Sequard in France was stimulated by this paper to investigate the physiology of these glands. Dr Trousseau, many years later, first called the condition by Addison's name. Dr Headlam Greenhow worked at the subject for many years and embodied his observations in the Croonian Lectures of 1875. But from this time on no further work was undertaken until the discovery of the treatment of myxoedema by thyroid extract, and the consequent researches into the physiology of the ductless glands. This stimulated renewed interest in the subject, and work was carried on in many countries. But it remained for Schafer and Oliver of University College, London, to demonstrate the in- ternal secretion of the suprarenals, and its importance in normal metabolism, thereby confirming Addison's original view that the disease was due to loss of function of these glands. They demonstrated that these glands contain a very powerful extract which produces toxic effects when administered to animals, and that an active principle " adrenalin " can be separated, which excites contraction of the small blood vessels and thus raises blood pressure. The latest views of this disease thus stand: (1) that it is entirely dependent on suprarenal disease, being the result of a diminution or absence of their internal secretion, or else of a perversion of their secretion; or (2) that it is of nervous origin, being the result of changes in or irritation of the large sympathetic plexuses in the abdomen; or else (3) that it is a combination of glandular inadequacy and sympathetic irritation. The morbid anatomy shows (1) that in over 80% of the cases the changes in the suprarenals are those d.ue to tuber- culosis, usually beginning in the medulla and resulting in more or less caseation; and that this lesion is bilateral and usually secondary to tuberculous disease elsewhere, especially of the spinal column. In the remaining cases (2) simple atrophy has been noted, or (3) chronic interstitial inflammation which would lead to atrophy; and finally (4) an apparently normal condition of the glands, but the neighbouring sympathetic ganglia diseased or involved in a mass of fibrous tissue. Other morbid conditions of the suprarenals do not give rise to the symptoms of Addison's Disease. The onset of the disease is extremely insidious, a slow but increasing condition of weakness being complained of by the patient. There is a feeble and irregular action of the heart resulting in attacks of syncope which- may prove fatal. Blood pressure is extremely low. From time to time there may be severe attacks of nausea, vomiting or diarrhoea. The best known symptom, but one which only occurs after the disease has made considerable progress, is a gradually increasing pig- mentation of the skin, ranging from a bronzy yellow to brown or even occasionally black. This pigmentation shows itself (1) over exposed parts, as face and hands; (2) wherever pigment appears normally, as in the axillae and round the nipples; (3) wherever pressure is applied, as round the waist; and (4) occa- sionally on mucous membranes, as in the mouth. The patient's temperature is usually somewhat subnormal. The disease is found in males far more commonly than in females, and among the lower classes more than the upper. But this latter fact is probably due to poor nourishment and bad hygienic conditions rendering the poorer classes more susceptible to tuberculosis. The diagnosis, certainly in the early stages of the disease, and often in the later, is by no means easy. Pigmentation of the skin occurs in many conditions — as in normal pregnancy, uterine fibroids, abdominal growths, certain cases of heart disease, exophthalmic goitre, &c, and after the prolonged use of certain drugs — as arsenic and silver. But the presence of a low blood pressure with weakness and irritability of the heart and some of the preceding symptoms render the diagnosis fairly certain. The latest researches on the subject tend to indicate a more certain diagnosis in the effect on the blood pressure of adminis- tering suprarenal extract, the blood pressure of the normal subject being unaffected thereby, that of the man suffering from suprarenal inadequacy being markedly raised. The disease is treated by promoting the general health in every possible way ; i88 ADDRESS— ADELAIDE by diet; by tonics, especially arsenic and strychnine; by atten- tion to the hygienic conditions; and always by the adminis- tration of one of the many preparations of the suprarenal gland extract. "ADDRESS, THE," an English parliamentary term for the reply of the Houses of Parliament (and particularly of the House of Commons) to the speech of the sovereign at the opening of a new parliament or session. There are certain formalities which distinguish this stage of parliamentary proceedings. The " king's speech " itself is divided into three sections: the first, addressed to " My Lords and Gentlemen," touches on foreign affairs; the second, to the " Gentlemen of the House of Com- mons," has reference to the estimates; the third, to " My Lords and Gentlemen," outlines the proposed legislation for the session. Should the sovereign in person open parliament, he does so in the House of Lords in full state, and the speaker and members of the House of Commons are summoned there into the royal presence. The sovereign then reads his speech. If the sovereign is not present in person, the speech is read by commission. The Commons then return to their House, and an address in answer is moved in both Houses. The government of the day selects two of its supporters in each House to move and second the address, and when carrying out this honourable task they appear in levee dress. Previous to the session of 1890- 1 89 1 , the royatspeech was answered paragraph by paragraph, but " the address " is now moved in the form of a single resolution, thanking the sovereign for his most gracious speech. The debate on the address is used as a means of ranging over the whole government policy, amendments being introduced by the opposi- tion. A defeat on an amendment to the address is generally regarded by the government as a vote of no-confidence. After the address is agreed to it is ordered to be presented to the sovereign. The thanks of the sovereign for the address are then conveyed to the Lords by the lord steward of the household and to the Commons by the comptroller of the household. ADELAER, or Adeler (Norwegian for " eagle "), the surname of honour given on his ennoblement to Kurt Sivertsen (1622- 1675), the famous Norwegian-Danish naval commander. He was born at Brevig in Norway, and at the age of fifteen became a cadet in the Dutch fleet under van Tromp, after a few years entering the service of the Venetian Republic, which was engaged at the time in a war with Turkey. In 1645 he had risen to the rank of captain; and after sharing in various victories as commander of a squadron, he achieved his most brilliant success at the Dardanelles, on the 13th of May 1654, when, with his own vessel alone, he broke through the line of Turkish galleys, sank fifteen of them, and burned others, causing a loss to the enemy of 5000 men. . The following day he entered Tenedos, and compelled the complete surrender of the Turks. On returning to Venice he was crowned with honours, and became admiral-lieutenant in 1660. Numerous tempting offers were made to him by other naval powers, and in 1661 he left Venice to return to the Netherlands. Next year he was induced, by the offer of a title and an enormous salary, to accept the command of the Danish fleet from Frederick III. Under Christian V. he took the command of the combined Danish fleets against Sweden, but died suddenly on the 5th of November 1675 at Copenhagen, before the expedition set out. When in the Venetian service, Adelaer was known by the name of Curzio Suffrido Adelborst (i.e. Dutch for " naval cadet "). ADELAIDE (Ger. Adelheid) (931-999), queen of Italy and empress, was the daughter of Rudolph II. of Burgundy and of Bertha, daughter of Duke Burchard of Swabia. On the death of Rudolph in 937, his widow married Hugh, king of Italy, to whose son Lothair Adelaide was at the same time betrothed. She was married to him in 947; but after an unhappy union of three years Lothair died (November 22, 950). The young widow, re- markable for her character and beauty, was seized by Lothair's successor, Berengar II., margrave of Ivrea, who, angered probably at her refusal to marry his son Adalbert and thus secure his title to the Italian kingdom, kept her in close confinement at Como. After four months (August 951), she escaped, and took refuge at Canossa with Atto, count of Modena-Reggio (d. 981). Mean- while Otto I., the German king, whose English wife Edgitha had died in 946, had formed the design of marrying her and claiming the Italian kingdom in her right, as a step towards the revival of the empire of Charlemagne. In September 951, accordingly, he appeared in Italy, Adelaide willingly accepted his invitation to meet him at Pavia and at the close of the year the fateful union was celebrated. From the first her part in German affairs was important. To her are ascribed the in- fluences which led in 953 to the revolt of Ludolf, Otto's son by his first marriage, the crushing of which in the following year established Adelaide's power. On the 2nd of February 962 she was crowned empress at Rome by Pope John XII. immediately after her husband, and she accompanied Otto in 966 on his third expedition to Italy, where she remained with him for six years. After Otto I.'s death (May 7, 973), Adelaide exercised for some years a controlling influence over her son, the new emperor, Otto II. The causes of their subsequent estrangement are ob- scure, but it was possibly due to the empress's lavish expenditure in charity and church building, which endeared her to ecclesiastics but was a serious drain on the imperial finances. In 978 she left the court and lived partly in Italy, partly with her brother Conrad, king of Burgundy, by whose mediation she was ulti- mately reconciled to her son. In 983, shortly before his death, she was appointed his viceroy in Italy; and was successful, in concert with the empress Theophano, widow of Otto II., and Archbishop Willigis of Mainz, in defending the right of her infant grandson, Otto III., to the German crown against the pretensions of Henry the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria. In June 984 the infant king was handed over by Henry to the care of the two empresses; but the masterful will of Theophano soon obtained the upper hand, and until the death of the Greek empress, on the 15th of June 991, -Adelaide had no voice in German affairs. She now assumed the regency, in concert with Bishop Willigis and a council of princes of the Empire, and held it until in 995 Otto was declared of age. In 996 the young king went to Italy to receive the imperial crown; and from this date Adelaide ceased to concern herself with worldly affairs, but devoted herself to pious exercises, to intimate correspondence with the abbots Majolus and Odilo of Cluny, and the foundation of churches and religious houses. She died on the 1 7th of December 999, and was buried in the convent of SS. Peter and Paul, her favourite foundation, at Salz in Alsace. She was proclaimed a saint by the grateful German clergy; but her name has never found a place in the Roman calendar. Like her daughter-in-law Theo- phano and other exalted ladies of this period, Adelaide possessed considerable literary attainments {literatissima erat), and her knowledge of Latin was of use to Otto I., who only learned the language late in life and remained to the end a poor scholar. By the emperor Otto I. she had four children: Otto II. (d. 983), Mathilda, abbess of Quedlinburg (d. 999)., Adelheid (Adelaide), abbess of Essen (d. 974), and Liutgard, who married Conrad II., duke of Franconia, and died in 955. Adelaide's life ( Vita or Epitaphium A dalheidae imperatricis) was written by St Odilo of Cluny. It is valuable only for the latter years of the empress, after she had retired from any active share in the world's affairs. The rest of her life is merely outlined, though her adventures in escaping from Berengar are treated in more detail. The best edition is in Duchesne, Bibhotheca Cluniacensis , pp. 353- 362. See Giov. Batt. Semeria, Vita politico-religiosa di s. Adeletda, &c. (Turin, 1842) ; Jul. Bentzinger, Das Leben der Kaiserin Adelheid . . . wahrend der Regierung Ottos III., Inaug. Dissertation (Breslau, 1883); J. J. Dey, Hist, de s. Adelaide, &c. (Geneva, 1862); F. P. Wimmer, Kaiserin Adelheid, Gemahlin Ottos I. des Grossen (Regensb. 1889) ; Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1904). Further references in Chevalier, Repertoire des sources historiques (Paris, 1903). ADELAIDE, the capital of South Australia. It is situated in the county to which it gives name, on the banks of the river Torrens, 7 m. from its mouth. Its site is a level plain, near the foot of the Mount Lofty range, in which Mount Lofty itself reaches 2334 ft. The broad streets of the city intersect at right angles. It is divided into North Adelaide, the residential, and South Adelaide, the business quarter. A broad strip of park ADELARD— lands lies between them, through which runs the river Torrens, crossed by five bridges and greatly improved by a dam on the west of the city. The banks are beautifully laid out. Broad belts of park lands surround both North and South Adelaide, and as the greater portion of these lands is planted with fine shady trees, this feature renders Adelaide one of the most attractive cities in Australasia. South Adelaide is bounded by four broad terraces facing north, south, east and west. The main thoroughfare, King William Street, runs north and south, passing through Victoria Square, a small park in the centre of the city. Handsome public buildings are numerous. Govern- ment House stands in grounds on the north side of North Ter- race, with several other official buildings in the vicinity; but the majority are in King William Street. Here are the town hall, with the lofty Albert Tower, and the general post office, with the Victoria Tower — which, with the old and new Govern- ment offices, the Roman Catholic cathedral of St Francis Xavier and the court houses, surround Victoria Square. On North Terrace are the houses of parliament, and the institute, containing a public library and museum. Here is also Adelaide University, established by an act of 1874, and opened in 1876. The existing buildings were opened in 1882. Munificent gifts have from time to time assisted in the extension of its scope, as for example that of Sir Thomas Elder (d. 1897), who took a leading part in the foundation of the university. This gift, among other provisions, enabled the Elder Conservatorium of Music to be established, the building for which was opened in 1900. In 1903 a building for the schools of engineering and science was opened. The total number of students in the university approaches 1000. To the east of the university is the building in which the exhibition was held in commemoration of the jubilee of the colony in 1887. This building is occupied by the Royal Agricultural and Horti- cultural Society, a technical museum, &c. The school of mines and industries (1903) stands east of this again. The buildings of the numerous important commercial, social and charitable institutions add to the dignity of the city. The Anglican cathe- dral of St Peter (1878) is in North Adelaide. The Botanical Park, which has an area of 84 acres, lies on the south bank of the Torrens, on the east of the city. It includes the Zoological Garden, is beautifully laid out and forms one of the most attractive features of Adelaide. The city has a number of good statues, chief among which are copies of the Farnese Hercules (Victoria Square) and of Canova's Venus (North Terrace) , statues of Queen Victoria and Robert Burns, Sir Thomas Elder's statue at the university, and a memorial (1905) over the grave of Colonel Light, founder of the colony, in Light Square. Adelaide is governed by a mayor and six aldermen elected by the whole body of the ratepayers, and is the only Australian city in which the mayor is so elected. The chief industries are the manufacture of woollen, earthenware and iron goods, brewing, starch-making, flour-milling and soap-boiling. Adelaide is also the central share market of Australia, for West Australian gold- mines, for the silver-mines at Broken Hill, and for the copper- mines at Wallaroo, Burra Burra and Moonta; while Port Adelaide, on the neighbouring shore of St Vincent Gulf, ranks as the third in the Commonwealth. Adelaide is the terminus of an extensive railway system, the main line of which runs through Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane to Rockhampton. In summer the climate is often oppressively hot under the influence of winds blowing from the interior, but the proximity of the sea on the one side and of the mountains on the other allows the inhabitants to avoid the excessive heat; at other seasons, however, the climate is mild and pleasant; with a mean annual rainfall of 20-4 ins. The vice-regal summer residence is at Marble Hill, on the Mount Lofty range. Adelaide was founded in 1836 and incorporated in 1843. It received its name at the desire of King William IV., in honour of Queen Adelaide. Round the city are many pleasant suburbs, connected with it by rail and tramways; the chief of these are Burnside, Beaumont, Unley, Mitcham, Goodwood, Plymton, Hindmarsh, Prospect, St Peters, Norwood and Kensington. Glenelg is a favourite watering-place. The population of the city proper was 39,240 ■O HERG 189 in 1 901; of the city and suburbs within a 10-miles radius, 162,261. ADELARD (or Aethelard) of Bath (12th century), English scholastic philosopher, and one of the greatest savants of medieval England. He studied in France at Laon and Tours, and travelled, it is said, through Spain, Italy, North Africa and Asia Minor, during a period of seven years. At a time when Western Europe was rich in men of wide knowledge and intel- lectual eminence, he gained so high a reputation that he was described by Vincent de Beauvais as Philosophus Anglorum. He lived for a time in the Norman kingdom of Sicily and returned to England in the reign of Henry I. From the Pipe Roll (31 Henry I. 1130) it appears that he was awarded an annual grant of money from the revenues of Wiltshire. The great interest of Adelard in the history of philosophy lies in the fact that he made a special study of Arabian philosophy during his travels, and, on his return to England, brought his knowledge to bear on the current scholasticism of the time. He has been credited with a knowledge of Greek, and it is said that his translation of Euclid's Elements was made from the original Greek. It is probable, however, from the nature of the text, that his authority was aa Arabic version. This important work was published first at Venice in 1482 under the name of Campanus of Novara, but the work is always attributed to Adelard, Campanus may be re- sponsible for some of the notes. It became at once the text-book of the chief mathematical schools of Europe, though its critical notes were of little value. His Arabic studies he collected under the title Perdifficiles Quaestiones Naturales, printed after 1472. It is in the form of a dialogue between himself and his favourite nephew, and was dedicated to Richard, bishop of Bayeux from ni3 to 1 133. He wrote also treatises on the astrolabe (a copy of this is in the British Museum), on the abacus (three copies exist in the Vatican library, the library of Leiden University and the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris), translations of the Kharismian Tables and an Arabic Introduction to Astronomy. His great contribution to philosophy proper was the De Eodem et Diver so {On Identity and Difference) , which is in the form of letters addressed to his nephew. In this work philosophy and the world are personified as Philosophia and Philocosmia im conflict for the soul of man. Philosophia is accompanied by the liberal arts, represented as Seven Wise Virgins; the world by Power, Pleasure, Dignity, Fame and Fortune. The work deals with the current difficulties between nominalism and realism, the relation between the individual and the genus or species. Adelard regarded the individual as the really existent, and yet, from different points of view, as being himself the genus and the species. He was either the founder or the formulator of the doctrine of indifference, according to which genus and species retain their identity in the individual apart altogether from particular idiosyncrasies. For the relative importance of this doctrine see article Scholasticism. See Jourdain, Kech.erch.es sur les traductions d'Aristote (2nd ed., 1843); Haureau, Philosophic scolastique (2nd ed., 1872), and works appended to art. Scholasticism. ADELSBERG (Slovene Poslojina), a market- town in Carniola, Austria, 30 m. S.S.W. of Laibach by rail. Pop. (1900) 3636, mostly Slovene. About a mile from the town is the entrance to the famous stalactite cavern of Adelsberg, the largest and most magnificent in Europe. The cavern is divided into four grottoes, with two lateral ramifications which reach to the dis- tance of about a mile and a half from the entrance. The river Poik enters the cavern 60 ft. below its mouth, and is heard murmuring in its recesses. In the Kaiser-Ferdinand grotto, the third of the chain, a great ball is annually held on Whit-Monday, when the chamber is brilliantly illuminated. The Franz- Joseph- Elisabeth grotto, the largest of the four, and the farthest from the entrance, is 665 ft. in length, 640 ft. in breadth and more than 100 ft. high. Besides the imposing proportions of its chambers, the cavern is remarkable for the variegated beauty of its stalactite formations, some resembling transparent drapery, others waterfalls, trees, animals or human beings, the more grotesque being called by various fanciful appellations. These 190 ADELWQ— ADENES< subterranean wonders were known as far bade as 1213, but the cavern remained undiscovered in modern times until 18.16, and it is only in still more recent times that its vast extent has been fully ascertained and explored. The total length of the passages is- now estimated at over 5$ m. The connexion with the Ottokar grotto was established in 1800. The Magdalene grotto, about an hour's walk to the north, is celebrated for the extraordinary subterranean amphibian, the proteus anguinus, first discovered there. It is about a foot in length, lives on snails and worms and is provided with both lungs and gills. ADELUNG, JOHANN CHRISTOPH (1732-1806), German grammarian and philologist, was born at Spantekow, in Pomer- ania, on the 8th of August 1732, and educated at the public schools of Anklam and Klosterbergen, and the university of Halle. In 1759 he was appointed professor at the gymnasium of Erfurt, but relinquished this situation two years later and went to reside in a private capacity at Leipzig, where he devoted him- self to philological researches. In 1787 he received the appoint- ment of principal librarian to the elector of Saxony at Dresden, where he continued to reside until his death on the 10th of September 1806. The writings of Adelung are very voluminous, and there is not one of them, perhaps, which does not exhibit some proofs of the genius, industry and erudition of the author. By means of his excellent grammars, dictionary and various works on German style, he contributed greatly towards rectifying the ortho- graphy, refining the idiom and fixing the standard of his native tongue. His German dictionary — Grammatisch-kritisches Worter- buch der hochdeutschen Mundart (1774-1786)— bears witness to the patient spirit of investigation which Adelung possessed in so remarkable a degree, and to his intimate knowledge of the history of the different dialects on which modern German is based. No man before Jakob Grimm (q.v.) did so much for the language of Germany. Shortly before his death he issued Mithridates, oder allgcmeine Sprachenkunde ( 1 806) . The hint of this work appears to have been taken from a publication, with a similar title, pub- lished by Konrad von Gesner (1316-1565) in 1555; but the plan of Adelung is much more extensive. Unfortunately he did not live to finish what he had undertaken. The first volume, which contains the Asiatic languages, was published immediately after his death; the other two were issued under the superintendence of Johann Severin Vater (1771-1826). Of the very numerous works by Adelung the following may be noted: Directorium diplomaticum (Meissen, 1802); Deutsche Sprachlehre ftir Schulen (Berlin, 1781), and the periodical, Magazin fur die deutsche Sprache (Leipzig, 1782-1784). ADEMPTION (Lat. ademptio, from adimere, a taking away), in law, a revocation of a grant or bequest (see Legacy). ADEN, a seaport and territory in Arabia, politically part of British India, under the governor of Bombay. The seaport is situated in 12° 45' N. lat., and 45 4' E. long., on a peninsula near the entrance to the Red Sea, 100 m. E. of the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. The peninsula of Aden consists chiefly of a mass of barren and desolate volcanic rocks, extending five miles from east to west, and three from its northern shore to Ras Sanailah or Cape Aden, its most southerly point; it is connected with the mainland by a neck of flat sandy ground only a few feet high; and its greatest elevation is Jebel Shamshan, 1776 ft. above the level of the sea. The town is built on the eastern coast, in what is probably the crater of an extinct volcano, and is surrounded by precipitous rocks that form an admirable natural defence. There are two harbours, an outer, facing the town, protected by the island of Sirah, but now partially choked with mud; and an inner, called Aden Back-bay, or, by the Arabs, Bandar Tawayih, on the western side of the peninsula, which at all periods of the year admits vessels drawing less than 20 ft. On the whole, Aden is a healthy place, although it suffers considerably from the want of good water, and the heat is often very intense. From time to time additional land on the mainland has been acquired by cession or purchase, and the adjoining island of Perim, lying in the actual mouth of the Strait, was permanently occupied in 1857. Farther inland, and along the coast,: most of the Arab chiefs are under the political control, of the British government, which pays them regular allowances. The area of the peninsula is only 15 sq. m., but the total area of British territory is returned at 80 sq. m., including Perim (5 sq. m.), and that of the Aden Protectorate is about 9000 sq. m. The seaport of Aden is strongly fortified. Modern science has converted " Steamer Point " into a seem- ingly impregnable position, the peninsula which the " Point " forms to the whole crater being cut off by a fortified line which runs from north to south, just to the east of the coal wharfs. The administration is conducted by a political resident, who is also the military commandant. Ail food requires to be imported, and the water-supply is largely derived from condensation. A little water is obtained from wells, and some from an aqueduct 7 m. long, constructed in 1867 at a cost of £30,000, besides an irregular supply from the old -reservoirs. From its admirable commercial and military position, Aden early became the chief entrepot of the trade between Europe and Asia. It is the 'Apafiia ev8a.lfi.a3v of the Periplus. It was known to the Romans as Arabia Felix and Attanae, and was captured by them, probably in the year 24 B.C. In 1513 it was unsuccess- fully attacked by the Portuguese under Albuquerque, but sub- sequently it fell into the hands of the Turks in 1538. In the following century the Turks themselves relinquished their con- quests in Yemen, and the sultan of Sana established a supremacy over Aden, which was maintained until the year 1735, when the sheikh of Lahej, throwing off his allegiance, founded a line of independent sultans. In 1837 a ship under British colours was wrecked near Aden, and the crew and passengers grievously maltreated by the Arabs. An explanation of the outrage being demanded by the Bombay government, the sultan undertook to make compensation for the plunder of the vessel, and also agreed to sell his town and port to the English. Captain Haines of the Indian navy was sent to complete these arrangements, but the sultan's son refused to fulfil the promises that his father had made, A combined naval and miltary force was thereupon despatched, and the place was captured and annexed to British India on the 16th of January 1839. The withdrawal of the trade between Europe and the East, caused by the discovery of the passage round' the Cape of Good Hope, and the misgovern- ment of the native rulers, had gradually reduced Aden to a state of comparative insignificance ; but about the time of its capture by the British the Red Sea route to India was reopened, and commerce soon began to flow in its former channel, Aden was made a free port, and was chosen as one of the coaling stations of the Peninsular and Oriental Steamship Company. Its im- portance as a port of call for steamers and a coaling station has grown immensely since the opening of the Suez Canal. It also conducts a considerable trade with the interior of Arabia, and with the Somali coast of Africa on the opposite side of the Red Sea'. The submarine cables of the Eastern Telegraph Company here diverge — on the one hand to India, the Far East and Australia, and on the other hand to Zanzibar and the Cape. In 1839 the population was less than 1000, but in 1901 it had grown to 43,974. The gross revenue(i9oi-i902) was Rs. 37,25,91 5. There are three printing-presses, of which one is in the gaol and the other two belong to a European and a Parsee firm of mer- chants. The port is visited yearly by some 1300 steamers with a tonnage of 2 J million tons. The principal articles of import are coffee, cotton-piece goods, &c, grain, hides, coal, opium, cotton- twist and yarn. The exports are, in the main, a repetition of the imports. Of the total imports neany one-third come from the east coast of Africa, and another third from Arabia. Of the total exports, nearly one-third again go to the east coast of Africa. The Aden brigade belongs to the western army corps of India. ADENES (Adenez or Adans), surnamed LE ROI, French trouvere, was born in Brabant about 1240. He owed Lis educa- tion to the kindness of Henry III.; duke of Brabant, and he re- mained in favour at court for some time after the death (1261) of his patron. In 1269 he entered the service of Guy de Dampierre,, afterwards count of Flanders, probably as roi des menestreh, ADENINE— Aj&J^ivfAR 191 and followed him in the next year on the abortive crusade in Tunis in which Louis IX. lost his life. The expedition returned by way of Sicily and Italy, and Adenes has left in his poems some very exact descriptions of the places through which he passed. The purity of his French and the absence of provincial- isms point to a long residence in France, and it has been suggested that Adenes may have followed Mary of Brabant thither on her marriage with Philip the Bold. He seems, however, to have remained in the service of Count Guy, although he made frequent visits to Paris to consult the annals preserved in the abbey of St Denis. The poems written by Adenes are four: the Enfances Ogier, an enfeebled version of the Ckevalerie Ogier de Danemarcke written by Raimbert de Paris at the beginning of the century; Berte aus granspies, the history of the mother of Charlemagne, founded on well-known traditions which are also preserved in the anonymous Chronique de France, and in the Chronique rimie of Philippe Mousket; Bueves de Comarchis, belonging to the cycle of romance gathered round the history of Aimeri de Narbonne; and a long roman d'aventures, Cliomades, borrowed from Spanish and Moorish traditions brought into France by Blanche, daughter of Louis IX., who after the death of her Spanish husband returned to the French court. Adenes probably died before the end of the 13th century. The romances of Adenes were edited for the Academie Imp6riale et Royale of Brussels by A. Scheler and A. van Hasselt in 1874; Berte was rendered into modern French by G. Hecq (1897) and by R. Perie(i90o) ; CUomadis , by Le Chevalier de Chatelain (1859). See also the edition of Berte by Paulin Paris (1832); an article by the same writer in the Hist. litt. de la France, vol. xx. pp. 679-718; Leon Gautier, Les epopees francaises, vol. iii., &c. ADENINE, or 6-Amino-purin, C5H5N5, in chemistry, a basic substance which has been obtained as a decomposition product of nuclein, and also from the pancreatic glands of oxen. It has been synthesized by E. Fischer (Berichte, 1897, 30, p. 2238) by heating 2.6.8-trichlorpurin with 10 times its weight of ammonia for six hours at ioo° C; by this means 6-amino-2.8-dichlor- purin is obtained, which on reduction by means of hydriodic acid and phosphonium iodide is converted into adenine. In 1898 E. Fischer also obtained it from 8-oxy-2.6-dichlorpurin \Berichte, 1898, 31, p. 104). It crystallizes in long needles; forms ialts C 5 H 5 N 6 -2HI and (C 6 H s N 5 )s-H 2 SOv2H20, and is converted by nitrous acid into hypoxanthine or 6-oxypurin. On heating with hydrochloric acid at 180-200 C. it is decomposed; the products of the reaction being glycocoll, ammonia, formic acid and carbon dioxide. Various methyl derivatives of adenine have been described by E. Fischer (Berichte, 1898, 31, p. 104) and by M. Kruger (Zeit. ftir physiol. Chemie, 1894, 18, p. 434). For the constitution of adenine see Purin. ADENOIDS, or Adenoid growths (from Gr. adevoeiSris, glandu- lar), masses of soft, spongy tissue between the back of the nose and throat, occurring mostly in young children; blocking the air-way, they prevent the due inflation of the lungs and the proper development of the chest. The growths are apt to keep up a constant catarrh near the orifice of the ventilating tubes which pass from the throat to the ear, and so render the child dull of hearing or even deaf. They also give rise to asthma, and like enlarged tonsils — with which they are often associated — they impart to the child a vacant, stupid expression, and hinder his physical and intellectual development. They cause his voice to be " stuffy," thick, and unmusical. Though, except in the case of a cleft palate, they cannot be seen with the naked eye, tney are often accompanied by a visible and suggestive granular condition of the wall at the back of the throat. Their presence may easily be determined by the medical attendant gently hooking the end of the index-finger round the back of the soft palate. If the tonsils are enlarged it is kinder to post- pone this digital examination of the throat until the child is under the influence of an anaesthetic for operation upon the tonsils, and if adenoids are present they can be removed at the same time that the tonsils are dealt with. Though the disease is a comparatively recent discovery, the pioneer in its treatment being Meyer of Copenhagen, it has probably existed as long as tuberculosis itself, with which affection it is somewhat distantly connected. In the unenlightened days many children must have got well of adenoids without operation, and even a* the present time it by no means follows that because a child has these post- nasal vegetations he must forthwith be operated on. The con- dition is very similar to that of enlarged tonsils, where with time, patience and attention to general measures, operation is often rendered unnecessary. But if the child continues to breathe with his mouth open and to snore at night, if he remains deaf and dull, and is troubled with a chronic " cold in his head," the question of thorough exploration of the naso-pharynx and of a surgical operation should most certainly be considered. In recent years the comparatively simple operation for their re- moval has been very frequently performed, and, as a rule, with marked benefit, but this treatment should always be followed by a course of instruction in respiratory exercises; the child must be taught regularly to fill his lungs and make the tidal air pass through the nostrils. These respiratory exercises may be resorted to before operation is proposed,- and in some cases they may render operative treatment unnecessary. Operations should not be performed in cold weather or in piercing east winds, and it is advisable to keep the child indoors for a day or two subsequent to its performance. To expose a child just after operating on his throat to the risks of a journey by train or omnibus is highly inadvisable. Although the operation is not a very painful one, it ought not to be performed upon a child except under the influence of chloroform or some other general anaesthetic. (E. O.*) ADEPT (if used as a substantive pronounced adept, if as an adjective adept; from Lat. odeptus, one who has attained), completely and fully acquainted with one's subject, an expert. The word implies more than acquired proficiency, a natural inborn aptitude. In olden times an adept was one who was versed in magic, an alchemist, one who had attained the great secrets of the unknown. ADERNO, a town of the province of Catania, Sicily, 22 m. N.W. of the town of that name. Pop. (1901) 25,859. It occupies the site of the ancient Adranon, which took its name from Adranos, a god probably of Phoenician origin, in Roman times identified with Vulcan, whose chief temple was situated here, and was guarded by a thousand huge gods; there are perhaps some substructures of this building still extant outside the town. The latter was founded about 400 B.C. by Dionysius I.; very fine remains of its walls are preserved. For a time it was the headquarters of Timoleon, and it was the first town taken by the Romans in the First Punic War (263 B.C.). In the centre of the modern town rises the castle, built by Roger I.; in the chapel are frescoes representing his granddaughter, Adelasia, who founded the convent of St Lucia in 1157, taking the veil. The columns in the principal church are of black lava. See P. Russo, Illustrazione storica di Aderno (Aderno, 1897). ADEVISM, a term introduced by Max Miiller to imply the denial of gods (Sans, deva), on the analogy of Atheism, the denial of God. Max Miiller used it particularly in connexion with the Vedanta philosophy for the correlative of ignorance or nescience (Gifford lectures, 1892, c. ix.). ADHlJMAR DE CHABANNES (c. 988-c. 1030), medieval his- torian, was born about 988 at Chabannes, a village in the French department of Haute- Vienne. Educated at the monastery of St Martial at Limoges, he passed his life as a monk, either at this place or at the monastery of St Cybard at Angouleme. He died about 1030, most probably at Jerusalem, whither he had gone on a pilgrimage. Adhemar's life was mainly spent in writing and transcribing chronicles, and his principal work is a his- tory entitled Chronicon Aquitanicum et Francicum or Historia Francorum. This is in three books and deals with Frankish history from the fabulous reign of Pharamond, king of the Franks, to a.d. 1028. The two earlier books are scarcely more than a copy of the Gesta regum Francorum, but the third book, which deals with the period from 814 to 1028, is of considerable his- torical importance. This is published in the Monumenta Ger- maniae historica. Scriptores. Band iv. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826- 1892). He also wrote Commemoratio abbatum Lemovicensium 192 ADHEMAR—ADIRONDACKS basilicae S. Martialis apostoli (848-1029) and Epistola ad Jordanum Lemovicensem episcopum et alios de apostolatu S. Martialis, both of which are published by J. P. Migne in the Patrologia Latina, tome cxli. (Paris, 1844-1855). See F. Arbellot, Etude historique et litteraire sur Ademar de Cha- bannes (Limoges, 1873); J. F. E. Castaigne, Dissertation sur le lieu de naissance et sur la famille du chroniqueur Ademar, moine de I'abbaye de St Cybard d ' Angouleme (Angoul6me, 1850). ADHEMAR (Ademar, Aimar, Aelarz) DE MONTEIL (d. 1098), one of the principal personages of the first crusade, was bishop of Puy en Velay from before 1087. At the council of Clermont in 1095 he showed great zeal for the crusade, and hav- ing been named apostolic legate by the pope, he accompanied Raymond IV., count of Toulouse, to the east. He negotiated with Alexis Comnenus at Constantinople, re-established at Nicaea some discipline among the crusaders, caused the siege of Antioch to be raised and died in that city of the plague on the 1st of August 1098. See the article by C. Kohler in La Grande Encyclopedie; Biblio- graphie du Velay (1902), 640-650. ADHESION (from Lat. adhaerere, to adhere), the process of adhering or clinging to anything. In a figurative sense, adhesion (like "adherent") is used of any attachment to a party or move- ment; but the word is also employed technically in psychology, pathology and botany. In psychology Bain and others use it of association of idtfas and action; in pathology an adhesion is an abnormal union of surfaces; and in botany "adhesion" is used of dissimilar parts, e.g. in floral whorls, in opposition to "cohesion," which applies to similar parts, e.g. of the same whorl. ADIAPHORISTS (Gr. d&d^opos, indifferent) . The Adiaphorist controversy among Lutherans was an issue of the provisional scheme of compromise between religious parties, pending a general council, drawn up by Charles V., sanctioned at the diet of Augsburg, 15th of May 1548, and known as the Augsburg Interim. It satisfied neither Catholics nor Protestants. As head of the Protestant party the young elector Maurice of Saxony negotiated with Melanchthon and others, and at Leipzig, on the 22nd of December 1548, secured their acceptance of the Interim as regards adiaphora (things indifferent), points neither enjoined nor forbidden in Scripture. This sanctioned jurisdic- tion of Catholic bishops, and observance -of certain rites, while all were to accept justification by faith (relegating sola to the adiaphora). This modification was known as the Leipzig In- terim; its advocates were stigmatized as Adiaphorists. Pas- sionate opposition was led by Melanchthon's colleague, Matth. Flacius, on the grounds that the imperial power was not the judge of adiaphora, and that the measure was a trick to bring back popery. From Wittenberg he fled, April 1549, to Magde- burg, making it the headquarters of rigid Lutheranism. Practi- cally the controversy was concluded by the religious peace ratified at Augsburg (Sept. 25, 1555), which left princes a free choice between the rival confessions, with the right to impose either on their subjects; but much bitter internal strife was kept up by Protestants on the theoretical question of adiaphora; to appease this was one object of the Formula Concordiae, 1577. Another. Adiaphorist controversy between Pietists and their opponents, respecting the lawfulness of amusements, arose in 1681, when Anton Reiser (1628-1686) denounced the opera as antichristian. See arts, by J. Gottschick in A. Hauck's Realencyklopadie (1896) ; by Fritz in I. Goschler's Diet. Encyclop. de la Theol. Cath. (1858); other authorities in J. C. L. Gieseler, Ch. Hist. (N. York ed., 1868, vol. iv.); monograph by Erh. Schmid, Adiaphora, wissenschaftlich und historisch untersucht (1809), from the rigorist point of view. ADIGE (Ger. Etsch, anc. A thesis), a considerable river in North Italy. The true source of the Adige is in some small lakes on the summit of the Reschen Scheideck Pass (4902 ft.), and it is swollen by several other streams, near Glurns, where the roads over the Ofen and the Stelvio Passes fall in. It thence flows east to Meran, and then south-east to Botzen, where it receives the Eisak (6 ft.), and becomes navigable. It then turns south-west, and, after receiving the Noce (right) and the Avisio (left), leaves Tirol, and enters Lombardy, 13 m. south of Rovereto. After traversing North Italy, in a direction first southerly and then easterly, it falls into the Adriatic at Porto Fossone, a few miles north of the mouth of the Po. The most considerable towns on its banks (south of Botzen) are Trent and Rovereto, in Tirol, and Verona and Legnago, in Italy. It is a very rapid river, and subject to sudden swellings and overflowings, which cause great damage to the surrounding country. It is navigable from the heart of Tirol to the sea. In Lombardy it has a breadth of 200 yds., and a depth of 10 to 16 ft., but the strength of the current renders its navigation very difficult, and lessens its value as a means of transit between Germany and Italy. The Adige has a course of about 220 m., and, after the Po, is the most important river in Italy. In Roman times it flowed, in its lower course, much farther north than at present, along the base of the Euganean hills, and entered the sea at Brondolo. In a.d. 587 the river broke its banks, and the main stream took its present course, but new streams opened repeatedly to the south, until now the Adige and the Po form conjointly one delta. (W. A. B. C.) ADIPOCERE (from the Lat. adeps, fat, and cera, wax), a substance into which animal matter is sometimes converted, and so named by A. F. Fourcroy, from its resemblance to both fat and wax. When the Cimetiere des Innocens at Paris was removed in 1786-1787, great masses of this substance were found where the coffins containing the dead bodies had been placed very closely together. The whole body had been converted into this fatty matter, except the bones, which remained, but were extremely brittle. Chemically, adipocere consists princi- pally of a mixture of fatty acids, glycerine being absent. Saponi- fication with potash liberates a little ammonia (about 1%), and gives a mixture of the potassium salts of palmitic, margaric and oxymargaric acids. The insoluble residue consists of lime, &c, derived from the tissues. The artificial formation of adipo- cere has been studied; it appears that it is not formed from albuminous matter, but from the various fats in the body collecting together and undergoing decomposition. ADIRONDACKS, a group of mountains in north-eastern New York, U.S.A., in Clinton, Essex, Franklin and Hamilton counties, often included by geographers in the Appalachian system, but pertaining geologically to the Laurentian highlands of Canada. They are bordered on the E. by Lake Champlain, which separates them from the Green Mountains. Unlike the Appalachians, the Adirondacks do not form a connected range, but consist of many summits, isolated or in groups, arranged with little appearance of system. There are about one hundred peaks, ranging from 1200 to 5000 ft. in height; the highest peak, Mt. Marcy (called by the Indians Tahawus or "cloud-splitter"), is near the eastern part of the group and attains an elevation of 5344 ft. Other noted peaks are MTntyre (5210 ft.), Haystack (4918), Dix (4916) and Whiteface (4871). These mountains, consisting of various sorts of gneiss, intrusive granite and gabbro, have been formed partly by faulting but mainly by erosion, the lines of which have been determined by the presence of faults or the presence of relatively soft rocks. Lower Palaeozoic strata lap up on to the crystalline rocks on all sides of the mountain group. The region is rich in magnetic iron ores, which though mined for many years are not yet fully developed. Other mineral products are graphite, garnet used as an abrasive, pyrite and zinc ore. The mountains form the water-parting between the Hudson and the St Lawrence rivers. On the south and south- west the waters flow either directly into the Hudson, which rises in the centre of the group, or else reach it through the Mohawk. On the north and east the waters reach the St Lawrence by way of Lakes George and Champlain, and on the west they flow directly into that stream or reach it through Lake Ontario. The most important streams within the area are the Hudson,' Black, Oswegatchie, Grass, Raquette, Saranac and Ausable rivers. The region was once covered, with the exception of the higher summits, by the Laurentian glacier, whose erosion, while perhaps having little effect on the larger features of the country, has greatly modified it in detail, producing lakes and ponds, whose number is said to exceed 1300, and causing many falls and rapids in the streams. Among the larger lakes are the Upper and Lower ADIS ABABA— 7&>j UTANT J 93 Saranac, Big and Little Tupper, Schroon, Placid, Long, Raquette and Blue Mountain. The region known as the Adirondack Wilderness, or the Great North Woods, embraces between 5000 and 6000 sq. m. of mountain, lake, plateau and forest, which for scenic grandeur is almost unequalled in any other part of the United States. The mountain peaks are usually rounded and easily scaled, and as roads have been constructed over their slopes and in every direction through the forests, all points of interest may be easily reached by stage. Railways penetrate the heart of the region, and small steamboats ply upon the larger lakes. The surface of most of the lakes lies at an elevation of over 1500 ft. above the sea; their shores are usually rocky and irregular, and the wild scenery within their vicinity has made them very attractive to the tourist. The mountains are easily reached from Plattsburgh, Port Kent, Herkimer, Malone and Saratoga Springs. Every year thousands spend the summer months in the wilderness, where cabins, hunting lodges, villas and hotels are numerous. The resorts -most frequented are in the vicinity of the Saranac and St Regis lakes and Lake Placid. In the Adirondacks are some of the best hunting and fishing grounds in the eastern United States. Owing to the restricted period allowed for hunting, deer and small game are abundant, and the brooks, rivers, ponds and lakes are well stocked with trout and black bass. At the head of Lake Placid stands Whiteface Mountain, from whose summit one of the finest views of the Adirondacks may be obtained. Two miles south- east of this lake, at North Elba, is the old farm of the abolitionist John Brown, which contains his grave and is much frequented by visitors. Lake Placid is the principal source of the Ausable river, which for a part of its course flows through a rocky chasm from 100 to 175 ft. deep and rarely over 30 ft. wide. At the head of the Ausable Chasm are the Rainbow Falls, where the stream makes a vertical leap of 70 ft. Another impressive feature of the Adirondacks is Indian Pass, a gorge about eleven miles long, between Mt. MTntyre and Wallface Mountain. The latter is a majestic cliff rising vertically from the pass to a height of 1300 ft. Keene Valley, in the centre of Essex county, is another picturesque region, presenting a pleasing combination of peaceful valley and rugged hills. Though the climate during the winter months is very severe — the temperature sometimes falling as low as -42 F. — it is beneficial to persons suffering from pulmonary troubles, and a number of sanitariums have been established. The region is heavily forested with spruce, pine and broad-leaved trees. Lumbering is an important industry, but it has been much restricted by the creation of a state forest preserve, containing in 1907, 1,401,482 acres, and by the purchase of large tracts for game preserves and recreation grounds by private clubs. The so-called Adirondack Park, containing over 3,000,000 acres, includes most of the state preserve and large areas held in private ownership. For a description of the Adirondacks, see S. R. Stoddard, The Adirondacks Illustrated (24th ed., Glen Falls, 1894); and E. R. Wallace, Descriptive Guide to the Adirondacks (Syracuse, 1894). For geology and mineral resources consult the Reports of the New York State Geologist and the Bulletins of the New York State Museum. ADIS ABABA ("the new flower''), the capital of Abyssinia and of the kingdom of Shoa, in 9 1' N., 38 56' E., 220 m. W. by S. of Harrar, and about 450 m. S.W. of Jibuti on the Gulf of Aden. Adis Ababa stands on the southern slopes of the Entotto range, at an altitude of over 8000 ft., on bare, grassy undulations, watered by small streams flowing S.S.E. to the Hawash. It is a large straggling encampment rather than a town, with few buildings of any architectural merit. The Gebi or royal enclosure completely covers a small hill overlooking the whole neighbour- hood, while around it are the enclosures of the abuna and principal nobles, and the residences of the foreign ministers. The principal traders are Armenians and Hindus. About a mile north-east of the palace is the military camp. On the hills some five miles to the north, 1 500 ft. above the camp, are the ruins of an old fortress, and the churches of St Raguel and St Mariam. The town is in telegraphic communication with Massawa, Harrar and Jibuti. It was founded by Menelek II. in 1892 as the capital of his king- 1-7 dom in succession to Entotto, a deserted settlement some ten or twelve miles north of Adis Ababa. ADJECTIVE (from the Lat. adjectivus, added), a word used chiefly in its grammatical sense of limiting or defining the noun to which it refers. Formerly grammarians used not to separate a noun from its adjective, or attribute, but spoke of them to- gether as a noun-adjective. In the art of dyeing, certain colours are known as adjective colours, as they require mixing with some basis to render them permanent. " Adjective law " is that which relates to the forms of procedure, as opposed to " sub- stantive law," the rules of right administered by a court. ADJOURNMENT (through the French from the Late Lat. adjumare, to put off until or summon for another day), the act of postponing a meeting of any private or public body, par- ticularly of parliament, or any business, until another time, or indefinitely (in which case it is an adjournment sine die). The word applies also to the period during which the meeting or business stands adjourned. ADJUDICATION (Lat. adjudicalio; adjudicare, to award), generally, a trying or determining of a case by the exercise of judicial power; a judgment. In a more technical sense, in English and American law, an adjudication is an order of the bankruptcy courts by which a debtor is adjudged bankrupt and his property vested in a trustee. It usually proceeds from a resolutiqn of the creditors or where no composition or scheme of arrangement has been proposed by the debtor. It may be said to consummate bankruptcy, for not till then does a debtor's property actually vest in a trustee for division among the creditors, though from the first act of bankruptcy till adjudica- tion it is protected by a receiving order. As to the effect which adjudication has on the bankrupt, see under Bankruptcy. The same process in Scots law is called sequestration. In Scots law the term " adjudication " has quite a different meaning, being the name of that action by which a creditor attaches the heritable, i.e. the real, estate of his debtor, or his debtor's heir, in order to appropriate it to himself either in payment or security of his debt. The term is also applied to a proceeding of the same nature by which the holder of a heritable right, labouring under any defect in point of form, gets that defect supplied by decree of a court. ADJUNCT (from Lat. ad, to, and jungere, to join), that which is joined on to another, not an essential part, and inferior to it in mind or function, but which nevertheless amplifies or modifies it. Adverbs and adjectives are adjuncts to the words they qualify. Learning, says Shakespeare, is an " adjunct to our- self " (Love's Labour's Lost, IV. iii. 314). Twelve members of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris are called " adjuncts." ADJUSTMENT (from late Lat. ad-juxtare, derived from juxla, near, but early confounded with a supposed derivation from Justus, right}, regulating, adapting or settling; in commercial law, the settlement of a loss incurred at sea on insured goods. The calculation of the amounts to be made good to and paid by the several interests is a complicated matter. It involves much detail and arithmetic, and requires a full and accurate knowledge of the principles of the subject. Such adjustments are made by men called adjusters, who make the subject their profession. In Great Britain they are for the most part members of the Average Adjusters' Association (1870), a body which has done much careful work with a view to making and keeping the practice uniform and in accord with right principles. This association has gradually formulated, at their annual meetings, a body of practical rules which the individual members undertake to observe. (See Average and Insurance, Marine.) ADJUTAGE (from Fr. ajutage, from ajouter, to join on; an older English form was " adjustage "), a mouthpiece or nozzle, so formed as to facilitate the outflow of liquids from a vessel or pipe. (See Hydraulics.) ADJUTANT (from Lat. adjutare, to aid), a helper or junior in command, one who assists his superior, especially an officer who acts as an assistant to the officer commanding a corps of troops. In the British army the appointment of adjutant is held by a captain or lieutenant. The adjutant acts as staff officer to i 9 4 ADJUTANT-^NERAL— ADMIRAL the commanding officer, issues his orders, superintends the work of the orderly room and the general administration of the corps, and is responsible for musketry duties and the training of recruits. Regular officers are appointed as adjutants to all units of the auxiliary forces. On the European continent the word is not restricted to the lower units of organization; for example, in Germany the Adjutanlur includes all " routine " as distinct from " general " staff officers in the higher units, and the aides-de- camp of royal persons and of the higher commanders are also styled adjutant-generals, fliigel-adjutanten, &c. For the so-called adjutant bird see Jabiru. ADJUTANT-GENERAL, an army official, originally (as indicated by the word) the chief assistant (Lat. adjuvare) staff-officer to a general in command, but now a distinct high functionary at the head of a special office in the British and American war departments. In England the second military member of the Army Council is styled adjutant-general to the forces. He is a general officer and at the head of his department of the War Office, which is charged with all duties relative to personnel. The adjutant-general of the United States army is one of the principal officers in the war department, the head of the bureau for army correspondence, with the charge of the records, recruiting, issue of commissions, &c. Individual Ameri- can states also have their own adjutant-general, with cognate duties regarding the state militia. In many countries, such as Germany and Russia, the term has retained its original meaning of an officer on the personal staff, and is the designation of per- sonal aides-de-camp to the sovereign. By a looseness of translation, the superintendents of provinces, in the order of Jesuits, who act as officials under the superin- tendence of and auxiliary to the general, are sometimes called adjutants-general. ADLER, FELIX (1851- ), American educationalist, was born at Alzey, Germany, on the 13th of August 1851. His father, a Jewish rabbi, emigrated to the United States in 1857, and the son graduated at Columbia College in 1870. After completing his studies at Berlin and Heidelberg, he became, in 1874, professor of Hebrew and Oriental Literature at Cornell University. In 1876 he established in New York City the Society for Ethical Culture, to the development and extension of which he devoted a great deal of time and energy, and before which he delivered a regular Sunday lecture. In 1902 he became professor of political and social ethics at Columbia University. He also acted as one of the editors of the International Journal of Ethics. Under his direction the Society for Ethical Culture became an important factor in educational reform in New York City, exercising through its technical training school and kinder- garten (established in January 1878) a wide influence. Dr Adler also took a prominent part in philanthropic and social reform movements, such as the establishment of a system of district nursing, the erection of model tenement houses, and tenement house reform. He published Creed and Deed (1877), The Moral Instruction of Children (1892), Life and Destiny (1903), Marriage and Divorce (1905), and The Religion of Duty (1905). ADMETUS, in Greek legend, son of Pheres, king of Pherae in Thessaly. By the aid of Apollo, who served him as a slave — either as a punishment for having slain the Cyclopes, or out of affection for his mortal master — he won the hand of Alcestis, the most beautiful of the daughters of Pelias, king of Iolcus. When Admetus was attacked by an illness that threatened to lead to his premature death, Apollo persuaded the Moerae (Fates) to prolong his life, provided any one could be found to die in his place. His parents refused, but Alcestis consented. She is said to have been rescued from the hands of Death by Heracles, who arrived upon the scene at an opportune moment; a later story represents her as cured of a dangerous illness by his skill. Homer, Iliad, ii. 715; Apollodorus, i. 9; Euripides, Alcestis; Plutarch, Amatorius, 17; Dissel, Der Mythus von Admetos und Alkestis, progr. Brandenburg, 1882. ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve), the perform- ance or management of affairs, a term specifically used in law for the administration or disposal of the estate of a deceased person (see Will or Testament) . It is also used generally for " govern- ment," and specifically for " the government " or the executive ' ministry, and in such connexions as theadministration(administer- ing or tendering) of the sacraments, justice, oaths, medicines, &c. Letters of Administration. — Upon the death of a person intestate or leaving a will to which no executors are appointed, or when the executors appointed by the will cannot or will not act, the Probate Division of the High Court is obliged to appoint an administrator who performs the duties of an executor. This is done by the court granting letters of administration to the person entitled. Grants of administration may be either general or limited. A general grant is made where the deceased has died intestate. The order in which general grants of letters will be made by the court is as follows: (1) The husband, or widow, as the case may be; (2) the next of kin; (3) the crown; (4) a creditor; (5) a stranger. Since the Land Transfer Act 1897, the administrator is the real as well as the personal representative of the deceased, and consequently when the estate to be ad- ministered consists wholly or mainly of reality the court will grant administration to the heir to the exclusion of the next of kin. In the absence of any heir or next of kin the crown is entitled to the personality as bona vacantia, and to the reality by escheat. If a creditor claims and obtains a grant he is com- pelled by the court to enter into a bond with two sureties that he will not prefer his own debt to those of other creditors. The more important cases of grants of special letters of ad- ministration are the following: — ■ Administration cum testamento annexo, where the deceased has left a will but has appointed no executor to it, or the executor appointed has died or refuses to act. In this case the court will make the grant to the person (usually the residuary legatee) with the largest beneficial interest in the estate. Administration de bonis non administratis: this occurs in two cases — {a) where the executor dies intestate after probate with- out having completely administered the estate; (b) where an administrator dies. In the first case the principle of administra- tion cum testamento is followed, in the second that of general grants in the selection of the person to whom letters are granted. Administration durante minor e aetate, when the executor or the person entitled to the general grant is under age. Administration durante absentia, when the executor or ad- ministrator is out of the jurisdiction for more than a year. Administration pendente lite, where there is a dispute as to the person entitled to probate or a general grant of letters the court appoints an administrator till the question has been decided. ADMINISTRATOR, in English law, the person to whom the Probate Division of the High Court of Justice (formerly the ordinary or judge of the ecclesiastical court) acting in the sover- eign's name, commits the administration (q.v.) of the goods of a person deceased, in default of an executor. The origin of ad- ministrators is derived from the civil law. Their establishment in England is owing to a statute made in the 31st year of Edward I. (1303). Till then no office of this kind was known besides that of executor; in default of whom, the ordinary had the disposal of goods of persons intestate, &c. (See also Executors, and, for intestate estates, Intestacy.) Administrator, in Scots law, is a person legally empowered to act for another whom the law presumes incapable of acting for himself, as a father for a pupil child. ADMIRAL, the title of the general officer who commands a fleet, or subdivision of a fleet. The origin of the word is un- doubtedly Arabic. In the 1 2th century the Mediterranean states which had close relations with the Moslem powers on the shores or in the islands of that sea, found the title amir or emir in combination with other words used to describe men in au- thority; the amir-al-mumenin — prince of the faithful — or amir- al-bahr — commander of the sea. They took the substantive " amir " and the article " al " to form one word, " amiral " or " ammiral " or " almirante." The Spaniards made mirama- molin, out of amiral-mumenin, in the same way. " Amiral," as the name of an eastern ruler, became familiar to the northern nations during the crusades. Layamon, writing in the early ADMIRALTY ADMlMio i RATION J95 years of the 13th century, speaks of the " ammiral of Babilon," and the word was for long employed in this sense. As a naval title it was first taken by the French from the Genoese during the crusade of 1 249. By the end of the 13th century it had come to be used in England as the name of the officer who commanded the Cinque Port ships. The English form " admiral " arose from popular confusion with the Latin admirabilis. Such errors were naturally produced by the fantastic etymology of the middle ages. In Spain, Alphonso the Wise of Castile, in his code of laws, the Siete Partidas (Seven Divisions), accounts for the Spanish form " almirante " by its supposed derivation from the Latin admirari, since the admiral is " to be admired " for the difficulties and dangers he overcomes, and because he is the chief of those who see the wonders of the Lord in the deep — mirabilia ejus (sc. Domini) in profundo. Both in Spanish and in Elizabethan English the word has been applied to the flagship of an officer commanding a fleet or part of one. The Spanish almiranta is the ship of the second in command, and the capitana of the first. In this sense it is not uncommonly found in the narratives of Elizabethan voyages or campaigns, and it is so used by Milton in Paradise Lost—" the mast of some tall ammiral." As the title of an office it was borne by the. great military, judicial and administrative officer known in France as grand amiral; in England as lord high admiral; in Spain as almirante mayor. His functions, which were wide, have been generally absorbed by the crown, or the state, and have been divided among judicial and administrative officials (see Navy, History; Admiralty Administration; and Admiralty Jurisdiction). The title of admiral is still borne as an hereditary honour by the descendants of Columbus, the dukes of Veraqua, in Spain. It is a purely honorific distinction representing the admiralship of the islands and Ocean Sea, conferred on the discoverer by the Catholic sovereigns, Ferdinand and Isabella. In the staff of a modern navy the admirals correspond to the general officers in the army. Where, as in Russia, the grand admiralship is annexed to the crown, the highest rank is that of lieutenant admiral general. In Great Britain there is the rank of admiral of the fleet, corresponding to field-marshal. It is, however, little more than an honorary distinction. The three active ranks are those of admiral, vice-admiral and rear-admiral, corresponding to general, lieutenant-general and major-general in the army. They are found in all navies under very slightly varied forms. The only difference which is not one of mere spelling is in the equivalent for rear-admiral, which is contre amiral in French, and in other navies of the continent of Europe involves some slight variation of the word " contre " (first used at the time of the French Revolution). The vice- and rear- admiral of Great Britain are again honorary titles, without the active functions, conferred in compliment on senior naval officers. " Admiral " is also the name given to the chief of fishery fleets. On the banks of Newfoundland it was given to officials who had powers conferred by the state. In the case of an ordinary fishing- fleet in European waters, it is of private origin, and is of merely customary use. Authorities. — Sir N. Harris Nicolas, History of the Royal Navy; La Ronciere, Histoire de la marine frangaise; Yonge, Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Zeewezen; C. Fernandez Duro, Historia de lajlrmada de Castilea. (D. H.) ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION. 1. The Administrative System. — That the navy (q.v.) is the only real defence of the British islands has been recognized by English people ever since the days of King Offa, who died in 796, leaving to his successors the admirable lesson that " he who would be secure on land must be supreme at sea." The truth of the lesson thus learnt is sanc- tioned by all the experience of English history, and parliament has repeatedly enforced the fact. The navy is the only force that British can saf e S uar( l tne B ritish islands from hostile descents ; Empire. ^ ' s tne OT ^y f° rce that can protect their vast sea-borne commerce and food supplies; by giving safety to the home country it sets British troops free for operations abroad, md makes their passage secure; and thus, as also by giving command of the sea, the fleet is the means by which the empire is guarded and has become a true imperial bond. It is natural for British admiralty administration to be taken here as the type of an efficient system. British naval administration is conducted by the Board of Admiralty, and the function of that board is the maintenance and expansion of the fleet in accordance with the policy of the government, and the supplying of it with trained B " ard ot officers and men; its distribution throughout the Admiralty. world; and its preservation in readiness and efficiency in all material and personal respects. The character of the Admiralty Board is peculiar to the British constitution, and it possesses certain features which distinguish it from other depart- ments of the state. The business it conducts is very great and complex, and the machinery by which its work is done has grown with the expansion of that business. The whole system of naval administration has been developed historically, and is not the product of the organizing skill of one or a few individuals, but an organic growth possessing marked and special characteristics. The Admiralty Board derives its character from the fact that it represents the lord high admiral, and that its powers and opera- tion depend much more upon usage than upon those instruments which actually give it authority, and which, it may be remarked, are not in harmony among themselves. The executive operations are conducted by a series of civil departments which have under- gone many changes before reaching their present constitution and relation to the Board. The salient characteristic of the admiralty is a certain flexibility and elasticity with which it works. Its members are not, in a rigid sense, heads of depart- ments. Subject to the necessary and constitutional supremacy of the cabinet minister at their head, they are jointly and 00- equally " commissioners for executing the office of high admiral of the United Kingdom, and of the territories thereunto belong- ing, and of high admiral of the colonies and other dominions." The members of the Board are in direct and constant communi- cation with the first lord and with one another, as also with the civil departments which work under their control. It was en- joined by James I. that the principal officers and commissioners of the navy should be in constant communication among them- selves, consulting and advising " by common council and argu- ment of most voices," and should live as near together as could conveniently be, and should meet at the navy office at least twice a week. This system of intercommunication still exists in a manner which no system of minutes could give; and it may be remarked, as illustrative of the flexibility of the system, that a Board may be formed on any emergency by two lords and a secretary, and a decision arrived at then and there. Such an emergency board was actually constituted some years ago on board the admiralty yacht in order to deal on the instant with an event which had just occurred in the fleet. At the same time it must be remarked that, in practice, the first lord being person- ally responsible under the orders in council, the operations of the Board are dependent upon his direction. The present system of administering the navy dates from the time of Henry VIII. The naval business of the country had so greatly expanded in his reign that we find the History Admiralty and Navy Board reorganized or established ; and it is worthy of remark that there existed at the time an ordnance branch, the navy not yet being dependent in that matter upon the War Department. 1 The Navy Board adminis- tered the civil departments under the admiralty, the directive and executive duties of the lord high admiral remaining with the admiralty office. A little later the civil administration was vested in a board of principal officers subordinate to the lord high admiral, and we can henceforth trace the work of civil 1 The Board of Ordnance was originally instituted for the navy, but eventually fell into military hands, to the detriment of the navy — the only navy of any nation that has not full authority over its own ordnance. In 1653, according to Oppenheim, it was, owing to its inefficiency, placed under the admiralty. In 1632 it appears to have been independent, but " still retained that evil pre-eminence in sloth and incapacity it had already earned and has never since lost." ig6 ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION administration being conducted under the navy and victualling boards apart from, but yet subject to, the admiralty itself. This was a system which continued during the time of all the great wars, and was not abolished until 1832, when Sir James Graham, by his reforms, put an end to what appeared a divided control. Whatever may have been the demerits of that system, it sufficed to maintain the navy in the time of its greatest achievements, and through all the wars which were waged with the Spaniards, the Dutch and the French. The original authority for the present constitution of the Admiralty Board is found in a declaratory act (Admiralty Act 1690), in which it is enacted that " all and singular authorities, jurisdictions and powers which, by act of parliament or otherwise, had been lawfully vested " in the lord high admiral of England had always apper- tained, and did and should appertain, to the commissioners for executing the office for the time being " to all intents and pur- poses as if the said commissioners were lord high admiral of England." The admiralty commission was dissolved in 1701, and reconstituted on the death of Prince George of Denmark, lord high admiral in 1 709. From that time forward, save for a short period in 1827-1828, when the duke of Clarence was lord high admiral, the office has. remained in commission. A number of changes have been made since the amalgamation of the admiralty and the Navy Board by Sir James Graham in 1832 (see Navy, History), but the general principle remains the same, and the constitution of the Admiralty Board and civil departments is described below. The Board consists of the first lord and four naval lords with a civil lord, who in theory are jointly responsible, and are accustomed to meet sometimes daily, but at all times frequently; and the system developed provides for the subdivision of labour, and yet for the co-ordi- nated exertion of effort. The system has worked well in practice, and has certainly won the approval and the admiration of many statesmen. Lord George Hamilton said, before the Royal Commission on Civil Establishments, 1887, that " It has this advantage, that you have all departments represented round a table, and that if it is necessary to take quick action, you can do in a few minutes that which it would take hours under another system to do "; and the report of the Royal Commis- sion of 1889 remarked that " The constitution of the Board of Admiralty appears to us well designed, and to be placed under present regulations on a satisfactory footing." The special characteristics of the Admiralty Board which have been described are accompanied by a very peculiar and note- worthy feature, which is not without relation to the untrammelled and undefined operations of the ad- miralty. This feature arises from the discrepancy between the admiralty patent and the orders in council, for the admiralty is not administered according to the terms of the patent which invests it with authority, and its operations raise a singular point in constitutional law. The legal origin of the powers exercised by the first lord and the Board itself is indeed curiously obscure. Under the patent the full power and authority are conferred upon " any two or more " of the commissioners, though, in the patent of Queen Anne, the grant was to " any three or more of you." It was under the Admiralty Act 1832 that two lords received the necessary authority to legalize any action of the Board; but already, under an act of 1822, two lords had been empowered to sign so long as the Board consisted of six members. We therefore find that the legal authority of the Board under the patent is vested in the Board; but in the order in council of the 14th of January 1869 the sole responsibility of the first lord was officially laid down, and in the order in council of the 19th of March 1872 the first lord was made " responsible to your Majesty and to parliament for all the business of the admiralty. " As a matter of fact, the authority of the first lord, independent of his colleagues, had existed in an undefined manner from ancient times. Before a select committee of the House of Commons in 1 86 1 the duke of Somerset stated that he considered the first lord responsible, that he had always " acted under that impres- sion," and that he believed " all former first lords were of this Powers. opinion " ; while Sir James Graham said that " the Board of Admiralty could never work, whatever the patent might be, unless the first lord were supreme, and did exercise constantly supreme and controlling authority." It is not, therefore, sur- prising to find that there has been undoubtedly direct govern- ment without a Board. Thus, in the operations conducted against the French channel ports in 1 803-1804, Lord Melville, then first lord, took steps of great importance without the knowledge of his colleagues, though he afterwards bowed to their views, which did not coincide with his own. Again, when Lord Gambier was sent to Copenhagen in 1807, he was instructed to obey all orders from the king, through the principal secretary of state for war, and in this way received orders to attack Copenhagen, which were unknown to all but the first lord. In a similar way the secretary of the admiralty was despatched to Paris in 1815 with instructions to issue orders as if from the Board of Admiralty when directed to do so by the foreign secretary who accompanied him, and these orders resulted in Napoleon's capture. These instances were cited, except the first of them, by Sir James Graham before the select committee of the House of Commons in 1861, in order to illustrate the elastic powers under the patent which enabled the first lord to take immediate action in matters that concerned the public safety. It is not surprising that this peculiar feature of admiralty administration should have at- tracted adverse criticism, and have led some minds to regard the Board as " a fiction not worth keeping up." Between i860 and 1870 the sittings of the Board ceased to have the effective character they had once possessed. During the administration of Mr Childers, 1 first lord from 1868 to 1871 in Mr Gladstone's cabinet, a new system was introduced by which the free intercommunication of the members of the Board was hampered, and its sittings were quite discontinued. The case of the " Captain " led, however, to a return to the older practice. The " Captain " was a low freeboard masted turret ship, designed by Captain Cowper Phipps Coles, R.N. Competent critics believed that she would be unsafe, and said so before she was built; but the admiralty of Lord Derby's cabinet of 1866 gave their consent to her construction. She was commissioned early in 1870, and capsized in the Bay of Biscay on the 7th of September of that year. Mr Childers, who was nominally re- sponsible for allowing her to be commissioned, distributed blame right and left, largely upon men who had not approved of the ship at all, and had been exonerated from all share of responsi- bility for allowing her to be built. The disaster was justly held to show that a civilian first lord cannot dispense with the advan- tage of constant communication with his professional advisers. When Mr Childers retired from the admiralty in March 1871, his successor, Mr Goschen (Viscount Goschen), reverted to the original system. It cannot be said, however, that the question of ultimate responsibility is well defined. The duke of Somerset, Sir James Graham and Sir Charles Wood, afterwards Lord Halifax, held the view that the first lord was singly and person- ally responsible for the sufficiency of the fleet. Sir Arthur Hood expressed before the House of Commons committee in 1888 the view that the Board collectively were responsible; whilst Sir Anthony Hoskins assigned the responsibility to the first lord alone with certain qualifications, which is a just and reasonable view. 2. Admiralty Organization. — Under the organization which now exists, the Board of Admiralty consists of the first lord, the first and second naval lords, the additional naval lord and controller, the junior naval lord and the civil lord, who are commissioners for executing the office of lord high admiral, and with them are the parliamentary and financial secretary and the permanent secretary. As has been explained, the first lord is responsible under the orders in council to the crown and to parliament for all admiralty business. In the hands of the 1 Admiral Sir Cooper Key, when director of naval ordnance during Mr Childers' administration, observed to the writer that no first lord of the admiralty knew so little of the working of the ad- miralty as Mr Childers, because, owing to the discontinuance of board meetings, he lost the great advantage of hearing the dis- cussion, (r. v. h.) ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION J 9 / other lords and secretaries rest duties very carefully defined, and they direct the civil departments which are the machinery of naval administration. The first naval lord, the second naval lord and the junior naval lord are responsible to the first lord in relation to so much of the business concerning the personnel of the navy and the movements and condition of the fleet as is confided to them, and the additional naval lord or controller is responsible in the same way for the material of the navy; while the parliamentary secretary has charge of finance and some other business, and the civil lord of all shore works — i.e. docks, build- ings, &c. — and the permanent secretary of special duties. The first lord of the admiralty is the cabinet minister through whom the navy receives its political direction in accordance with im- perial policy. He is the representative of the navy in parliament, which looks to him for everything concerned with naval affairs. The members of the Board are his advisers; but if their advice is not accepted, they have no remedy except protest or resigna- tion. It cannot be denied that the responsibility of the members of the Board, if their advice should be disregarded, must cease, and it is sufficiently obvious that the remedy of resignation will not always commend itself to those whose position and advance- ment depend upon the favour of the government. Something will be said a little later concerning the working of the system and the relation of the first lord to the Board in regard to the navy estimates. In addition to general direction and supervision, the first lord has special charge of promotions and removals from the service, and of matters relating to honours and rewards, as well as the appointments of flag officers, captains and other officers of the higher ranks. With him rests also the nomination for the major part to naval cadetships and assistant clerkships. Apart from the first lord, the first naval lord is the most important officer of the Board of Admiralty. It seems to be unquestionable that Sir James Graham was right in describing the senior naval lord as his " first naval adviser." Theoretically, the first naval lord is responsible for the personnel of the fleet; but in practice he is necessarily concerned with the material also as soon as it is put into commission, and with the actual commissioning of it. It is correct to say that he is chiefly con- cerned with the employment of the fleet, though his advice has weight in regard to its character and sufficiency, and is always sought in relation to the shipbuilding programme. Broadly speaking, the first naval lord's duties and authority cover the fighting efficiency and employment of the fleet, and upon him and upon the controller the naval business of the country largely falls. He directs the operations of the admiral superintendent of naval reserves in regard to ships, the hydrographer, the director of naval ordnance, so far as the gunnery and torpedo training establishments are concerned, and the naval intelligence department, and he has charge of all matters relating to dis- cipline. The mobilization of the fleet, both in regard to personnel and material, also falls to him, and among a mass of other busi- ness in his department are necessary preparations for the pro- tection of trade and the fisheries. It will thus be seen that the first naval lord is the chief officer of the Board of Admiralty, and that the operations of the other members of the Board all have relation to his work, which is no other than preparation for war. It may here be remarked that it appears most necessary to change the naval lords frequently, so that there may always be in the Board some one who possesses recent touch with the service afloat. The second naval lord may be regarded as the coadjutor of the first naval lord, with whose operations his duties are very closely related, though, like every other member of the Board, he is subordinate only to the first lord. The duties of the second naval lord are wholly concerned with the personnel of the fleet, the manning of the navy and mobilization. In his hands rests the direction of naval education, training and the affairs of the royal marine forces. The training establishments and colleges are in his hands. He appoints navigating officers and lieutenants to ships (unless they be to command), sub-lieutenants, midship- men and cadets, engineer officers, gunners and boatswains, and supervises the management of the reserve. . In his province is the mobilization of the personnel, including the coastguard and the royal naval reserve. Necessarily, the first and second naval lords work together, and upon occasion can replace each other. 1 Most important are the duties that fall to the additional naval lord and controller. He has charge of everything that concerns the material of the fleet, and his operations are the complement of the work of the first naval lord. A great number of civil departments are directed by the controller, and his survey and supervision extend to the dockyards and building establishments of the fleet. He submits plans to the Board for new ships, and is responsible for carrying into effect its decisions in regard to all matters of construction and equipment. The building operations both in the dockyards and in private yards are therefore under his supervision. In regard to all these matters the director of naval construction and the engineer-in-chief are the heads of the civil departments that carry on the work. Again, the con- troller is responsible in regard to armament — both gunnery and torpedo — and it is the work of his department to see to all gunnery and torpedo fittings, and to magazines, shell-rooms and electric apparatus.. The officer in immediate charge of this branch of the controller's work, under his direction, is the director of naval ordnance. In regard to work at the dockyards (q.v.) the controller is aided by the director of dockyards. He supervises this officer in preparing the programme of work done in the dockyards, the provision of the material required and its appropriation to particular work in accordance with the pro- gramme. Other officers who conduct great operations under the authority and responsibility of the controller are the director of stores, who maintains all necessary supplies of coal and stores at home and abroad, and examines the store accounts of ships, and the inspector of dockyard expense accounts, who has charge of the accounts of dockyard expenditure and seeing that outlay is charged as directed. In regard to the navy estimates, the controller, through his subordinates, is responsible for the preparation and administration of the votes for shipbuilding and naval armaments, except in regard to some sub-headings of the former, and thus in recent years for the expenditure of some- thing like £15,000,000 or over. The junior naval lord has in his hands the very important duties that are concerned with the transport, medical and victualling services, as well as the regulation of hospitals, the charge of coaling arrangements for the fleet and other duties that conduce to the practical efficiency of the navy. He also appoints chaplains, naval instructors, medical officers (except in special cases) and officers of the accountant branch. A vast business in regard to the internal economy of ships greatly occu- pies the junior lord. He has charge, for example, of uniforms, prize-money, bounties, naval savings banks, and pensions to seamen and marines and the widows of naval and marine officers. The work of the junior naval lord places under his direction the director of transports, the director-general of the medical department, the director of victualling, and, in regard to particular matters, the director of stores, the accountant- general, the chaplain of the fleet, and the Intelligence Depart- ment, so far as the junior lord's department is concerned. The civil lord supervises, through the director of works, the Department of Works, dealing with admiralty buildings and works, construction and labour, contracts and purchases of building stores and land. He is also responsible for the civil staff of the naval establishments, except in regard to certain officials, and for duties connected with Greenwich Hospital, compassionate allowances, charitable funds, and business of like character. The accountant-general, in regard to these matters, is directed by him, and the director of Greenwich Hospital is under his authority. The parliamentary and financial secretary is responsible for the finance of the department, the navy estimates and matters of expenditure generally, and is consulted in regard to all matters involving reference to the treasury. His position in regard to 1 The drawback is, that a naval lord can only go on leave by throwing all his work on a colleague already overweighted with work. 198 ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION estimates and expenditure is very important, and the accountant- general is his officer, while he has financial control over the director of contracts. The financial secretary also examines proposals for new expenditure. A most important official of the Board is the permanent secretary, whose office has been described as the " nerve-centre " of the admiralty, since it is the channel through which papers for the lords of the admiralty pass for the intercommunication of departments and for the correspondence of the Board. The tradition of admiralty procedure largely rests with the perma- nent secretary, and it is most important that he should be chosen from one of the branches, and should have served in as many of them as possible, in order that he may possess a thorough knowledge of the theory and practice of the admiralty system. In addition to the secretarial duties of the permanent secretary's department, the permanent secretary has charge of the military, naval and legal branches, each under a principal clerk, the civil branch and the record office. The various branches deal with matters concerning the commissioning of ships and the distribu- tion of the fleet, and the manning and discipline of the navy, with other associated matters, being the channels for the opera- tions of the naval iords. It is a highly important function of the department of the permanent secretary to preserve the inter-related working of the various departments, and to keep unbroken the thread of administration when a new Board is constituted. 3. Business and Responsibility. — The manner in which the Admiralty Board conducts the great operations under its charge has been indicated. It would be impossible here to describe it in detail, though something concerning the civil departments, which are the machinery of naval administration, will be found below. It will, however, indicate the character of admiralty administration if we explain to some extent the conditions which surround the preparation of the estimates and the ship- building programme, the more so because this matter has been the battle-ground of critics and supporters of the admiralty. It has already been pointed out that the naval lords, if they dissent from the estimates that are presented, have no remedy but that of protest or resignation. Into the controversies that have arisen as to the responsibility of the several lords it is unnecessary to enter here. The Admiralty Board possesses, in fact, the character of a council, and its members can only be held responsible for their advice. It has even been contended that, in the circumstances, it should not be incumbent upon them to sign the navy estimates, and there have been instances in which the estimates have been presented to parliament without the signature of certain naval lords. It is in any case obvious, as has been explained above, that the ultimate responsi- bility must always rest with the first lord and the cabinet, by whom the policy of the country is shaped and directed. In the report of the Hartington Commission in 1890 (the chairman of which became 8th duke of Devonshire) to inquire into the civil and professional administration of the Naval and Military Departments, and the relation of these departments to each other and to the treasury, the following recommendation occurs: " On the first lord alone should rest the responsibility of deciding on the provision to be made for the naval re- quirements of the empire, and the existence of a council should be held in no degree to diminish that responsibility." Two conditions primarily rule the determination as to the strength of the navy. They are, the foreign policy of the cabinet, and, on the ground of practical expediency, the amount of money available. " The estimates and strength of the navy," said Rear- Admiral Hotham before the select committee on the navy estimates, 1888, " are matters for the cabinet to determine." " Expense," said Sir Anthony Hoskins, " governs everything." The needs of the empire and financial considerations, as it is scarcely necessary to remark, may prove to be antithetical conditions governing the same problem, and in practice it follows that the Admiralty Board directs its operations in accordance with the views of the government, but limited by the public funds which are known to be available. Such considerations suggest a practical limitation of responsibility, so far as the several lords of the admiralty are concerned, but it may be presumed to be their duty individually or collectively to place their views before the first lord; and Lord George Hamilton told the select committee of 1888 that, if his colleagues should represent to him that a certain expenditure was indispensable for the efficiency of the service, he would recognize that all financial considerations should be put on one side. The commis- sioners reported that this was the only common-sense view of the matter, and that it was difficult to see on what other footing the control of navy expenditure, consistently with responsibility to parliament, could be placed. Two practical considerations are bound up with the shipbuild- ing programme — the carrying forward of the work in hand and the new construction to be begun, since it is absolutely necessary that proper provision should be made for the employment and distribution of labour in the dockyards, and for the purchase of necessary materials. Through the director of naval construction and the director of dockyards, the controller is kept informed as to the progress of work and the amount of labour required, as also in regard to the building facilities of the yards. These matters, in a general way, must form a subject of discussion between the first naval lord and the controller, who will report on the subject to the first lord. The accountant-general, as the financial officer of the Board, will be called upon to place the proposed estimates upon a financial basis, and when the views of the cabinet are known as to the amount of money available, the several departments charged with the duty of preparing the various votes will proceed with that work. The financial basis alluded to is, of course, found in the estimates of the previous year, modified by the new conditions that arise. There has been in past times a haphazard character in our shipbuilding pro- grammes, but with the introduction of the Naval Defence Act of 1889, which looked ahead and was not content with hand-to- mouth provision, a better state of things has grown up, and, with a larger sense of responsibility, a policy characterized by something of continuity has been developed. Certainly the largest factor in the better state of things has been the growth of a strong body of public opinion as to the supreme value of the navy for national and imperial welfare. Another important and related matter that comes before the Board of Admiralty is the character and design of ships. The naval members of the Board indicate the classes and qualities desired, and it is the practice that the sketch-design, presented in accordance with the instructions, is fully discussed by the first naval lord and the controller, and afterwards by the Board. The design then takes further shape, and when it has received the final sanction of the Board it cannot be altered without the sanction of the same authority. A similar procedure is found in the other business of the Admiralty Board, such as shore- works, docks and the preparation of offensive and defensive plans of warfare — the last being a very important matter that falls into the operations of the Naval Intelligence Department, which has been described, though not with perfect accuracy, and certainly in no large sense, as " the brain of the navy." That department is under the direction of the first naval lord. The shipbuilding programme may be described as the corner- stone of the executive business of the admiralty, because upon it depends very largely the preparation of all the other votes relat- ing to numbers, stores, victualling, clothing, &c. But if the Admiralty Board is responsible through the first lord for the preparation of the estimates, it is also charged with the business of supervising expenditure. In this matter the financial secretary plays a large part, and is directed to assist the spending depart- ment of the admiralty in their duty of watching the progress of their liabilities and disbursements. Some notes on admiralty finance will be found below (section 4). The shipbuilding votes set the larger machinery of the admiralty in motion. The execu- tive departments, except in regard to the hulls and machinery of ships and the special requirements of the director of works, do not make purchases of stores, that work resting with the director of navy contracts. Most of the important executive and ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION 199 spending branches are in the department of the controller, and it will be well, while we are dealing with the material side of the navy, to describe briefly their character and duties. The civil branches of the navy tributary to the controller are those of the director of naval construction, the engineer-in-chief, the directors of naval ordnance, of dockyards and of stores, and the inspector of dockyard expense accounts. The first duty of the controller is, as has been explained, in relation to the design and construc- tion of ships and their machinery, and the executive officials who have charge of that work are the director of naval construction and the engineer-in-chief, whose operations are closely inter- related. A vast administrative stride has been made in this particular branch of the admiralty. The work of design and con- struction now go forward together, and the admiralty designers are in close touch with the work in hand at the dockyards. This has been largely brought about by the institution, in 1883, of the royal corps of naval constructors, whose members interchange their duties between the designing of ships at the admiralty and practical work at the dockyards. It is through the director of naval construction that many of the spending departments are set in motion, since he is responsible both for the design of ships and for their construction. It deserves to be noticed, how- ever, that a certain obscurity exists in regard, to the relative duties of the director of naval construction and the director of dockyards touching constructive works in the yards. The former officer has also" charge of all the work given out to contract, though it is the business of the dockyard officials to certify that the conditions of the contract have been fulfilled. In all this work the director of naval construction collaborates with the engineer-in-chief, who is an independent officer and not a sub- ordinate, and whose procedure in regard to machinery closely resembles that adopted in the matter of contract-built ships. The director of naval ordnance is another officer of the Con- troller's Department whose operations are very closely related to the duties of the director of naval construction, and the rela- tion is both intimate and sustained, for in the Ordnance Pepart- ment everything that relates to guns, gun-mountings, magazines, torpedo apparatus, electrical fittings for guns, and other elec- trical fittings is centred. A singular feature of this branch of administration is that the navy long since lost direct control of ordnance matters, through the duties connected with naval gunnery, formerly in the hands of the master-general of the ordnance, and those of the Board of Ordnance — a department common to the sea and land services — being vested in 1855 in the secretary of state for war. A more satisfactory state of things has grown up through the appointment of the director of naval ordnance, taking the place of the naval officer who formerly advised the director of artillery at the War Office. Expenditure on ordnance has also been transferred from the army to the navy estimates, and a Naval Ordnance Store Department has been created. It cannot be said that the condition is yet satisfactory, nor can it be until the navy has control of and responsibility for its own ordnance. The assistant-director of torpedoes is an officer instituted at the admiralty within recent years, and his duty is to assist the director of naval ordnance in all torpedo matters. The director of dockyards replaced the surveyor of dockyards in 1885, at about which time the inspector of dockyard expense accounts was instituted. It is upon the director of dockyards (q.v.) that the responsibility of the controller devolves in regard to the management of dockyards and naval establishments at home and abroad, and to the performance of work in these estab lishments, ship and boat building, maintenance, repairs and refits. In this department the programme for work in the dock- yards is prepared, as well as certain sections of the navy estimates. We now come to the Stores Department, with the director of stores as its chief. This officer, about the year 1869, took over the storekeeping duties previously vested in the storekeeper- general. The Naval Store Department is charged with the cus- tody and issue of naval, as distinguished from victualling and ordnance stores, to be used in naval dockyards and establish- ments for the building, fitting and repairing of warships. It has, however, no concern with stores that belong to the Depart- ment of Works. The business of the director of stores is also to receive and issue the stores for ships of all classes in commission and reserve, and he deals with a vast array of objects and materials necessary for the fleet, and with coals and coaling. He frames the estimates for his department, but his purchases are made through the director of navy contracts. In practice the main business of the Stores Department is to see to the pro- vision of stores for the navy, and to the proper supply of these at all the establishments, and for this purpose its officials direct the movements of storeships, and arrange for the despatch of colliers, the director being charged to be " careful to provide for His Majesty's ships on foreign stations, and for the necessary supplies to foreign yards." Another important business of the director of stores is the examination of the store accounts of ships as well as some other accounts. Although the director of stores is really in the department of the controller, he is super- vised in regard to the coaling of the fleet by the junior naval lord. The inspector of dockyard expense accounts has been alluded to. He is the officer charged with keeping a record of expendi- ture at the dockyards and of supervising expense accounts. It may be useful to add a note concerning the spending of the money. Within the controller's department, as has been ex- plained, are centred the more important spending branches of the admiralty. While the work of design- tun." ing ships and preparing plans is in progress, the director of stores, the director of dockyards and other officials of that department concerned are making preparation for the work. The necessary stores, comprising almost every imaginable class of materials, are brought together, and the director of stores is specially charged to obtain accurate information in regard to re- quirements. He is not, however, a purchasing officer, that work being undertaken by the director of navy contracts, who is con- cerned with the whole business of supply, except in regard to hulls and machinery of ships built by contract, and the special requirements of the director of works. At the same time, the civil departments of the admiralty being held responsible for the administration of the votes they compile, it is their duty to watch the outlay of money; and to see that it is well expended, the ac- countant-general being directed to assist them in this work. The system is closely jointed and well administered, but it possesses a very centralized character, which interferes to some extent with flexible working, and with the progress of necessary repairs, especially in foreign yards. In so far as ships given out to con- tract are concerned (and the same is the case in regard to pro- pelling machinery built by contract), the director of navy con- tracts plays no part, the professional business being conducted through the controller of the navy, who is advised thereon by the director of naval construction and the engineer-in-chief. The work conducted in private establishments is closely watched by the admiralty officials, and is thoroughly tested, but, mutatis mutandis, the system in regard to contract-built ships is practi- cally the same as that which prevails in the dockyards. 4. Naval Finance: The Accountant-General's Department. — The subject of naval finance is one of great complexity and of vast importance. The large sums of money with which the admiralty deals in the way of both estimates and expenditure, amounting recently to about £30,000,000 annually, implies the existence of the great organization which is found in the depart- ment of the accountant-general of the navy. Under the authority of the first lord, the parliamentary and financial secretary is responsible for the finance of the admiralty in general, and for the estimates and the expenditure, the accounts and the pur- chases, and for all matters which concern the relations of the admiralty to the treasury and to other departments of the government; and in all the practical and advisory work the accountant-general is his officer, acting as his assistant with the director of naval contracts who, under the several lords, is con- cerned with the business of purchase. The organization of the accountant-general's department has undergone many changes, and the resulting condition is the out- come of various modifications which have had for their purpose 200 ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION to give to this officer a measure of financial control. There have been various views as to what the duties of the accountant- general should be. After the reorganization of the admiralty by Sir James Graham in 1832, the accountant-general was re- garded as a recording and accounting officer, wholly concerned with receipt and expenditure. His duties were limited to the auditing of accounts, payments and expenditure generally. Owing to changes effected in 1869, which made the parliamentary secretary, assisted by the civil lord, responsible for finance at the admiralty, bringing the naval and victualling store departments into his charge, the accountant-general was invested with the power of criticizing these accounts financially, though he did not as yet possess any financial control, and the position was little changed by fresh rules made in 1876. It was not until 1880 that the powers of the accountant-general were enlarged in this direc- tion. It was then ordered that he should be consulted before any expenditure which the estimates had not provided for was incurred, and before any money voted was applied to other pur- poses than those for which it was provided. The effect of this order was not happy, for the accountant-general could not under- take these duties without setting up friction with the departments whose accounts he criticized. It was contemplated by the admiralty in 1885 to make the accountant-general the assistant of the financial secretary, and to raise him to the position of a permanent officer of finance instead of being an officer of account invested with imperfect authority in the direction of control. A select committee of the House of Commons reported that the accountant-general possessed no financial control over the de- partments, and that there was an urgent need for establishing such a control. At the time the position of that officer did not enable him to exercise any sufficient general supervision over expenditure, and there was no permanent high official expressly charged with finance. Accordingly, after being submitted to a departmental committee, a fresh arrangement was made in November 1885, whereby the accountant-general, under the authority of the financial secretary, was given a direct share in the preparation of the estimates. His written concurrence was re- quired before the final approval of the votes, and each vote was referred to him for his approval or observations, and he was to exercise a financial review of expenditure and to see that it was properly accounted for. He became, in fact, " the officer to be consulted on all matters involving an expenditure of naval funds." It was believed that economical administration would result; but much opposition was raised to the principle that was involved of submitting the proposals of responsible departments to the inexpert criticism of a financial authority. Mr Main, assist- ant accountant-general, stated before the Royal Commission 'on Civil Establishments, 1887, that the effect had been to develop a tendency to withhold information or to afford only partial information, as well as to cause friction when questions were raised affecting expenditure, accompanied by protests, even in those cases in which these questions were manifestly of a legiti- mate character. The result was discouraging, and in the opinion of Mr Main had done much to weaken financial control and to defeat the purpose of the order. It is unnecessary to detail the various changes that have been made by the institution of dock- yard expense accounts in the department of the controller, and by various other alterations introduced. The treasury instituted an independent audit of store accounts which greatly affected the position of the accountant-general, and the Royal Commission on Civil Establishments reported that the Board of Admiralty were of opinion that they could dispense with the accountant- general's review altogether. The commission was, however, of opinion that the accountant-general should be the permanent assistant and adviser, on all matters involving the outlay of public money, of the financial secretary. The onerations of the accountant-general are now conducted in accordance with the order in council of the 18th of November 1885, and of an office memorandum issued shortly afterwards. He thus acts as deputy and assistant of the parliamentary and financial secretary, and works with a finance committee within th.- admiralty, of which the financial secretary is president and the accountant-general himself vice-president. The duties of the department are precisely defined as consisting in the criticism of the annual estimates as to their sufficiency before they are passed, and in advising the financial and parliamentary secre- tary as to their satisfying the ordinary conditions of economy. The accountant-general also reviews the progress of liabilities and expenditure, and in relation to dockyard expenditure he considers the proposed programme of construction as it affects labour, material and machinery. He further reviews current expenditure, or the employment of labour and material, as dis- tinguished from cash payments of the yard, as well as proposals for the spending of money on new work or repairs of any kind for which estimates are currently proposed. The accountant-general's department has three principal divisions : the estimates division, the navy pay division, and the invoices and claims division. In the first of these is the ledger branch, occupied with the work of accounts under the several votes and sub-heads of votes, and with preparing the navy appropriation account, as well as the esti- mates and liabilities branch, in which the navy estimates are largely prepared after having been proposed and worked out in the executive departments of the admiralty. There are also ships' establishments and salaries branches. The navy pay division includes the full and half-pay branch and a registry section. There is also the seamen's pay branch, which audits ships' ledgers and wages, and has charge of all matters concerning the wages of seamen. The victualling audit is also in this branch, and is concerned with payments for savings in lieu of victual- ling and some other matters. Further, the navy pay division examines ships' ledgers, and is concerned with the service, char- acters, ages, &c, of men as well as with allotments and pensions. The third division of the accountant-general's department, known as that of invoices and claims, conducts a vast amount of clerical work through many branches, and is concerned with the management of naval savings banks and matters touching prize-money and bounties. The importance of this great department of the admiralty cannot be overrated. It is, in the first place, of supreme im- portance that the navy estimates should be placed upon a sound financial basis; and in practice the Board requires the concur- rence of the accountant-general to the votes before they are approved, and thus in greater or less degree this officer is con- cerned in the preparation of every one of the votes. He does not concern himself with matters of larger policy outside the domain of finance, and it must be confessed that there appears to be something anomalous in his " review " of naval expenditure. It is, however, a mark of the flexibility or elasticity of the ad- miralty system that in practice the operations of the accountant- general's department work easily, and that admiralty finance is recognized as having been placed upon a sound and efficient basis. There are important financial officers outside the ac- countant-general's department concerned with assisting the controller. The inspector of dockyard expense accounts, who is entirely in the controller's department, enables him to exercise careful supervision over expenditure and the distribution of funds to special purposes. This work, however, though highly important, is merely one part of the system of financial control. Within recent years the bonds have been considerably tightened, and the work is untainted by corruption. It is true that in exercising rigid supervision over expenditure the work has become more centralized than is desirable, and it is a mark of change within recent years that local officers have been in larger measure deprived of independent powers. This, indeed, is a necessary condition of financial control, or at least a condition which it is not easy to change where rigid control is necessary. 5. Mobilization of the Fleet. — By the mobilization of the fleet is meant the placing of naval resources upon a war footing, in readiness in all material and personal respects for hostile opera- tions. A complete mobilization for purposes of practice in peace time would dislocate seafaring life in a manner which would be justifiable only by actual war. Thus no country in peace manoeuvres calls out all its naval reserves, or makes use of the auxiliary cruisers — merchant ships for which a subvention is ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION 20I paid, and which are constructed with a view to use in warfare. Experience has shown that when vessels are commissioned they are liable to numerous small breakdowns of their machinery if they are manned by crews who have no familiarity with them. Many accidents of this kind had occurred in the British navy at manoeuvres, though it could not be shown that the vessel was defective, or that the crew was either untrained or negligent. These experiments led the admiralty to adopt a new system in 1904, designed to obviate the risk that vessels would be crippled at a critical moment by want of acquaintance on the part of the crew with their machinery. Under this system all vessels which are considered to be available for war are divided into two classes: — first, those in full commission which constitute the different squadrons maintained at all times; and secondly, those which form the reserve and are kept in partial commission — or rather partially manned though in commission. These are kept at the home ports — Chatham, Portsmouth, Plymouth — in re- serve squadrons under a flag-officer who will command them in war. Each vessel has a captain, a second in command, and a proportion of other officers including engineer, navigating and torpedo officers. Two-fifths of her full complement of crew are always on board, and they include the most skilled men needed for the proper management of the machinery of all kinds — more especially that of the torpedoes and guns. These vessels go to sea for periodica^ practice. When therefore the fleet must be mobilized for war it will only be necessary to fill up the number of trained men by the less skilled hands from the naval barracks occupied by the sailors not belonging to any particular ship, or from the naval reserve. All ranks of the navy are placed on a roster by which they successively serve in ships in full commission, are quartered in the naval barracks and drafted from them to the ships of the reserve, from which they return to-the sea-going ships. It is calculated that there are always men enough in the barracks to complete the crews of a small squadron for emer- gency service without disturbing the regular routine of the peace establishment. The British admiralty may claim that though the machinery at its command in the past was not perfect it has commonly been able to send a squadron to sea more rapidly than any other power in Europe. Much depends on the arrange- ment of the stores as well as the disposition of the men. The introduction at the end of the 18th century of the businesslike practice of keeping the fittings of each ship together by them- selves, did much to facilitate the rapid mobilization of a portion of the British fleet in 1790 which impressed all Europe. The prompt manning of a special service squadron in 1895 i n conse- quence of the troubles then arising in connexion with the former South African Republic, showed that even before its plans for mobilization were completed the admiralty had its resources well in hand. (R .V. H.) As regards the navies of countries other than Great Britain, their government is in the hands of ministers or departments variously constituted. The Russian admiralty is a countries, highly organized bureau, divided into departments, and under the supreme control of a high admiral, usually a grand duke of the Imperial House. The German admiralty was, till 1872, a branch of the War Office, though governed by a vice- admiral under a naval prince of the reigning family. In 1872 it was severed from the War Office, though remaining an appanage thereof, and a general of the army was placed at its head. The French minister of marine, assisted by a permanent staff, controls the navy of France on a highly centralized system of adminis- tration; but the departments are well organized, and work well. The Italian fleet is governed on principles analogous to the French, but with a large admixture of the English representative element. The American system is worth describing in more detail. The president of the United States is commander-in-chief of the navy — a constitutional prerogative which he seldom asserts. United The Navy Department is administered by a civilian States secretary of the navy — a cabinet officer appointed by ^^° e " the president — who exercises general supervision. Next in authority is the assistant-secretary, also a civilian nominee, who acts as an assistant, and has, besides, cer- tain specific duties, including general supervision of the marine corps, naval militia and naval stations beyond the continental limits of the United States. The details of administration are supervised by the chiefs of bureaus, of which there are eight. They are appointed by the president from the navy list for a period of four years, and have the rank of rear-admiral while serving in this capacity. They have direct control of the business and correspondence pertaining to their respective bureaus; and orders emanating from them have the same force as though issued by the secretary. The bureau of navigation is the executive, or military, bureau and as such promulgates and enforces the orders and regulation! prescribed by the secretary; it has general direction of the procurement, education, assignment and discipline of the per- sonnel. It also controls the movements of ships, including the authorization of manoeuvres and drills, such as target practice. The bureau of equipment has charge of all electrical appliances, compasses, charts and fuel, and generally all that relates to the equipment of vessels, exclusive of those articles that come naturally under the cognizance of other bureaus. It has charge of the naval observatory, where the Ephemeris is prepared annu- ally, and of the hydrographic office, where charts, sailing direc- tions, notices to mariners, &c, are issued. The bureau of ord- nance has charge of the gun factory, proving ground, and torpedo station, and all naval magazines; all the details that pertain to the manufacture, tests, installation or storage of all offensive and defensive apparatus, including armour, ammunition hoists, ammunition rooms, &c, though much of the actual installation is performed by the bureau of construction after consultation with the bureau of ordnance. The bureau of construction and repair has charge of the designing, building and repairing of hulls of ships, including turrets, spars and many other acces- sories. It builds all boats, has charge of the docking of vessels and the care of ships in reserve. The chief of this bureau is usually a naval constructor. The bureau of steam engineering has charge of all that relates to the designing, building and repairing of steam machinery, and of all the steam connexions on board ship. The bureau of supplies and accounts procures and distributes provisions, clothing and supplies of the pay department afloat, and acts as the purchasing agent for all materials used at naval stations, except for the medical depart- ment and marine corps. It also has charge of the disbursement of money and keeping of accounts. The chief of this bureau is a pay officer. The bureau of medicine and surgery has charge of all naval hospitals, dispensaries and laboratories, and of all that pertains to the care of sick afloat and ashore. The chief of this bureau is a medical officer. The bureau of yards and docks has charge of construction and maintenance of wet and dry docks, buildings, railways, cranes, and generally all permanent constructions at naval stations. The chief of this bureau is often a civil engineer. Under the cognizance of the secretary's office is the office of the judge-advocate-general, an officer selected by the president from the navy list for a term of four years, with the rank of captain while so serving. He is legal adviser to the department, and reviews the records of all courts and statutory boards. Under the cognizance of the assistant-secretary's office is the office of naval intelligence, which collates information on naval matters obtainable at home and abroad. The staff is composed of naval officers on shore duty, the senior in charge being usually a captain, and known as chief intelligence officer. Several boards are employed under the various bureaus, or directly as advisers to the secretary. Some are permanent in character, while others are composed of officers employed on other duty, and are convoked periodically or when required. The naval policy board is composed of officers of high rank, and meets once a month; its duties conform to those of the general staff in armies. The board of Construction consists of the chiefs of bureaus of ordnance, equipment,' construction and repair, steam engineering, and the chief intelligence officer. Its duty is to advise the secretary in all matters relating to the con- struction policy in detail. The .general construction policy is 202 ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION suggested by the naval policy board. The board of inspection and survey is composed of representatives of all bureaus, who in- spect vessels soon after commission and on return from a cruise, and report on the condition of the ship and efficiency of its per- sonnel; it also conducts the official trials of new vessels. The boards for the examination of officers for promotion are com- posed of officers of the corps to which the candidate belongs and of medical officers. Every officer is examined professionally, morally and physically at each promotion. The Navy Depart- ment is located at Washington, D.C., and occupies a building together with the State and War Departments (the latter being charged solely with army affairs). The personnel (see also under Navy) is limited in number by law. The engineer corps was abolished in 1899, the then en- gineer-officers becoming line officers in their respective relative grades. Line officers are the military and executive branch, and are required besides to perform engineer duties. They are graduates of the Naval Academy. Vacancies occurring in the construction corps are filled from the graduates of the Naval Academy having the highest standing in scholarship, who are given a two years' graduate course, generally abroad, on being graduated from the Academy, and are then appointed assistant naval constructors. All other staff officers are appointed directly from civil life by the president, from candidates passing prescribed examinations. Each representative and delegate in Congress has authority to nominate a candidate for naval cadet whenever his congressional district has no representative in the Naval Academy. The candidate must be a resident of the district which the congressman represents, between fifteen and twenty years old, and must pass prescribed mental and physical examinations. The president is allowed ten representatives at the Academy at all times, appointed " at large," and one appointed from the District of Columbia. The course of instruction at the Academy is four years, each comprising eight months' study, three months' practice cruise, and one month's furlough. At the expiration of four years, cadets are sent to cruising ships for two years' further instruc- tion, and are then commissioned ensigns. After three years' further sea service, ensigns are promoted to lieutenants (junior grade). After this, promotion is dependent upon seniority alone, the senior officer in any grade being promoted to the lowest number in the next higher grade when a vacancy occurs in the higher grade, and not before. All officers are retired on three- fourths sea pay at the age of sixty-two, or whenever a board of medical officers certifies that an officer is not physically qualified to perform all duties of his grade. A few officers are allowed to retire voluntarilyincertain circumstances, tostimulate promotion. Any officer on the retired list may be ordered by the secretary to such duty as he may be able to perform: this is a legal pro- vision to provide for emergencies. Promotion in the staff corps is dependent upon seniority, though relative rank in the lower grades in some corps somewhat depends upon promotion of line officers of the same length of service, and accounts for the exist- ence of staff officers in the same grade having different ranks. All sea-going officers, after commission, are required to spend three years at sea, and are then usually employed on shore-duty for a time, according to the needs of the service — short terms of shore-duty thereafter alternating with three-year cruises. This rule is adhered to as strictly as circumstances will permit. Shore-duty includes executive or distinctly professional duties in the Navy Department, under its bureaus, and at navy yards and stations; inspection of ordnance, machinery, dynamos, &c, under construction by private firms; duty on numerous tempo- rary or permanent boards; instructors at the Naval Academy; recruiting duty; charge of branch hydrographic offices; in- spection duty in the lighthouse establishment; at state nautical schools; as attaches with United States legations; and many others. Naval constructors (usually), civil engineers and pro- fessors of mathematics are continuously employed on shore-duty connected with their professions, the Naval Observatory, Nautical Almanac and the Naval Academy employing most of the last. Warrant officers (boatswains, gunners, carpenters, sailmakers, warrant machinists and pharmacists) are appointed by the secretary, preference being given to enlisted men in the navy who have shown marked ability for the positions. They must be between twenty-one and thirty-five years of age, and pass an examination. After serving satisfactorily for one year under an acting appointment, they receive warrants that secure the permanency of their office. Ten years after appointment, boatswains, gunners, carpenters and sailmakers are eligible for examination for a commission as chief -boatswain, &c, and as such they rank with, but next after, ensigns. Mates are rated by the secretary from seamen or ordinary seamen. They have no relative rank, but take precedence of all petty officers. Their duties approximate to those of boatswains, though they seldom serve on large cruising vessels. Clerks to pay officers are ap- pointed by the secretary on the nominations of the pay officers. They have no rank and are not promoted or retired. Their appointments are revoked when their services are no longer needed. Boys between fifteen and seventeen years old of good char- acter, who can read and write and pass the physical examination, may enlist for the term of their minority. They enlist as third- class apprentices, and are given six months' instruction at a training station; and thence go to sea in apprentice training vessels. When proficient they are transferred to regular cruising vessels as second class, and when further qualified are rated first class. All other enlistments are for four years. Recruits must speak English. Landsmen are usually sent to sea on special training-ships until proficient, and are then sent into general service. Raw recruits may enlist as landsmen, or coal-passers or mess attendants. Ordinary seamen must have served two years, and seamen four years before the mast, prior to first enlistment as such; and before enlistment in any other rating allowed on first enlistment, applicants must prove their ability to hold such rating. Landsmen, coal-passers, &c, as soon as they become proficient, are advanced to higher grades, and, if American citizens, may eventually become petty officers (ranking with army non-commissioned officers), with acting appointments. In twelve months, or as soon thereafter as proficiency is estab- lished, the acting appointment is made permanent, and an acting appointment for the next higher grade is issued, &c. Permanent appointments are not revokable except by sentence of court- martial, and a man re-enlists in that rating for which he held a permanent appointment in his previous enlistment. All persons re-enlisting within four months after expiration of previous enlistment are entitled to a bounty equal to four months' pay, and in addition receive a " continuous service certificate," which entitles them to higher pay and to other special considera- tions. The same is true for each re-enlistment. When an en- listed man completes thirty years' service and is over fifty years of age he may retire on three-fourths pay. The Marine corps (see Marines) is a wholly separate military body, but it is under the control of the Navy Department. United States naval vessels are, as a rule, built at private yards under contracts awarded after competition. The government is not committed to any fixed policy or building programme. Each year the secretary recommends certain new construction. The final action rests with Congress, which must appropriate money for the new ships before the construction can be com- menced. Repairing and reconstruction are usually done at government navy yards. Ships in commission are distributed among five stations: (1) the North Atlantic, i.e. the' Atlantic coast of the United States, Central America, and South America as far as the Amazon, also the West Indies; (2) the South Atlantic, i.e. the remainder of the Atlantic coast of South America and both coasts of South Africa; (3) the European, comprising the coast of Europe, including the inland seas, and the North Atlantic coast of Africa; (4) the Asiatic station, comprising the coast of Asia, including the islands north of the equator, also the east coast of North Africa; (5) the Pacific station, comprising the Pacific coast of North and South America, and Australia and the adjacent islands lying ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF 203 Jurlsdfc (/on. south of the equator. Each station is commanded by a flag officer, and the number of ships under the command varies according to circumstances. Ships in commission on special service, such as training, gunnery, surveying ships, &c, are not attached to stations. The shore stations of the navy are enumerated in the article on Dockyards. (W. T. S.) ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF. The High Court of Ad- miralty of England was the court of the deputy or lieutenant of the admiral. It is supposed in the Black Book of the Admiralty to have been founded in the reign of Edward I.; but it would appear, from the learned discussion of R. G. Marsden, that it was established as a civil court by Edward III. in the year 1360; the power of the admiral to determine matters of discipline in the fleet, and possibly questions of piracy and prize, being somewhat earlier. Even then the court as such took no formal shape; but the various admirals began to receive in their patents express grants of jurisdiction with powers to appoint lieutenants or de- puties. At first there were separate admirals or rear-admirals of the north, south and west, each with deputies and courts. A list of them was collected by Sir H. Spelman. These were merged in or absorbed by one high court early in the 15th century. Sir Thomas Beaufort, afterwards earl of Dorset and duke of Exeter (appointed admiral of the fleet 1407, and admiral of England, Ireland and Aquitaine 1412, which latter office he held till his death in 1426), certainly had a court, with a marshal and other officers, and forms of legal process — mandates, warrants, citations, compulsories, proxies, &c. Complaints of encroachment of jurisdiction by the Admiralty Courts led to the restraining acts, 13 Ric. II. c. 5 (1389), 15 Ric. II. c. 3 (1391) and 2 Hen. IV. c. u (1400). The original object of the institution of the courts or court seems to have been to prevent or punish piracy and other crimes upon the narrow seas and to deal with questions of prize; but civil jurisdiction soon followed. The jurisdiction in criminal matters was transferred by the Offences at Sea Act 1536 to the admiral or his deputy and three or four other substantial persons appointed by the lord chan- cellor, who were to proceed according to the course of the common law. By the Central Criminal Court Act 1834, cognizance of crimes committed within the jurisdiction of the admiralty was given to the central criminal court. By an act of 1844 it has been also given to the justices of assize; and crimes done within the jurisdiction of the admiralty are now tried as crimes committed within the body of a county. See also the Criminal Law Con- solidation Acts of 1861. From the time of Henry IV. the only legislation affecting the civil jurisdiction of the High Court of Admiralty till the time of Queen Victoria is to be found in an act of 1540, enabling the admiral or his lieutenant to decide on certain complaints of freighters against shipmasters for delay in sailing, and one of 1562, giving the lord high admiral of England, the lord warden of the Cinque Ports, their lieutenants and judges, co-ordinate power with other judges to enforce forfeitures under that act — a very curious and miscellaneous statute called " An Act for the Maintenance of the Navy. " In an act of 1534, with regard to ecclesiastical appeals from the courts of the archbishops to the crown, it is provided that the appeal shall be to the king in Chancery, " and that upon every such appeal a commission shall be directed under the great seal to such persons as shall be named by the king's highness, his heirs or successors, like as in cases of appeal from the Admiralty Court. " The appeal to these " persons, " called delegates, con- tinued until it was transferred first to the privy council and then to the judicial committee of the privy council by acts of 1832 and 1833. The early jurisdiction of the court appears to have been exer- cised very much under the same procedure as that used by the courts of common law. Juries are mentioned, sometimes of the County and sometimes of the county and merchants. But the connexion with foreign parts led to the gradual introduction of a procedure resembling that coming into use on the continent and based on the Roman civil law. The Offences at Sea Act 1536 states the objection to this application of the civil law to the trial of criminal cases with much force: " After the course of the civil laws, the nature whereof is that before any judgment of death can be given against the offenders, either they must plainly confess their offences (which they will never do without torture or pain), or else their offences be so plainly and directly proved by witness indifferent such as saw their offences com- mitted, which cannot be gotten but by chance at few times. " The material enactments of the restraining statutes were as follows: — An act of 1389 (13 Ric. II. c. 5) provided that " the admirals and their deputies shall not meddle from „ , . Restrain* henceforth of anything done within the realm, but only jng ActSi of a thing done upon the sea, as it hath been used in the time of the noble prince king Edward, grandfather of our lord the king that now is. " The act of 1391 (15 Ric. II. c. 3) provided that " of all manner of contracts, pleas and quarrels, and other things rising within the bodies of the counties as well by land as by water, and also of wreck of the sea, the admiral's court shall have no manner of cognizance, power, nor jurisdiction; but all such manner of contracts, pleas and quarrels, and all other things rising within the bodies of counties, as well by land as by water, as afore, and also wreck of the sea, shall be tried, deter- mined, discussed and remedied by the laws of the land, and not before nor by the admiral, nor his lieutenant in any wise. Never- theless, of the death of a man, and of a maihem done in great ships, being and hovering in the main stream of great rivers, only beneath the [bridges] of the same rivers [nigh] to the sea, and in none other places of the same rivers, the admiral shall have cognizance, and also to arrest ships in the great flotes for the great voyages of the king and of the realm; saving always to the king all manner of forfeitures and profits thereof coming; and he shall have also jurisdiction upon the said flotes, during the said voyages only; saving always to the lords, cities, and boroughs, their liberties and franchises. " The act of 1400 (2 Hen. IV. c. n) adds nothing by way of definition or restriction, but merely gives additional remedies against encroachments, providing heavy fines for those who improperly sue in the court, and those officials of the court who improperly assert juris- diction. It was repealed by the Admiralty Court Act 1861. The statutes of Richard, except the enabling part of the second, were repealed by the Civil Procedure Acts Repeal Act 1879. The formation of a High Court of Justice rendered them obsolete. In the reign of James I. the chronic, controversies between the courts of common law and the Admiralty Court as to the limits of their respective jurisdictions reached an acute stage. We find the records of it in the second volume of Marsden's Select Pleas in the Court of Admiralty, and in Lord Coke's writings: Reports, part xiii. 51; Institutes, part iv. chap. 22. In this latter passage Lord Coke records how, notwithstanding an agreement asserted to have been made in 1575 between the justices of the King's Bench and the judge of the admiralty, the judges of the common law courts successfully maintained their right to prohibit suits in admiralty upon contracts made on shore, or within havens, or creeks, or tidal rivers, if the waters were within the body of any county, wheresoever such contracts were broken, for torts committed within the body of a county, whether on land or water, and for contracts made in parts beyond the seas. It is due to the memory of the judges of Lord Coke's time to say that, at any rate as regards contracts made in partibus transmarinis, the same rule appears to have been applied at least as early as 1 544, the judges then holding that " for actions transitory abroad action may lie at common law. " All the while, however, the patents of the admiralty judge purported to confer on him a far ampler jurisdiction than the jealousy of the other courts would concede to him. t The patent of the last judge of the court, Sir Robert paint. Joseph Phillimore, dated the 23rd of August 1867, styles him " Lieut. Off 1 . Princ 1 . and Commissary Gen 1 , and Special in our High Court of Admiralty of Eng. and President and Judge of the same, " and gives to him power to take cognizance of " all causes, civil and maritime, also all contracts, complaints, offences or suspected offences, crimes, pleas, debts, exchanges, accounts, 204 ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF policies of assurance, loading of ships, and all other matters and contracts which relate to freight due for the use of ships, trans- portation, money or bottomry; also all suits civil and maritime between merchants or between proprietors of ships and other vessels for matters in, upon, or by the sea, or public streams, or fresh-water ports, rivers, nooks and places overflown whatsoever within the ebbing and flowing of the sea and high-water mark, or upon any of the shores or banks adjacent from any of the first bridges towards the sea through England and Ireland and the dominions thereof, or elsewhere beyond the seas." Power is also given to hear appeals from vice-admirals; also "to arrest . . . according to the civil laws and ancient customs of our high court ... all ships, persons, things, goods, wares and merchandise"; also " to enquire by the oaths of honest and lawful men . . . of all . . . things which . . . ought to be enquired after, and to mulct, arrest, punish, chastise and reform"; also " to preserve the public streams of our admiralty as well for the pre- servation of our royal navy, and of the fleets and vessels of our kingdom ... as of whatsoever fishes increasing in the rivers"; also " to reform nets too straight and other unlawful engines and instruments whatsoever for the catching of fishes "; also to take cognizance " of the wreck of the sea . . . and of the death, drowning and view of dead bodies," and the conservation of the statutes concerning wreck of the sea and the office of coroner [1276], and concerning pillages [1353], and " the cognizance of mayhem " within the ebb and flow of the tide; all in as ample manner and form as they were enjoyed by Dr David Lewis [judge from 1558 to 1584], Sir Julius Caesar, and the other judges in order (22 in all) before Sir Robert Phillimore. This form of patent differs in but few respects from the earlier Latin patents — tempore Henry VIII. — except that they have a clause non obstantibus statutis. As has been said, however, the contention of the common law judges prevailed, and the Admiralty Court (except for a tem- „ _, porary revival under Cromwell) sank into comparative Modern . .. , . . ' „,, progress, insignificance during the 17th century. The great maritime wars of the 18th century gave scope to the exercise of its prize jurisdiction; and its international import- ance as a prize court in the latter half of the 18th and the first part of the 19th centuries is a matter of common historical knowledge. There were upwards of 1000 prize causes each year between 1803 and 181 1, in some years upwards of 2000. There were other great judges; but Sir William Scott, after- wards Lord Stowell, is the most famous. Before his time there were no reports of admiralty cases, except Hay and Marriott's prize decisions. But from his time onwards there has been a continuous stream of admiralty reports, and we begin to find important cases decided on the instance as well as on the prize side. In the reign of Queen Victoria, two enabling statutes, 1840 and 1861, were passed and greatly enlarged the jurisdiction of the court. The manner in which these statutes were administered by Dr Stephen Lushington and Sir R. J. Phillimore, whose tenure of office covered the whole period of the queen's reign till the creation of the High Court of Justice, the valuable assistance rendered by the nautical assessors from the Trinity House, the great increase of shipping, especially of steam shipping, and the number and gravity of cases of collision, salvage and damage to cargo, restored the activity of the court and made it one of the most important tribunals of the country. In 1875, by the operation of the Judicature Acts of 1873 and 1875, the High Court of Admiralty was with the other great courts of England formed into the High Court of Justice. The principal officers of the court in subordination to the judge were the registrar (an office which always points to a connexion with canon or civil law), and the marshal, who acted as the maritime sheriff, having for his baton of office a silver oar. The assistance of the Trinity Masters, which has been already mentioned, was provided for in the charter of incorporation of the Trinity House. These officers and their assistance have been preserved in the High Court of Justice. Till the year 1859 the practitioners in the High Court of Admiralty were the same as those in the ecclesiastical courts and distinct from those who practised in the ordinary courts. Advocates took the place of barristers, and proctors of solicitors. The place of the attorney-general was u oaers -,„ taken by the king's or queen's advocate-general, and the court. that of the treasury solicitor by the king's or queen's procurator or proctor. There were also an admiralty advocate and an admiralty proctor. The king's advocate also repre- sented the crown in the ecclesiastical courts, and was its standing adviser in matters of international and foreign law. The king's advocate led the bar of his courts, and before the privy council took precedence of the attorney-general. The admiralty advocate or advocate to his majesty in his office of admiralty represented specially the lords of the admiralty. In the Admiralty Court he ranked next after the king's advocate. In an act of 1859 the practice was thrown open to barristers and to attorneys and solicitors. Upon the next vacancy after the courts were thrown open, the crown altered the precedence and placed the queen's advo- cate after the attorney- and solicitor-general. There were two holders of the office under these conditions, Sir R. J. Phillimore and Sir Travers Twiss. The office was not filled up after the resignation of the latter. The admiralty had, when the courts were thrown open, a standing counsel for the ordinary courts and a solicitor. Questions soon arose as to the respective claims of the admiralty advocate and the counsel to the admiralty, and their acuteness was increased when the courts were fused into one High Court of Justice. Upon the resignation of Sir James Parker Deane the office of admiralty advocate was not filled up. In like manner the proctor to the admiralty has disappeared. The office of king's or queen's proctor has been kept alive but amalgamated with that of the solicitor for the treasury. That officer uses the title of king's proctor when he appears in certain matrimonial causes. The last holder of the office of standing counsel to the ad- miralty was Alexander Staveley Hill, K.C.,M.P. Since his death the office, like those of the king's or queen's advocate and the admiralty advocate, has not been filled up; and the ordinary law officers of the crown with the assistance of a junior counsel to the admiralty (a barrister appointed by the attorney-general) perform the duties of all these offices. The judge advocate of the fleet is a practising barrister whose function it is to advise the admiralty on all matters connected with courts-martial. Though section 61 of the Naval judge Discipline Act 1866 recognizes the possibility of his Advocate presence at a court-martial, he does not nowadays % t . the attend, but is represented by his deputy or by an officiating deputy judge advocate appointed ad hoc by the admiralty, the commander-in-chief of the fleet or squadron who convenes the court-martial, or, if no such appointment is made, by the president of the court-martial. But though the judge advocate of the fleet does not actually attend the courts- martial very responsible duties are imposed upon him. By a minute of the Board passed in 1884 (which is still in force) all proceedings of courts-martial on officers and men of the royal navy, excepting those where the prisoner pleads guilty and no evidence is taken, are to be referred to him, with a view to the consideration of (a) the charge, (b) the evidence on which the finding is based, and (c) the legality of the sentence, and he writes a minute on each case for the information of the lords commis- sioners of the admiralty with regard to these points. He has no power to modify a sentence, a power which is reserved to the admiralty by § 53 (1) of the Naval Discipline Act 1866, except in the case of a death sentence, which can only be remitted by the crown. All cases where the prisoner has pleaded guilty are examined in the admiralty, and if in any case there is any reason to think that there has been any informality or that the prisoner has not understood .the effect of his plea, such case is submitted to the judge advocate of the fleet for his opinion. The judge advocate of the fleet receives no fees but is remunerated by a salary of £500 per annum. The existence of a deputy judge of the fleet appointed by ADMIRALTY ISLANDS— ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION 205 the admiralty has been recognized by the king's regulations, but no such officer had been appointed up to 1908. In accordance with the provisions of § 61 of the Naval Disci- pline Act 1866, in the absence of the judge advocate of the fleet and his deputy, an officiating judge advocate is appointed for each court-martial. His duties are described in detail by the king's regulations, but may be summed up as consisting of seeing that the charges are in order, pointing out any informalities or defects in the charges or in the constitution of the court, seeing that any witness required by prosecutor or prisoner is summoned, keeping the minutes of the proceedings, advising on matters of law which arise at any time after the warrant for the court- martial is issued, drawing up the findings and sentence, and forwarding the minutes when completed to the admiralty. The officiating judge advocate is usually the secretary of the flag- officer convening the court-martial or some other officer of the accountancy branch. He is remunerated for his services by a fixed fee for each day the court sits. Ireland. — The High Court of Admiralty of Ireland, being formed on the same pattern as the High Court in England, sat in the Four Courts, Dublin, having a judge, a registrar, a marshal and a king's or queen's advocate. In peace time and war time alike it exercised only an instance jurisdiction,, though in 1793 it claimed to exercise prize jurisdiction (see Admiralty Juris- diction). No prize commission ever issued to it. By the Irish Judicature Act of 1877 it was directed that it should be amalga- mated with the Irish High Court of Justice upon the next vacancy in the office of judge, and this subsequently took place. There was no separate lord high admiral for Ireland. Scotland. — At the Union, while the national functions of the lord high admiral were merged in the English office it was pro- vided by the Act of Union that the Court of Admiralty in Scot- land should be continued " for determination of all maritime cases relating to private rights in Scotland competent to the jurisdiction of the Admiralty Court." This court continued till 1 83 1 , when its civil jurisdiction was given to the Court of Session and the Sheriffs' Courts (see Admiralty Jurisdiction), See Sir Travers Twiss, Black Booh of the Admiralty, Rolls series; R. G. Marsden, Select Pleas in the Court of Admiralty, published by the Selden Society; Godolphin, View of the Admiral ■ Juris- diction. (W. G. F. P.) ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a group of about forty islands lying north of New Guinea, between i° and 3 S., and 146 and 148 E., within the Bismarck Archipelago, belonging to Germany. The largest, Manus, is about 60 m. in length, and its highest point is about 3000 ft. above the sea; the others are very small, and rise little above sea-level. Most are of coral formation, but the hills of Manus are believed to be extinct volcanoes. The islands were discovered by the Dutch in 1616, and visited in 1767 by Philip Carteret; but no landing seems to have been effected, owing to the surrounding reefs, until the arrival of the " Challenger " in 1875. The natives are of the Papuan type, but show signs of mixed origin. They are cannibals, and many murders of whites have taken place. ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION. The courts by which, as far as we know, admiralty jurisdiction in civil matters was first exercised were the following. In and throughout England the courts of the several admirals soon combined into one High Court of Admiralty (see Admiralty, High Court or). Within the territories of the Cinque Ports the Court of Admiralty of the Cinque Ports exercised a co-ordinate jurisdiction. In certain towns and places there were local courts of vice-admiralty. In Scotland there existed the Scottish High Court of Admiralty, in Ireland the Irish High Court of Admiralty. Of these courts that of the Cinque Ports alone remains untouched. The Scot- tish court was abolished, and its civil jurisdiction given to the Court of Session and to the courts of the sheriffs by the Court of Session Act 1830 — not, however, till a decision given by it and the appeal therefrom to the House of Lords had established a remarkable rule of admiralty law in cases of collision {Hay v. le Neve, 1824, 2 Shaw, Sc. App. Cas. 395). The act states that the Court of Justiciary held cumulative jurisdiction with the Court of Admiralty in criminal matters. The local vice-admiralty courts in England had ceased to do much work when they were abol- ished by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835; the High Court became, with the other superior courts, a component part of the High Court of Justice by virtue of the Judicature Acts 1873 and 1875. And the Irish court has in like manner become a part of the High Court of Justice in Ireland by virtue of the Judicature Act passed in 1877. As England first, and Great Britain afterwards, acquired colonies and possessions beyond seas, vice-admiralty courts were established. The earliest known was that in Jamaica, established in the year 1662. Some vice- Vice- Admiratty admiralty courts which were created for prize purposes courts. in the last century were suffered to expire after 18 15. In the year 1863, when the act regulating the vice-admiralty courts was passed, there were vice-admiralty courts at Antigua, Bahamas, Barbadoes, Bermuda, British Columbia, British Guiana, British Honduras, Cape of Good Hope,Ceylon,Dominica, Falkland Islands, Gambia River, Gibraltar, Gold Coast, Grenada, Hong Kong, Jamaica, Labuan, Lagos, Lower Canada (otherwise Quebec), Malta, Mauritius, Montserrat, Natal, Nevis, New Brunswick, Newfoundland, New South Wales, New Zealand, Nova Scotia (otherwise Halifax), Prince Edward Island, Queens- land, St Christopher, St Helena, St Lucia, St Vincent, Sierra Leone, South Australia, Tasmania, Tobago, Trinidad, Van- couver's Island, Victoria, Virgin Islands (otherwise Tortola), and Western Australia, and (for matters of the slave trade only) Aden. By the act of 1867 one for the Straits Settlements was added. These courts have been regulated from time to time by the following statutes: 2 and 3 Will. IV. c. 51, 26 and 27 Vict, c. 24 (Vice-Admiralty Courts Act 1863), already cited, and 30 and 31 Vict. c. 45 (Vice- Admiralty Courts Act Amendment Act 1867) ; and by the slave trade acts, of which the last and consoli- dating act was that of 1873. In 1890 the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act provided that, except in the colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, St Helena and British Honduras, vice-admiralty courts should be abolished, and a substitution made of colonial courts of ad- miralty. There is power, however, reserved to the crown to erect through the admiralty in any British possession any vice- admiralty court, except in India or any British possession having a representative legislature. No vice-admiralty court so estab- lished can exercise any jurisdiction except for some purpose relating to prize, the royal navy, the slave trade, foreign enlist- ment, Pacific Islanders' protection, and questions relating to treaties or conventions on international law. Vice-admiralty courts exercised all usual admiralty jurisdiction, and in addition a certain revenue jurisdiction, and jurisdiction over matters of slave trade and prize and under the Pacific Islanders' Protection Act. The appeal from vice-admiralty courts used to lie to the High Court of Admiralty of England, but has been transferred to the king in council. By the Colonial Courts of Admiralty Act 1890, already referred to, every court of law in a British possession which is declared by its legislature to be such, or if there c ^,°^ ot be no such declaration, which has original unlimited Admiralty. civil jurisdiction, shall be a court of admiralty. There used at one time to be vice-admiralty courts for Calcutta, Madras and Bombay; but by the India High Courts Act 1861, § 9, the admiralty jurisdiction is given to the High Courts of these places. Consular courts established in Turkey, China and Japan have had admiralty jurisdiction given to them, and by § 12 of the Colonial Admiralty Courts Act any courts. court established by H.M. for the exercise of jurisdic- tion in any place outside H.M.'s dominion may have admiralty jurisdiction granted to it. By the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 a federal supreme court, to be called the High Court of Australia. Australians created, and the parliament of the Common- wealth may make laws conferring original jurisdiction on the High Court in matters of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. India, 2o6 ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION There is a court of admiralty in the Isle of Man of which the water-bailiff is judge. He is also styled admiral. It is ^ an " said to have jurisdiction in salvage and over other mari- time matters occurring within 3 leagues from the shore. Modern statutes have given admiralty jurisdiction to the City of London Court, the Court of Passage and to the county courts in the following matters : Salvage, where the value Loca? °* t ' le sa l ve< i property does not exceed £1000, or the Courts. claim for reward £300 ; towage, necessaries and wages, where the claim does not exceed £150; claims for damage to cargo, or by collision, up to £300 (and for sums above these prescribed limits by agreement between the parties); and claims arising out of breaches of charter parties and other contracts for carriage of goods in foreign ships, or torts in respect thereof, up to £300. This jurisdiction is restricted to subjects over which jurisdiction was possessed by the High Court of Admiralty at the time when the first of these acts was passed, except as regards the last branch of it (the "Aline," 1880, 5 Ex. Div. 227 ; R. v. Judge of City of London Court, 1892, 1 Q.B. 272). In analogy with the county court admiralty jurisdiction created in England, a limited admiralty jurisdiction has been given in Ireland to the recorders of certain boroughs and the chairmen of certain quarter sessions ; and in salvage cases, where a county court in England would have jurisdiction, magistrates, recorders and chairmen of quarter sessions may have jurisdiction as official arbitrators (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, § 547). In Scotland, admiralty suits in cases not exceeding the value of £25 are exclusively tried in the sheriff's court ; while over that limit the sheriff's court and the Court of Session have concurrent juris- diction. The sheriff has also criminal admiralty jurisdiction, but only as to crimes which he would be competent to try if committed on land (The Court of Session Act 1830, §§ 21 and 22). By an act of 182 1 an arbitral jurisdiction in cases of salvage was given to certain commissioners of the Cinque Ports. The appeal from county courts and commissioners is to the High Court of Justice, and is exercised by a divisional court of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division. In cases arising within the Cinque Ports there is an optional appeal to the Admiralty Court of the Cinque Ports. The appeal from the High Court of Justice is in ordinary admiralty matters, as in others, to the Court of Appeal, and from thence to the House of Lords. But it is specially provided by the Judicature Act 1891, as it was by the Prize Act 1864, that the appeal in prize cases shall be to the sovereign in council. • The unfortunate provisions of the legislature, giving to the jurisdiction of county courts different money limits in admiralty equity and common law cases, make the distinction between cases coming under the admiralty jurisdiction and other civil cases of practical moment in those courts. Arguments full of learning and research have been addressed to the courts, and weighty decisions have been given, upon questions which would never have arisen if the county courts had not a larger money area of jurisdiction in admiralty cases than they have diction S " m other matters (R. v. Judge of City of London Court, 1892, 1 Q.B. 273; the "Zeta," 1893, App. Cas. 468). But as regards the high courts, whether in England, Scotland or Ireland, it is not now necessary to distinguish their civil admiralty jurisdiction from their ordinary civil jurisdiction, except for the purpose of seeing whether there can or cannot be process in rem. Not that every admiralty action can of right be brought in rem, but that no process in rem lies at the suit of a subject unless it be for a matter of admiralty jurisdiction — one, for instance, that could in England have been tried in the High Court of Admiralty. Now these matters of admiralty jurisdiction with process in rem range themselves under four primary and four supplementary heads. The four primary are damage, salvage, bottomry, wages; and the four supplementary are extensions due to one or other of the statutes of 1840 (Admiralty Court) and 1861 (Admiralty Court Act). They are damage to cargo carried in a ship, necessaries supplied to a ship, .mortgage of ship, and master's claim for wages and disbursements on account of a ship. In all these cases, primary and secondary, the process of Appeals. Disciplin- ary. which a plaintiff can avail himself for redress, may be either in personam as in other civil suits, or by arrest of the ship, and, in cases of salvage and bottomry, the cargo. Whenever, also, the ship can be arrested, any freight due can also be attached, by arrest of the cargo to the extent only of the freight which it has to pay. For the purpose of ascertaining whether or not process in rem would lie, there have been distinctions as nice, and the line of admiralty jurisdiction has been drawn as carefully, as in the cases of the admiralty jurisdiction of the county courts (the "Theta," 1894, Prob. 280; the " Gas Float Whitton," 1897, App. Cas. 337). There have been similar questions raised in the United States, from De Lovio v. Boit (1815, 2 Gallison, 398), and Ramsay v. Allegre (1827, 12 Wheaton, 611), down to the quite modern cases which will be found quoted in the arguments and judg- ments in the "Gas Float Whitton." The disciplinary jurisdiction at one time exercised by the Admiralty Court, over both the royal navy and merchant vessels, may be said to be obsolete in time of peace, the last remnant of it being suits against merchantmen for flying flags appropriate to men-of-war (the "Minerva," 1800, 3 C. Rob. 34), a matter now more' effectively provided against by the Merchant Shipping Act 1894. In time of war, however, it was exercised in some instances as long as the Ad- miralty Court lasted, and is now in consequence exercisable by the High Court of Justice (see Prize below). It was, perhaps, in consequence of its ancient disciplinary jurisdiction that the Admiralty Court was made the court to enforce certain portions of the Foreign Enlistment Act 1870. Finally, appeals from decisions of courts of inquiry, under the Merchant Shipping Act, cancelling or suspending the certifi- cates of officers in the merchant service, may be made to the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court of Justice. The admiralty jurisdiction in criminal matters extends over all crimes committed on board British ships at sea or in tidal waters, even though such tidal waters be well within foreign territory (R. v. Anderson, 1868, L.R. 1 C.C.R. cages. 161), but not over crimes committed on board foreign vessels upon the high seas (R. v. Serva, 1845, 1 Denison C.C. 104). Whether it extended over crimes committed on foreign ships within territorial waters of the United Kingdom, and whether a zone of three miles round the shores of the United Kingdom was for such purpose territorial water, were the great questions raised in R. v. Keyn (the "Franconia," L.R. 2 Ex. Div. 126), and decided in the negative by the majority of the judges, rightly, as the writer of this article respectfully thinks. Since then, however, the legislature has brought these waters within the jurisdiction of the admiralty by the Territorial Waters Jurisdiction Act 1878. Section 2 runs as follows : " An offence committed by a person, whether he is or is not a British subject, on the open sea within the territorial waters of British dominions, is an offence within the jurisdiction of the admiral, although it may have been committed on board or by means of a foreign ship, and the person who committed such offence may be ar- rested, tried and punished accordingly." By § 7 the ".juris- diction of the admiral " is denned as " including the jurisdiction of the admiralty of England or Ireland, or either of such juris- dictions as used in any act of parliament ; and for the purpose of arresting any person charged with an offence declared by this act to be within the jurisdiction of the admiral, the territorial waters adjacent to the United Kingdom, or any other part of her majesty's dominions, shall be deemed to be within the jurisdiction of any judge, magistrate or officer." And " terri- torial waters of her majesty's dominions " are defined as " in reference to the sea, meaning such part of the sea adjacent to the coast of the United Kingdom, or the coast of some other part of her majesty's dominions, as is deemed by international law to be within the territorial sovereignty of her majesty; and for the purpose of any offence declared by this act to be within the jurisdiction of the admiral, any part of the open sea within one marine league of the coast, measured from low-water mark, shall be deemed to be open sea within the territorial waters of ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION 207 Prize. her majesty's dominions." As to those portions of the sea and tidal waters which, by reason of their partially land-locked positions, are deemed to be in the body of a county, there is not admiralty jurisdiction, but crimes are tried as if they were com- mitted on land within the same county. Pirates, whatever flag they pretended to fly, were, from 1360 onwards, wherever their crimes were committed, subject to the admiralty jurisdiction. The criminal jurisdiction of the ad- miralty was first exercised by the High Court of Admiralty; and then, by virtue of the Offences at Sea Act 1 536, transferred to commissioners appointed under the great seal, among whom were to be the admiral or admirals, his or their deputies. Ad- miralty sessions were held for this purpose till 1834. Admiralty criminal jurisdiction is now, by virtue of the series of statutes, the Offences at Sea Act 1799, the Central Criminal Court Act 1834, Offences at Sea Act 1844, and the criminal law consolida- tion acts passed in 1861, exercised by the Central Criminal Court and by the ordinary courts of assize. Special provision for trial in the colonies of offences committed at sea has been made by an act of William III. (1698- 1699), the Offences at Sea Act 1806, and the Admiralty Offences (Colonial) Act 1849. The Admiralty Court had jurisdiction in matters of prize from very early times; and although since the middle of the 17th century the instance, or ordinary civil jurisdiction of the court, has been kept distinct from the prize jurisdiction, they were originally both administered and regarded as being within the ordinary jurisdiction of the lord high admiral. The early records of the admiralty show that the origin of the prize jurisdiction is to be traced to the power given to the court of the admiral to try cases of piracy and " spoil," i.e. captures of foreign ships by English ships. The earliest recorded case of spoil tried before the admiral is in 1357, when the goods of a Portuguese subject, taken at sea by Englishmen from a French ship which had previously spoiled a Portuguese, were awarded by the admiral as good prize to the English captors ; and Edward III. in a letter to the king of Portugal answering a com- plaint on the subject gives the admiral's decision as a reason for refusing their restoration. During the 16th century a very large part of the business of the Admiralty Court related to spoil and piracy, and the privy council .often directed the judge of the court how to deal with the spoil cases, with regard to which foreigners who had suffered from attacks by English ships made petition for redress to the admiral or the council. The spoil suit at this time {causa spolii) was a civil proceeding resulting in a decree absolutoria, dismissing the defendant, or condemna- toria, ordering restoration to be made by him. In 1 585 the patent of Howard, the lord high admiral, authorized him to issue letters of reprisal against Spain; and an order in council regu- lating the conduct of those to whom such letters were issued provided by an additional article (1859) that all prizes were to be brought in without breaking of bulk for adjudication by the Admiralty Court. The court was also resorted to at this time by captors, sailing under commissions granted by the allies of England, such as the king of France and the Dutch. About the middle of the 17 th century separate sittings of the court for instance and prize business began, perhaps because of the con- flicting claims to droits of Charles II. and the duke of York as lord high admiral; and privateering under royal commission took the place of the former irregular "spoiling." The account which Lord Mansfield gave of the records of the Admiralty Court, that there were no prize act books earlier than 1641, or prize sentences earlier than 1648, and that before 1690 the records were in confusion, must be qualified by the correction that there are in existence prize sentences (on paper, not parchment) as early as 1 589. Although the courts of common law hardly ever seem to have interfered with or disputed the admiralty prize jurisdiction, its exclusive nature was not finally admitted till 1782; but long previously royal ordinances (151 2, 1602) and statutes (1661, giving an alternative of commissioners, 1670, 1706) had given the Admiralty Court the only express jurisdiction over prize. The same statute of Anne and acts of 1739 and 1744 give prize jurisdiction to any court of admiralty, and the courts of ad- miralty for the colonies and plantations in North America. It has been a disputed question whether the prize jurisdiction of the court was inherent, i.e. coming within the powers given by the general patent of the judge, in which no express mention of it is made, or whether it required a special commission. Upon this subject the judgment of Lord Mansfield in Lindo v. Rodney (1782, Dougl. 612), the judgment of Mr Justice Story in De Lovio v. Boit (1815, 2 Gallison, 398), and Marsden's Select Pleas of the Court of Admiralty (introduction), may be consulted. But the settled practice now and for a long time past has been for a special commission and warrant to be issued for this pur- pose. In connexion with this it is observable that in 1793 the Admiralty Court of Ireland claimed to exercise prize jurisdiction under its general patent; and it is said to have been the opinion of Sir W. Wynne that the Admiralty Court of Scotland had a similar right (Brown, Civil Law of Admiralty, vol. ii. 211, 212). Any jurisdiction of the Scottish court over prize of war was transferred to the English court by the Court of Session Act 1825, § 57. As to the Irish court, by the Act of Union it was pro- vided that there should remain in Ireland an instance court of admiralty for the determination of causes civil and maritime only. In 1864 the constitution and procedure of prize courts, which had until then beeu prescribed by occasional acts passed for each war as it arose, were for the first time made permanent by the Naval Prize Act, by which the High Court of Admiralty and every admiralty or vice-admiralty court, or any other court exercising admiralty jurisdiction in British dominions, if for the time being authorized to exercise prize jurisdiction, were made prize courts. The High Court of Admiralty was given jurisdic- tion throughout British dominions as a prize court, and, as such, power to enforce any order of a vice-admiralty prize court and the judicial committee of the privy council in prize appeals — this power mutatis mutandis being also given to vice-admiralty prize courts. An appeal was given from any prize court to the sovereign in council. Prize courts were given jurisdiction in cases of captures made in a land expedition or an expedition made conjointly with allied forces, and power to give prize salvage on recaptured ships and prize bounty; and a form of procedure was prescribed. The High Court was also given ex- r elusive jurisdiction as a prize court over questions of ransom and petitions of right in prize cases, and power to punish masters of ships under convoy disobeying orders or deserting convoy. By the Naval Discipline Act 1866, power to award damages to convoyed ships exposed to danger by the fault of the officer in charge of the convoy was also given to the High Court. Under other statutes it had power to try questions of booty of war when referred to it by the crown, in the same way as prize causes, and claims of king's ships for salvage on recaptures from pirates, which could be condemned as droits of admiralty, sub- ject to the owner's right to receive them on paying one-eighth of the value, and also power to seize and restore prizes captured by belligerents in violation of B ritish neutrality, or by a ship equipped in British ports contrary to British obligations of neutrality. All jurisdiction of the High Court of Admiralty has since passed to the High Court of Justice, which is made a prize court under the Naval Prize Act, with all the powers of the Admiralty Court in that respect; and all prize causes and matters within the jurisdiction of that court as a prize court are assigned to the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division; and an appeal from it as a prize court lies only to the king in council (Judicature Acts 1873 and 1891). By an act of 1894 further provision is made for the consti- tution of prize courts in British possessions. A commission, warrant or instruction from the crown or the admiralty may be issued at any time, even in peace; and upon such issue, subject to instructions from the crown, the vice-admiral of the possessions on being satisfied by information from a secretary of state that war has broken out between Great Britain and a foreign state, may make proclamation to that effect, and the commission or warrant comes into effect. The commission or 208 ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION warrant may authorize a vice-admiralty court or colonial court of admiralty to act as a prize court, or establish a vice-admiralty court for that purpose, and may be revoked or altered at any time. The court is authorized to act as a prize court during the war, and shall after its conclusion continue to act as such, and finally dispose of all matters and things arising during the war, including all penalties and forfeitures incurred therein. Rules of court may also be made by order in council for regulating, subject to the Naval Prize Act, the procedure and practice of prize courts under that act, the duties and conduct of their officers and practitioners, and the fees and costs therein (Prize Courts Act 1894, §§2, 3). This latter power has been exercised; and prize rules for the High Court of Justice and the vice- admiralty prize courts were framed in 1898 (Statutory Rules and Orders, 1898). Authorities. — -Marsden, Select Pleas of the Court of Admiralty, Selden Society, London, 1892 and 1897; Zouch, Jurisdiction of the Admiralty of England asserted; Robinson, Collectanea Maritima; Brown, Admiralty; Edwardes, Admiralty; Phillimore, International Law, vol. i., vol. iii. part xi. ; Pritchard, Admiralty Digest, tit. Jurisdiction. (W. G. F. P.) United States The source of admiralty jurisdiction in the United States is Article 3, § 2 of the United States Constitution: — " The judicial power shall extend to all cases of admiralty and mari- time jurisdiction." The United States Supreme Court has declared that by virtue of these words the admiralty jurisdiction extends not only to the high seas but to the great lakes and the rivers connecting them, and to all public navigable waters in the United States (the " Genesee Chief" v. Fitz-Hugh, 12 Howards U.S. Rep. 443), including even interstate canals {Ex. p. Boyer, 109 U.S. Rep. 629, the "Robert W. Parsons," [1903] 191 U.S. 1 7) , and is not confined to tide waters. The American colonies had vice-admiralty courts with an admiralty jurisdiction equal to the largest claimed by the English admiralty courts even under Edward III. When they became states they delegated to the federal government their several " admiralty and maritime jurisdiction," using these words in the sense understood in every country in Europe, England excepted, and in the sense in which they had then been used in the colonies for a long time, and without reference to the very narrow jurisdiction of the English admiralty courts then existing {Waring v. Clark, 5 Howards U.S. Rep. 441). It is settled as to the United States admiralty jurisdiction not that it is " co-equal with that of the original English, or that of continental European admiralty, but is rather that defined by the statutes of Richard II., under the construction given to them by contemporary or immediately subsequent courts of admir- alty " (2 Parsons Adm. 176), and that it embraced all maritime contracts, torts, injuries or offences {De Lovio v. Boit, 2 Galli- sons Rep. 398; Waring v. Clark, 5 Howards U.S. Rep. 441), and that it has never been restricted by the action of the common law courts as in England under Lord Coke (2 Parsons Adm. 166 n.; Waring v. Clark; De Lovio v. Boit). Original admiralty jurisdiction was by the Judiciary Act of 1789 (U.S. Rev. Stats. § 563) granted to the United States dis- trict courts exclusively, except that concurrent original juris- diction was given to United States circuit courts over seizures for slave trading, and condemnations of property used by persons in insurrection (§ 629; § 5309), and in the coolie trade (§ 2159), and by the act of the 3rd of March 1901 ; the supreme court of the District of Columbia is given the same jurisdiction as the district and circuit courts. The Supreme Court of the United States has no original jurisdiction in admiralty. All suits are brought in the first instance in the district court. Appeals lie, both on the law and on the facts, from a final decree of that court to the circuit court of appeals only, except in cases involving the juris- diction of the court, the constitutionality of a law of any state or of the United States, or the validity or construction of any treaty of the United States, and except cases of prize and capital or infamous crime, in which cases of appeal lies directly to the supreme court. In cases of gravity and importance the Supreme Court may by certiorari review the judgment of the circuit court of appeals, but such cases are rare (re Lati Ow Bew, 141 U.S. Rep. 587; Benedict's The American Admiralty, § 607). Formerly the Judiciary Act authorized an appeal from the district court to the circuit court, and thence to the Supreme Court. But the act of the 3rd of March 1891 (Ch. 517) abolished this and created the circuit court of appeals, making it the final appellate court in admiralty, except as above stated. In any case where the district judge is unable to perform his duties or is disqualified by reason of interest or of relationship, or has acted as counsel for one of the parties to the action, it may be removed to the circuit court in that district (U.S. Rev. Stats. §§ 587, 589 and 601). These are now the only cases in which admiralty suits can come before the circuit court (Benedict's Adm. § 321). The subject matter in cases of contract determines the juris- diction (the "General Smith," 4 Wheaton U.S. Rep. 438), and not the presence or absence of tide, salt water, current, nor that the water be an inland basin or land-locked, or a river, nor by its being a harbour, or a port within the body of the county, nor that a remedy exists at common law. The admiralty courts have jurisdiction over all matters that concern owners and proprietors of ships as such; possessory actions and petitory actions to try title of a ship; cases of mariners' wages, wharfage, dock- age, lighterage, stevedores, contracts of affreightment, charter parties, rights of- passengers as such (the "Moses Taylor," 71 U.S. Rep. 411), pilotage, towage, maritime liens and loans, bottomry, respondentia and hypothecation of ship and cargo, marine insurance, average, jettison, demurrage, collisions, con- sortship, bounties, survey and sale of vessel, salvage, seizures under the laws of impost navigation or trade, cases of prize, ransom, condemnation, restitution and damages; assaults, batteries, damages and trespasses on the high seas and navigable waters of the United States; but not suits in rem for duties (Benedict's Adm. § 303a). The U.S. Supreme Court has held in Peoples Ferry Co. v. Beers, 20 Howards U.S. Rep. 393, and in a series of subse- quent cases that a contract to build a vessel is not a maritime contract (the "Robert W. Parsons ") . Contracts to furnish cargo for ships and to furnish ships to carry the cargoes are maritime contracts {Graham v. Oregon R. & N. Co., [1905] 135 Fed. Rep. 608). Whenever there is a maritime lien, even though created by state statute as to a ship in her home port, it may be enforced by suit in rem in admiralty in the federal courts (the " General Smith"; the " Lottawanna," 21 Wallace Rep. 558, Benedict's Adm. § 270). In all suits by material men for supplies and repairs or other necessaries for a foreign ship, the libellant may proceed against the ship and freight in rem or against the master or owner in personam (12th Admiralty Rule; Benedict's Adm. § 268; the "General Smith"). Actions in rem and in personam may be joined in the same libel {Newell v. Norton, 3 Wallace 257; the " Normandie," 40 Fed. Rep. 590). But a contract to furnish fishermen with clothing, tobacco and other personal effects for use on a voyage is not a maritime contract, and a court of admiralty has no jurisdiction to enforce it in rem (the " May F. Chisholm," 1904; 129 Fed. Rep. 814). The state courts have no jurisdiction in rem over any maritime contract or tort (the "Lottawanna," the "Belfast," 7 Wallace Rep. 624). Ad- miralty jurisdiction in tort depends on locality; it must have occurred on the high seas or other navigable waters within admiralty cognizance (2 Parsons Adm. 347; the "Plymouth," 3 Wallace Rep. 20; the "Genesee Chief" y. Fitz-Hugh, the " Blackheath," [1903] 122 Fed. Rep. 112). The U.S. Supreme Court in the " Harrisburg " (119 U.S. 199) and the " Alaska" (130 U.S. 207), after some conflict of opinion, held that the admiralty courts have no jurisdiction under the general admiralty law to try an action for damages for negli- gence on the high seas, causing death of a human being, while there was no act of Congress and no statute of the state to which the vessel belonged giving such right of action (Benedict's Adm. §§ 2 75-3°9 a )> nor where such statute is that of a foreign country {Rundell v. Compagnie Generate, [1899] 94 Fed. Rep. 366). Admiralty has jurisdiction in cases of spoliation and piracy, ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION 209 collision and proceedings by owners to limit their liability under U.S. Rev. Stats. §§ 4281-9. The United States admiralty courts have always had jurisdic- tion in matters of prize (The Prize Cases, 2 Black U.S. Rep. 635). The district courts have exclusive original jurisdiction (except that circuit courts also have jurisdiction when prize is taken from persons in insurrection), and the supreme court of the District of Columbia now has concurrent jurisdiction (U.S. v. Sampson, 1902, 187 U.S. 436) and appeals are direct to the Supreme Court. Special commissioners are appointed on the breaking out of hostilities to act under the orders of the district courts (U.S. Rev. Stats. § 4621, Prize Rule 9; Benedict's Adm. §509; 680 Pieces Merchandise, 2 Sprague 233). These commis- sioners take the depositions of witnesses and report to the court the evidence upon which it adjudicates. Proceedings in prize cases must be in conformity with admiralty proceedings, where the seizure is on land (Union Insurance Co. v. U.S., 6 Wallace 759; 2 Parsons Adm. 174). The district courts have all the powers of a court of admiralty whether as instance or prize courts (Glass v. sloop " Betsy," 3 Dallas 6). To adjudicate in matters of prize is one of the ordinary functions of that court (Benedict's Adm. § 509). The admiralty courts have jurisdiction over crimes and offences committed upon vessels belonging to citizens of the United States on the high seas or any arm of the sea or any waters within The admiralty and maritime jurisdiction of the United States (U.S. Rev. Stats. § 5339). High seas include the great lakes (U.S. v. Rogers, 150 U.S. 249). (J. A. Ba.) Other Countries In France, and in Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Italy and Greece — countries which have adopted codes based on the Code Napo- France ^ on — tne c i yu \ or > as it would have been formerly and called in England, the " instance," jurisdiction of countries the admiralty is exercised by the ordinary tribunals, France g an( ^ there are n0 separate courts of admiralty for this purpose. France and some other countries have special commercial tribunals, which deal with shipping matters, but also with ordinary commercial cases. France has also tribunaux maritimes commerciaux (Code disciplvnair 2 et phial de la marine marchande du 24 mars 1852, lot du n mars 1891) to deal with maritime offences. Austria adopts the French law in commercial matters. Italy had tribunals of com- merce, but has given them up. She has, however, by Art. 14 of her Merchant Shipping Code, given jurisdiction to captains of ports to decide collision cases when the sum in dispute does not exceed 200 lire. In Germany there are no special tribunals for admiralty matters. Kammern fur Handelssachen, commercial courts, have Germany, been established in Berlin and some of the principal seaports. These deal with shipping matters, but also with all other commercial suits. In Denmark, Sweden and Norway there is a maritime code which came into force in Sweden in 1891, in Denmark in 1892, and in Norway in 1893. This was intended to be one navia's code for the three countries; but each country as it nations. finally adopted the code made some modifications of its own. Under this code there are in Norway permanent maritime courts for each town presided over by the judge of the inferior local civil court (civile underdommer) , or if there be more than one such judge then by the president, with two assessors chosen out of a list. Temporary local courts, con- sisting of the same judge with two other members of nautical skill and knowledge, can be constituted in districts where there are no permanent courts. Appeals lie to the supreme court (Hoiesteret). In Denmark maritime cases are brought before the local courts constituted for maritime and commercial causes (So-og-Handelsret). In Sweden maritime cases are brought before local courts of first instance consisting of a judge and assessors. There is an intermediate appeal to courts of second instance, and then to the supreme court, which finally decides upon all causes civil and commercial. Maritime cases in Holland are tried by the ordinary civil tribunals,'with the same right of appeal. " By the maritime law of nations universally and immemori- ally received there is an established method of determination whether the capture be or be not lawful prize. Before the ship or goods can be disposed of by the captor J^t there must be a regular judicial proceeding wherein diction. both parties may be heard and condemnation there- upon as prize in a court of admiralty judging by the law of nations and treaties. ... If the sentence of the court of ad- miralty is thought to be erroneous, there is in every maritime country a superior court of review. ..." (duke of Newcastle's letter to M. Michell, secretary to the embassy of the king of Prussia, 1753). "So far as belligerent states do not make a practice of giving up the taking of booty at sea . . . they are required by international law to establish prize tribunals and thus give to their proceedings in the matter of prize a judicial character" (v. Holtzendorff, Rechtslexikon, tit. "Prisengerichte"). In France till the death of the duke of Montmorency in 1632 prize matters were adjudicated upon by the admiral. The duke had sold the office of admiral some years before his death to Cardinal Richelieu; but about the period of the duke's death the office of admiral appears to have been abolished, and one of grand master of navigation established in lieu. This new office was first held by Cardinal Richelieu and continued till 1695. The grand master took the admiral's place in matters of prize; but in 1659 a commission of councillors of state and masters of requests was appointed to assist the grand master and form a Conseil des Prises. From this conseil there was an appeal to the Conseil d'Elat. When the office of admiral was restored in 1695 he exercised his jurisdiction in prize matters with the assistance of the Conseil des Prises. The appeal was then given to the Conseil Royal des Finances. The Ordonnance sur la marine of August 1681 regulated the procedure. This system continued till the Revolution. The last Conseil des Prises was appointed in 1778. A law of the 14th of February 1793 abolished the Conseil des Prises and gave cognizance of prize matters " provisionally " to the tribunals of commerce. On the 8th of November 1793 (18 Brumaire, an II.) this jurisdic- tion was taken from the tribunals of commerce and given to the Conseil Extcutif. Later it was given to the Comite de Salut Public. On the 25th of October 1795 (3 Brumaire, an IV.) the jurisdiction was restored to the tribunals of commerce. This was again altered on the 27th of March 1800 (6 Germinal, an VIII.), when a Conseil des Prises was established, consisting of nine councillors of state, a commissary of the government and a secretary, all nominated by the First Consul. On the nth of June 1806 an appeal was given to the Conseil d'Htat. It was disputed among French jurists whether the Conseil des Prises was to be considered as a body actuated only by political considerations or one exercising what the French term an " administrative jurisdiction "; which is, as nearly as a parallel to it can be found in England, administration of justice between individuals and the state. As most of the cases arising out of the great wars had been dealt with, an ordinance of the 9th of January 1815 suppressed the Conseil des Prises and directed the ComitS du contenlieux of the Conseil d'£tat to prepare the remaining prize matters for decision by the Conseil d'Etat. Such prize matters (probably including' captures for trading in slaves) as required to be dealt with till 1854, appear to have been dealt with by this body; an ordinance of the 9th of September 183 1 directing that the pro- ceedings before the Conseil d'Etat should be private, was held to show that the jurisdiction was not political but administrative. An Imperial decree, however, of the 18th of July 1854 restored the Conseil des Prises, with appeal to the Conseil d'Mlat. This was for the war with Russia. A similar decree was published on the 9th of May 1859 for the war with Austria in Italy. On the 28th of November 1861 a further decree ordered that the Conseil instituted in 1859 should so long as it was kept in being decide all prize matters; and this Conseil has decided on prizes taken in the wars with Mexico and Germany and in Cochin 2IO ADMISSION— ADOLESCENCE China. It consists of seven judges and a commissary of the government. An appeal to the government in the Conseil d'Etat can be brought within three months. It is then decided by I'Assemblee du Conseil d'Etat. Under the First Empire there were commissions des ports, commissions colonials and commissions consulaires, established mainly tc collect materials for the Conseil des Prises, but sometimes, when the ship and cargo were clearly those of the enemy, proceeding to actual condemnation. In Prussia Regulations of the 20th of June 1864 established a prize council consisting of a president and six associates with a law officer. An appeal was given to an upper prize council (v. Holtzendorff, Rechtslexikon, tit. " Prisengerichte "). By a law of the German empire of the 3rd of May 1884 the legality of prizes made during war has to be decided by prize courts, and the imperial government is authorized to determine the particulars as to the seat of such courts, their members and their proceedings (Reichsgesetzblatt of 1884, p. 49). Prize courts were established under this law on the occasion of the East African blockade in 1889 (Reichsgesetzblatt of 1889, pp. 5 sqq.). In Italy Art. 14 of the Merchant Shipping Code provides that prize matters shall be tried by a special commission established by royal decree. On the occasion of the war' with Austria such a special commission was established by royal decree of the 20th of June 1866. For the war with Abyssinia a fresh commission was established by royal decree of the 16th of August 1896. The composition of this commission, which was slightly different in character from that established in 1866, was as follows: (a) a first president of a court of appeal or a retired one, or a president of a section of the council of state or of cassation ; (6) two general officers of the navy; (c) a member of the " contentious part " of the diplomatic service; (d) two councillors of a court of appeal; (e) a captain of a port, with a commissary of the government and a secretary; five to be a quorum. There was no appeal; but the ordinary right to have recourse to the Court of Cassation at Rome, if the prize commission proceeded without jurisdiction or in excess of jurisdiction, was preserved. By an ordinance of the 27th of March 1895 regulating the whole matter of prize in Russia, two sorts of prize tribunals of first instance were contemplated — port tribunals and fleet tribunals. The latter are for captures made by ships of the fleet, and are to be composed of some of the principal officers of the fleet. The former are to have presidents named by the emperor from among those " qui font partie de I' administration maritime judiciaire"; the other members are to be appointed by the ministers of the navy, justice and foreign affairs. The court of appeal is formed by the council of the admiralty with the addition of two members of the senate and a nominee of the minister of foreign affairs (Clunet, 1904, p. 271). On the occasion of the Russo-Japanese war, port tribunals were established under the authority of this ordinance by the lord high admiral, the Grand Duke Alexis, on the 13th of March 1904, at Sebastopol — Port Alexander III., Port Arthur and Vladivostock (Clunet, 1904, p. 479; London Gazette, 22nd March 1904). Many cases were heard before these tribunals and on appeal. The procedure in prize cases under the old law of Spain is described in Abreu (Felix Joseph de Abreu y Bertodano), Tratado juridico Politico sobre Presas de Mar (Cadiz, 1746). On the occasion of the war with the United States the Spanish govern- ment published a proclamation stating the circumstances in which captures were to be made and prizes taken; but infor- mation is lacking as to the particular constitution of the prize court or courts. In Greece prize questions are apparently left to be tried by the ordinary tribunals. See decision of Civil Tribunal of Athens, 1898, No. 3385 (reported Clunet, 1900, p. 826). Turkey during her war of 1877 with Russia established a prize court and a court of appeal. The ordinance establishing these courts is set out in the London Gazette of the 6th of July 1877. Japan established, in the war (1904-5) with Russia, prize courts at Sasdbo and Yokosco with a court, of appeal at Tokyo. Advocates were heard before these courts, and the procedure seems generally to have been modelled upon European patterns. Authorities. — Clunet, Journal du droit international prive, cited shortly as Clunet; v. Holzendorff, Rechtslexikon, Leipzig, 188.1 ; De Pistoye et Duverdy, Traite des prises maritimes, Paris, 1855, vol. ii., tit. viii.; Phillimore, International Law, vol. i., vol. iii. part xi. ; Autran, Code international de I'abordage, de I 'assistance, et du sauvetage maritimes, Paris, 1902 ; Raikes, The Maritime Codes of Spain and Portugal (1896), of Holland and Belgium (1898), of Italy (1900), London. (W. G. F. P.) ADMISSION, in law, a statement made out of the witness-box by a party to legal proceedings, whether civil or criminal, or by some person whose statements are binding on that party against the interest of that party. (See Evidence.) ADO (d. 874), archbishop of Vienne in Lotharingia, belonged to a famous Frankish house, and spent much of his middle life in Italy. He held his archiepiscopal see from 859 till his death on the 1 6th of December 874. Several of his letters are extant and reveal their writer as an energetic man of wide sympathies and considerable influence. Ado's principal works are a Martyro- logium (printed inter al. in Migne, Patrolog. lat. cxxiii. pp. 181- 420; append, pp. 419-436), and chronicle, Chronicon sive Brevia- rium chronicorum de sex mundi aetatibus de Adamo usque ad ann. 869 (in Migne, cxxiii. pp. 20-138, and Pertz, Monumenta Germ. ii. pp. 315-323, &c). Ado's chronicle is based on that of Bede, with which he combines extracts from the ordinary sources, forming the whole into a consecutive narrative founded on the conception of the unity of the Roman empire, which he traces in the succession of the emperors, Charlemagne and his heirs following immediately after Constantine and Irene. "It is," says Wattenbach, " history from the point of view of authority and preconceived opinion, which exclude any independent judgment of events. " Ado wrote also a book on the miracles (Miracula) of St Bernard, archbishop of Vienne (9th century), published in the Bollandist Acta Sanctorum; a life or Mar- ty rium of St Desiderius, bishop of Vienne (d. 608), written about 870 and published in Migne, cxxiii. pp. 435-442; and a life of St Theudericus, abbot of Vienne (563), published in Mabillon, Acta Sand. i. pp. 678-681, Migne, cxxiii. pp. 443-450, and re- vised in Bollandist Acta Sand. 29th Oct. xii. pp. 840-843. See W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen, vol. i. (Stutt- gart and Berlin, 1904). ADOBE (pronounced a-dd-be; also corrupted to dobie; from the Span, adobar, to plaster, traceable through Arabic to an Egyptian hieroglyph meaning " brick "), a Spanish- American word for the sun-dried clay used by the Indians for building in some of the south-western states of the American Union, this method having been imported in the 16th century by Spaniards from Mexico, Peru, &c. A distinction is made between the smaller " adobes, " which are about the size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger " adobines, " some of which are as much as from one to two yards long. ADOLESCENCE (Lat. adolescentia, from adolescere, to grow up, past part, adullus, grown up, Eng. " adult "), the term now commonly adopted for the period between childhood and maturity, during which the characteristics — mental, physical and moral — that are to make or mar the individual disclose them- selves, and then mature, in some cases by leaps and bounds, in others by more gradual evolution. The annual rate of growth, in height, weight and strength, increases to a marked extent and may even be doubled. The development in the man takes place in the direction of a greater strength, in the woman towards a fitter form for maternity. The sex sense develops, the love of nature and religion, and an overmastering curiosity both in- dividual and general. This period of life, so fraught with its power for good and ill, is accordingly the most important and by far the most difficult for parents and educationists to deal with efficiently. The chief points for attention may be briefly indicated. Health depends mainly on two factors, heredity, or the sum total of physical and mental leanings of the individual, and environment. In an ideal system of training these two factors will be so fitted in and adapted to one another, that what is weak or unprovided for in the first will be amply com- pensated for in the second. ADOLPH OF NASSAU— ADOLPHUS FREDERICK 211 In an ideal condition children should be brought up in the country as much as possible rather than in the town. Though adults may live where they like within very wide limits and take no harm, children, even of healthy stock, living in towns, are continually subject to many minor ills, such as chronic catarrh, tonsilitis, bronchitis, and even the far graver pneumonia. Removed to healthier conditions in the country their ailments tend to disappear, and normal physical development supervenes. The residence should be on a well-drained soil, preferably near the sea in the case of a delicate child, on higher ground for those of more robust constitution. The child should be lightly clad in woollen garments all the year round, their thickness being slightly greater in winter than in summer. An abundance of simple well-cooked food in sufficient variety, ample time at table, where an atmo- sphere of light gaiety should be cultivated, and a period free from restraint both before and after meals, should be considered fundamental essentials. As regards the most suitable kinds of food — milk and fruit should be given in abundance, fresh meat once a day, and fish or eggs once a day. Bread had better be three days old, and baked in the form of small rolls to increase the ratio of crust to crumb. Both butter and sugar are good foods, and should be freely allowed in many forms. The exercise of the body must be duly attended to. Nowa- days this is provided for in the shape of games, some being optional, others prescribed, and such sports as boating, swim- ming, fencing, -&c. But severe exercise should only be allowed under adequate medical control, and should be increased very gradually. In the case of girls, let them run, leap and climb with their brothers for the first twelve years or so of life. But as puberty approaches, with all the change, stress and strain dependent thereon, their lives should be appropriately modified. Rest should be enforced during the menstrual periods of these earlier years, and milder, more graduated exercise taken at other times. In the same way all mental strain should be diminished. Instead of pressure being put on a girl's intellectual education at about this time, as is too often the case, the time devoted to school and books should be diminished. Education should be on broader, more fundamental lines, and much time should be passed in the open air. With regard to the mental training of both sexes two points must be borne in mind. First, that an ample number of hours should be set on one side for sleep, up to ten years of age not less than eleven, and up to twenty years not less than nine. Secondly, that the time devoted to " book- work " should be broken up into a number of short periods, very carefully graduated to the individual child. In every case where there is a family tendency towards any certain disease or weakness, that tendency must determine the whole circumstances of the child's life. That diathesis which is most serious and usually least regarded, the nervous excitable one, is by far the most important and the most difficult to deal with. Every effort should be made to avoid the conditions in which the hereditary predisposition would be aroused into mischievous action, and to encourage development on simple unexciting lines. The child should be confined to the school- room but little and receive most of his training in wood and field. Other diatheses — the tuberculous, rheumatic, &c. — must be dealt with in appropriate ways. The adolescent is prone to special weaknesses and moral per- versions. The emotions are extremely unstable, and any stress put on them may lead to undesirable results. Warm climates, tight-fitting clothes, corsets, rich foods, soft mattresses, or in- dulgences of any kind, and also mental over-stimulation, are especially to be guarded against. The day should be filled with interests of an objective — in contradistinction to subjective- kind, and the child should retire to bed at night healthily fatigued in mind and body. Let there be confidence between mother and daughter, father and son, and, as the years bring the bodily changes, those in whom the children trust can choose the fitting moments for explaining their meaning and effect, and warning against abuses of the natural functions. For bibliography see Child. ADOLPH OF NASSAU (c. 1255-1298), German king, son of Walram, count of Nassau. He appears to have received a good education, and inherited his father's lands around Wiesbaden in 1^76. He won considerable fame as a mercenary in many of the feuds of the time, and on the 5th of May 1292 was chosen German king, in succession to Rudolph I., an ejection due rather to the political conditions of the time than to his personal qualities. He made large promises to his supporters, and was crowned on the 1st of July at Aix-la-Chapelle. Princes and towns did homage to him, but his position was unstable, and the allegiance of many of the princes, among them Albert I., duke of Austria, son of the late king Rudolph, was merely nominal. Seeking at once to strengthen the royal position, he claimed Meissen as a vacant fief of the Empire, and in 1294 allied himself with Edward I., king of England, against France. Edward granted him a subsidy, but owing to a variety of reasons Adolph did not take the field against France, but turned his arms against Thuringia, which he had purchased from the landgrave Albert II. This bargain was resisted by the sons of Albert, and from 1294 to 1296 Adolph was campaigning in Meissen and Thuringia. Meissen was conquered, but he was not equally successful in Thuringia, and his relations with Albert of Austria were becoming more strained. He had been unable to fulfil the promises made at his election, and the princes began to look with suspicion upon his designs. Wenceslaus II., king of Bohemia, fell away from his allegiance, and his deposition was decided on, and was carried out at Mainz, on the 23rd of May 1298, when Albert of Austria was elected his successor. The forces of the rival kings met at Gollheim on the 2nd of July 1298, where Adolph was killed, it is said by the hand of Albert. He was buried at' Rosenthal, and in 1309 his remains were removed to Spires. See F. W. E. Roth, Geschichte des Romischen Konigs Adolf I. von Nassau (Wiesbaden, 1879); V. Domeier, Die Absetzung Adolf s von Nassau (Berlin, 1889); L. Ennen, Die Wahl des Konigs Adolf von Nassau (Cologne, 1866); L. Schmid, Die Wahl des Graf en Adolf von Nassau zum Romischen Konig; B. Gebhardt, Handbuch der deulschen Geschichte, Band i. (Berlin, 1901). ADOLPHUS, JOHN LEYCESTER (1795-1862), English lawyer and author, was the son of John Adolphus (1768-1845), a well- known London barrister who wrote a History of England to 1783 (1802), a History of France from ijgo (1803) and other works. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School and at St. John's College, Oxford. In 1821 he published Letters to Richard. Heber, Esq., in which he discussed the authorship of the then anonymous Waverley novels, and fixed it upon Sir Walter Scott. This conclusion was based on the resemblance of the novels in general style and method to the poems acknowledged by Scott. Scott thought at first that the letters were written by Reginald Heber, afterwards bishop of Calcutta, and the discovery of J. L. Adolphus's identity led to a warm friend- ship. Adolphus was called to the bar in 1822, and his Circuiteers, an Eclogue, is a parody of the style of two of his colleagues on the northern circuit. He became judge of the Marylebone County Court in 1852, and was a bencher of the Inner Temple. He was the author of Letters from Spain in 1856 and 18^7 (1858), and was completing his father's History of England at the time of his death on the 24th of December 1862. ADOLPHUS FREDERICK (1710-1771), king of Sweden, was born at Gottorp on the 14th of May 17 10. His father was Christian Augustus (1673-1726), duke of Schleswig-Holstein- Gottorp, bishop of Liibeck, and administrator, during the war of 1700-1721, of the duchies of Holstein- Gottorp for his nephew Charles Frederick; his mother was Albertina Frederica of Baden- Durlach. From 1727 to 1750 he was bishop of Liibeck, and administrator of Holstein-Kiel during the minority of Duke Charles Peter Ulrich, afterwards Peter III. of Russia. In 1743 he was elected heir to the throne of Sweden by the " Hat " faction in order that they might obtain better conditions of peace from the empress Elizabeth, whose fondness for the house of Holstein was notorious (see Sweden, History). During his whole reign (1751-1771) Adolphus Frederick was little more than a state decoration, the real power being lodged in the hands of an omnipotent riksdag, distracted by fierce party 212 ADONI— ADOPTIANISM strife. Twice he endeavoured to free himself from the intoler- able tutelage of the estates. The first occasion was in 1755 when, stimulated by his imperious consort Louisa Ulrica, sister of Frederick the Great, he tried to regain a portion of the attenu- ated prerogative, and nearly lost his throne in consequence. On the second occasion, under the guidance of his eldest son, the crown prince Gustavus, afterwards Gustavus III., he suc- ceeded in overthrowing the tyrannous "Cap " senate, but was unable to make any use of his victory. He died of surfeit at Stockholm on the 12th of February 1771. See R. Nisbet Bain, Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries, vol. i. (London, 1895). (R. N. B.) ADONI, a town of British India, in the Bellary district of Madras, 307 m. from Madras by rail. It has manufactures of carpets, silk and cotton goods, and several factories for ginning and pressing cotton. The hill-fort above, now in ruins, was an important seat of government in Mahommedan times and is frequently mentioned in the wars of the 18th century. Pop. (1901) 30,416. ADONIJAH (Heb. Adoniyyah or Adoniyyahu, " Yah is Lord "), a name borne by several persons in the Old Testament, the most noteworthy of whom was the fourth son of David. He was born to Haggith at Hebron (2 Sam. iii. 4; 1 Ch. iii. 2). The natural heir to the throne, on the death of Absalom, he sought with the help of Joab and Abiathar to seize his birth- right, and made arrangements for his coronation (1 Kings i. 5 ff.). Hearing, however, that Solomon, with the help of Nathan the prophet and Bathsheba, and apparently with the consent of David, had ascended the throne, he fled for safety to the horns of the altar. Solomon spared him on this occasional Kings i. 50 ff.), but later commanded Benaiah to slay him (ii. 13 ff.), because with the approval of Bathsheba he wished to marry Abishag, formerly David's concubine, and thus seemed to have designs on the throne. ADONIS, in classical mythology, a youth of remarkable beauty, the favourite of Aphrodite. According to the story in Apollodorus (iii. 14. 4), he was the son of the Syrian king Theias by his daughter Smyrna (Myrrha), who had been inspired by Aphrodite with unnatural love. When Theias discovered the truth he would have slain his daughter, but the gods in pity changed her into a tree of the same name. After ten months the tree burst asunder and from it came forth Adonis. Aphro- dite, charmed by his beauty, hid the infant in a box and handed him over to the care of Persephone, who afterwards refused to give him up. On an appeal being made to Zeus, he decided that Adonis should spend a third of the year with Persephone and a third with Aphrodite, the remaining third being at his own dis- posal. Adonis was afterwards killed by a boar sent by Artemis. There are many variations in the later forms of the story (notably in Ovid, Metam. x. 298). The name is generally supposed to be of Phoenician origin (from adon— " lord ") , Adonis himself being identified with Tammuz (but see F. Dummler in Pauly- Wissowa's Real-encyklopadie, who does not admit a Semitic origin for either name or cult). The name Abobas, by which he was known at Perga in Pamphylia, certainly seems connected with abub (a Semitic word for "flute"; cf. " ambubaiarum collegia " in Horace, Satires, i. 2. 1). (See also Arris.) Annual festivals, called Adonia, were held in his honour at Byblus, Alexandria, Athens and other places. Although there were variations in the ceremony itself and in its date, the central idea was the death and resurrection of Adonis. A vivid descrip- tion of the festival at Alexandria (for which Bion probably wrote his Dirge of Adonis) is given by Theocritus in his fifteenth idyll, the Adoniazusae. On the first day, which celebrated the union of Adonis and Aphrodite, their images were placed side by side on a silver couch, around them all the fruits of the season, " Adonis gardens " in silver baskets, golden boxes of myrrh, cakes of meal, honey and oil, made in the likeness of things that creep and things that fly. On the day following the image of Adonis was carried down to the shore and cast into the sea by women with dishevelled hair and bared breasts. At the same time a song was sung, in which the god was entreated to be propitious in the coming year. This festival, like that at Athens, was held late in summer; at Byblus, where the mourning ceremony preceded, it took place in spring. It is now generally agreed that Adonis is a vegetation spirit, whose death and return to life represent the decay of nature in winter and its revival in spring. He is born from the myrrh- tree, the oil of which is used at his festival; he is connected with Aphrodite in her character of vegetation-goddess. A special feature of the Athenian festival was the "Adonis gar- dens," small pots of flowers forced to grow artificially, which rapidly faded (hence the expression was used to denote any transitory pleasure) . The dispute between Aphrodite and Perse- phone for the possession of Adonis, settled by the agreement that he is to spend a third (or half) of the year in the lower world (the seed at first underground and then reappearing above it), finds a parallel in the story of Tammuz and Ishtar (see Aphro- dite). The cere,mony of the Adonia was intended as a charm to promote the growth of vegetation, the throwing of the gardens and images into the water being supposed to procure a supply of rain (for European parallels see Mannhardt). It is suggested (Frazer) that Adonis is not a god of vegetation generally, but specially a corn-spirit, and that the lamentation is not for the decay of vegetation in winter, but for the cruel treatment of the corn by the reaper and miller (cf. Robert Burns's John Barleycorn). An important element in the story is the connexion of Adonis with the boar, which (according to one version) brings him into the world by splitting with his tusk the bark of the tree into which Smyrna was changed, and finally kills him. It is probable that Adonis himself was looked upon as incarnate in the swine, so that the sacrifice to him by way of expiation on special occa- sions of an animal which otherwise was specially sacred, and its consumption by its worshippers, was a sacramental act. Other instances of a god being sacrificed to himself as his own enemy are the sacrifice of the goat and bull to Dionysus and of the bear to Artemis. The swine would be sacrificed as having caused the death of Adonis, which explains the dislike of Aphro- dite for that animal. It has been observed that whenever swine- sacrifices occur in the ritual of Aphrodite there is reference to Adonis. In any case, the conception of Adonis as a swine-god does not contradict the idea of him as a vegetation or corn spirit, which in many parts of Europe appears in the form of a boar or sow. Authorities. — H. Brugsch, Die Adonisklage und das Linoslied (Berlin, 1852); Greve, De Adonide (Leipzig, 1877) ; W. H. Engel, Kypros, ii. (1841), still valuable; W. Mannhardt, Wald- und Feld- kulte, ii. (1905) ; M. P. Nilsson, Griechische Feste (Leipzig, 1906) ; articles in Roscher's Lexikon and Pauly-Wissowa's Encyklopadie; J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough, ii. (2nd ed.), p. 1 15,' and Adonis, Attis and Osiris (1906) ; L. R. Farnell, Culls of the Greek Stales, ii. p. 646; W. Robertson Smith (Religion of the Semites, new ed., 1894, pp. 191, 290, 411), who, regarding Adonis as the swine-god, char- acterizes the Adonia as an annual piacular sacrifice (of swine), "in which the sacrifice has come to be overshadowed by its popular and dramatic accompaniments, to which the Greek celebration, not forming part of the state religion, was limited." ADONIS, a genus of plants belonging to the natural order Ranunculaceae, known commonly by the names of pheasant's eye and Flos Adonis. They are annual or perennial herbs with much divided leaves and yellow or red flowers. Adonis autum- nalis has become naturalized in some parts of England; the petals are scarlet with a dark spot at the base. An early flowering species, Adonis vernalis, with large bright yellow flowers, is well worthy of cultivation. It prefers a deep light soil. The name is also given to the butterfly, Mazarine or Clifton Blue {Polyom- matus Adonis). ADOPTIANISM. As the theological doctrine of the Logos which bulks so largely in the writings of the apologists of the 2nd century came to the front, the trinitarian problem became acute. The necessity of a constant protest against polytheism led to a tenacious insistence on the divine unity, and the task was to reconcile this unity with the deity of Jesus Christ. Some thinkers fell back on the " modalistic " solution which regards " Father " and " Son " as two aspects of the same subject; ADOPTION 213 but a simpler and more popular method was the " adoptianist " or humanitarian. Basing their views on the synoptic Gospels, and tracing descent from the obscure sect of the Alogi, the Adoptianists under Theodotus of Byzantium tried to found a school at Rome c. 185, asserting that Jesus was a man, filled with the Holy Spirit's inspiration from his baptism, and so attaining such a perfection of holiness that he was adopted by God and exalted to divine dignity. Theodotus was excommuni- cated by the bishop of Rome, Victor, c. 195, but his followers lived on under a younger teacher of the same name and under Artemon, while in the East similar views were expounded by Beryllus of Bostra and Paul of Samosata, who undoubtedly influenced Lucian of Antioch and his school, including Alius and, later, Nestorius. There is thus a traceable historical connexion between the early adoptian controversy and the struggle in Spain at the end of the 8th century, to which that name is usually given. It was indeed only a renewal, under new conditions, of the conflict between two types of thought, the rational and the mystical, the school of Antioch and that of Alexandria. The writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia had become well known in the West, especially since the strife over the " three chapters " (544-533), and the opposition of Islam also partly determined the form of men's views on the doctrine of Christ's person. We must further remember the dyophysitism which had been sanctioned at the council of Chalcedon. About 780 Elipandus (b. 718), archbishop of Toledo, revived and vehemently defended the expression Christus Filius Dei adoptivus, and was aided by his much more gifted friend Felix, bishop of Urgella. They held that the duality of natures implied a distinction between two modes of sonship in Christ — the natural or proper, and the adoptive. In support of their views they appealed to scripture and to the Western Fathers, who had used the term " adoption " as synonymous with " assumption " in the orthodox sense; and especially to Christ's fraternal relation to Christians — the brother of God's adopted sons. Christ, the firstborn among many brethren, had a natural birth at Bethlehem and also a spiritual birth begun at his baptism and consummated at his resurrection. Thus they did not teach a dual personality, nor the old Antiochene view that Christ's divine exaltation was due to his sinless virtue; they were less concerned with old disputes than with the problem as the Chalcedon decision had left it — the relation of Christ's one personality to his two natures. Felix introduced adoptian views into that part of Spain which belonged to the Franks, and Charlemagne thought it necessary to assemble a synod at Regensburg (Ratisbon), in 792, before which the bishop was summoned to explain and justify the new doctrine. Instead of this he renounced it, and confirmed his renunciation by a solemn oath to Pope Adrian, to whom the synod sent him. The recantation was probably insincere, for on returning to his diocese he taught adoptianism as before. Another synod was held at Frankfort in 794, by which the new doctrine was again formally condemned, though neither Felix nor any of his followers appeared. In this synod Alcuin of York took part. A friendly letter from Alcuin, and a controversial pamphlet, to which Felix re- plied, were followed by the sending of several commissions of clergy to Spain to endeavour to put down the heresy. Arch- bishop Leidrad (d. 816) of Lyons, being on one of these commis- sions, persuaded Felix to appear before a synod at Aix-la- Chapelle in 799. There, after six days' disputing with Alcuin, he again recanted his heresy. The rest of his life was spent urttier the supervision of the archbishop at Lyons, where he died in 816. Elipandus, secure in his see at Toledo, never swerved from the adoptian views, which, however, were almost univer- sally abandoned after the two leaders died. In the scholastic discussions of the 12 th century the question came to the front again, for the doctrine as framed by Alcuin was not universally accepted. Thus both Abelard and Peter Lombard, in the interest of the immutability of the divine substance (holding that God could not " become " anything), gravitated towards a Nestorian position. The great opponent of their Christology, which was known as Nihilianism, was the German scholar Gerhoch, who, for his bold assertion of the perfect interpenetration of deity and humanity in Christ, was accused of Eutychianism. The proposition Deus non f actus est aliquid secundum quod est homo was condemned by a synod of Tours in 1163 and again by the Lateran synod of n 79, but Adoptianism continued all through the middle ages to be a source of theological dispute. See A. Harnack, Hist, of Dogma, esp. vol. v. pp. 279-292 ; R. Ottley, The Doctrine of the Incarnation, vol. i. p. 228 ff., vol. ii. pp. 151-161 ; Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk., art. " Adoptianismus." (A. J. G.) ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptatio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself) , the act by which the relations of paternity and filiation are recognized as legally existing between persons not so related by nature. Cases of adoption were very frequent among the Greeks and Romans, and the custom was accordingly very strictly regulated in their laws. In Athens the power of adoption was allowed to all citizens who were of sound mind, and who possessed no male offspring of their own, and it could be exercised either during lifetime or by testament. The person adopted, who required to be himself a citizen, was enrolled in the family and demus of the adoptive father, whose name, however, he did not necessarily assume. In the interest of the next of kin, whose rights were affected by a case of adoption, it was provided that the registration should be attended with certain formalities, and that it should take place at a fixed time — the festival of the Thargelia. The rights and duties of adopted children were almost identical with those of natural offspring, and could not be re- nounced except in the case of one who had begotten children to take his place in the family of his adoptive father. Adopted into another family, children ceased to have any claim of kindred or inheritance through their natural father, though any rights they might have through their mother were not similarly affected. Among the Romans the existence of the patria potestas gave a peculiar significance to the custom of adoption. The motive to the act was not so generally childlessness, or the gratification of affection, as the desire to acquire those civil and agnate rights which were founded on the patria potestas. It was necessary, however, that the adopter should have no children of his own, and that he should be of such an age as to preclude reasonable expectation of any being born to him. Another limitation as to age was imposed by the maxim adoptio imitatur naturam, which required the adoptive father to be at least eighteen years older than the adopted children. According to the same maxim eunuchs were not permitted to adopt, as being impotent to beget children for themselves. Adoption was of two kinds according to the state of the person adopted, who might be either still under the patria potestas ialieni juris), or his own master {sui juris). In the former case the act was one of adoption proper, in the latter case it was styled adrogation, though the term adoption was also used in a general sense to describe both species. In adoption proper the natural father publicly sold his child to the adoptive father, and the sale being thrice repeated, the maxim of the Twelve Tables took effect, Si pater filium ter venunduit, filius a patre liber esto. The process was ratified and completed by a fictitious action of recovery brought by the adoptive father against the natural parent, which the latter did not defend, and which was therefore known as the cessio in jure. Adrogation could be accomplished originally only by the authority of the people assembled in the Comitia, but from the time of Diocletian it was effected by an imperial rescript. Females could not be adrogated, and, as they did not possess the patria potestas, they could not exercise the right of adoption in either kind. The whole Roman law on the subject of adoption will be found in Justinian's Institutes, lib. i. tit. 11. In Hindu law, as in nearly every ancient system, wills were formerly unknown, and adoptions took their place. (See Indian Law.) Adoption is not recognized in the laws of Eng- land, Scotland or the Netherlands, though there are legal means by which one may be enabled to assumethe name and arms a^id to inherit the property of a stranger. (See Name.) 214 ADORATION— ADRA In France and Germany, countries which may be said to have embodied the Roman law in their jurisprudence, adoption is re- gulated according to the principles of Justinian, though with several more or less important modifications, rendered necessary by the usages of these countries respectively. Under French law the rights of adoption can be exercised only by those who are over fifty years of age, and who, at the time of adoption, have neither children nor legitimate descendants. They must also be fifteen years older than the person adopted. In German law the person adopting must either be fifty years of age, or at least eighteen years older than the adopted, unless a special dispen- sation is obtained. If the person adopted is a legitimate child the consent of his parents must be obtained; if illegitimate, the consent of the mother. Both in Germany and France the adopted child remains a member of his original family, and ac- quires no rights in the family of the adopter other than that of succession to the person adopting. In the United States adoption is regulated by the statutes of the several states. Adoption of minors is permitted by statute in many of the states. These statutes generally require some public notice to be given of the intention to adopt, and an order of approval after a hearing before some public authority. The consequence commonly is that the person adopted becomes, in the eyes of the law, the child of the person adopting, for all pur- poses. Such an adoption, if consummated according to the law of the domicile, is equally effectual in any other state into which the parties may remove. The relative status thus newly ac- quired is ubiquitous. (See Whitmore, Laws of Adoption; Ross v. Ross, 129 Massachusetts Reports, 243.) The part played by the legal fiction of adoption in the consti- tution of primitive society and the civilization of the race is so important, that Sir Henry S. Maine, in his Ancient Law, ex- presses the opinion that, had it never existed, the primitive groups of mankind could not have coalesced except on terms of absolute superiority on the one side and absolute subjection on the other. With the institution of adoption, however, one people might feign itself as descended from the same stock as the people to whose sacra gentilicia it was admitted; and amicable relations were thus established between stocks which, but for this ex- pedient, must have submitted to the arbitrament of the sword with all its consequences. ADORATION (Lat. ad, to, and os, mouth; i.e. " carrying to one's mouth "), primarily an act of homage or worship, which, among the Romans, was performed by raising the hand to the mouth, kissing it and then waving it in the direction of the adored object. The devotee had his head covered, and after the act turned himself round from left to right. Sometimes he kissed the feet or knees of the images of the gods themselves, and Saturn and Hercules were adored with the head bare. By a natural transition the homage, at first paid to divine beings alone, came to be paid to monarchs. Thus the Greek and Roman emperors were adored by bowing or kneeling, laying hold of the imperial robe, and presently withdrawing the hand and pressing it to the lips, or by putting the royal robe itself to the lips. In Eastern countries adoration has ever been performed in an attitude still more lowly. The Persian method, introduced by Cyrus, was to bend the knee and fall on the face at the prince's feet, striking the earth with the forehead and kissing the ground. This striking of the earth with the forehead, usually a fixed number of times, is the form of adoration usually paid to Eastern potentates to-day. The Jews kissed in homage. Thus in 1 Kings xix. 18, God is made to say, " Yet I have left me seven thousand in Israel, all the knees which have not bowed unto Baal, and every mouth which hath not kissed him." And in Psalms ii. 12, " Kiss the Son, lest he be angry, and ye perish from the way." (See also Hosea xiii. 2.) In England the ceremony of kissing the sovereign's hand, and some other acts which are performed kneeling, may be described as forms of adoration. Adoration is applied in the Roman Church to the ceremony of kissing the pope's foot, a custom which is said to have been intro- duced by the popes following the example of the emperor Diocletian. The toe of the famous statue of the apostle in St Peter's, Rome, shows marked wear caused by the kisses of pilgrims. In the Roman Church a distinction is made between Latria, a worship due to God alone, and Dulia or Hyperdulia, the adoration paid to the Virgin, saints, martyrs, crucifixes, &c. (See further Homage.) ADORF, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, 3 m. from the Bohemian frontier, at an elevation of 1400 ft. above the sea, on the Plauen-Eger and Aue-Adorf lines of rail- way. Pop. 5000. It has lace, dyeing and tanning industries, and manufactures of toys and musical instruments; and there is a convalescent home for the poor of the city of Leipzig. ADOUR (anc. Aturrus or Adurus, from Celtic dour, water), a river of south-west France, rising in the department of Hautes Pyrenees, and flowing in a wide curve to the Bay of Biscay. It is formed of several streams having their origin in the massifs of the Pic d'Arbizon and the Pic du Midi de Bigorre, but during the first half of its course remains an inconsiderable river. In traversing the beautiful valley of Campan it is artificially aug- mented in summer by the waters of the Lac Bleu, which are drawn off by means of a siphon, and flow down the valley of Lesponne. After passing Bagneres de Bigorre the Adour enters the plain of Tarbes, and for the remainder of its course in the department of Hautes Pyrenees is of much less importance as a waterway than as a means of feeding the numerous irrigation canals which cover the plains on each side. Of these the oldest and most important is the Canal d'Alaric, which follows the right bank for 36 m. Entering the department of Gers, the Adour receives the Arros on the right bank and begins to de. scribe .the large westward curve which takes it through the department of Landes to the sea. In the last-named depart- ment it soon becomes navigable, namely, at St Sever, after pass- ing which it is joined on the left by the Larcis, Gabas, Louts and Luy, and on the right by the Midouze, which is formed by the union of the Douze and the Midour, and is navigable for 27 m. ; now taking a south-westerly course it receives on the left the Gave de Pau, which is a more voluminous river than the Adour itself, and flowing past Bayonne enters the sea through a dangerous estuary, in which sandbars are formed, after a total course of 208 m., of which 82 are navigable. The mouth of the Adour has repeatedly shifted, its old bed being represented by the series of Hangs and lagoons extending northward as far' as the village of Vieux Boucau, 225 m. north of Bayonne, where it found a new entrance into the sea at the end of the 14th cen- tury. Its previous mouth had been 10 m. south of Vieux Boucau. The present channel was constructed by the engineer Louis de Foix in 1579. There is a depth over the bar at the entrance of io| to 16 ft. at high tide. The area of the basin of the Adour is 6565 sq. m. ADOWA (properly Adua), the capital of Tigre, northern Abyssinia, 145 m. N.E. of Gondar and 17 m. E. by N. of Axum, the ancient capital of Abyssinia. Adowa is built on the slope of a hill at an elevation of 6500 ft., in the midst of a rich agri- cultural district. Being on the high road from Massawa to central Abyssinia, it is a meeting-place of merchants from Arabia and the Sudan for the exchange of foreign merchandise with the products of the country. During the wars between the Italians and Abyssinia (1887-96) Adowa was on three or four occasions looted and burnt; but the churches escaped destruction. The church of the Holy Trinity, one of the largest in Abyssinia, contains numerous wall-paintings of native art. On a hill about 25 m. north-west of Adowa are the ruins of Fremona, the headquarters of the Portuguese Jesuits who lived in Abys- sinia during the 16th and r7th centuries. On the 1st of March 1896, in the hills north of the town, was fought the battle of Adowa, in which the Abyssinians inflicted a crushing defeat on the Italian forces (see Italy, History, and Abyssinia, History). ADRA (anc. Abdera), a seaport of southern Spain, in the province of Almeria; at the mouth of the Rio Grande de Adra, and on the Mediterranean Sea. Pop. (1900) 11,188. Adra is the port of shipment for the lead obtained near Berja, 10 m; north-east; but its commercial development is retarded by the lack of a railway. Besides lead, the. exports include grapes, ADRAR-^-ADRIAN 215 sugar and esparto. Fuel is imported, chiefly from the United Kingdom. ADRAR (Berber for "uplands"), the name of various dis- tricts of the Saharan desert, Northern Africa. Adrar Suttuf is a hilly region forming the southern part of the Spanish pro- tectorate of the Rio de Oro (q.v.). Adrar or Adrar el Jebli, otherwise Adghagh, is a plateau north-east of Timbuktu. It is the headquarters of the Awellimiden Tuareg (see Tuareg and Sahara). Adrar n'Ahnet and Adrar Adhafar are smaller regions in the Ahnet country south of Insalah. Adrar Temur, the country usually referred to when Adrar is spoken of, is in the western Sahara, 300 m. north of the Senegal and separated on the north-west from Adrar Suttuf by wide valleys and sand dunes. Adrar is within the French sphere of influence. In general barren, the country contains several oases, with a total popu- lation of about 10,000. In 1900 the oasis of Atar, on the western borders of the territory, was reached by Paul Blanchet, previ- ously known for his researches on ancient Berber remains in Algeria. (Blanchet died in Senegal on the 6th of October 1900, a few days after his return from Adrar.) Atar is inhabited by Arab and Berber tribes, and is described as a wretched spot. The other centres of population are Shingeti, Wadan and Ujeft, Shingeti being the chief commercial centre, whence caravans take to St Louis gold-dust, ostrich feathers and dates. A con- siderable trade is, also done in salt from the sebkha of Ijil, in the north-west. Adrar occupies the most elevated part of a plateau which ends westwards in a steep escarpment and falls to the east in a succession of steps. Adrar or Adgar is also the name sometimes given to the chief settlement in the oasis of Tuat in the Algerian Sahara. ADRASTUS, in Greek legend, was the son of Talaus, king of Argos, and Lysianassa, daughter of Polybus, king of Sicyon. Having been driven from Argos by Amphiaraus, Adrastus fled to Sicyon, where he became king on the death of Polybus. After a time he became reconciled to Amphiaraus, gave him his sister Eriphyle in marriage, and returned to Argos and occupied the throne. In consequence of an oracle which had commanded him to marry his daughters to a lion and a boar, he wedded them to Polyneices and Tydeus, two fugitives, clad in the skins of these animals or carrying shields with their figures on them, who claimed his hospitality. He was the instigator of the famous war against Thebes for the restoration of his son-in-law Polyneices, who had been deprived of his rights by his brother Eteocles. Adrastus, followed by Polyneices and Tydeus, his two sons-in- law, Amphiaraus, his brother-in-law, Capaneus, Hippomedon and Parthenopaeus, marched against the city of Thebes, and on his way is said to have founded the Nemean games. This is the expedition of the " Seven against Thebes," which the poets have made nearly as famous as the siege of Troy. As Amphiaraus had foretold, they all lost their lives in this war except Adrastus, who was saved by the speed of his horse Arion (Iliad, xxiii. 346). Ten years later, at the instigation of Adrastus, the war was re- newed by the sons of the chiefs who had fallen. This expedition was called the war of the " Epigoni " or descendants, and ended in the taking and destruction of Thebes. None of the followers of Adrastus perished except his son Aegialeus, and this affected him so greatly that he died of grief at Megara, as he was leading back his victorious army. Apollodorus iii. 6, 7; Aeschylus, Septem contra Thebas; Euripides, Phoenissae, Supplices ; Statius, Thebais ; Herodotus v. 67. ADRIA (anc. Atria; the form Adria or Hadria is less correct: Hatria was a town in Picenum, the modern Atri), a town and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Rovigo, 15 m. E. by rail from the town of Rovigo. It is situated between the mouths of the Adige and the Po, about 135 m. from the sea and but 13 ft. above it. Pop. (1901) 15,678. The town occu- pies the site of the ancient Atria, which gave its name to the Adriatic. Its origin is variously ascribed by ancient writers, but it was probably a Venetian, i.e. Illyrian, not an Etruscan, foundation — still less a foundation of Dionysius I. of Syracuse. Imported vases of the second half of the 5th century B.C. prove the existence of trade with Greece at that period; and the town was famous in Aristotle's day for a special breed of fowls. Even at that period, however, the silt brought down by the rivers rendered access to the harbour difficult, and the historian Philistus excavated a canal to give free access to the sea. This was still open in the imperial period, and the town, which was a municipium, possessed its own gild of sailors; but its import- ance gradually decreased. Its remains lie from 10 to 20 ft. below the modern level. The Museo Civico and the Bocchi collection contain antiquities. See R. Schone, Le antichitd del Museo Bocchi di Adria (Rome, 1878). (T. As.) ADRIAN, or Hadrian (Lat. Hadrianus), the name of six popes. Adrian I., pope from 772 to 795, was the son of Theodore, a Roman nobleman. Soon after his accession the territory that had been bestowed on the popes by Pippin was invaded by Desiderius, king of the Lombards, and Adrian found it necessary to invoke the aid of Charlemagne, who entered Italy with a large army, besieged Desiderius in his capital of Pavia, took that town, banished the Lombard king to Corbie in France and united the Lombard kingdom with the other Frankish possessions. The pope, whose expectations had been aroused, had to content himself with some additions to the duchy of Rome, and to the Exarchate, and the Pentapolis. In his contest with the Greek empire and the Lombard princes of Benevento, Adrian remained faithful to the Frankish alliance, and the friendly relations between pope and emperor were not disturbed by the difference which arose between them on the question of the worship of images, to which Charlemagne and the Gallican Church were strongly opposed, while Adrian favoured the views of the Eastern Church, and approved the decree of the council of Nicaea (787), confirming the practice and excommunicating the iconoclasts. It was in connexion with this controversy that Charlemagne wrote the so-called Libri Carolini, to which Adrian replied by letter, anathematizing all who refused to worship the images of Christ, or the Virgin, or saints. Notwith- standing this, a synod, held at Frankfort in 794, anew condemned the practice, and the dispute remained unsettled at Adrian's death. An epitaph written by Charlemagne in verse, in which he styles Adrian " father," is still to be seen at the door of the Vatican basilica. Adrian restored the ancient aqueducts of Rome, and governed his little state with a firm and skilful hand. Adrian II., pope from 867 to 872, was a member of a noble Roman family, and became pope in 867, at an advanced age. He maintained, but with less energy, the attitude of his prede- cessor. Rid of the affair of Lothair, king of Lorraine, by the death of that prince (869), he endeavoured in vain to mediate between the Frankish princes with a view to assuring to the emperor, Louis II., the heritage of the king of Lorraine. Photius, shortly after the council in which he had pronounced sentence of deposition against Pope Nicholas, was driven from the patri- archate by a new emperor, Basil the Macedonian, who favoured his rival Ignatius. An oecumenical council (called by the Latins the 8th) was convoked at Constantinople to decide this matter. At this council Adrian was represented by legates, who presided at the condemnation of Photius, but did not suc- ceed in coming to an understanding with Ignatius on the subject of the jurisdiction over the Bulgarian converts. Like his prede- cessor Nicholas, Adrian II. was forced to submit, at least in temporal affairs, to the tutelage of the emperor, Louis II., who placed him under the surveillance of Arsenius, bishop of Orta, his confidential adviser, and Arsenius's son Anastasius, the librarian. Adrian had married in his youth, and his wife and daughter were still living. They were carried off and assassin- ated by Anastasius's brother, Eleutherius, whose reputation, however, suffered but a momentary eclipse. Adrian died in 872. Adrian III., pope, was born at Rome. He succeeded Martin II. in 884, and died in 885, on a journey to Worms. (L. D.*) Adrian IV. (Nicholas Breakspear), pope from n 54 to 1159, the only Englishman who has occupied the papal chair, was born before a.d. 1 100 at Langley near St Albans in Hertford- shire. His father was Robert, a priest of the diocese of Bath, 2l6 ADRIAN who entered a monastery and left the boy to his own resources. Nicholas went to Paris and finally became a monk of the cloister of St Rufus near Aries. He rose to be prior and in 1137 was unanimously elected abbot. His reforming zeal led to the lodging of complaints against him at Rome; but these merely attracted to him the favourable attention of Eugenius III., who created him cardinal bishop of Albano. From 1152 to 1 1 54 Nicholas was in Scandinavia as legate, organizing the affairs of the new Norwegian archbishopric of Trondhjem, and making arrangements which resulted in the recognition of Upsala as seat of the Swedish metropolitan in 1164. As a compensation for territory thus withdrawn the Danish archbishop of Lund was made legate and perpetual vicar and given the title of primate of Denmark and Sweden. On his return Nicholas was received with great honour by Anastasius IV., and on the death of the latter was elected pope on the 4th of December 11 54. He at once endeavoured to compass the overthrow of Arnold of Brescia, the leader of anti-papal sentiment in Rome. Disorders ending with the murder of a cardinal led Adrian shortly before Palm Sunday 1155 to take the previously-unheard-of step of putting Rome under the interdict. The senate thereupon exiled Arnold, and the pope, with the impolitic co-operation of Frederick I. Barbarossa, was instrumental in procuring his execution. Adrian crowned the emperor at St Peter's on the 18th of June 1155, a ceremony whjch so incensed the Romans that the pope had to leave the city promptly, not returning till November 11 56. With the aid of dissatisfied barons, Adrian brought William I. of Sicily into dire straits ; but a change in the fortunes of war led to a settlement (June 11 56) not advantageous to the papacy and displeasing to the emperor. At the diet of Besancon in October 11 57, the legates presented to Barbarossa a letter from Adrian which alluded to the beneficia conferred upon the em- peror, and the German chancellor translated this beneficia in the feudal sense. In the storm which ensued the legates were glad to escape with their lives, and the incident at length closed with a letter from the pope, declaring that by beneficium he meant merely bonum factum. The breach subsequently became wider, and Adrian was about to excommunicate the emperor when he died at Anagnia on the 1st of September 11 59. A controversy exists concerning an embassy sent by Henry II. of England to Adrian in 1155. According to the elaborate investigation of Thatcher, the facts seem to be as follows. Henry asked for permission to invade and subjugate Ireland, in order to gain absolute ownership of that isle. Unwilling to grant a request counter to the papal claim (based on the forged Dona- tion of Constantine) to dominion over the islands of the sea, Adrian made Henry a conciliatory proposal, namely, that the king should become hereditary feudal possessor of Ireland while recognizing the pope as overlord. This compromise did not satisfy Henry, so the matter dropped; Henry's subsequent title to Ireland rested on conquest, not on papal concession, and was therefore absolute. The much-discussed bull Lauda- biliter is, however, not genuine. See Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, 3rd ed. (excellent biblio- graphy), and Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon, 2nd ed., under " Hadrian IV."; also Oliver J. Thatcher, Studies concerning Adrian IV. (The University of Chicago: Decennial Publications, 1st series, vol. iv., Chicago, 1903); R. Raby, Pope Adrian IV.; An historical Sketch (London, 1849) ; and A. H.Tarleton, Life of Nicholas Breckspear (London, 1 896). Adrian V. (Ottobuono de' Fieschi), pope in 1276, was a Genoese who was created cardinal deacon by his uncle Innocent IV. In 1264 he was sent to England to mediate between Henry III. and his barons. He was elected pope to succeed Innocent V. on the nth of July 1276, but. died at Viterbo on the 18th of August, without having been ordained even to the priesthood. Adrian VI. (Adrian Dedel, not Boyens, probably not Roden- burgh, 1459-1523), pope from 1522 to 1523, was born at Utrecht in March 1459, and studied under the Brethren of the Common Life either at Zwolle or Deventer. At Louvain he pursued philosophy, theology and canon law, becoming a doctor of theo- logy (1491), dean of St Peter's and vice-chancellor of the uni- versity. In 1 507 he was appointed tutor to the seven-year-old Charles V. He was sent to Spain in 151500 a very important diplomatic errand ; Charles secured his succession to the see of Tortosa, and on the 14th of November 15 16 commissioned him inquisitor-general of Aragon. During the minority of Charles, Adrian was associated with Cardinal Jimenes in governing Spain. After the death of the latter Adrian was appointed, on the 14th of March 1518, general of the reunited inquisitions of Castile and Aragon, in which capacity he acted till his departure from Tarragona for Rome on the 4th of August 1522 : he was, however, too weak and confiding to cope with abuses which Jimenes had been able in some degree to check. When Charles left for the Netherlands in 1520 he made Adrian regent of Spain : as such he had to cope with a very serious revolt. In 151 7 Leo X. had created him cardinal priest 55. loannis et Pauli; on the 9th of January 1522 he was almost unanimously elected pope. Crowned in St Peter's on the 31st of August at the age of sixty-three, he entered upon the lonely path of the reformer. His programme was to attack notorious abuses one by one ; but in his attempt to improve the system of granting indulgences he was hampered by his cardinals ; and reducing the number of matrimonial dispensations was impossible, for the income had been farmed out for years in advance by Leo X. The Italians saw in him a pedantic foreign professor, blind to the beauty of classical antiquity, penuriously docking the stipends of great artists. As a peacemaker among Christian princes, whom he hoped to unite in a protective war against the Turk, he was a failure: in August 1523 he was forced openly to ally himself with the Empire, England, Venice, &c, against France; mean- while in 1522 the sultan Suleiman I. had conquered Rhodes. In dealing with the early stages of the Protestant revolt in Germany Adrian did not fully recognize the gravity of the situation. At the diet which opened in December 1522 at Nuremberg he was represented by Chieregati, whose instructions contain the frank admission that the whole disorder of the church had perchance proceeded from the Curia itself, and that there the reform should begin. However, the former professor and inquisitor-general was stoutly opposed to doctrinal changes, and demanded that Luther be punished for heresy. The statement in one of his works that the pope could err in matters of faith (" haeresim per suam determinationem aut Decrelalem asserendo ") has attracted attention ; but as it is a private opinion, not an ex cathedra- pronouncement, it is held not to prejudice the dogma of papal infallibility. On the 14th of September 1523 he died, after a pontificate too short to be effective. Most of Adrian VI. 's official papers disappeared soon after his death. He published Quaestiones in quarlum sententiarum praesertim circa sacramenta (Paris, 1512, 1516, 1518, 1537; Rome, 1522), and Quaes- tiones quodlibeticae XII. (1st ed., Louvain, 1515). See L. Pastor, in Geschichte der Papste, vol. iv. pt. ii.; Adrian VI. und Klemens VII. (Freiburg, 1907) ; also Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon, 2nd ed., and Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, 3rd ed., under " Hadrian VI."; H. Hurter, Nomenclalor lilerarius recentioris theologiae catholicae, torn. iv. (Innsbruck, 1899), 1027; The Cambridge Modern History, vol. ii. (1904), 19-21 ; H. C. Lea, A History of the Inquisition of Spain, vol. i. (1906) ; Janus, The Pope and the Council, 2nd ed. (London, 1869), 376. Biographies :— A. Lepitre, Adrien VI. (Paris, 1880); C. A. C. von Hofler, Papst Adrian VI. (Vienna, 1880); L. Casartelli, " The Dutch Pope," in Miscellaneous Essays (London, 1906). (W. W. R.*) ADRIAN, SAINT, one of the praetorian guards of the emperor Galerius Maximian, who, becoming a convert to Christianity, was martyred at Nicomedia on the 4th of March 303. It is said that while presiding over the torture of a band of Christians he was so amazed at their courage that he publicly confessed his faith. He was imprisoned, and the next day his limbs were struck off on an anvil, and he was then beheaded, dying in his wife's, St Natalia's, arms. St Adrian's festival, with that of his wife, is kept on the 8th of September. He is specially a patron of soldiers, and is much reverenced in Flanders, Germany and the north of France. He is usually represented armed, with an anvil in his hands or at his feet. • ADRIAN, a city and the county-seaX of Lenawee county, Michigan, U.S.A., on the S. branch of Raisin river; near the S.E. corner of the state. Pop.(i89o) 8756 ; (1900) 9654, of whom ADRIANI— ADRIANOPLE 217 1136 were foreign-born: (iqio census) 10,763. It is served by five branches of the Lake Shore railway system, and by the Wabash, the Toledo and Western, and the Toledo, Detroit and Ironton railways. Adrian is the seat of Adrian College (1859; co-educational), controlled by the Wesleyan Methodist Church in 1850-1867 and since 1867 by the Methodist Protestant Church, and having departments of literature, theology, music, fine arts, commerce and pedagogy, and a preparatory school; and of St Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic) for girls; and 1 m. north of the city is the State Industrial Home for Girls (1879), for the reformation of juvenile offenders between the ages of ten and seventeen. Adrian has a public library. The city is situated in a rich farming region; is an important shipping point for live- stock, grain and other farm products; and is especially known as a centre for the manufacture of wire-fences. Among the other manufactories are flouring and grist mills, planing mills, foun- dries, and factories for making agricultural implements, United States mail boxes, furniture, pianos, organs, automobiles, toys and electrical supplies. The value of the city's factory products increased from $2,124,923 in 1900 to $4,897,426 in 1904, or 130-3%; of the total value in 1904, $2,849,648 was the value of wire-work. The place was laid out as a town in 1828, and according to tradition was named in honour of the Roman emperor Hadrian. It was incorporated as a village in 1836, was made the county -seat in 1838 and was chartered as a city in 1853. ADRIANI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1513-1579), Italian his- torian, was born of a patrician family of Florence, and was secretary to the republic of Florence. He was among the de- fenders of the city during the siege of 1530, but subsequently joined the Medici party and was appointed professor of rhetoric at the university. At the instance of Cosimo I. he wrote a history of his own times, from 1536 to 1574, in Italian, which is generally, but according to Brunet erroneously, considered a continuation of Guicciardini. De Thou acknowledges himself greatly indebted to this history, praising it especially for its accuracy. Adriani composed funeral orations in Latin on the emperor Charles V. and other noble personages, and was the author of a long letter on ancient painters and sculptors prefixed to the third volume of Vasari. His Istoria dei suoi tempi was published in Florence in 1583; a new edition appeared also in Florence in 1872. SeeG. M. Mazzucchelli, Gli Scrittori a" Italia, i. p. 151 (Brescia, 1753). ADRIANOPLE, a vilayet of European Turkey, corresponding with part of the ancient Thrace, and bounded on the N. by Bulgaria (Eastern Rumelia), E. by the Black Sea and the vilayet of Constantinople, S. by the Sea of Marmora and the Aegean Sea and W. by Macedonia. Pop. (1905) about 1,000,000; area, 15,000 sq. m. The surface of the vilayet is generally mountain- ous, except in the central valley of the Maritza, and along the banks of its tributaries, the Tunja, Arda, Ergene, &c. On the west, the great Rhodope range and its outlying ridges extend as far as the Maritza, and attain an altitude of more than 7000 ft. in the summits of the Kushlar Dagh, Karluk Dagh and Kara- Balkan. Towards the Black Sea, the less elevated Istranja Dagh stretches from north-west to south-east; and the entire south coast, which includes the promontory of Gallipoli and the western shore of the Dardanelles, is everywhere hilly or mountainous, except near the estuaries of the Maritza, and of the Mesta, a western frontier stream. The climate is mild and the soil fertile; but political disturbances and the conserva- tive character of the people tend to thwart the progress of agriculture and other industries. The vilayet suffered severely during the Russian occupation of 1878, when, apart from the natural dislocation of commerce, many of the Moslem culti- vators emigrated to Asia Minor, to be free from their alien rulers. Through the resultant scarcity of labour, much land fell out of cultivation. This was partially remedied after the Bulgarian annexation of Eastern Rumelia, in 1885, had driven •the Moslems of that country to emigrate in like manner to Adrianople; but the advantage was counterbalanced by the establishment of hostile Bulgarian tariffs. The important silk industry, however, began to revive about 1890, and dairy farm- ing is prosperous; but the condition of the vilayet is far less unsettled than that of Macedonia, owing partly to the prepon- derance of Moslems among the peasantry, and partly to the nearness of Constantinople, with its Western influences. The main railway from Belgrade to Constantinople skirts the Maritza and Ergene valleys, and there is an important branch line down the Maritza valley to D6deagatch, and thence coastwise to Salonica. After the city of Adrianople (pop. 1905, about 80,000), which is the capital, the principal towns are Rodosto (35,000), Gallipoli (25,000), Kirk-Kilisseh (16,000), Xanthi (14,000), Chorlu (11,500), Demotica (10,000), Enos (8000), Gumuljina (8000) and D6deagatch (3000). ADRIANOPLE (anc. Hadrianopolis; Turk. Edirne, or Edreneh; Slav. Odrin), the capital of the vilayet of Adrianople, Turkey in Europe; 137 m. by rail W.N.W. of Constantinople. Pop. (1905) about 80,000, of whom half are Turks, and half Jews, Greeks, Bulgars, Armenians, &c. Adrianople ranks, after Con- stantinople and Salonica, third in size and importance among the cities of European Turkey. It is the see of a Greek arch- bishop, and of one Armenian and two Bulgarian bishops. It is the chief fortress near the Bulgarian frontier, being defended by a ring of powerful modern forts. It occupies both banks of the river Tunja,. at its confluence with the Maritza, which is navigable to this point in spring and winter. The nearest sea- port by rail is Dedeagatch, west of the Maritza; Enos, at the river-mouth, is the nearest by water. Adrianople is on the rail- way from Belgrade and Sofia to Constantinople and Salonica. In appearance it is thoroughly Oriental — a mass of mean, ir- regular wooden buildings, threaded by narrow tortuous streets, with a few better buildings. Of these the most important are the Idadieh school, the school of arts and crafts, the Jewish communal school; the Greek college, Zappeion; the Imperial Ottoman Bank and Tobacco Regie; a fire-tower; a theatre; palaces for the prefect of the city, the administrative staff of the second army corps and the defence works commission; a hand- some row of barracks; a military hospital; and a French hospital. Of earlier buildings, the most distinguished are the Eski Serai, an ancient and half-ruined palace of the sultans; the bazaar of Ali Pasha; and the 16th-century mosque of the sultan Selim II., a magnificent specimen of Turkish architecture. Adrianople has five suburbs, of which Kiretchhan6 and Yilderim are on the left bank of the Maritza, and Kirjik stands on a hill overlooking the city. The two last named are exclu- sively Greek, but a large proportion of the inhabitants of Kiretch- hane are Bulgarian. These three suburbs — as well as the little hamlet of Demirtash, containing about 300 houses all occupied by Bulgars— are all built in the native fashion; but thej fifth suburb, Karagatch, which is on the right bank of the Maritza, and occupies the region between the railway station and the city, is Western in its design, consisting of detached residences in gardens, many of the:ii handsome villas, and all of modern European type. In all the communities schools have multiplied, but the new seminaries are of the old non-progressive type. The only exception is the Hamidieh school for boys — a govern-r ment institution which takes both boarders and day-scholars. Like the Lyceum of Galata Serai in Constantinople, it has two sets of professors, Turkish and French, and a full course of education in each language, the pupils following both courses. The several communities have each their own charitable institu- tions, the Jews being sneciallv well endowed in this respect. The Greeks have a literary society, and there is a well-organized club to which members of all the native communities, as well .as many foreigners, belong. The economic condition of Adrianople was much impaired by the war of 1877-78, and was just showing signs of recovery when, in 1885, the severance from it of Eastern Rumelia by a Customs cordon rendered the situation worse than ever. Adrian- ople had previously been the commercial headquarters of all Thrace, and of a large portion of the region between the Balkans and the Danube, now Bulgaria. But the separation of Eastern Rumelia isolated Adrianople, and transferred to Philippopolis at 2l8 ADRIATIC SEA— ADULTERATION least two-thirds of its foreign trade which, as regards sea-borne merchandise, is carried on through the port of Burgas (q.v.). The city manufactures silk, leather, tapestry, woollens, linen and cotton, and has an active general trade. Besides fruits and agricultural produce, its exports include raw silk, cotton, opium, rose-water, attar of roses, wax and the dye known as Turkey red. The surrounding country is extremely fertile, and its wines are the best produced in Turkey. The city is supplied with fresh water by means of an aqueduct carried by arches over an extensive valley. There is also a fine stone bridge over the Tunja. Adrianople was originally known as Uskadama, Uskudama or Uskodama, but was renamed and enlarged by the Roman emperor Hadrian (117-138). In 378 the Romans were here defeated by the Goths. Adrianople was the residence of the Turkish sultans from 1361, when it was captured by Murad I., until 1453, when Constantinople fell. It was occupied by the Russians in 1829 and 1878 (see Russo-Turkish Wars). ADRIATIC SEA (ancient Adria or Hadria), an arm of the Mediterranean Sea separating Italy from the Austro-Hungarian, Montenegrin and Albanian littorals, and the system of the Apennine mountains from that of the Dinaric Alps and adjacent ranges. The name, derived from the town of' Adria, belonged originally only to the upper portion of the sea (Herodotus vi. 127, vii. 20, ix. 92; Euripides, Hippolytus, 736), but was gradually extended as the Syracusan colonies gained in import- ance. But even then the Adriatic in the narrower sense only extended as far as the Mons Garganus, the outer portion being called the Ionian Sea: the name was sometimes, however, inaccurately used to include the Gulf of Tarentum, the Sea of Sicily, the Gulf of Corinth and even the sea between Crete and Malta (Acts xxvii. 27). The Adriatic extends N.W. from 40 to 45 45' N., with an extreme length of nearly 500 m., and a mean breadth of about no m., but the Strait of Otranto, through which it connects at the south with the Ionian Sea, is only 45 m. wide. Moreover, the chain of islands which fringes the northern part of the eastern shore reduces the extreme breadth of open sea in this part to 90 m. The Italian shore is generally low, merging, in the north-west, into the marshes and lagoons on either hand of the protruding delta of the river Po, the sediment of which has pushed forward the coast-line for several miles within historic times. On islands within one of the lagoons opening from the Gulf of Venice, the city of that name has its unique situation. The east coast is generally bold and rocky. South of the Istrian peninsula, which separates the Gulfs of Venice and Trieste from the Strait of Quarnero, the island-fringe of the east coast extends as far south as Ragusa. The islands, which are long and narrow (the long axis lying. parallel with the coast of the mainland), rise rather abruptly to elevations of a few hundred feet, while on the mainland, notably in the magnifi- cent inlet of the Bocche di Cattaro, lofty mountains often fall directly to the sea. This coast, though beautiful, is somewhat sombre, the prevalent colour of the rocks, a light, dead grey, contrasting harshly with the dark vegetation, which on some of the islands is luxuriant. The north part of the sea is very shallow, and between the southern promontory of Istria and Rimini the depth rarely exceeds 25 fathoms. Between Sebenico and Ortona a well-marked depression occurs, a considerable area of which exceeds 100 fathoms in depth. From a point be- tween Curzola and the north shore of the spur of Monte Gargano there is a ridge giving shallower water, and a broken chain of a few islets extends across the sea. The deepest part of the sea lies east of Monte Gargano, south of Ragusa, and west of Dur- azzo, where a large basin gives depths of 500 fathoms and upwards, and a small area in the south of this basin falls below 800. The mean depth of the sea is estimated at 133 fathoms. The bora (north-east wind) , and the prevalence of sudden squalls from this quarter or the south-east, are dangers to navigation in winter. Tidal movement is slight. (See also Mediterranean.) For the " Marriage of the Adriatic," or more properly "of the sea," a ceremony formerly performed by the doges of Venice, see the article Bucentaur. ADSCRIPT (from Lat. ad, on or to, and scribere, to write), something written after, as opposed to " subscript," which means written under. A labourer was called an " adscript of the soil " {adscriptus glebae) when he could be sold or transferred with it, as in feudal days, and as in Russia until 1861. Carlyle speaks of the Java blacks as a kind of adscripts. ADULLAM, a Canaanitish town in the territory of the tribe of Judah, perhaps the modern "Ald-el-Ma, 7 m. N.E. of Beit-Jibrin. It was in the stronghold (" cave " is a scribal error) of this town that David took refuge on two occasions (1 Sam. xxii. 1; 2 Sam. v. 17). The tradition that Adullam is in the great cave of Khareitun (St Chariton) is probably due to the crusaders. From the description of Adullam as the resort of " every one that was in distress," or " in debt," or " discontented," it has often been humorously alluded to, notably by Sir Walter Scott, who puts the expression into the mouth of the Baron of Brad- wardine in Waverley, chap, lvii., and also of Balfour of Burley in Old Mortality. In modern political history the expression " cave of Adullam" (hence " Adullamites ") came into common use (being first employed in a speech by John Bright on the 13th of March 1866) with regard to the independent attitude of Robert Lowe (Lord Sherbrooke), Edward Horsman and their Liberal supporters in opposition to the Reform Bill of 1866. But others had previously used it in a similar connexion, e.g. President Lincoln in his second electoral campaign (1864), and the Tories in allusion to the Whig remnant who joined C. J. Fox in his temporary secession. From the same usage is derived the shorter political term " cave " for any body of men who secede from their party on some special subject. ADULTERATION (from Lat. adulter are, to defile or falsify), the act of debasing a commercial commodity with the object of passing it off as or under the name of a pure or genuine commodity for illegitimate profit, or the substitution of an inferior article for a superior one, to the detriment of the purchaser. Although the term is mainly used in connexion with the falsification of articles of food, drink or drugs, and is so dealt with in this article, the practice of adulteration extends to almost all manufactured products and even to unmanufactured natural substances, and (as was once suggested by John Bright) is an almost inseparable — though none the less reprehensible — phase of keen trade competition. In its crudest forms as old as commerce itself, it has progressed with the growth of knowledge and of science, and is, in its most modern developments, almost a branch — and that' not the least vigorous one — of applied science. From the mere concealment of a piece of metal or a stone in a loaf of bread or in a lump of butter, a bullet in a musk bag or in a piece of opium, it has developed into the use of aniline dyes, of anti- septic chemicals, of synthetic sweetening agents in foods, the manufacture of butter from cocoa-nuts, of lard from cotton-seed and of pepper from olive stones. Its growth and development has necessitated the employment of multitudes of scientific officers charged with its detection and the passing of numerous laws for its repression and punishment. While for all common forms of fraud the common law is in most cases considered strong enough, special laws against the adulteration of food have been found necessary in all civilized countries. A vigorous branch of chemical literature deals with it; there exist scientific societies specially devoted to its study; laboratories are main- tained by governments with staffs of highly trained chemists for its detection; and yet it not only develops and flourishes, but becomes more general, if less virulent and dangerous to health. There are numerous references to adulteration in the classics. The detection of the base metal by Archimedes in Hiero's crown, by the light specific gravity of the latter, is a well-known in- stance. Vitruvius speaks of the adulteration of minium with lime, Dioscorides of that of opium with other plant juices and with gum, Pliny of that of flour with white clay. Both in Rome and in Athens wine was often adulterated with colours and flavouring agents, and inspectors "were charged with looking after it. In England, so far back as the reign of John (1203), a pro- I clamation was made throughout the kingdom, enforcing the ADULTERATION 219 legal obligations of assize as regards bread; and in the following reign the statute (51 Hen. III. Stat. 6) entitled " the pillory and tumbrel " was framed for the express purpose of protecting the public from the dishonest dealings of bakers, vintners, brewers, butchers and others. This statute is the first in which the adul- teration of human food is specially noticed and prohibited; it seems to have been enforced with more or less rigour until the time of Anne, when it was repealed (1709). According to the Liber Albus it was strictly observed in the days of Edward I., for it states that: " If any default shall be found in the bread of a baker in the city, the first time, let him be drawn upon a hurdle from the Guildhall to his own house through the great street where there be most people assembled, and through the great streets which are most dirty, with the faulty loaf hanging from his neck; if a second time he shall be found committing the same offence, let him be drawn from the Guildhall through the great street of Cheepe in the manner aforesaid to the pillory, and let him be put upon the pillory, and remain there at least one hour in the day; and the third time that such default shall be found, he shall be drawn, and the oven shall be pulled down, and the baker made to foreswear the trade in the city for ever." The assize of 1634 provides that " if there be any manner of person or persons, which shall by any false wayes or meanes, sell any meale under the kinge's subjects, either by mixing it deceitfully or sell any musty or corrupted meal, which may be to the hurte and infection of man's body, or use any false weight, or any de- ceitful wayes or meanes, and so deceive the subject, for the first offence he shall be grievously punished, the second he shall loose his meale, for the third offence he shall suffer the judg- ment of the pillory and the fourth time he shall foreswere the town wherein he dwelleth." Vintners, spicers, grocers, butchers, regrators and others were subject to the like punishment for dishonesty in their commercial dealings — it being thought that the pillory, by appealing to the sense of shame, was far more deterrent of such crimes than fine or imprisonment. In the reign of Edward the Confessor a knavish brewer of the city of Chester was taken round the town in the cart in which the refuse of the privies had been collected. Ale-tasters had to look after the ale and test it by spilling some on to a wooden seat, sitting on the wet place in their leathern breeches, the stickiness of the " resi- due obtained by evaporation " affording the evidence of purity or otherwise. If sugar had been added the taster adhered to the bench ; pure malt beer was not considered to yield an adhesive extract. In 1553, the lord mayor of London ordered a jury of five or six vintners to rack and draw off the suspected wine of another vintner, and to ascertain what drugs or ingredients they found in the said wine or cask to sophisticate the same. At another time eight pipes of wine were ordered to be destroyed because, on racking off, bundles of weeds, pieces of sulphur match, and " a kind of gravel mixture sticking to the casks " had been found. Similar records have come down from the continental European countries. In 1390 an Augsburg wine-seller was sentenced to be led out of the city with his hands bound and a rope round his neck; in 1400 two others were branded and otherwise severely punished; in 1435 " were the taverner Christian Corper and his wife put in a cask in which he sold false wine, and then ex- posed in the pillory. The punishment was adjudged because they had roasted pears and put them into new sour wine, in order to sweeten the wine. Some pears were hung round their necks like unto a Paternoster." In Biebrich on the Rhine, in 1482, a wine-falsifier was condemned to drink six quarts of his own wine; from this he died. In Frankfurt, casks in which false wine had been found were placed with a red flag on the knacker's cart, " the jailer marched before, the rabble after, and when they came to the river they broke the casks and tumbled the stuff into the stream." In France successive ordonnances from 1330 to 1672 forbade the mixing of two wines together under the penalty of a fine and the confiscation of the wine. Modern British Legislation. — In modern times the English parliament has dealt frequently with the subject of food adul- teration. In 1725 it was provided that " no dealer in tea or manufacturer or dyer thereof, or pretending so to be, shall counterfeit or adulterate tea, or cause or procure the same to be counterfeited or adulterated, or shall alter, fabricate or manu- facture tea with terra-japonica, or with any drug or drugs what- soever; nor shall mix or cause or procure to be mixed with tea any leaves other than the leaves of tea or other ingredients whatsoever, on pain of forfeiting and losing the tea so counter- feited, adulterated, altered, fabricated, manufactured or mixed, and any other thing or things whatsoever added thereto, or mixed or used therewith, and also the sum of £100." Six years afterwards, in 1 730-1 731, a further act was passed prescribing a penalty for " sophisticating " tea; it recites that several ill-dis- posed persons do frequently dye, fabricate or manufacture very great quantities of sloe leaves, liquorice leaves, and the leaves of tea that have been before used, or the leaves of other trees, shrubs or plants in imitation of tea, and do likewise mix, colour, stain and dye such leaves and likewise tea with terra-japonica, sugar, molasses, clay, logwood, and with other ingredients, and do sell and vend the same as true and real tea, to the prejudice of the health of his majesty's subjects, the diminution of the revenue and to the ruin of the fair trader. This act provides that for every pound of adulterated tea found in possession of any person, a sum of £10 shall be forfeited. It was followed by one passed in 17667-1767, which increased the penalty to imprison- ment for not less than six nor more than twelve months. As regards coffee, an act of 17 18 recited that "divers evil-disposed persons have at the time or soon after the roasting of coffee made use of water, grease, butter or such-like materials, where- by the same is rendered unwholesome and greatly increased in weight," and a penalty of £20 is enacted. In 1803 an act refers to the addition of burnt, scorched or roasted peas, beans or other grains or vegetable substances prepared in imitation of coffee or cocoa, to coffee or cocoa, and fixes the penalty far the offence at £100, but subsequently permission was given to coffee or cocoa dealers also to deal in scorched or roasted corn, peas, beans or parsnips whole and not ground, crushed or powdered, under certain excise restrictions. An act passed in 1816 relating to beer and porter provides that no brewer of or dealer in or retailer of beer " shall receive or have in his possession, or make or mix with any worts or beer, any liquor, extract or other pre- paration for the purpose of darkening the colour of worts or beer, other than brown malt, ground or unground, or shall have in his possession or use, or mix with any worts or beer any molasses, honey, liquorice, vitriol, quassia, coculus-indiae, grains of paradise, guinea-pepper or opium, or any extracts of these, or any articles or preparation whatsoever for or as a substitute for malt or hops." Any person contravening was liable to a penalty of £200, and any druggist selling to any brewer or retail dealer any colouring or malt substitute was to be fined £500. It was only in 1847 that brewers were allowed to make for their own use, from sugar, a liquor for darkening the colour of worts or beer and to use it in brewing. All the laws hitherto referred to were mainly passed in the interest of the inland revenue, and their execution was left entirely in the hands of the revenue officers. It was but natural that they should look primarily after the dutiable articles and not after those that brought no revenue to the state. About the middle of the 19th century many articles, however, paid import duty; butter, for instance, paid 5s. per hundredweight; cheese from is. 6d. to 2s. 6d.; flour or meal of all kinds, 4^d.; ginger, 10s. ; isinglass, 5s. ; and so on. Sensational and doubtless largely exaggerated statements were from time to time published concerning the food supply of the nation. F. C. Accum (1769- 1838) by his Treatise on Adulterations of Food and Culinary Poisons (1820), and particularly an anonymous writer of a book entitled Deadly Adulteration and Slow Poisoning unmasked, or Disease and Death in the Pot and the Bottle, in which the blood- empoisoning and life-destroying adulterations of wines, spirits, beer, bread, flour, tea, sugar, spices ,■ cheesemongery, pastry, con- fectionery, medicines, dfc. &°c, are laid open to the public (1830), roused the public attention. In 1850 a physician, Dr. Arthui H. Hassall, had the happy idea of looking at ground coffet 220 ADULTERATION through the microscope. Eminent chemists had previously found great difficulty in establishing any satisfactory chemical distinction between coffee, chicory and other adulterants of coffee; the microscope immediately showed the structural difference of the particles, however small. The results of Hassall's examinations were embodied in a paper which was read before the Botanical Society of London and was reported in The Times, 1850. A paper on the microscopic examination of sugar, showing the presence in that article of innumerable living mites, followed and attracted much attention. Hassall was in consequence commissioned by Thomas Wakley (1705-1862), the owner of the Lancet, to extend his examination to other articles of food, and for a period of nearly four years reports of the Lancet Analytical Sanitary Commission were regularly pub- lished, the names and addresses of hundreds of manufacturers and tradesmen selling adulterated articles being fearlessly given. The responsibility incurred was immense, but the assertions of the journal were so well founded upon fact that they were universally accepted as accurately representing the appalling state of the food supply. As instances may be cited, that of thirty-four samples of coffee only three were pure, chicory being present in thirty-one, roasted corn in twelve, beans and potato- flour each in one; of thirty-four samples of. chicory, fourteen were adulterated with corn, beans or acorns; of forty-nine samples of bread, every one contained alum; of fifty-six samples of cocoa, only eight were pure; of twenty-six milks, fourteen were adulterated; of twenty-eight cayenne peppers, only four were genuine, thirteen containing red-lead and one vermilion; of upwards of one hundred samples of coloured sugar-confec- tionery, fifty-nine contained chromate of lead, eleven gamboge, twelve red-lead, six vermilion, nine arsenite of copper and four white-lead. In consequence of the Lancet's disclosures a parliamentary committee was appointed in 1855, the labours of which resulted in i860 in the Adulteration of FoodandDrink Act, the first i860. act tnat dealt generally with the adulteration of food. The first section of this enacted " that every person who shall sell any article of food or drink with which, to the knowledge of such person, any ingredient or material injurious to the health of persons eating or drinking such article has been mixed, and every person who shall sell as pure or unadul- terated any article of food or drink which is adulterated and not pure, shall for every such offence, on summary conviction, pay a penalty not exceeding £5 with costs." In the case of a second offence the name, place of abode and offence might be published in the newspapers at the offender's expense. As the act, however, left it optional to the district authorities to appoint analysts or not, and did not provide for the appointment of any officer upon whom should rest the duty of obtaining samples or of prosecuting offenders, it virtually remained a dead letter till 1872, when the Adulteration of Food and Drugs Act came into force, prescribing a penalty not exceeding £50 for the sale of injurious food and, for a second offence, im- prisonment for six months with hard labour. Inspectors were empowered to make purchases of samples to be submitted for analysis, but appointment of analysts was still left optional. The definition of an adulterated article given in that act was essentially that still accepted at the present time, namely, " any article of food or drink or any drug mixed with any other sub- stances, with intent fraudulently to increase its weight or bulk, without declaration of such admixture to any purchaser thereof before delivering the same." The adoption of the act was sporadic, and, outside London and a few large towns, the number of proceedings against offenders remained exceedingly small. Nevertheless complaints soon arose that it inflicted considerable injury and imposed heavy and undeserved penalties upon some respectable tradesmen, mainly owing to the " want of a clear understanding of what does and does not constitute adultera- tion," and in some cases to conflicting decisions and the inex- perience of analysts. Again a parliamentary committee was appointed which took a mass of evidence, the outcome of its inquiries being the Sale 1872. of Food and Drugs Act 1875, which is in force at the present day, subject to amendments and additions made at /g -_ later dates. This act avoided the term "adulteration" altogether and endeavoured to give a clearer description of punishable offences: — Section 6. " No person shall sell to the purchaser any article of food or any drug which is not of the nature, substance and quality of the article demanded by the purchaser under a penalty not exceeding £20; provided that an offence shall not be deemed to be committed under this section in the following cases: (1) where any matter or ingredient not injurious to health has been added to the food or drug because the same is required for the production or preparation thereof as an article of commerce,' in a state fit for carriage or consumption, and not fraudulently to increase the bulk, weight or measure of the food or drug, or conceal the inferior quality thereof; (2) where the food or drug is a proprietary medicine, or is the subject of a patent in force and is supplied in the state required by the specification of the patent; (3) where the food or drug is compounded as in the act mentioned; (4) where the food or drug is unavoidably mixed with some extraneous matter in the process of collection or preparation." Section 8. " No person shall be guilty of any such offence as aforesaid in respect to the sale of an article of food or a drug mixed with any matter or ingredient not injurious to health, and not intended fraudulently to increase its bulk, weight or measure, or conceal its inferior quality, if at the time of delivering such article or drug he shall supply to the person receiving the same a notice, by a label distinctly and legibly written or printed on or with the article or drug, to the effect that the same is mixed." The act made the appointment of analysts compulsory upon the city of London, the vestries, county quarter sessions and town councils or boroughs having a separate police establish- ment. For the protection of the vendor, samples that had been purchased by the inspectors for analysis were to be offered to be divided into three parts, one to be submitted to the analyst, the second to be given to the vendor to be dealt with by him as he might deem fit, and the third to be retained by the inspector, and, at the discretion of the magistrate hearing any summons, to be submitted, in case of dispute, to the commissioners of inland revenue for analysis by the chemical laboratory at Somerset House. The public analyst had to give a certificate, couched in a prescribed form, to the person submitting any sample for analysis, which certificate was to be taken as evidence of the facts therein stated, in order to render the proceedings as inexpensive as practicable. If the defendant in any prosecu- tion could prove to the satisfaction of the court that he had purchased the article under a warranty of genuineness, and that he sold it in the same state as when he purchased it, he was to be discharged from the prosecution, but no provision was made that in that event the giver of the warranty should be proceeded against. Section 6, quoted above, gave rise to an immense amount of litigation, and already in 1879 it was found necessary to pass an amending act, making it clear that if a purchase was effected by an inspector with the intent to get the purchased article analysed, he was as much " prejudiced " if obtaining a sophisticated article as a private purchaser who purchased for his own use and consumption. The amending act also dealt in some small measure with a difficulty which immedi- ately after passing the act was found to arise in ascertaining whether any article was " of the nature, substance and quality demanded by the purchaser " — " in determining whether an offence has been committed under section 6 by selling spirits not adulterated otherwise than by the admixture of water, it shall be a good defence to prove that such admixture has not reduced the spirit more than twenty-five degrees under proof for brandy, whisky or rum, or thirty-five under proof for gin." Almost insuperable difficulties as to the meaning of " nature, substance and quality " subsequently arose as regards every conceivable food material. As it was obviously impossible for parliament 1879. ADULTERATION 221 to define every article, to lay down limits of composition within which it might vary, to specify the substances or ingredients that might enter into it, to limit the proportions of the unavoid- able impurities that might be contained in it, the duty to do all this was left to the individual analysts. An enormous number of substances had to be analysed until sufficient evidence had been accumulated for the giving of correct opinions or certifi- cates. Endless disputes unavoidably arose, friction with manu- facturers and traders, unfortunately also with the referees at the inland revenue, who for many years were altogether out of touch with the analysts. Conflicting decisions come to by various benches of magistrates upon similar cases, allowing of the legal sale of an article in one district which in another had been declared illegal, rendered the position of merchants often unsatisfactory. It was not recognized by parliament until almost a quarter of a century had elapsed that it was not enough to compel local authorities to get samples analysed, but that it was also the duty of parliament to lay down specific and clear instructions that might enable the officers to do their work. This has only been very partially done even at the present time. A curious condition of things arose out of the definition of " food " given in the act of 1875: " The term food shall include Dtttkai- every article used for food or drink by man, other than ties of drugs or water." It had been the practice of bakers aiminis- t0 ac j ( j alum to the flour from which bread was manufactured, in order to whiten the bread, and to permit the use of damaged and discoloured flour. This practice had been strongly condemned by chemists and physicians, because it rendered the bread indigestible and injurious to health. Shortly after the passing of the Food Act this objec- tionable practice was stamped out by numerous prosecutions, and alumed bread now no longer occurs. A large trade, however, continued to be carried on in baking powders consisting of alum and sodium bicarbonate. It was naturally thought that, as baking powder is sold with the obvious intention that it may enter into food, the vendors could also be proceeded against. The high court, however, held that, baking powder in itself not being an article of food, its sale could not be an offence under the Food Act. This anomaly was removed by a later act: Under section 6 of the act of 1875 a defendant could be con- victed, even if he had no guilty knowledge of the fact that the article he had sold was adulterated. In the repealed Adultera- tion Act of 1872 the words " to the knowledge of " were inserted, and they were found fatal to obtaining convictions. The general rule of the law is that the master is not criminally responsible for the acts of his servants if they are done without his know- ledge or authority, but under the Food Act It was held (Brown v. Fool, 1892, 66 L.T. 649) that a master was liable for the watering of milk by one of his servants, although he had pub- lished a warning to them that they would be dismissed if found doing so. Milk might be adulterated during transit on the rail- say without the knowledge of the owner or receiver, and yet the vendor was liable to conviction. When it is brought to the knowledge of a purchaser that the article sold to him is not of the nature, substance or quality he demanded, the sale is not to the prejudice of the purchaser. The notice may be given verbally or by a label supplied with the article. A common law notice may also be given. In Sandys v. Small, 1878, 3 Q.B.D. 449, a publican had displayed a placard within the inn to the effect that the spirits sold in his establishment were watered. This was held, as it were, to con- tract him out of the Food Act. Similarly, in the case of butters that had been adulterated with milk, the vendors, by giving a general notice in the shop, evaded punishment under the act. A notice, is, however, of no avail if given under section 8 of the act, if the admixture has been made for fraudulent purposes. In Liddiart v. Reece, 44 J. P. 233, 1880, an inspector asked for coffee and received a packet with a label describing it as a mixture of coffee and chicory. It was sold at the price of coffee. It turned out to be a mixture containing 40% of chicory. The high court held that this was an excessive quan- tity, and was added for the purpose of fraudulently increasing the bulk or weight. In another case, however (Otter v. Edgley, J 893, 57 J-P- 457), where an inspector had asked for French coffee and had been supplied with a mixture containing 60% of chicory, the article being labelled as a mixture, the high court held that there was no evidence of fraud, and, in the case of cocoa, a mixture containing as little as 30% of cocoa and 70% of starch and sugar, the label stating it to be a mixture, was held to have been legally sold (Jones v. Jones, 1894, 58 J. P. 653). In this case the label notifying the admixture was hidden by a sheet of opaque white paper, nor had the purchaser's attention been called to it, but the price of the article was much lower than that of pure cocoa. It is seen from these few instances, taken at random out of scores, that this clause of the act was far from clear and was very variously interpreted at the courts. The warranty clause (clause 25) also gave rise to an immense amount of litigation. In the earlier high court decisions a very narrow interpretation was given to the term " written warranty," but in later years a wider view prevailed. A general contract to supply a pure article is not a sufficient warranty unless with every delivery there is something to identify the delivery as part of the contract. An invoice containing merely a description of an article as " lard " or " pepper " is not a warranty; but if there be added the words " guaranteed pure " it is a sufficient warranty. A label upon an article is not in itself a warranty, but a label bear- ing the words " pure " or " unadulterated," coupled with an invoice which could be identified with the label, together were held to form an effective warranty. As many thousands of samples were annually submitted by inspectors under the act to the analysts who had been appointed in 237 boroughs and districts, a very large number of cases led to disputes of law or fact, about seventy high court cases being decided within eighteen years of the passing of the act. While these cases related to a variety of different articles and conditions, dairy produce, namely milk and butter, led to the greatest amount of litigation. It may seem to be a simple matter to ascertain whether a vendor of milk supplies his customer with milk of the " nature, substance and quality demanded," but milk is subject to great variations in composition owing to a large number of circumstances which will be considered below. Not many years after the passing of the Food Act of 1875 the sale of butter substitutes assumed very large proportions, and so seriously prejudiced dairy-farmers that, as regards these, an act was passed which was not exactly an amendment of the Sale of Food and Drugs Act, although it embodied a good many provisions of that act. It was called the Margarine Act 1887. It provided that every package of articles made in imitation of butter should be labelled "margarine" A ^f arae in letters 15 inches square. The vendor, however, was protected if he could show a warranty or invoice, whereas in the Sale of Food and Drugs Act he was not protected by invoice merely. Inspectors might take samples of " any butter or substitute purporting to be butter " without going through the form of purchase. The maximum penalty was raised from £20 as provided by the Food Act, to £50 in the case of a first and to £100 in the case of repeated conviction. The Margarine Act is the first statute that makes reference to and sanctions the use of preservatives, concerning which a good deal will have to be said farther on. In the course of twenty years of administration of the Food Acts so many difficulties had arisen in reference to the various points referred to, that in 1894 a select committee was appointed to inquire into the working of the various comm a. acts and to report whether any, and if so what, amend- tee, 1894. ments were desirable. During three sessions the com- mittee sat and took voluminous evidence. They reported that where the acts had been well administered they had been most beneficial in diminishing adulteration offences. Forms of adulteration which were common prior to the passing of 'the 1875 act, such as the introduction of alum into bread and the colouring of confectionery with poisonous material, had almost 222 ADULTERATION entirely disappeared. A close connexion had been shown to exist between the extent of adulteration and the number of articles submitted for analysis under the acts, the proportion of adulterated samples being found to diminish as the number of samples taken relatively to the population increased. Thus, in 1890, in Somersetshire one sample had been analysed for every 379 persons, the percentage of adulterated samples in those taken for analysis being as low as 3-6; in Gloucestershire one to 770 persons with 6-2 of adulteration; in Bedfordshire one to 821 with 7-1; in Derbyshire one to 3164 with 17-1 %, and in Oxford one sample to 14,963 inhabitants with no less than 41-7 % of adulterated samples. The number of samples of articles annually submitted to analysis, according to the returns obtained by the Local Government Board, steadily increased from the com- mencement onward. Whereas in 1877, 14,706 samples, and in 1883, 19,648 samples were analysed, in 1904-1905 the number was no less than 84,678, or an average of one sample to 384 inhabitants for the whole country. In, the five years 1877-1881 the pro- portion found adulterated was 16-2 %; in the following five years ending with 1886, the percentage was 13-9; in the five years ending 1891, the percentage was 11-7; and in the year 1904 the percentage was only 8-5. The select committee found that wide local differences in the administration of the acts •existed, and that in many parts of the country the local authorities had failed to exercise their powers. In one metropolitan district, eight members of the local authority had been convicted of offences under the acts, upon evidence obtained by their own inspector. The result was that the duties of the inspector of the acts were afterwards controlled by a committee of that local authority, who decided the cases in which prosecutions should be undertaken, and the administration of the acts was " little better than a farce." No power existed to compel local au- thorities to carry out the acts. The committee came to the con- clusion that in many cases the responsibility for the adulteration of articles of food did not rest with the retailer but with the whole- sale dealer or manufacturer; that the law punished petty offences and left great ones untouched; that it fined a small retailer and left the wholesale offender scot free. As regards warranty, they thought that the precedent created by the Margarine Act should be followed generally, and that invoices and equivalent docu- ments should have the force of warranties. They found that a considerable proportion of the food imports were adulterated, out of 890 samples of butter taken by the customs in 1895 no less than 106 being impure, and they recommended that in ad- dition to tea, which by section 30 of the act of 1875 was to be systematically analysed by the customs, prior to being passed for distribution, samples of all food imports should be taken and examined by the customs. The committee further found that the penalties imposed under the acts had for the most part been trifling and quite insufficient to serve as deterrents, the profits derived from the sale of adulterated articles being out of pro- portion great to the insignificant fines imposed, and they recom- mended that for the second offence the penalty of £5 should be the minimum one, and that in respect to third or subsequent offences imprisonment without the option of a fine might be in- flicted. The important question of food standards was considered at great length. The absence of legal standards or definitions of articles of food had occasioned great difficulty in numerous cases, but as no authority was provided by the existing acts that might fix such standards, they recommended the formation of a scientific authority or court of reference composed of repre- sentatives of the laboratory of the Inland Revenue, of the Local Government Board, the Board of Agriculture, the General Medical Council, the Institute of Chemistry, the Pharmaceutical Society, of other scientific men and of the trading and manu- facturing community, who should have the duty of fixing stand- ards of quality and purity of food to be confirmed by a secretary of state. The committee's deliberations and recommendations resulted in the Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899. This unfortunately was not a comprehensive act superseding the previous acts, but was an additional and amending one, so that at the present time four food acts run parallel and are together in force, rendering the subject from a legal point of view one of extreme complexity. In this act the growing influence of the Board of Agri- culture and the desire to assist farmers and dairymen /S99 ° more decisively than previously are clearly apparent. Section 1 empowers the customs to take samples of consignments of imported articles of food and enjoins them to communicate to the Board of Agriculture the names of the importers of adulter- ated goods, any article of food to be considered adulterated or impoverished if it has been mixed with any other substance (other than preservative or colouring matter, of such a nature and such a quantity as not to render the article injurious to health), or if any part of it has been abstracted to the detriment of the article. Margarine or cheese containing margarine has to be conspicuously marked as such; condensed, separated or skim milk has to be clearly labelled " machine-skimmed milk " or " skimmed milk," as the case may be. The next sections give to the Local Government Board and the Board of Agriculture a roving commission to see that the acts are properly enforced throughout the kingdom so as to apply the acts more equally throughout the country than heretofore, and in default of local authorities carrying out their duties empower the government departments mentioned to execute and enforce the acts at the expense of the local authorities. The importance of a regular and conscientious control of the public food supply by the local authorities was thus for the first time, after forty years of ex- perimental legislation, fully acknowledged. In recognition of the great difficulties experienced for many years by analysts in their endeavour to fix minimum percentages for the fat and other milk constituents, and their inability to do so without statutory powers, the Board of Agriculture is authorized by section 4 to make regulations " for determining what deficiency in any of the normal constituents of genuine milk, cream, butter or cheese, or what addition of extraneous matter or proportion of water " in any of these materials shall raise a presump- tion, until the contrary is proved, that these articles are not genuine. In pursuance of these powers the Board of Agricul- ture did in 1901 issue their milk regulations, adopting officially the minima agreed upon by public analysts, and in 1902 the sale of butter regulations, which fixed 16 % as the maximum of water that might be contained in butter. It is important to note that the fact of a sample of milk falling short of the standard is not conclusive evidence of adulteration, but it justifies the institution of proceedings and casts the onus of proving that the sample is genuine upon the defendant. The Margarine Act of 1887 was extended to margarine cheese, the obligatory labelling of margarine packages was more precisely regulated, margarine manufacturers and dealers in that article were com- pelled to keep a register open to inspection by the Board of Agriculture, showing the quantity and designation of each con- signment, and power was given to officers of the board to enter at all reasonable times manufactories of margarine and margarine cheese. The amount of butter-fat that might be present in margarine was limited to 10 %, while under the Margarine Act of 1887 an unlimited admixture might have been made, provided that the mixture, no matter how large the percentage of butter, was sold as margarine. As is further explained'below, the difficulty of distinguishing without chemical aid between pure butter and margarine containing a considerable percentage of butter is very great, and fraudulent sales continued to be common after the passing of the Margarine Act. The labelling section of the Food Act 1875 (§ 8), which had been systematic- ally circumvented, was modified, a label beirig no longer recog- nized as distinctly and legibly written or printed, unless it is so written or printed that the notice of mixture given by the label is not obscured by other matter on the label, though labels that had been continuously in use for at least seven years before the commencement of the act were not interfered with. In conse- quence of the admitted unfairness of. asking for a portion of the contents of a properly labelled tin or package and then instituting proceedings because no declaration of admixture had been made, it was enacted that no person shall be required to sell any ABULTERATION 223 article exposed for sale in an unopened tin or packet, except in the unopened tin or packet in which it is contained. This re- moved a grievance which had long been felt both by retailers and manufacturers, and is a provision of growing importance with the continually increasing sale of articles put up in factories. The warranty provisions, which, as before stated, had given rise to much litigation, were more clearly defined. A notice that a defendant would rely for his defence upon a warranty had to be given within seven days of the service of the summons or the defence would not be available, and the warrantor was em- powered to appear at the hearing and to give evidence so that no man's name could, as sometimes previously happened, be dragged into a case without due notice to him. A warranty or invoice given by a person resident outside the United Kingdom was no longer recognized as a defence, unless the defendant could prove that he had taken reasonable steps to ascertain and did in fact believe in the accuracy of the statement con- tained in the warranty. This prevented collusion between a foreign shipper and an importer; and, lastly, the definition of " food " was widened (in view of the baking-powder decision) so that the term food " shall include every article used for food or drink by man, other than drugs or water, and any article which ordinarily enters into or is used in the composition or preparation of human food, and shall also include flavoring matters and condiments." The act of 1^899 embodies, with one exception, the most important recommendations of the Food Products Committee, the exception being the omission of instituting a board of refer- ence that might deal with difficulties as they arose, guide analysts and public authorities in fixing limits for articles other than milk and butter, and take up the important questions of preservatives and colouring matters and such like. An occurrence which almost immediately followed the passing of the act showed in the strongest manner the necessity of such guiding board — namely, the outbreak of arsenical poisoning in the Midlands in the latter part of 1900. In the month of June 1900 there occurred, mainly in the Midlands but also in other parts of England and Wales, an out- break of an illness variously described as "alcoholism," to foods. " peripheral neuritis " or "multiple neuritis." This affected about 6000 persons and resulted in about 70 deaths. It was soon ascertained that the sufferers were all beer drinkers, and several of them were employees of a local brewery, the majority of whom had suffered jfor some months past. Although suspicion fell early upon beer, some considerable time elapsed before Dr E. S. Reynolds of Manchester discovered arsenic in dangerous proportions in the beer. Steps were im- mediately taken by brewers and sanitary authorities to ensure that this arsenical beer was withdrawn from sale, and, as a result, the epidemic came speedily to an end. In all instances where this epidemic of sickness had been traced to particular breweries, the latter had been users of brewing sugars — glucose and invert sugar — supplied by a single firm. The quantity of arsenic detected in specimens of these brewing sugars was in some cases very large, amounting to upward of four grains per pound. The implicated brewing sugars were found to have become contaminated by arsenic in course of their manufacture through the use of sulphuric acid, some specimens of which contained as much as 2-6% of arsenic. The acid had been made from highly arsenical iron pyrites, and as the manufac- turers of the glucose had not specifically contracted with the acid makers for pure acid, the latter, not knowing for what purpose the acid was to be used, had felt themselves justified in supplying impure acid. A royal commission was appointed in February 1901, with Lord Kelvin as chairman, to inquire into the matter, and an enormous amount of attention was naturally given to it by chemists and medical men. It was soon found that arsenic was very widely disseminated in two classes of food materials, namely, such as had been dried or roasted in gases resulting from the combustion of coal, and such as had been more or less chemically manufactured. All coal contains iron pyrites, and this mineral again is contaminated with arsenic. When the coal is burned the fumes are arsenical and part of the arsenic condenses and deposits. Malt dried in English malt kilns was found to be almost invariably arsenical, and there cannot be a doubt that English beers had for many years past been thus contaminated. At the present time coal virtually free from arsenic is selected for malting, or Newlands' process, consisting of the admixture with coal of lime which renders the arsenic non-volatile, is adopted, and malt free from all but the merest traces of arsenic is manufactured. Part of the arsenic remains in the coal-ashes and wherever these deposit arsenic can be traced. Sir Edward Frankland had, many years previously, detected arsenic in the London atmosphere. Chicory roasted with coal, steaks and chops grilled over an open fire, thus obtain a minute arsenical dosing. In sugar refineries carbonic acid gas is, at one stage of the process, passed through the liquor for the purpose of precipitating lime or strontia. When this carbonic acid is derived from coal the sugar often shows traces of arsenic. When arsenical malt or sugar infusion is fermented, as in brewing, the yeast precipitates upon itself a considerable proportion of the impurity, thus partly cleaning the beer, but all preparations made from yeast — yeast-extracts resemble to some extent meat extracts, with which they are some- times fraudulently mixed — are thus exposed to arsenical con- tamination. On the continent of Europe malt is not dried in kilns with direct access of combustion gases but on floors heated from beneath, and continental beers therefore have not been found arsenical. The second class of causes of contamination consists of chemicals. The most important chemical product is sulphuric acid. This used to be made from brimstone or native volcanic sulphur, which is virtually free from arsenic. But since about i860 sulphuric acid has been more largely made from iron or copper pyrites. Pyrites-acid is always arsenical, but can, by suitable treatment, be easily freed from that impurity. For many purposes acid that has not been purified is employed. In the Leblanc process of manufacture the first step is the conver- sion of salt into sodium sulphate by sulphuric acid. The hydro- chloric acid which is formed carries with it most of the arsenic of the sulphuric acid. Wherever such hydrochloric acid is used it introduces arsenic; thus, in the separation of glycerin from soap lyes, the alkali of the latter is neutralized with hydrochloric acid and glycerin is in consequence frequently highly arsenical. So is the soda produced in the Leblanc process, and every one of the numerous soda salts made from soda is liable to receive its share. All acids liberated from their salts by sulphuric acid, such as phosphoric, tartaric, citric, boracic, may be, and some- times are, thus contaminated. All superphosphates, made by the action of crude sulphuric acid upon bones or other phosphatic materials, and sulphate of ammonia, made from gas-liquor and acid, that is to say, two of the most important manurial materials, are arsenical, and the poison is thus spread far and wide over meadows and fields, and can be traced in the soil wherever artificial manures have been applied. The crops sometimes take up arsenic to a slight extent, but happily the plant is more selective than man, and no serious amount of poison absorption appears to be possible. The risk of contamination is, of course, much greater with substances which, like glucose, are not further purified by crystallization, but retain whatever impurity is introduced into them. Glucose is not only used in beer, in which by legal enactments it is permitted to be used, but is also substituted for sugar in a number of food products, and is liable to carry into them its contamination. Sugar confectionery, jams and marmalade, honey, and such like, are often admixed with glucose. It is difficult to say in the present state of the law whether such admixture amounts to adulteration. It was clearly made originally for fraudulent purposes, but usage and high court decisions have gradually given the practice an air of respectability. Vinegar of sorts is also made from a glucose liquor produced by the action of sulphuric acid upon maize or other starchy material, and is, in its turn, exposed to arsenic contamination. There is hardly a chemical substance which has directly or indirectly come into contact with sulphuric acid that is not at times arsenical. Thus, while artificial colours, 224 ADULTERATION now so much used for the dyeing of food products, are no longer prepared — as was rosaniline (the parent substance of so many aniline dyes) at an early stage of its manufacture— with arsenic acid, yet they are often contaminated indirectly from sulphuric acid. Furthermore, hardly any metal that results from the smelting of any ore with coal is free from arsenic, iron in par- ticular, as employed for pots and pans and implements, being highly arsenical. From the iron the many chemical preparations which contain or are made with the aid of iron salts may be arsenicated. The general presence of arsenic from some of these causes has been known for many years; outbreaks of arsenical poisoning have been due to it at various times, but neglect, forgetfulness and human shortsightedness let the matter go into oblivion, and it is safe to predict, in spite of all attention which has been given to the subject, of the panic which was created by the beer-poisoning outbreak, of the shock and injury caused to manufacturers .of many kinds, and of the watchfulness aroused in officers of health and analysts, that as long as the production of food materials or substances that go into food materials is not left to the care of nature, and as long as man adds the products of his ingenuity to our food and drink, so long will " accidents," like the Manchester poisoning, from time to time recur. We now search for arsenic; some other time it is lead, or antimony, or selenium, that will do the mischief. Man does what he. can according to his light, but he sees but a little patch of the sky of knowledge, while the plant or the animal building up its body from the plant has learned by inheritance to avoid the assimilation of matters noxious to it. Strictly speaking, arsenical poisoning does not belong to the subject of adulteration. It is not due to wilfulness but to stupidity, but it affords a lesson which cannot be taken too much to heart, that mankind, by relying too much upon " science " in feeding, is on a path that is fraught with considerable danger. To safeguard consumers, as far as practicable, the royal commission made important recommendations concerning amendments of the Food Acts; these, as at present interpreted and administered, were reported to be unsatisfactory for the purpose of protecting the consumer against arsenic and other deleterious substances in food. " As a rule public analysts receive samples in order that they may pronounce upon their genuineness or otherwise, knowing nothing of the local circum- stances which led to their being taken, of their origin or the reasons for sending them. The term ' genuine ' in this sense means that the analyst has not detected such objectionable substances as he has considered it necessary to look for in the sample submitted to him. Obviously, the value of the state- ment that the sample is ' genuine ' depends upon the extent to which the analyst has means of knowing what are the objection- able substances which it is liable to contain. In present circum- stances he has not sufficient information on this point." It was also pointed out that the application of the Food Acts to prevention of contamination of foods by deleterious substances was materially hindered by want of an official authority with the duty of dealing with the various medical, chemical and technical questions involved, and that the absence of official standards militated against, the efficiency of the existing acts. The commission advised that a special offictr be appointed by the Local Government Board to obtain by inquiries from various sources, such information as would enable the board to direct the work of local authorities in securing greater purity of food; and they further recommended that the board or court of refer- ence, which had been advised by the Committee on Food Pro- ducts Adulteration, should be established. Pending the estab- lishment of offici?! standards in respect of arsenic under the Food Acts, they were of opinion that penalties should be imposed upon any vendor of beer or any other liquid food, or of any liquor entering into the composition of food, if that liquid be shown by adequate test to contain one-hundredth of a grain or more of arsenic in the gallon, and with regard to solid food, no matter whether it be consumed habitually in large or small quantities, or whether it be taken by itself (like golden syrup), or mixed with water or other substances (like chicory or yeast extract)— if the substance contain one-hundredth of a grain of arsenic or more to the pound. The board of reference, most urgently needed for the protection of the public and for the guidance of manufacturers and officers, has yet to be created. While from time immemorial certain articles of food have been preserved by salting, smoking, drying, or by the addition of sugar and in some cases of saltpetre, during the last quarter of the 19th century the use of chemicals acting I !j* se 'Z a ~ more powerfully as antiseptics or preservatives ex- foorf> tended enormously, particularly in England. A very large fraction of the British food supply being obtained from abroad, a proportionately great difficulty exists in obtain- ing the food in an entirely fresh and untainted condition. While refrigeration and cold-storage has been the chief factor in enab- ling the meat and other highly perishable foods to be imported, other steps, ensuring preservation of goods that are collected from farmers and brought together at shipping ports, are neces- sary to prevent decomposition prior to such goods coming into cold store. Thus it is well-nigh impossible to collect butter from farms in Australia or New Zealand far distant from the coast without the addition of some chemical preservative. Heavily salted goods no longer appeal to the modern palate, and, with the progress of specialized labour, the inhabitants, especi- ally of great towns, have become accustomed to resort to manu- factured provisions instead of the home-made and home-cooked food. Manufacturers of many articles of preserved food gradu- ally adopted the use of chemical preservatives, and at the present time the practice has become so general that it may be said that practically every person in the United Kingdom who has passed the suckling stage consumes daily more or less food containing chemical preservatives. The Food Act allows of the addition of any ingredient, not injurious to health, if it be required for the production or preparation of the food, or as an article of commerce, in a state fit for carriage. The legality or otherwise of the use of chemical preservatives, therefore, hinges upon their innocuousness. Upon theoretical considerations it is clear that a substance which is capable of acting as an antiseptic must act injuriously upon bacteria, fungi or yeasts, and as the human body is, generally speaking, less resistant to poisons than the low organisms in question, it would seem to follow that antiseptics are bound to affect it injuriously. It is, of course, a question of dose and proportion. It has further been said that all anti- septics possess some sort of medicinal action, and however valu- able they may be in disease when administered under the control of a competent physician, they have no business to be given in- discriminately to sick and healthy alike by purveyors of food. The result of a general desire on the part of importers and manu- facturers of food materials, of the officers under the Food Act, of the medical profession and of the public, resulted after many years of agitation and complaint and after numerous conflicting magisterial decisions, in the appointment in 1899, by the presi- dent of the Local Government Board, of a departmental com- mittee to inquire into the use of preservatives and colouring matters in food, with the reference to report: first, whether the use of such materials or any of them, in certain quantities, is injurious to health, and, if so, in what proportion does their use become injurious, and, second, to what extent and in what amounts are they used at the present time. After the examina- tion of a great number of witnesses a report was issued in 1901. Perhaps the most important conclusion was that the instances of actual harm which were alleged to have occurred from the consumption of articles of food and drink chemically preserved were few in number, and were not at all supported by conclusive evidence. During the period which has elapsed since chemically preserved food has been used, the mortality as a whole has declined, and while this naturally cannot be put to the credit of the preservatives but is largely due to better feeding in conse- quence of the introduction of cheaper foods, which are rendered possible to some extent by the use-of preservatives, it conclusively establishes the fact that no obvious harm has been done to the health of the community. The committee made certain recom- mendations which are the most authoritative pronouncements ADULTERATION 225 Borax. upon the subject. They are as follows : — That the use of form- aldehyde or formalin, or preparations thereof, in food or drinks, be absolutely prohibited, and that salicylic acid be not used in a greater proportion than one grain per pint in liquid food and one grain per pound in solid food, its presence in all cases to be declared. That the use of any preservatives or colouring matter whatever in milk offered for sale in the United Kingdom be constituted an offence under the Sale of Food and Drugs Act. That the only preservative which it shall be lawful to use in cream be boric acid, or mixtures of boric acid and borax, and in amount not exceeding 0-25 % expressed as boric acid, the amount of such preservative to be notified by a label upon the vessel. That the only preservative permitted to be used in butter and margarine be boric acid, or mixtures of boric acid and borax, to be used in proportions not exceeding 0-5 % expressed as boric acid. That in the case of all dietetic prepara- tions intended for the use of invalids or infants, chemical pre- servatives of all kinds be prohibited. As the most commonly used chemical preservative is boric acid, free or in the form of borax, which is extensively employed in butter, cream, ham, sausages, potted meats, cured fish, and sometimes in jams and preserved fruit, the arguments for and against its employment deserve more detailed attention. It cannot be looked upon in the light of common adulteration because, in any case, the quantity used is but an inconsiderable fraction, and the cost of it is generally greater than that of the food itself. It is not used to hide any traces of decomposition that may have taken place or to efface its effects. On the other hand, it cannot be said to be " required for the production or preparation " of the articles with which it is mixed, since a fraction at least of similar articles are made without preservative. It enables food to be kept from decom- position, but it also lessens the need for cleanliness and encour- ages neglect and slovenliness in factories. It has no taste, or only a very slight one, hence does not manifest itself to the consumer in the same way as does common salt, and cannot therefore be avoided by him should he desire to do so. Its pre- servative action, that is, its potency, is very slight in comparison with most other preservatives; its potential injuriousness to man must be proportionately small. It is practically without interference upon salivary, peptic or tryptic digestion, unless given in large quantities. Experiments made by F. W. Tunni- cliffe and R. Rosenheim upon children showed that neither boric acid nor borax, administered in doses of from 15 to 23 grains per diem, exerted any influence upon proteid metabolism or upon the assimilation of phosphatized materials. The fat assimilation was, if anything, improved, and the body weight increased, and the general health and well-being was in no way affected. On the other hand, evidence was adduced that in some cases digestive disturbances, after continuous administration of from 15 to 40 grains, were observable, nausea and vomiting in some, and skin irritation, in one case resulting in complete baldness, in others. Although it is in most cases very difficult to trace any gastric disturbance to any particular article of food or one of its in- gredients, so as to exclude all other possible causes of disturbance, a fairly good case has been made out by a number of medical practitioners against boracic acid, taken in an ordinary diet and not for experimental purposes. The most exhaustive in- vestigation which has as yet been made was carried out by Dr H. W. Wiley, chief chemist to the United States department of agriculture. A large number of young men who had offered themselves as subjects for the investigations, were boarded as a special " hygienic table," but otherwise continued their usual vocations during the whole period of the experiment. They were placed upon their honour to observe the rules and regulations prepared by the department and to use no other food or drink than that provided, water excepted, and any water consumed away from the hygienic table was to be measured and reported. They were to continue their regular habits and not to indulge in any excessive amount of labour or exercise. Weight, tempera- ture and pulse rate were continuously recorded. The periods 1.8 during which the subjects of the experiment were kept under observation varied from thirty to seventy days, periods of rest being given during which they were permitted to eat moderately at tables other than the experimental one. There was a good and ample diet. The observations were divided into three periods : the fore period, the preservative period and the after period, during the whole of which time the rations of each member were weighed or measured and the excreta collected. Before the " fore " period was commenced a note was made of the quantities of food voluntarily consumed by each of the candi- dates, and from these the proper amount necessary in each case to maintain a comparatively constant body weight was calcu- lated. When a suitable result was thus arrived at, the same quantity of food was given daily during the " preservative " and " after " periods. The preservative was given in the forms of borax and of boric acid, at first mixed with butter, but subse- quently in gelatine capsules. This was found to be necessary from the fact that when the preservative was mixed with the food and concealed in it some of the members of the table evinced dislike of the food with which it was supposed to be incorporated; those who thought that the preservative was in the butter were disposed to find the butter unpalatahle, and the same was true with those who thought it might be in the milk or coffee, while, when the preservative was given openly, much less disturbance was created. The preservative was given at first in small doses such as might be consumed in commercial food that had been preserved with borax; gradually the quantities were increased in order to reach the limit of toleration for each individual. All food was weighed, measured and analysed, the same being the case with the excreta. The blood was examined periodically ■ as regards colouring matter and number of corpuscles. Every- thing was done to keep up the general health of the members and to do away with all unfavourable mental influences due to the circumstances. During the time of the experiment analyses were made of 2550 food samples and 1175 samples each of urine and faeces. The general results were as follows : there was no tendency to excite diarrhoea, and the nitrogen-metabolism was but very little influenced, if anything being slightly de- creased. As regards phosphorus the combined results of all observations indicated that the preservative increased the excretion of phosphorus to a small extent, from 97-3 % in the "fore" period, to 103-1 in the "preservative" period. The metabolism of fat was uninfluenced; there was an increase of the solid matters in the faeces and a decrease of those in the urine, from which Dr Wiley concluded that the preservatives interfered with the process of digestion and absorption. No influence was exerted on the corpuscles and the haemoglobin of the blood. The effect of boracic acid and borax on the general health varied with the amount administered, quantities not exceeding half a gramme (7J grains) of boracic acid, or its equivalent of borax, producing no immediate effects, but the long-continued administration of such small doses seemed to produce the same results as the use of large doses over a shorter period. There was a tendency to diminish the appetite and to produce a feeling of fulness and uneasiness in the stomach and sometimes actual nausea, also one of fulness in the head mani- fested as a dull headache which disappeared when the preserva- tive was dropped. The continued administration of large doses, 60 to 75 grains per day, resulted in most cases in loss of appetite, inability to perform work of any kind and general unfitness. In most cases 45 grains per day could be taken for some time, but gradually injurious effects were observed. In some cases 30 and even 15 grains per day appeared to cause illness, but it is acknowledged that these persons may have been suffering from influenza. The administration of 7-5 grains was declared by Dr Wiley to be too much for the normal man to receive regularly, although for a limited period there might be no danger to health. Dr Wiley concludes his report: " It appears, therefore, that both boric acid and borax, when continuously administered in small doses for a long period or when given in large quantities for a short period, create disturbance of appetite, of digestion and of health." 11 226 ADULTERATION Dr Wiley's conclusions were adversely criticized by Dr O. Liebreich, who carefully studied on the spot all the conditions of the experiment and the documents relating to the investiga- tion. He pointed out that the results were so indefinite and the number of persons under control so small that " one case of self- deception or of forgetfulness only would throw into absolute uncertainty the solution of the whole question " ; that no lasting injury to health was found in spite of transient disturbances attributed by Dr Liebreich to other causes, and that all persons declared themselves to be in better physical condition after seven months than they had been before. On the whole the balance of evidence seems to be that while no acute injury is likely to result from boron compounds in food, they are liable to produce slighter digestive interferences. Other chemical substances that are in use for the purpose of preserving food materials may be treated more shortly. Form- aldehyde, coming into commerce in the form of a aldehyde. 4° % solution under the name of formalin, was for a time largely used in milk. It certainly has very great antiseptic properties, as little as i part in 50,000 parts check- ing the growth of organisms in milk for some hours, but as the substance combines with albuminous matters and hardens them to an extraordinary degree, rendering, for instance, gelatine perfectly insoluble in water, it exerts an inhibitory effect on the digestive f6rments. It injures salivary, peptic and pancreatic digestion. A set of five kittens fed with milk containing 1 part in 50,000 of formaldehyde for seven weeks were strongly retarded in growth, three ultimately dying, while four control kittens fed on pure milk flourished. In even moderate doses formalin pro- duces severe pains in the abdomen and has caused death. It is now generally recognized as a substance that is admirably adapted for disinfecting a sick-room, but quite improper and unsuitable for food preservation. Salicylic acid or orthohydroxybenzoic acid is either obtained from oil of winter-green or is made synthetically by Kolbe's process from phenol and carbonic acid. Artificial »dA C salicylic acid generally cotntains impurities (creasotic acids) which act very injuriously upon health. When pure, salicylic acid employed as a food preservative has never produced decided injurious effects, although administered by itself in fairly strong solution it acts as an irritant to the stomach and kidneys, and sometimes causes skin eruptions. It is a powerful drug in larger doses and requires careful administra- tion, especially as about 60 % of the perrons to whom it is administered show symptoms known as " salicylism," namely, deafness, headache, delirium, vomiting, sometimes haemorrhage or heart-failure. It is doubtful whether pure salicylic acid produces these symptoms. When present in proportion of 1 to 1000 it inhibits the growth of moulds and yeasts. In jams 2 grains per pound and in beverages 7 grains to a gallon are considered by manufacturers to be sufficient for preservative purposes. It is used mainly in articles of food or drink containing sugar, that is to say, in jams and preserved fruit, lime and lemon juices, syrups, cider, British wines and imported lager. Its use in butter, potted meat, milk or cream, in which it was not in- frequently met with formerly, is now quite exceptional. It has already been stated that the preservative committee recom- mended its permissive use in small proportions. To some extent benzoic acid and benzoates have taken the place of salicylic acid and salicylates, partly because salicylic acid can readily be detected analytically, while benzoic acid is not quite easily discoverable. Its antiseptic potency is about equal to that of salicylic acid, and the arguments for or against its use are similar to those relating to the latter. For the preservation of meat and beer, lime juice and dried fruit, sulphur dioxide (sulphurous acid) and some of the sulphites have long been employed. Sulphuring of hops and disinfection of barrels by burning brimstone matches is an exceedingly old practice. Burning sulphur is well known as a gaseous disin- fectant of rooms, bacteria being killed in air containing 1 % of the gas. As the taste and smell of sulphurous acid and of sulphites are very pronounced it .follows that but small quantities can be added to food or drink. About 1 part in 4000 or 5000 of beer is the usual amount. While, in larger quantities, the sulphites have decided physiological activity and are apt to produce nephritis, there is not any evidence that they have ever caused injurious effects in alcoholic liquors. The excise authorities have tacitly sanctioned their employment in breweries, although the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1885 declares that a brewer of beer shall not add any matter or thing thereto except finings or other matter or thing sanc- tioned by the commissioners of Inland Revenue, and altho'.wh sulphites are used in all breweries, the Board of Inland Revenue do neither sanction nor interfere. An antiseptic with a pro- nounced taste is obviously a safer one in the hands of a non- medical person than one virtually devoid of taste, like boric, salicylic or benzoic acids or their salts. Sodium fluoride, a salt possessing powerfully antiseptic properties, but also at the same time clearly injurious to health and interfering with salivary and peptic digestion, has been found in butter, imported mainly from Brittany, preserva- in quantities quite inadmissible in food under any tives. circumstances. A few other chemical preservatives are occasionally used. Hydrogen peroxide has been found effective in milk sterilization, and if the substance is pure, no serious objection can be raised against it. Saccharine, and other artificial sweetening agents, having antiseptic properties, are taking- the place of sugar in beverages like ginger-beer and lemonade, but the substitution of a trace of a substance that provides sweetness without at the same time giving the substance and food value of sugar is strongly to be deprecated. The employment of chemical preservative matters in articles intended for human consumption threatens to become a grave danger to health or well-being. Each dealer in food contributes but a little; each one claims that his particular article of food cannot be brought into commerce without preservative, and each condemns the use of these substances by others. There is doubtless something to be said for the practice, but infinitely more against it. It cheapens food by allowing its collection in districts far away-, but the chief gainer is not the public as a whole but the manufacturer and the wholesale merchant. Our body has by inheritance acquired habits and needs that are quite foreign to chemical interference. Some day, artificially prepared foods, containing liberal quantities of matters that are not now food ingredients, may conceivably compare with natural food products, but that day is not yet, and meantime it ought to be clearly the duty of the state to see that the evil is checked 1 . The intention which has introduced this form of adulteration may be more or less beneficent, but in practice it is almost wholly evil. A similar criticism applies to the continually extending use of colouring matter in food. Civilized man requires his food not only to be healthy and tasty, but also attractive in appear- ance. It is the art of the cook to prepare dishes that matterhi please the eye. This is a difficult art, for the various food. colouring matters which are naturally present in . meat and fish, in fruit, legumes and green vegetables are of a delicate and changeable nature and easily affected or de- stroyed by cooking. Many years ago some artful, if stupid, cook, found that green vegetables like peas or spinach, when cooked in a copper pan, by preference a dirty one, showed a far more brilliant colour than the same vegetables cooked in earthenware or iron. The manufacturer who puts up substances like peas in pots or tins for sale produces the same effect which the cook in her ignorance innocently obtained, by the wilful addition of a substance known to be injurious to health, namely, sulphate of copper. The copper combines with the chlorophyll, forming copper phyllocyanate, which, by reason of its insolubility in the gastric juice, is comparatively innocuous. Preserved peas and beans have been for' so many years " coppered " in this manner that it is difficult to induce the public to accept these vegetables when possessed of their natural colour only. Several countries endeavoured to abolish the objectionable practice, but the public pressure has been too great, and to-day the ADULTERATION 227 practice is almost universal. In England the amount of copper corresponds to from one to two grains per pound of the vegetable calculated as crystallized copper sulphate. ' The opinion of the departmental committee was clearly expressed that the practice should be prohibited. No effect has been given to the recommendation. Milk is naturally almost white with a tint of cream colour. When adulterated with water this tint changes to a bluish one. To hide this tell-tale of a fraud, a yellow colouring matter used to be added by London milkmen. Very gradually this practice, which had its origin in fraud, has extended to all milk sold in London. The consumer, mis-educated into believing milk to be yellow, now requires it to be so. Large dairy companies have endeavoured to wean the public of its error, without success. From milk the practice extended to butter; natural butter is sometimes yellowish, mostly a faint fawn, and sometimes almost white. In agricultural districts this is well known and taken as a matter of course. In big towns, where the connexion of butter and the cow is not well known, the consumer requires butter to be of that colour which he imagines to be butter-colour. Anatto, turmeric, carrot-juice used formerly to be employed for colouring milk, butter and cheese, but of late certain aniline dyes, mostly quite as harmless physiologically as the vegetable dyes just men- tioned, are largely being used. The same aniline dyes are also employed in the manufacture of an imitation Demerara sugar from white beet sugar crystals. Aniline dyes are very frequently used by jam-makers; the natural colour of the fruit is apt to suffer in the boiling-pan, and unripe, discoloured or unsound fruit can be made brilliant and enticing by dye. The brilliant colours of cheap sugar confectionery are almost invariably pro- duced by artificial tar-colours. Most members of this class of colouring matters are quite harmless, especially in the small quantities that are required for colouring, but there are a few exceptions, picric acid, dinitrocresol, Martius-yellow, Bismarck brown and one of the tropaeolins being distinctly poisonous. On the whole, the employment of powerful aniline dyes is an advance as compared with the use of the vicious and often highly poisonous mineral colours which Hassall met with so frequently in the middle of the 10th century. Mineral colours, with very few exceptions, are no longer used in food. Oxide of iron or ochre is still very often found in potted meats, fish sauces and chocolates; dioxide of manganese is admixed with cheap chocolates. All lump sugar of commerce is dyed. Naturally it has a yellow tint. Ultramarine is added to it and counteracts the yellowness. In the same way our linen is naturally yellow and only made to look white by the use of the blue-bag. The same idea underlies both practices, and indeed the use of all colouring matters in manufactured articles, namely, to make them look better than they would otherwise. Within bounds, this is a reasonable and laudable desire, but it also covers many sins — poor materials, bad workmanship, faulty manu- facturing and often fraud. Like sugar, flour and rice are some- times blued to make them look white. All vinegar, most beers, all stout, are artificially coloured with burnt sugar or caramel. The line dividing the legitimate and laudable from the fraudu- lent and punishable is so thin and difficult to draw that neither the law nor its officers have ventured to draw it, and yet it is a matter which urgently requires regulation at the hands of the state. Practices which, when new, admit of regulation are almost ineradicable when they have become old and possessed of " vested rights." Recognizing this, the departmental com- mittee, -like the royal commission on arsenical poisons, recom- mended that " means be provided, either by the establishment of a separate court of reference, or by the imposition of more direct obligation on the Local Government Board, to exercise supervision over the use of preservatives and colouring matters in foods and to prepare schedules of such as may be considered inimical to the public health." In close connexion with this subject is the occasional occur- rence of injurious metallic impurities in food-materials. Tin chloride is used in the West Indies to produce the yellow colour of Demerara sugar. The old processes of sugar-boiling left some of the brown syrup attached to the crystals, giving them both their colour and their delicious aroma; with the introduction of modern processes affording a much greater yield of highly refined sugar, white sugar only was the /n^™^^ result. The consumer, accustomed to yellow sugar, had the colour artificially supplied by the action of the tin compound upon the' sugar. At the present time all Demerara sugar, with the exception of that portion that is dyed with aniline dye, has had its colour artificially given it and conse- quently contains strong traces of tin. Soda-water, lemonade and other artificial aerated liquors are liable to tin or lead con- tamination, the former proceeding from the tin pipes and vessels, the latter from citric and tartaric acids and cream of tartar used as ingredients, these being crystallized by their manufacturers in leaden pans. Almost all "canned" goods contain more or less tin as a contamination from the tin-plate. While animal foods do not attack the tin to any great extent, their acidity being small, almost all vegetable materials, especi- ally fruits and tomatoes, powerfully corrode the tin covering of the plate, dissolving it and becoming impregnated with tin compounds. It is quite easy to obtain tin-reactions in abun- dance from every grain of tinned peaches, apples or tomatoes. These tin compounds are by no means innocuous; yet poisoning from tinned vegetable foods is of rare occurrence. On the whole, tin-plate is a very unsuitable material for the storage and preser- vation of acid goods. Certain enamels, used for glazing earthen- ware or for coating metal cooking pots, contain lead, which they yield to the food prepared in them. Food materials that have been in contact with galvanized vessels sometimes are contami- nated with zinc. Zinc is also not infrequently present in wines. The effect of the application of the food laws has been entirely beneficial. Not only has the percentage proportion of samples found adulterated largely declined, but the gross forms of adulteration which prevailed in the middle of the Bgg^ of 19th century have almost vanished. Plenty of fraud Food Acts. still prevails, but poisoning by reckless admixture is of exceedingly rare occurrence. Whilst formerly milk was not infrequently adulterated with an equal bulk of water, few fraudulent milkmen now venture to exceed an addition of 10 or i5%- A bird's-eye view over the effect is obtained from the following figures for England and Wales: — Year. Number of Samples. Percentage of Adulteration. Examined. Adulterated. 1877 1879 1884 1889 1894 1899 1904 14,706 17.049 22,951 26,956 39,516 53.056 84,678 2,826 2,535 3.3H 3,096 4,060 4.97o 7.173 19-2 14-8 14-4 u-5 10-3 9.4 8-5 The details of the working of the Food Acts in 1904 in England and Wales are set out in the table on the next page. United States. — Each separate state has food laws of its own. From the 1st of January 1907 the "American National Pure Food Law," applicable to the United States generally, came into force, without superseding the State food laws, the only effect of the National Law being the legalization of shipments of any food which complies with the provisions of the National Law into any state from another state, even though the food is adulterated within the meaning of the state law. The law applies to every person in the United States who receives food from another state and offers it for sale in the original unbroken packages in which he receives it, and if it is adulterated or mis- branded within the meaning of the National Law he can be punished for having received it and offering it for sale in the original unbroken package to the same extent as the person who shipped it to him can be punished. ' The mere fact that he is a citizen of a state selling food within that state will not excuse him; and he will be subject to prosecution to the same extent as he would be if he uttered counterfeit money. Retailers. 228 ADULTERATION however, can protect themselves from prosecution when they sell goods in original unbroken packages by procuring a written guarantee, signed by the person from whom they received the goods, such guarantee stating that the goods are not adulterated within the meaning of the National Law. The guarantee must also contain the name and address of the wholesale vendor, but unless the parties signing the guarantee are residents of the United States the guarantee is void. The law affects all foods shipped from one state or district into another and also all foods intended for export to a foreign country. It also affects all food products manufactured or offered for sale in any Table showing working of British Food Acts, 1904. Samples Found Percentage Examined. Adulterated. Adulterated. Milk 30.413 4,031 ii-i Butter .... 15.124 867 5-7 Cheese .... 2,176 20 09 Margarine 1,169 83 7-1 Lard ..... 2,489 4 0-2 Bread .... 473 1 0-2 Flour 476 3 0-6 Tea .... 486 Coffee .... 2,550 161 6-3 Cocoa 477 42 8-8 Sugar .' . 901 49 5-4 Mustard .... 812 39 4-8 Confectionery and Jam . 1.303 72 5-5 Pepper .... 2,393 43 1-8 Wine .... 308 54 17-5 Beer . . . . 1,065 75 7-0 Spirits .... 6,938 832 12-0 Drugs : — Camphorated Oil 395 24 6l Sweet Spirit of Nitre . 243 66 27-2 Sulphur .... 131 7 5-3 Cream of Tartar . 441 88 • 20'0 Glycerin. 192 21 io-9 Rhubarb prepara- tions .... 96 5 5-2 Seidlitz Powders . 81 3 3-7 Linseed 70 1 1-4 Magnesia 48 9 18-8 Mercury prepara- tions .... 28 4 14-3 Cod Liver Oil 245 7 29 Iron Pills 16 Compound Liquorice Powder in 2 1-8 Tincture of Iodine 23 4 17-4 Other Drugs 1,124 124 II-O Total Drugs 3.214 365 ii-3 Other Articles : — Ginger .... 704 Syrup and Treacle 183 "8 4-4 Baking Powder . 281 11 3'9 Vinegar .... 773 57 7-4 Arrowroot 467 3 o-6 Oatmeal 359 Sago .... 227 '4 6-2 Olive Oil 306 9 2-9 Dripping and Fat 85 1 1-2 Sundries. 2,496 329 13-2 Total other Articles All Articles — -^ ^ — — 5,881 432 7-3 ^84,678 7.173 8-5 territory or the District of Columbia, wherever such foods may have been produced. The law does not affect foods manufac- tured and sold wholly within one state, nor such as have been shipped from another state but not in the original package. While thus the National Food Law is mainly intended to regulate the food traffic between the different states, and leaves to the states freedom to regulate their internal traffic, it must gradually tend to unify the present complicated state food legislation, and it is therefore here more usefully considered than would be the separate state laws. The definition of adulteration as set forth in sec. 7 is as follows: — " For the purpose of this act an article shall be deemed to be adulterated: In the case of drugs: (r) If, when a drug is sold under or by a name recognized in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary, it differs from the stand- ard of strength, quality or purity, as determined by the test laid down in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary official at the time of investigation; provided that no drug defined in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary shall be deemed to be adulterated under this provision if the standard of strength, quality or purity be plainly stated upon the bottle, box or other container thereof although the standard may differ from that determined by the test laid down in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary. (2) If its strength or purity fall below the professed standard or quality under which it is sold. In the case of confectionery: If it contains terra alba, barytes, talc, chrome yellow or other mineral substance or poisonous colour or flavour, or other ingredient deleterious or detrimental to health, or any vinous, malt or spirituous liquor or compound or narcotic drug. In the case of food: (1) If any substance has been mixed and packed with it so as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its quality or strength. (2) If any substance has been substituted wholly or in part for the article. (3) If any valuable constituent of the article has been wholly or in part abstracted. (4) If it be mixed, coloured, powdered, coated or stained in a manner whereby damage or inferiority is concealed. (5) If it contain any added poisonous or other added deleterious ingredient which may render such article injurious to health: provided that when in the preparation of food products for shipment they are preserved by any external application applied in such manner that the preservation is necessarily removed mechanic- ally, or by maceration in water, or otherwise, and directions for removal of said preservations shall be printed on the covering of the package, the provisions of the act shall be construed as applying only when said products are ready for consumption. (6) If it consists in whole or in part of a filthy, decomposed or putrid animal or vegetable substance, or any portion of an animal unfit for food, whether manufactured or not, or if it is the pro- duct of a diseased animal or one that has died otherwise than by slaughter. ..." Whatever vagueness attaches to these definitions is intended to be removed by sees. 3 and 4, which provide that the secretaries of the Treasury, of Agriculture, and of Commerce and Labour " shall make uniform rules and regulations for carrying out the provisions of the act, including the collection and examination of specimens of food and drugs," which examination " shall be made in the bureau of chemistry of the department of agricul- ture, or under the direction and supervision of such bureau, for the purpose of determining from such examinations whether such articles are adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of the act." Contravention of the act is punishable for the first offence by a fine not exceeding 500 dollars or 1 year's imprison- ment or both, and for each subsequent offence by a fine not less than 1000 dollars or 1 year's imprisonment or both. Under an act of congress, approved March 1903, the bureau of agriculture established standards of purity for food products, " to determine what are regarded as adulterations therein for the guidance of the officials of the various states and of the courts of justice." The elaborate set of food definitions and standards worked out under the guidance of the chief of the bureau, Dr H. W. Wiley, have also received legal sanction and form a corollary to the National Food Law. For each of the more important articles of food an official definition of its nature and composition has thus been established, of the utmost value to food officers, manufacturers and merchants not only in the United States but throughout the world. A few of these definitions may here find a place: — " Lard is the rendered fresh fat from slaughtered healthy hogs. Leaf-lard is the lard rendered at moderately high temperatures from the internal fat of the abdomen of the hog, excluding that adherent to the intestines. Standard lard and standard leaf- lard are lard and leaf -lard respectively, free from rancidity, con- , taining not more than 1% of substances other than fatty acids, not fat, necessarily incorporated therewith in the process of rendering, and standard leaf-lard has an iodine number not ADULTERATION 229 greater than 60. Milk is the lacteal secretion obtained by the complete milking of one or more healthy cows, properly fed and kept, excluding that obtained within 15 days before and 5 days after calving. Standard milk is milk containing not less than 1 2 % of total solids and not less than 85 % of solids not fat, nor less than 31 % of milk-fat. Standard skim-milk is skim-milk containing not less than 9! % of milk-solids. Standard con- densed milk and standard sweetened condensed milk are con- densed milk and sweetened condensed milk respectively, con- taining no less than 28% of milk-solids, of which not less than one-fourth is milk-fat. Standard milk-fat or butter-fat has a Reichert-Meissl number not less than 24 and a specific gravity at 40° C. not less than 0-905. Standard butter is butter contain- ing not less than 82-5 % of butter-fat. Standard whole-milk cheese is cheese containing in the water-free substance not less than 50 % of butter-fat. Standard sugar contains at least 99-5 % of sucrose. Standard chocolate is chocolate containing not more than 3 % of ash insoluble in water, 3-5 % of crude fibre, and 9 % of starch, nor less than 45 % of cocoa-fat." Numerous other standards with details too technical for reproduction here have also been fixed. German Empire. — The law of the 14th of May 1879, largely based upon the English Food and Drugs Act 1875, regulates the trade in food. Each town or district appoints a public analyst, and there is a state laboratory in Berlin directly under the control of the ministry of the interior with advisory functions. The ministry, under the advice of this department, issues from time to time regulations concerning the sale of or details specify- ing the mode of analysis of various products of food or drink. Both in the United States and in Germany, therefore, the execu- tive officers (public analysts) have some authoritative official department for guidance and information. Particular Articles Adulterated We will now proceed to consider adulteration as practised during recent years in the more important articles of food. Milk. — Milk adulteration means in modern times either addition of water, abstraction of cream, or both, or addition of chemical preservative. The old stories of the use of chalk or of sheep's brains are fables. Owing to the wide variation to which milk is naturally subjected in composition, it is exceedingly difficult to establish beyond doubt whether any given sample is in the state in which it came from the cow or has been im- poverished. The composition of cow's milk varies with many conditions. (1) The race of the animal: the large cows of the plains yielding a great quantity of poor milk, the smaller cows from hilly districts less amount of rich milk. Hence, milk from Dutch cows compares very unfavourably with that of Jerseys or short-horns. Watery and acid foods like mangolds and brewers' grains produce a more aqueous milk than do albuminous and fatty foods like oil-cakes. (2) Sudden change of food, of weather and of temperature. (3) Nervous disturbances to which even a cow is subject, as, for instance, at shows, may greatly influence the composition of the milk. The portion obtained at the beginning of a milking is poorer in fat than that yielded towards the end. Morning milk is as a rule poorer in fat than evening milk. Soon after calving the animal gives a richer product than at later periods, both the quantity and the com- position declining towards the end of the lactation. The varia- tions due to these different circumstances may be very great, as is seen from the following analyses, fairly representing the maximum, minimum and mean composition of the milk of single cows : — Minimum. Maximum. Mean. Specific Gravity . ... Fat . . ' . ... Casein Albumen Milk Sugar(lactose) Water .... 1 -0264 1-67% 1-79% 0-25% 2-11% 0-35% 80-32% 1-0370 6-47% 6-29% 1-44% 6-12% 1-21% 90-69% 1-0316 3-59% 3-02% 0-50% 478% o-7i% 87-40% In market milk such wide variations are not so liable to occur, as the milk from one animal tends to average that from another, but even in the milk from herds of cows the variations may be considerable. The average composition of genuine milk supplied by one of the largest dairy companies in London, as established by the analysis of 120,000 separate samples recorded by Dr P. Vieth, is fat 4- 1 %, other milk solids (" solids not fat " or " non- fatty solids ") 8-8 %, total dissolved matters (total solids) 12-9 %, the variations being from 3-6 to 4-6 % in the fat and 8-6 to 9-1 % in the solids not fat. It is clear that the 4-6 % of fat could be reduced, by skimming, to 3-0 %, and the 9-1 % of solids not fat to 8-5 % by addition of water, without bringing the composition of the milk thus adulterated outside that of genuine milk. In reality even wider limits of variation must be reckoned with, because small farmers sell the milk of single cows, and this, as shown above, may fluctuate enormously. The Board of Agri- culture, in pursuance of the powers conferred upon it by the Food Act 1899, issued in 1901 " The Sale of Milk Regulations," which provide that where a sample of milk (not being milk sold as skimmed or separated or condensed milk) contains less than 3 % of milk-fat, or less than 8- 5 % of non-fatty solids, it shall be presumed, until the contrary is proved, that the milk is not genuine. But even in these cases it is open to the vendor to show, if he can, that the deficiency was due to natural causes or to unavoidable circumstances. The courts have held that when deviations are the result of negligence or ignorance the vendor is nevertheless liable to punishment. Thus, when a vendor omits to stir up the contents of a pan so as to prevent the cream from rising to the top, he may be punished, if by such omission the milk becomes altered in composition so as no longer to comply with the regulations ; or, when a farmer allows an undue interval between the milkings whereby the composition of the milk may be affected, he may be liable for the consequences. As the limits embodied in the milk regulations were necessarily fixed at figures lower than those which are usually afforded by genuine milk, and as it is a comparatively simple matter to ascertain the percentage of fatty and non-fatty solids, a strong tendency exists to bring down commercial milk to the low limits of the regulations without coming into collision with the law. The fat of milk is its most valuable and most important constituent. The exact determination of the percentage- of fat is therefore the chief problem of the milk-analyst. All analyses made prior to the year 1885 are more or less inexact, because a complete separation of the fat from the other milk constituents had not been obtained. In that year M. A. Adams, by the simple and ingenious expedient of spreading a known volume of the milk to be analysed upon a strip of blotting-paper and extracting the paper, together with the dried milk, by a fat solvent, such as ether or benzene, succeeded in completely removing the fat from thi other constituents. Since that time simpler and more rapid means have been based upon centrifugal separation of the fat. When a measured quantity of milk is mixed with strong sulphuric acid, which dissolves the casein and other nitrogenous constitu^ ents of the milk, but leaves the fat-globules quite untouched, the latter can easily be separated in a centrifugal, in the form of an oil the volume of which can be ascertained in a suitably constructed and graduated glass vessel, and thus the percent- age ascertained very rapidly and accurately; such centrifugal contrivances constructed by H. Leffman, N. Gerber and others are now in general use in dairies, and cheese and butter factories. The amount of " total solids " contained in milk, that is to say, of all constituents other than water, is speedily ascertained by evaporating the water from a measured or weighed portion of milk and drying the residue obtained in a water-oven to constant weight. By subtracting from the percentage of total solids that of the fat the amount of " solids not fat " results, and by cautiously burning off the organic substances, the salts or mineral matters are left. When the percentage of " solids not fat " is less than 8-5 a simple proportion sum suffices to show what percentage of water must be present to reduce the " solids not fat " to the amount found. As the added water also reduces proportionately the percentage of mineral matter natural 230 ADULTERATION to normal milk (about 0-71 to 0-73%), the determination of the ash affords valuable assistance to the analyst. When the amount of ash is higher than normal, tests must be made for borax, soda or other mineral matters that are often added as preservatives or acid neutralizes. Borax is easily tested for by dissolving the milk ash in a drop or two of dilute hydrochloric acid, moisten- ing a strip of yellow turmeric paper with the solution and drying it, when, in the presence of even very minute quantities of borax, the yellow colouring matter of the turmeric paper will be changed into a brilliant red-brown. Formaldehyde (which in 40% water solu tion forms the formalin of commerce) in milk affords a bright purple colour when the milk containing it is mixed with sulphuric acid containing a trace of an iron salt. Condensed milk is milk that has been evaporated under re- duced pressure with or without the addition of sugar. Generally one part of condensed milk corresponds to three parts of the original milk. There is no case on record of adulteration of unsweetened condensed milk, but sweetened milk has in the past been frequently prepared either from machine-skimmed or partly skimmed milk and sold as whole-milk. As sweetened condensed milk is largely used by the poorer part of the population for the feeding of infants, and as the fat of milk is, as stated before, its most valuable constituent, this class of fraud was a particularly mischievous one, and led to the inclusion in the Food Act of 1899 of a special proviso that every tin or other receptacle containing condensed, separated or skimmed milk must bear a conspicuous label showing the nature of the contents. As the bulk of con- densed milk consumed in England is imported from abroad, the customs authorities now exercise a strict supervision over the imports, and object to the importation of such condensed milk as contains less than 9% of milk-fat. The average compo- sition of sweetened condensed milk may be taken, with slight variations, to be: water 24-6%, fat 11-4%, casein and albumen 10%, milk-sugar 11-7%, cane-sugar 40-3%, mineral matters 2-0%. Cream. — There are not any regulations nor official standards relating to this article, the value of which depends upon its contents in fat. Good stiff cream obtained by centrifugal skimming may contain as much as 60% of milk-fat, but generally dairymen's cream has only about 40%. On the other hand, milk that is abnormally rich in fat is in some places sold as cream. Attempts to compel dairymen to work up to any stated minimum of fat have failed, the English courts holding that cream is not an article that has any standard of quality, but varies with the character of the cows from which the milk is obtained and the food on which they are fed. Therefore, as re- gards the most important portion of cream, the amount of fat, adulteration does not exist unless there is a substitution for the milk-fat by an emulsified foreign fat, but cases of this descrip- tion are exceedingly rare. On the other hand, such additions of foreign materials, like starch paste or gelatine, which have for object the giving of -an appearance of richness to a naturally poor and dilute article, are not uncommon. While formerly the sale of cream was entirely in the hands of milkmen, there has been of late a tendency to regard cream as an article coming within the range of grocery goods. To enable this perishable article to be kept in a grocery store it has to receive an addition of preser- vative, as a rule boric preservative, in excessive amount. The purchaser may take it that all cream sold by others than milk- men, and much of that even, is thus preserved and should be shunned. The limit of boric preservative that might be per- mitted, but which is nearly always exceeded, is one-quarter of 1%. Butter. — Of all articles of food butter has most fully received the attention of the sophisticator, because it is the most costly of the ordinary articles of diet, and because its composition is so intricate and variable that its analysis presents extraordinary difficulties and its nature exceptional and various opportunities for admixture with foreign substances. It is the intention of the producer of butter to separate the fatty portion of the milk as completely as is practicable from the other constituents of the milk without destroying the fat-globules. This can only be done by churning, by which operation the milk-globules are caused more or less to adhere to each other without losing their individual existence. Owing to this subdivision of the fat, and perhaps to the composition of the fat itself, butter is a more digestible fatty article of food than lard or oil. It is not possible by mechanical means to remove the whole of the water and curd of the milk from the butter; indeed " overworking " the butter with the object of removing the water as completely as possible ruins the structure to such an extent as to make the product unmerchantable. In well-made butjter there are contained about 85% of pure milk-fat, from 12 to 13% of water, and 2 or 3% of curd and albumen, milk-sugar or its product of transformation — lactic acid, — and phosphates and other milk-salts. In some kinds of butter, Russian for instance, the percentage of water is rather less. Generally, by churning at a low temperature, a drier, at higher temperatures a wetter, butter is obtained. The curd must be got rid of as completely as practicable if the product is to have reasonable keeping properties. To prevent rapid decomposition salt in various quantities is added. Considering that 100 lb (10 gallons) of milk yield only from 35 to 4 lb of properly made butter, it is obvious that a great inducement exists to increase the yield either by leaving an undue propor- tion of water or curd, or by adding an excessive quantity of salt. In some parts of Ireland the butter is worked up with warm brine into so-called pickle butter, whereby it becomes both watered and salted in one operation. Until lately, when the English Board of Agriculture fixed a limit of 16 for the percentage of water that may legitimately be present in butter, this kind of debasement could not easily be dealt with, but even now, where a legal water-limit exists, the addition of water either as such, or in the shape of milk or of condensed milk, is very com- monly practised, more or less care being taken not to exceed the legalized limit. It is obvious that there is an ample margin of profit for the mixer who starts with Russian butter containing 10% of water and works it up with milk, fresh or condensed, to 16%, all the other milk-constituents, namely, sugar, curd and salt, thus introduced counting as " butter " in the eyes of the law. A very considerable number of butter-factors in London and in other parts of England thus dilute dry butter and consider this a legitimate operation so long as they keep within the legal water-limit. Nay, they may even exceed this, if only they give to their adulterated article a euphonious name, which, while legally notifying the admixture, raises in the mind of the ignor- ant purchaser the belief that he is purchasing something particu- larly choice and excellent. " Milk-blended butter," with as much as 24 or more per cent of water and as little as 68 % of fat, is still largely sold to purchasers who think that they are obtain- ing extra value for their money, several attempts to deal with the scandal by legislature having led to no result. The intro- duction of water into butter is also practised on a large scale in the United States, where a branch of trade in " renovated " butter has sprung up. In the States a considerable quantity of butter is produced by small farmers, and by the time the product comes into the market — the addition of chemical preservatives to prevent decomposition not being permitted — the butter has so much deteriorated in quality that it fetches a very low price. It is bought up by factors, the fat melted out and washed, then again worked up with water and salt, care being generally taken to leave about 16% of water in the product, which finds a ready sale in England. It may here be pointed out that England imports an enormous quantity of butter from the continent of Europe, the colonies, Siberia and America, the imports, less exports, averaging during 1903-1906 no less than 203,300 tons annually, and the total consumption (home produce plus imports) 366,441 tons, the consumption per head of population being 19-2 lb per annum. In butter, as in most other articles of food, adulteration with water is the most common, most profitable, and least risky form of fraud. Great fortunes are thus made out of water. There is an altogether different class of butter adulteration which concerns itself with the substitution of other fatty matters for the whole or par 4, of the really valuable portion of the butter- ADULTERATION 231 fat. Margarine is the legalized and therefore legitimate butter- surrogate, prepared by churning any suitable fat with milk into a cream, solidifying the latter by injection into cold water and working the lumps together, precisely as is done in the case of the churned cream of milk. The substitution of margarine for butter is frequent, in spite of all legal enactments directed against this fraud, the semblance between butter and margarine being so great that a trained palate is necessary to distinguish the two articles. Much more frequent and much more difficult to deal with is the sale of mixtures of butter and of margarine. In order to show the difficulties inherent to this subject, it will be necessary to consider the chemical nature of butter-fat, and to compare it with other fats that may enter into the composition of margarine. Butter-fat is butter freed from water, curd and salt and extraneous matter. Like the greater number of natural fats it consists of a mixture of triglycerides, that is, combinations of glycerin with substances of the nature of acids. These acids, in the case of fats other than butter-fat, are mainly oleic, palmitic and stearic acids. Butter-fat, in addition to these, contains other acids which sharply distinguish it from the vast majority of other fats and, with the exception of cocoa-nut oil, from those substances which are or may be used to mix with butter, by the circumstance that a considerable proportion of its acids, when separated by chemical means from the glycerin, are readily soluble in water, or may be easily volatilized either alone or in a current of steam, whereas the acids separated from the foreign fats are practically both insoluble and non- volatile. This funda- mental principle serves at once to distinguish, for example, between butter and margarine, and has been made use of by analysts not only for this purpose but also with a view to deter- mine the relative amounts of butter and margarine in a mixture of these substances. Thus butter-fat contains about 88%, more or less, of "insoluble fatty acids," while margarine contains about 95.5%; s grammes of butter-fat when chemically decom- posed yield an amount of volatile fatty acids which requires about 26 cubic centimetres (more or less) of deci-normal alkali solution for neutralization, while margarine requires mostly less than 1 cubic centimetre (Wollny or Reichert-Meissl method). There are other differences between the two kinds of fat: the specific gravity of butter-fat is higher than that of most other fats; its power of refracting a ray of light is less; the " iodine absorption " of butter-fat is smaller than that of many other fatty matters, and so on. But the composition of perfectly genuine butter-fat varies within somewhat wide limits. The milk from a cow fed on good and ample food in warm weather yields a fat that is rich in characteristic butter-constituents, while a poorly fed animal, kept in the open till late in the autumn, when the nights are cold, gives milk exceptionally poor in fat, the differences expressed as " insoluble fatty acids " lying between 86 and 91%, and in volatile acids, expressed as " Wollny " numbers, between 18 and 36. Generally, therefore, summer butter is rich and autumn butter poor in volatile acids, or, geographically, Australian butter is more frequently high, Siberian often exceedingly low in these acids. The food of the animal also may, under certain conditions, yield a notable pro- portion of its fatty matter to the butter; cows that have, for instance, been fed upon large quantities of cotton-seed cake yield butter in which the cotton-seed oil may be traced, and the same holds good with other fatty foods. All these, and other circumstances, combine to render the detection of small quan- tities of foreign fats that have been fraudulently added to butter almost a matter of impossibility. This is perfectly well known to unscrupulous butter dealers, and an enormous amount of adulteration is known to be practised. Even small amounts of adulteration could, nevertheless, often be discovered while margarine manufacturers employed considerable proportions of vegetable oils in their products, some of these oils furnishing characteristic chemical reactions allowing of their discovery. Here some firms of margarine manufacturers came to the aid of the butter-mixer and produced margarine containing nothing but animal fat, so-called " neutral " margarine being freely offered for fraudulent purposes. There is one fat besides butter which contains " volatile fatty acids," namely, cocoa-nut oil. Since means have been found to deprive this fat of its strong cocoa-nut odour and taste, it has largely been used in the adul- teration of butter, and margarine containing cocoa-nut oil and other fatty substances has freely been manufactured and sold specially for butter adulteration. The seat of this class of fraud is mainly in Holland. Analysts happily found means to detect this oil when present above 10%, and numerous prosecutions made mixers more careful. Abundant evidence, however, exists showing that the simultaneous addition of water or milk so as to keep the water limit below 16% and that of margarine entirely composed of animal fats below 10% leaves a large margin of profit with a. very small chance of detection. For the moment at least analysis has had the worst of it in the battle between honesty and "business methods." Margarine itself is a legitimate article of commerce (when sold with due notice to the purchaser), but is frequently adulter- ated. As regards the fats used in its manufacture there does not exist any legal restriction, and as long as the fat is in a state fit for human consumption the manufacturer can make whatever mixture he pleases. In general there is no reason to think that any bad or disgusting fats are finding their way into the factories, which in most countries are under proper supervision ; the old stories about recovered grease from all sorts of offal are quite without foundation. But a considerable percentage of solid paraffin has been met with as an admixture of the fatty part of margarine. As the fatty portion" of the article is the only one of value, some manufacturers make great efforts to produce margarine with as small a percentage of fatty matter as possible, either by incorporating excessive amounts of water or of milk — margarines with over 30% of water being met with — or by intro- ducing sugar, glucose, starch, gelatinous matter, in fact any- thing that is cheaper than fat. The English law imposes a limitation upon the percentage of butter-fat that may be con- tained in margarine, but at present at least the tendency of manufacturers is all for having as little butter or other valuable fat in margarine as is practicable, and not to err on the other side. For the purpose of facilitating the discovery of margarine when it has been fraudulently added to butter, some countries (Germany, Belgium, Sweden) insist upon the use of from 5 to 10% of sesame oil (from the seed of Sesamum orientate or 5. indicum, belonging to the family of Bignoniaceae) in the manu- facture of such margarine as is to be consumed within the countries in question. This oil yields a characteristic red colour when it, or any mixture containing it, is shaken with an hydro- chloric solution of either sugar or furfurol, and is intended to serve as an "ear-marking" substance. The addition of a little starch or arrowroot, easily discoverable chemically or by the microscope, is also required by Belgium, but in the absence of any international agreement these ear-marking additions are of little practical use. It is, however, interesting to point out that, while complying with the regulations of the govern- ments, margarine manufacturers of the countries named have found an easy way of rendering the regulations quite nugatory: they add methyl-orange, a colouring matter which itself produces a red colour with acid and quite obscures the red colour obtained by the official test for sesame oil. Cheese may be legitimately made from full-milk, milk that has been enriched by addition of cream, or from milk that has been more or less skimmed. It varies consequently very widely in composition, so-called cream cheese containing not less than 60% of fat; Stilton upwards of 40%; Cheddar about 30%; Dutch, Parmesan and some Swiss and Danish less than 20%. The amount of water varies with the kind and age of the cheese and may be as low as 20 and as high as 60%. Under these circumstances it is impracticable to lay down any hard-and-fast rules as to the composition of cheese. When, however, cheese is made from skimmed milk and the fat is replaced by margarine, as is the case in so-called " filled " or margarine cheeses, the sale of these amounts to an adulteration, unless the presence of the foreign substance is declared. It may at first sight appear strange that the person who robs milk of its most valuable 2 3'2 ADULTERATION portion, the cream, may prepare a legitimate article of food from the remainder, while he who to that remainder adds something to replace the fat does an illegitimate act, but it must be taken into consideration that the replacement is frequently made with fraudulent intent and that the ordinary purchaser cannot by taste or smell distinguish the adulterated from the genuine article, while there is no difficulty in recognizing skim-milk cheese. Lard. — Between the years' 1880 and 1S90 a gigantic fraudulent trade in adulterated lard was carried on from the United States. A great proportion of the American lard imported into England was found to consist of a mixture of more or less real lard with cotton-seed oil and beef-stearine. Cotton-seed oil is one of the cheapest vegetable oils fit for human consumption, beef-stearine the hard residue obtained in the manufacture of oleo-margarine after the more fluid fat has been pressed from the beef fat. These mixtures were made so skilfully by large Chicago manu- facturers that for some years they escaped detection. A bill introduced in 1888 into the American Senate to stop this im- posture directed general attention to the subject, and energetic measures, taken both in America and in England, quickly put an end to it. From the memorial presented in the United States Senate in support of the bill, it appeared that in about 1887 the annual production of lard in the States was estimated at 600 million pounds, of which more than 35% was adulterated. Compounds were made containing only a small quantity of lard or none at all, yet were sold as " choice refined lard " or under other eulogistic names. Many lard substitutes, chiefly made from cotton-seed oil, are still met with, but are mostly sold in a legitimate manner. From the germ of maize — which must be separated from the starchy portion of the seed before the latter can be manufactured into glucose — the oil (maize-oil) is ex- pressed, and this now is used as a lard adulterant, its detection being far more difficult than that of cotton-seed oil. Oils. — For very many years all oils were considered to be com- posed of olein, that is to say, the triglyceride of oleic acid, with small quantities of impurities; chemists, therefore, to distin- guish oils of various origin, confined themselves to tests for these impurities, employing so-called colour reactions based upon the change of colour of the oil by various reagents such as sulphuric, nitric or phosphoric acids. These reactions were exceedingly indefinite and unsatisfactory and oil adulteration was prevalent and almost undiscbverable. It has been found, however, that the old ideas concerning the believed uniformity in the nature and constitution of oils were erroneous. Some oils, indeed, do consist of olein, almond oil being a type, others contain a glyceride of an acid which is distinguished from oleic acid by containing one molecule less hydrogen, called linoleic acid. To this class belong cotton-seed and sesame oils. Others again include a glyceride of an acid containing still less hydrogen, linolenic acid (linseed and similar drying oils), and lastly the liver oils are still poorer in hydrogen. These various acids or the oils contained in them combine with various percentages of iodine, oleic acid absorbing the smallest proportion (about 80 %). For each oil the iodine absorption is a fairly constant quantity; this number, together with the determination of the amount of caustic alkali needed for complete saponification, the thermal rise with strong sulphuric acid or with bromine, the refraction of light and the specific gravity, now enable the analyst to form a fair idea of the nature of any sample under examination, and, in consequence of this advance in knowledge, adulteration of oils has much declined. The most common adulterant of the more valuable oils, like olive oil, is cotton-seed oil. The oils expressed from the sesame seed or the earth-nut (arachis oil) are also frequently admixed with olive oil. Almond oil is adulterated with the closely allied oils from the peach-kernel or the pine-seed. Deodorized paraffin hydrocarbons also enter sometimes as adulterants into edible oils. There is, however, a marked improvement in the purity of oils generally. Flour and bread as sold in England are almost invariably genuine. The old forms of adulteration, such as the use of alum for the production of a white but indigestible loaf from bad flour, have disappeared. The only admixture which has been met with during recent years is maize-meal in American produce. This is of inferior food value to wheat-meal. Sugar in its various forms can hardly be said to be subject to adulteration by the addition of inferior substitutes. One single case of such substitution analogous to the proverbial but probably mythical sanding of sugar occurred between 1880 and 1905 in England, some crushed marble having been found in a consignment of German sugar in a large British establish- ment. There have, however, been numerous prosecutions for a fraud of another class^ namely, the substitution of dyed beetroot sugar for Demerara sugar. Formerly the sugar produced by the old imperfect and wasteful methods of manufacture was more or less yellow or brown from adhering molasses. Sugar, as now obtained, be it from cane or beet, is white; yet the public is so wedded to its customs that white sugar except as lump or castor sugar does not find a ready sale. The manufacturer is obliged to colour his product yellow by artificial means, that is to say, either by the addition of a little aniline dye, harmless in itself, or, as in the West Indies, mostly by the use of a small quantity of chloride of tin, so-called " bloomer. " European refined beet- sugar coloured with aniline dye to distinguish it from Demerara cane sugar is sold under the name of " yellow crystals. " These, although richer in real sugar than Demerara, are without the delicious aroma of cane syrup which belongs to the latter, and are not infrequently fraudulently substituted for Demerara. Marmalade and Jams. — In the preparation of marmalade and jams, which articles were for a long time made from fruit and sugar only, a part of the sugar, from 10 to 15 %, is often now replaced by starch glucose. This material, consisting mainly of a mixture of dextrose and dextrin, is of much less sweetening power than ordinary sugar and mostly cheaper. It is said to prevent the crystallization which frequently used to occur in some jams. The use of glucose has been declared by the High Court {Smith v. Wisden, 1901) to be legitimate, the court holding that as there was no recognized standard for the composition of marmalade the addition of saccharine material not injurious to health could not constitute an offence. Artificial colouring matters and chemical preservatives are almost constant in- gredients of jams. To such fruits which, when boiled with sugar, do not readily yield a jelly (strawberries, raspberries) an addi- tion of apple juice is frequently made in the manufacture of jam, without much objection; the pulp of the apple, however, is sometimes bodily added as an adulterant. Tea. — In consequence of the proviso contained in the Food Act of 1875 that tea was to be examined by the Customs on importation, such tea as was found to be admixed with other substance or exhausted tea being refused entry into England, the adulteration of tea has been virtually suppressed. Great numbers of samples are annually examined by the Customs, and a not inconsiderable proportion of these are condemned because they are either damaged or dirty, their use for the manufacture of theine being permitted, only sound and genuine tea coming to the British public. The practice, very common a generation ago, of artificially colouring tea green with a mixture of Prussian blue and turmeric, has quite vanished with the decline of the consumption of green tea. Coffee. — A few cases of artificially manufactured coffee berries, made from flour and chicory, have been observed, but it would not be fair to speak of a practice of adulteration regarding coffee berries. Not infrequently coffee is roasted with the addition of some fatty matter or paraffin or sugar, to give to the roasted coffee a glossy appearance. These additions as a rule are small in amount. Ground coffee is often sold adulterated with chicory, sugar or caramel. Other adulterations, reference to which is found in literature relating to the second half of the 19th century, do not seem now to occur. Cocoa and chocolate are liable to a number of fraudulent or questionable additions. In the cheaper qualities of cocoa-powder sugar and starch — the latter in the form of sago flour or arrow- root — are admixed in very large proportions, and, in order to give to such mixtures something like the appearance of genuine ADULTERATION 333 cocoa, red oxide of iron is added. This almost invariably is more or less arsenical. Cocoa-shell, a perfectly valueless material, is mixed in a very finely ground state with cocoa of the commoner kind. Owing to the enormous increase in the consumption of so- called chocolate-creams, which are masses of sugar confectionery coated with a cocoa-paste containing a large proportion of the fat of cocoa (cocoa-butter), the quantity of cocoa-butter that is obtained in the manufacture of cocoa-powders is no longer sufficient to cover the demand. Substitutes of cocoa-butter prepared from cocoa-nut oil are manufactured on a large scale, and all enter without acknowledgment into chocolates or choco- late creams. As there are not any regulations touching the composition of chocolate, sugar or starch or both are used in chocolate manufacture, and especially in that of chocolate powders in often excessive quantities. In the Dutch mode of manufacture of cocoa-powders an addition of from 3% to 4% of an alkaline salt is made for the purpose of rendering the cocoa " soluble, " or, more strictly, for putting it into such a physical condition that it does not settle in the cup. This addition does not, as is often alleged, render the cocoa alkaline, and is not made with any fraudulent object; several countries, however, have passed regulations fixing the maximum of the addition which may thus legitimately be made. Most of the cocoa- powders sold in England are prepared in accordance with the Dutch method. Wine. — If ilhder this term a beverage is understood which consists of nothing but fermented grape juice, a great propor- tion of the wine consumed' in England is not genuine wine. All port and sherry comes into commerce after having received an addition of spirit, generally made from potatoes; port and sherry would not be what they are and as they have been for generations unless they were thus fortified. The practice can now hardly be classed among adulterations. A well-fermented wine made from the juice of properly matured grapes does not require any added alcohol in order that it should keep; im- perfectly made wine is liable to turn sour; the addition of alcohol prevents this. French wines, both red and white, are hardly subject to adulteration. In wine-growing countries like France wine is so cheap and plentiful that it would be difficult to manufacture an imitation beverage cheaper than genuine wine. In Germany the conditions are different, the districts from which those wines that are exported are nominally derived being small and insufficient to cover the world's demands. The addition of sugar solution or of starch sugar is allowed within limits by German law, which not even requires that notification to the purchaser be made of the addition, and it is notorious that a very large proportion of the wine sold under the name of " hock " and some of that coming from the Moselle are thus diluted, sugared and lengthened, or, in plain terms, adulterated. Wines from the Palatinate which under their own names would not sell out of Germany are often passed off as hocks. As there is but little German red wine the law also permits this to be lengthened by the addition of white wine. For the removal of part of the acid from sour wine produced in bad vintages the addition of precipitated chalk is also permitted. Attention has been drawn in England to the very serious fact that German wines sometimes contain salts of zinc in small quantities. These are introduced by a fining agent protected by a German patent, consisting of solutions of sulphate of zinc and potassium ferro- cyanide, which, when added together in " suitable proportions," produce a precipitate of zinc-ferrocyanide which carries down all turbidity in the wine and is supposed to leave neither zinc nor ferrocyanide behind in solution. As a matter of fact, one or other of these highly objectionable substances is almost invari- ably left behind. The use of artificial colouring matters in wines does not appear now to occur. Beer cannot be said to be adulterated, although it is well known that materials often very different from these which the general public believe to be trie proper raw materials for the Manufacture of beer, namely, water, malt and hops, are largely used. By the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1885, sec. 4, beer is defined as any liquor " which is made or sold as a de- scription of beer, or as a substitute for beer, and which on analysis of a sample thereof shall be found to contain more than 2% of proof spirit. " That is to say, beer is legally anything that is sold as beer provided that it has 2% of proof spirit. There is not any restriction upon the materials that are employed provided that they are not positively poisonous. For Inland Revenue purposes, however, a prohibition has been made against the admixture of anything to beer after it has been manufactured, and excise prosecutions of publicans for watering beer are not infrequent. Formerly there was a restriction on the amount of salt that might be present in beer; this no longer exists. On the other hand it cannot be said that any injurious materials are being used by brewers, the brewing industry being, broadly speaking, most efficiently supervised and controlled by scientifically trained men. The addition to beer of bisulphate of lime, which is almost universally practised in England, is not an adulteration in the ordinary acceptation of the term. The thin beer which has taken the place of the strong ales of the past generation contains an insufficiency of alcohol to ensure keeping qualities, and it is difficult to see how modern English beers could be sold without the addition of some sort of preservative. N cut- Alcoholic Drinks. — The same remark applies to a good many of so-called temperance beverages. Of these again it is hardly proper to speak as liable to adulteration. So-called soda- water is very often devoid of soda and is only carbonated water, but the term " soda-water " is a survival from the times when this was a medicinal beverage and when soda was prescribed to be present in definite amount by the pharmacopoeia. Potash and especially lithia waters very frequently contain only mere traces of the substances from which they derive their names. The sweetness of ginger-beer and often of lemonade is no longer due to sugar, as used to be the case, but to saccharine (the toluol derivative) , which is possessed of sweetness but not of nourish- ment; and since, as an antiseptic, it may affect the digestion, its use in these beverages is to be deprecated. Vinegar ought to be the product obtained by the successive alcoholic and acetous fermentation of a sugary liquor. When this is obtained from malt or from malt admixed with other grain the vinegar is called a malt vinegar. Often, however, acid liquors pass under that name which have been made by the action of a mineral acid upon any starchy material such as maize or tapioca, with or without the addition of beet sugar. Dilute acetic acid, obtained from wood, is very frequently used as an adulterant of vinegar. When properly purified such acid is unobjectionable physiologically, but it is improper to sell it as vinegar. Adulteration of vinegar by sulphuric or other acids, formerly a common practice, is now exceedingly rare. Spirits. — By the Sale of Food and Drugs Act Amendment Act, whisky, brandy and rum must not be sold of a less alcoholic strength than 25 under proof (corresponding to 43% of alcohol by volume), and gin 35 under proof (37% alcohol). For many years the only form of adulteration recorded by public analysts related to the alcoholic strength, the undue dilution of spirits with water being, of course, a profitable form of fraud. No ad- dition of any injurious matters to commercial spirits has been observed. It was, however, well known that a very considerable proportion of so-called brandies was not the product of the grape, but that spirits of other origin were frequently admixed with grape brandy. A report which appeared in 1902 in the Lancet on " Brandy, its production at Cognac and the supply of genuine brandy to this country, " served as a stimulus to public analysts to analyse commercial brandies, and convictions of retailers for selling so-called brandy followed. It was shown that genuine brandy made in the orthodox style from wine in pot-stills con- tained a considerable proportion of substances other than alcohol to which the flavour and character of brandy is due; among these flavouring materials combinations of a variety of organic acids with alcohols (chemically described as " esters ") pre- dominate. For the present a brandy is not considered genuine unless it contains in 100,000 parts (calculated free from water) at least 60 parts of " esters. " As a consequence a trade has sprung up in artificially produced esters, sold for the purpose of 234 ADULTERY— AD VALOREM adding them to any spirit to fraudulently convert it into a liquor passing as " brandy. " The inquiries into the nature of brandy led to investigations into whisky. Formerly whisky was made from grain only and obtained by pot-still distillation, that form of " still " yielding a product containing a comparatively large proportion of volatile matters other than alcohol. For many years past, however, improved stills^-so-called patent stills — have been adopted, enabling manufacturers to obtain a purer and far stronger product, saving carriage and storage. Attempts were made in England in 1905-1907 to restrict the term "whisky" solely to the pot-still product. But the question was referred in 1908 to a Royal Commission which reported against such a restriction. A common form of adulteration of whisky is the addition to it of spirit made on the Continent mainly from potatoes. This spirit is almost pure alcohol and is quite devoid of the injurious properties which are popularly but falsely attributed to it. The substitution of this — a very cheap and quite flavourless material — for one which owes its value more to its flavour than to its alcoholic contents, is clearly fraudulent. Drugs. — To the adulteration of drugs but very brief reference can here be made. It is satisfactory to record that but very few of the great number of drugs included in the pharmacopoeias are liable to serious adulteration, and there are very few cases on record during recent years where real fraudulent adulteration was involved. The numerous preparations used by druggists are mostly prepared in factories under competent and careful supervision, and the standards laid down in the British Pharma- copoeia are, broadly speaking, carefully adhered to. The occur- rence of unlooked-for impurities, such as that of arsenic in sodium-phosphate or in various iron preparations, can hardly be included in the list of adulterations. In the making up of prescriptions, however, a good deal of laxity is displayed; thus, the Local Government Board report of the years 1904-1905 refers to an instance of a quinine mixture containing 23 grains of quinine-sulphate instead of 240 grains. A certain latitude in the making up of physicians' prescriptions must necessarily be allowed, but much too frequently the rea^bnable limit of a 10% error over or under the amount of drug prescribed is exceeded. Certain perishable drugs, such as sweet spirits of nitre, or others liable to contain from their mode of manufacture metallic impurities, form the subjects of frequent prosecutions. The element of intentional fraud which characterizes many forms of food adulteration is happily generally absent in the case of drugs. (O. H.*) ADULTERY (from Lat. adulterium), the sexual intercourse of a married person with another than the offender's husband or wife. Among the Greeks, and in the earlier period of Roman law, it was not adultery unless a married woman was the offender. The foundation of the later Roman law with regard to adultery was the lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis passed by Augustus about 17 B.C. (See Dig. 48. 5; Paull. Rec. Sent. ii. 26; Brisson, Ad Leg. Jul. de Adult.) In Great Britain it was reckoned a spiritual offence, that is, cognizable by the spiritual courts only. The common law took no further notice of it than to allow the party aggrieved an action of damages. In England, however, the action for " criminal conversation," as it was called, was nominally abolished by the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857; but by the 33 rd section of the same act, the husband may claim damages from one who has committed adultery with his wife in a petition for dissolution of the marriage, or for judicial separation. In Ireland the action for criminal conversation is still retained. In Scotland damages may be recovered against an adulterer in an ordinary action of damages in the civil court, and the latter may be found liable for the expenses of an action of divorce. if joined with the guilty spouse as a co-defender. Adultery on the part of the wife is, by the law of Englaind, a ground for divorce, but on the part of the husband must be either incestuous or bigamous, or coupled with cruelty qr desertion for two or more years. In the United States adultery is everywhere ground of divorce, and there is commonly no prohibition against marrying the paramour or other re-marriage by the guilty party. Even if there be such a prohibition, it would be unavailing out of the state in which the divorce was granted; marriage being a contract which, if valid where executed, is generally treated as valid everywhere. Adultery gives a cause of action for damages to the wronged husband. It is in some states a criminal offence on the part of each party to the act, for which imprison- ment in the penitentiary or state prison for a term of years may be awarded. In England, a complete divorce or dissolution of the marriage could, until the creation of the Court of Probate and Divorce, be obtained only by an act of parliament. This procedure is still pursued in the case of Irish divorces. In Scotland a complete divorce may be effected by proceedings in the Court of Session, as succeeding to the old ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the commis- sioners. A person divorced for adultery is, by the law of Scot- land, prohibited from intermarrying with the paramour. In France, Germany, Austria and other countries in Europe, as well as in some of the states of the United States, adultery is a criminal offence, punishable by imprisonment or fine. (See Divorce.) AD VALOREM (Lat. for " according to value"), the term given in commerce to a duty which is levied by customs authori- ties on goods or commodities in proportion to their value. An ad valorem duty is the opposite of a specific duty, which is chargeable on the measure or weight of goods. The United States is the one important country which has adopted in its tariff an extensive system of ad valorem duties, though it has not altogether disregarded specific duties; in some cases, indeed, the two are combined. Ad valorem duties, in the United States, are levied according to the saleable value of the goods in the country of their origin, and it is usual to require at the port of entry the production of an invoice with full particulars as to the place where, time when, and person from whom the goods were purchased, and the actual cost of the goods and the charges on them. Such an invoice is countersigned by the consul of the country for which the goods are intended. On arrival at the port of consignment the invoice is sworn to by the importer. The goods are then valued by an appraiser, and if the valuation of the appraiser exceeds that which appears on the invoice, double duty is levied, subject to appeal to a general appraiser and to boards of general appraisers. It has been argued that, theoretically, an ad valorem duty is preferable to a specific duty, inasmuch as it falls in proper proportion" alike on the high-priced and low-priced grades of a commodity, and, no matter how the value of any article fluctu- ates, the rate of taxation automatically adjusts itself to the new value. In practice, however, ad valorem duties lead to great inequalities, and are very difficult to levy; while the relative value of two commodities may remain apparently unchanged under an ad valorem duty, yet owing to the difference in the cost of production, or through the different proportions of fixed and circulating capital employed in their manufacture, an ad valorem tax will be felt much more severely by one com- modity than by another. Again, there is always a difficulty in obtaining a true valuation on the exported goods, for values from their very nature are variable; while specific duties remain steady, and the buyer can always ascertain exactly what he will have to pay. The opening to fraud is also very great, for where, as in the United States, the object of the duty is to keep out foreign goods, every valuation at the port of shipment will be looked upon with the utmost suspicion, while it will always be a temptation to the foreign seller to undervalue, a temptation in many cases encouraged by the importer, for it lessens his tax, while the seller's market is increased. The staff of appraisers which must necessarily be kept at each port of entry considerably raises the expense, to say nothing of the annoyance and delay caused both to importers and foreign shippers. The term " ad valorem " is used also of stamp duties. By the Stamp Act 1891 certain classes of instruments, e.g. awards, bills of exchange, conveyances or transfers, leases, &c, must be stamped in England with the proper ad valorem duty, that is, the duty chargeable according to the value of the subject matter of the particular instruments or writings. (See Stamp Duties.) ADVANCEMENT^ADVERTISEMENT 235 ADVANCEMENT, a term technically used in English law for a sum of money or other benefit, given by a father during his lifetime to his child, which must be brought into account by the child on a distribution of the father's estate upon an intestacy on pain of his being excluded from participating in such distri- bution. The principle is of ancient origin; as regards goods and chattels it was part of the ancient customs of London arid the province of York, and as regards land descending in copar- cenary it has always been part of the common law of England under the name of hotch-pot (q.v.). The general rule was estab- lished by the Statutes of Distribution. The conditions under which cases of advancement arise are as follows : There must be a complete intestacy; the intestate estate must be that of the father; and the advancement must have been made in the life- time of the father. Land which belongs or would belong to a child as heir at law or customary heir need not be brought in to the common fund, even though such land was given during the father's life. The widow can gain no advantage from any advancement. No child can be forced to account for his or her advancement, but in default thereof he will be excluded from a share in the intestate's estate. As to what is an advancement there has been much conflict of judicial opinion. According to one view, nothing is an advancement unless it be given " on marriage or to establish the child in life." The other and prob- ably the correct view is that any considerable sum of money paid to a child* at that child's request is an advancement ; thus payment of a son's debts of honour has been held to be an advancement. On the other hand, trivial gifts and presents to a child are undoubtedly not advancements. ADVANTAGE, that which gives gain or helps forward in any way. The Fr. avanl (before) shows the origin and meaning of this word, the d having subsequently crept in and corrupted the spelling. It is often contracted to "vantage." In some games (e.g. lawn tennis) the term " vantage " is used technically in scoring ("deuce" and "vantage"; "vantage sets"). A position which gives a better chance of success than its surround- ings is called a " vantage ground." In an unfavourable sense the word " advantage " is used to express a mean use made of some favourable condition (e.g. to take advantage of another man's misfortunes). ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of the Saviour "), a holy season of the Christian church, the period of preparation for the celebration of the nativity or Christmas. In the Eastern church it lasts from St Martin's Day (nth of November), and in other churches from the Sunday nearest to St Andrew's Day (30th of November) till Christmas. It is uncertain at what date the season, began to be observed. A canon of a council at Saragossa in 380, forbidding the faithful to be absent from church during the three weeks from the 17 th of December to the Epiphany, is thought to be an early reference to Advent. The first authoritative mention of it is in the Synod of Lerida (524), and since the 6th century it has been recognized as the beginning of the ecclesiastical year. With the view of directing the thoughts of Christians to the first coming of Christ as Saviour, and to his second coming as Judge, special lessons are prescribed for the four Sundays in Advents From the 6th century the season was kept as a period of fasting as strict as that of Lent; but in the Anglican and Lutheran churches the rule is now relaxed. In the Roman Catholic church Advent is still kept as a season of penitence. Dancing and festivities are forbidden, fasting enjoined and purple vestments are worn in the church services. In many countries Advent was long marked by diverse popular observances, some of which even still survive. Thus in England, especially the northern counties, there was a custom (now extinct) for poor women to carry round the "Advent images," two dolls dressed one to represent Christ and the other the Virgin Mary. A halfpenny was expected from every one to whom these were exhibited, and bad luck was thought to menace the household not visited by the doll-bearers before Christmas Eve at the latest. In Normandy the farmers still employ children under twelve to run through the fields and orchards armed with torches, setting fire to bundles of straw, and thus it is believed driving out such vermin as are likely to damage the crops. In Italy among other Advent celebrations is the entry into Rome in the last days of Advent of the Calabrian pifferari or bagpipe players, who play before the shrines of the Holy Mother. The Italian tradition is that the shepherds played on these pipes when they cameto the manger at Bethlehem to do homage to the Saviour, ADVENTISTS, SECOND, members of religious bodies whose distinctive feature is a belief in the imminent physical return of Jesus Christ. The first to bear the name were the followers of William Miller, and adherents have always been more numerous in America than in Europe. There is a body of Seventh Day Adventists who observe the old Sabbath (Saturday) rather than the Christian Sunday. They counsel abstemious habits, but set no time for the coming of Christ, and so are spared the per- petual disappointments that overtake the ordinary adventist. They have some 400 ministers and 60,000 members. ADVENTITIOUS (from Lat. adventicius, coming from abroad), a quality from outside, in no sense part of the substance or circumstance: a man's clothes, or condition of life, his wealth or his poverty, are called by Carlyle "adventitious wrappages," as being extrinsic, superadded and not a natural part of him. In botany the word means that which is not normal to the plant, which appears irregularly and accidentally, e.g. buds or roots out of place, or strange spots and streaks not native to the flower. ADVENTURE (from Lat. res adventura, a thing about to happen), chance, and especially chance of danger ; so a hazard- ous enterprise or remarkable incident. Thus an " adventurer," from meaning one who takes part in some speculative course of action, came to mean one who lived by his wits and a person of no character. The word is also used in certain restricted legal connexions. Joint adventure, for instance, may be distinguished from partnership (q.v.). A bill of adventure in maritime law (now apparently obsolete) is a writing signed by the shipmaster de- claring that goods shipped in his name really belong to another, to whom he is responsible. The bill of gross adventure in French maritime law is an instrument making a loan on maritime security. ADVERTISEMENT, or Advertising (Fr. avertissement, warn- ing, or notice), the process of obtaining and particularly of purchasing publicity. The business of advertising is of very recent origin if it be regarded as a serious adjunct to other phases of commercial activity. In some rudimentary form the seller's appeal to the buyer must, however, have accompanied the earliest development of trade. Under conditions of primitive barter, communities were so small that every producer was in immediate personal contact with every consumer. As the primeval man's wolfish antipathy to the stranger of another pack gradually diminished, and as intercourse spread the infection of larger desires, the trapper could no longer satisfy his more complicated wants by the mere exchange of his pelts for his lowland neigh- bour's corn and oil. A began to accept from B the commodity which he could in turn deliver to C, while C in exchange for B's product gave to A what D had produced and bartered to C. The mere statement of such a transaction sufficiently presents its clumsiness, and the use of primitive forms of coin soon simplified the original process of bare barter. It is reasonable to suppose that as soon as the introduction of currency marked the abandon- ment of direct relations between purchaser and consumer an informal system of advertisement in turn rose to meet the need of publicity. At first the offer of the producer must have been brought to the trader's attention, and the trader's offer to the notice of the consumer, by casual personal contact, supplemented by local rumour. The gradual growth of markets and their de- velopment into periodical fairs, to which merchants from dis- tant places resorted, afforded, until printing was invented, the only means of extended advertisement. In England, during the 3rd century, Stourbridge Fair attracted traders from abroad as well as from all parts of England, and it may be conjectured that the crying of wares before the booths on the banks of the Stour 236 ADVERTISEMENT was the first form of advertisement which had any marked effect upon English commerce. As the fairs of the middle ages, with the tedious and hazardous journeys they involved, gradually gave place to a more convenient system of trade, the 15th century brought the invention of printing, and led the way to the modern development of advertising. The Americans, to whom the elab- oration of newspaper advertising is primarily due, had but just founded the first English-speaking community in the western hemisphere when the first newspaper was published in England. But although the first periodical publication containing news appeared in the month of May 1622, the first newspaper advert- isement does not seem to have been published until April 1647. It formed a part of No. 13 of Perfect Occurrences of Every Dale journall in Parliament, and other Moderate Intelligence, and it read as follows : — A Book applauded by the Clergy of England, called The Divine Right of Church Government, Collected by sundry eminent Ministers in the Citie of London; Corrected and augmented in many places, with a briefe Reply to certain Queries against the Mimstery of England; Is printed and published for Joseph Hunscot and George Calvert, and are to be sold at the Stationers' Hall, and at the Golden Fleece in the Old Change. Among the Mercuries, -as the weekly newspapers of the day were called, was the Mercurius Elencticus, and in its 45th number, published on the 4th of October 1648, there appeared the fol- lowing advertisement: — The Reader is desired to peruse a Sermon, Entituled A Looking-Glasse for Levellers, Preached at St. Peters, Paules Wharf, on Sunday, Sept. 24th 1648, by Paul Knell, Mr. of Arts. Another Tract called A Reflex upon our Reformers, with a prayer for the Parliament. In an issue of the Mercurius Politicus, published by Marchmont Nedham, who is described as " perhaps both the ablest and the readiest man that had yet tried his hand at a newspaper," there appeared in January 1652 an advertisement, which has often been erroneously cited as the first among newspaper advertise- ments. It read as follows: — ■ Irenodia Gratulatoria, a heroic poem, being a congratulatory panegyrick for my Lord General's return, summing up his suc- cesses in an exquisite manner. To be sold by John Holden, in the New Exchange, London, Printed by Thomas Newcourt, 1652. The article " On the Advertising System," published in the Edinburgh Review for February 1843, contains the fullest account of early English advertising that has ever been given, and it has been very freely drawn upon by all writers who have since dis- cussed the subject. But it describes this advertisement in the Mercurius Politicus as " the very first," and the discovery of the two earlier instances above quoted was due to the researches of a contributor to Notes and Queries. In The Crosby Records, the commonplace-books of William Blundell, there is an interesting comment, dated 1659, on the lack of advertising facilities at that period — It would be very expedient if each parish or village might have some place, as the church or smithy, wherein to publish (by papers posted up) the wants either of the buyer or the seller, as such a field to be let, such a servant, or such a service, to be had, &c. There was a book published in London weekly about the year 1657 which was called (as I remember) The Publick Advice. It gave information in very many of these particulars. A year later the same diarist says — There is an office near the Old Exchange in London called the office of Publick Advice. From thence both printed and private information of this useful nature are always to be had. But what they print is no more than a leaf or less in a diurnal. I was in this office. The diurnal consisted of sixteen pages quarto in 1689. In No. 62 of the London Gazette, published in June 1666, the first advertisement supplement was announced — An Advertisement— Being daily prest to the Publication of Books, Medicines, and other things not properly the business of a Paper of Intelligence, This is to notifie, once for all, that we will not charge the Gazette with Advertisements, unless they be matter of State : but that a Paper of Advertisements will be forthwith printed apart, & recommended to the Publick by another hand. In No. 94 of the same journal, published in October 1666, there appeared a suggestion that sufferers from the Great Fire should avail themselves of this means of publicity — Such as have settled in new habitations since the late Fire, and desire for the convenience of their correspondence to publish the place of their present abode, or to give notice of Goods lost or found may repair to the corner House in Bloomsbury on the East Side of the Great Square, before the House of the Right Honourable the Lord Treasurer, where there is care taken for the Receipt and Publication of such Advertisements. The earlier advertisements, with the exception of formal notices, seem to have been concerned exclusively with either books or quack remedies. The first trade advertisement, which does not fall within either of these categories, was curiously enough the first advertisement of a new commodity, tea. The following advertisement appeared in the Mercurius Politicus, No. 435, for September 1658 — That excellent and by all Physitians approved China Drink, called by the Chineans Tcha, by other nations Tay, alias Tee, is sold at the Sultaness Head, a cophee-house in Sweetings Rents, by the Royal Exchange, London. The history of slavery, of privateering and of many other curious incidents and episodes of English history during the 17th and 18th centuries might be traced by examination of the anti- quated advertisements which writers upon such subjects have already collected. In order that space may be found for some consideration of the practical aspects of modern advertising, the discussion of its gradual development must be curtailed. Nor is it necessary to preface this consideration by any laboured statement of the importance which advertising has assumed. It is a matter of common knowledge that several business houses are to be found in Great Britain, and a larger number in the United States, who spend not less than £50,000 a year in advertising, while one patent medicine company, operating both in England and the United States, has probably spent not less than £200,000 in Great Britain in one year, and an English cocoa manufacturer is supposed to have spent £150,000 in Great Britain. Some of the best works of artists as distinguished as Sir John Millais, Sir H. von Herkomer and Mr Stacy Marks have been scattered broadcast by advertisers. The purchase of Sir John Millais' picture " Bubbles " for £2200 by the proprietors of a well-known brand of soap is probably the most remarkable instance of the expenditure in this direction which an advertiser may find profitable. There are in London alone more than 350 advertising agents, of whom upwards of a hundred are known as men in a considerable way of business. The statements which from time to time find currency in the newspapers with regard to the total amount of money annually spent upon advertising in Great Britain and in the United States are necessarily no better than conjectures, but no detailed statistics are required in order to demonstrate what every reader can plainly see for himself, that advertising has definitely assumed its position as a serious field of commercial enterprise. Advertising, as practised at the beginning of the 20th century, may be divided into three general classes: — 1. Advertising in periodical publications. 2. Advertising by posters, signboards (other than those placed upon premises where the advertised business is conducted), transparencies and similar devices, 3. Circulars, sent in quantities to specific classes of persons to whom the advertiser specially desired to address himself. It may be noted at the outset that advertising in periodical publications exercises a reflex influence upon these publications. The daily, weekly and monthly publications of the day are accus- tomed to look to advertisements for so large a part of their revenue that the purchaser of a periodical publication receives much greater value for his money than he could reasonably expect from the publisher if the aggregate advertising receipts did not constitute a perpetual subsidy to the publisher. It is not to be supposed, however, that the receipts from the sale of a paper cover all its expenses and that the advertising revenue is all clear profit. The average newspaper reader would be amazed if he knew at how great a cost the day's news is laid before him. A dignified journal displays no inclination to cry from the house- tops the vastness of its expenditure, but from time to time an accident enables the public to obtain information in this con- nexion. The evidence taken by a recent Copyright Commission disclosed that the expenditure of the leading English journal upon foreign news alone amounted to more than £50,000 ADVERTISEMENT ^37 in the course of one year, and that a year not characterized by any great war to swell the ordinary volume of cable despatches. In the case of daily papers sold at the minimum price, it is not less obvious that the costliness of news service renders advertising revenue indispensable, for although these less important journals spend less money, the price at which they are supplied to the news agents is very small in proportion to the cost of their pro- duction. If, however, this thought be pursued to its logical con- clusion, the advertiser must admit that he in turn receives, from those among newspaper readers who purchase his wares, prices sufficiently high to cover the cost of his advertising. So that the reader is in the curious position of directly paying a certain price for his newspaper, receiving a newspaper fairly worth more than that price, while this price is supplemented by the indirect in- cidence of a sort of tax upon many of the commodities he con- sumes. On the other hand, a great part of the advertisements in a daily newspaper have themselves an interest and utility not less than that possessed by the news. The man who desires to hire a house turns to the classified lists which the newspaper publishes day after day, and servants and employers find one another by the same means. The theatrical announcements are so much a part of the news that even if a journal were not paid for their insertion they could not be altogether omitted without inconvenience to the reader. In the main, however, it is the advertiser who seeks the reader, not the reader who seeks the advertiser, and the care with which advertisements are prepared, and the certainty with which the success or failure of a trader may be traced to his skill or want of skill as an advertiser, show that the proper use of advertising is one of the most indispensable branches of commercial training. Before discussing in detail the methods of advertising in periodical publications it may be well to complete, for the use Poster of the general reader, a brief survey of the whole and sign subject by examining the two other classes of advertise- advertlse- ment -fhe most enthusiastic partisan of advertising will admit that posters and similar devices are very generally regarded by the public as sources of annoyance. A bold headline or a conspicuous illustration in a newspaper advertisement may for a moment force itself upon the reader's attention. In the French, and in some English newspapers, where an advertisement is often given the form of an item of news, the reader is distressed by the constant fear of being hoodwinked. He begins to read an account of a street accident, and finds at the end of the paragraph a puff of a panacea for bruises. The best English and American journals have refused to lend themselves to this sort of trickery, and in no one of the best journals printed in the English language will there be found an advertisement which is not so plainly differentiated from news matter that the reader may avoid it if he sees fit to do so. On the whole, then, newspaper advertisements ask, but do not compel attention. The whole theory of poster advertising is, on the other hand, one of tyranny. The advertiser who pays for space upon a hoarding or wall, although he may encourage a form of art, deliberately violates the wayfarer's mind. A trade-mark or a catch-word presents itself when eye and thought are occupied with other subjects. Those who object to this class of advertisement assert, with some show of reason, that an advertisement has no more right to assault the eye in this fashion than to storm the ear by an inordinate din; and a man who came up behind another man in the street, placed his mouth close to the other's ear, and bawled a recommendation of some brand of soap or tobacco, would be regarded as an intolerable disturber of public peace and comfort. Yet if the owner of a house sees fit to paint advertisements upon his walls, his exercise of the jealously guarded rights of private property may not lightly be disturbed. For the most part, both law and public opinion content themselves with restraining the worst excesses of the advertiser, leaving many sensitive persons to suffer. . The National Society for Checking the Abuses of Public Adver- tising (known as Scapa), founded in 1803 in London, was organ- ized for purposes which it describes as follows: — The society aims at protecting the picturesque simplicity of rural and river scenery, and promoting a regard for dignity and propriety of aspect in towns — with especial reference to the abuses of spec- tacular advertising. It seeks to procure legislation whereby local representative bodies would be enabled to exercise control, by means of by-laws framed with a view to enabling them, at any rate, to grant relief in cases of flagrant and acknowledged abuse. It is believed that, when regulation is applied in cases where local conditions are peculiarly favourable, the advantage will be so apparent that, by force of imitation and competition, the enforce- ment of a reasonable standard will gradually become common. The degree of restraint will, of course, depend upon the varying requirements of different places and positions. No hard-and-fast rule is suggested ; no particular class of advertisement is proscribed ; certainly no general prohibition of posters on temporary hoardings is contemplated. Within the metropolitan area sky signs have already been prohibited, and it is hoped that some corresponding check will be placed on the multiplication of the field boards which so materially diminish the pleasure or comfort of railway journeys. The society regards with favour the imposition of a moderate tax or duty for imperial or local purposes on exposed advertisements not coming within certain categories of obviously necessary notices. The difficulty of inducing a chancellor of the exchequer to move in a matter where revenue is not the primary consideration is not over- looked. But it is thought that any impost would materially reduce the volume of exposed advertisements, and would at once extinguish the most offensive and the most annoying class, i.e. the quack ad- vertisements by the road sides and the bills stuck by unauthorized persons on trees, walls and palings. Members are recommended to make it known that there exists an active repugnance to the present practice of advertising disfigure- ment, by giving preference, in private transactions, to makers and dealers who do not employ objectionable methods, and by avoid- ing, as far as possible, the purchase of wares which, in their individual opinion, are offensively puffed. Action on these lines is advised rather for its educational than for its immediately deterrent effect; although, in the case of many of the more expensive commodities, makers would undoubtedly be much influenced by the knowledge that they would lose, rather than gain, custom. The foregoing proposals are based on the following estimate of the conditions of the problem. It is believed that the present licence causes discomfort or loss of enjoyment to many, and that, in the absence of authoritative restriction, it must grow far beyond its present limits; that beauty or propriety of aspect in town and country forms as real a part of the national wealth as any material product, and that to save these from impairment is a national interest; that the recent developments of vexatiously obtrusive advertising have not grown out of any necessities of honourable business, but are partly the result of a mere instinct of imitation, and partly are a morbid phase of competition by which both the consumers and the trade as a whole lose ; that restriction as regards the size and positions of advertising notices would not be a hardship to those who want publicity — since all competitors would be treated alike, each would have the same relative prominence ; that, as large sums of public money are expended on institutions intended to develop the finer taste, and on edifices of elaborate design, it must be held inconsistent with established public policy to permit the sensibilities thus imparted to be wounded, and architectural effect to be destroyed at the discretion of a limited class. The influence of this society is to be seen in many of the restrictions which have been imposed upon advertisers since its work began. About a year after its foundation the London County Council abolished (under statutory powers obtained from Parliament) advertisements coming within the definition of sky-signs in the London Building Act of 1894. These specifica- tions are as follows: — "Sky sign " means any word, letter, model, sign, device, or representation in the nature of an advertisement, announcement, or direction supported on or attached to any post, pole, standard, framework, or other support, wholly or in part upon, over, or above any building or structure, which, or any part of which, sky sign shall be visible against the sky from any point in any street or public way, and includes all and every part of any such post, pole, standard, framework, or other support. The expression " sky sign " shall also include any balloon, parachute, or similar device employed wholly or in part for the purposes of any advertisements or announcement on, over, or above any building, structure, or erection of any kind, or on or over any street or public way. The act proceeds to exclude from its restrictions flagstaffs, weathercocks and any solid signs not rising more than 3 fed above the roof. Another by-law of the London County Council, in great measure due to the observations made at coroners' inquests, protects the public against the annoyances and the perils to 2 3 8 ADVERTISEMENT traffic occasioned by flashlight and searchlight advertisements. This by-law reads as follows: — No person shall exhibit any flashlight so as to be visible from any street and to cause danger to the traffic therein, nor shall any owner or occupier of premises permit or suffer any flashlight to be so ex- hibited on such premises. The expression " flashlight " means and includes any light used for the purpose of illuminating, lighting, or exhibiting any word, letter, model, sign, device, or representation in the nature of an advertisement, announcement, or direction which alters suddenly either in intensity, colour, or direction. No person shall exhibit any searchlight so as to be visible from any street, and to cause danger to the traffic therein, nor shall any owner or occupier of premises permit or suffer any searchlight to be so exhibited on such premises. The _ expression "searchlight" means and includes any light exceeding 500-candle power, whether in one lamp or lantern, or in a series of lamps or lanterns used together and projected as one concentrated light, and which alters either in intensity, colour, or direction. Advertising vans were so troublesome in London as to be prohibited in 1853; the "sandwich-man" has in the City of London and many towns been ousted from the pavement to the gutter, from the more crowded to the less crowded streets, and as the traffic problem in the great centres of population becomes more urgent, he will probably be altogether suppressed. Hoardings are now so restricted by the London Building Acts that new hoarflings cannot, except under special conditions, be erected exceeding 12 feet in height, and no existing hoardings can be increased in height so as to exceed that limit. The huge signs which some advertisers, both in England and the United States, have placed in such positions as to mar the landscape, have so far aroused public antagonism that there is reason to hope that this form of nuisance will not increase. In 1899 Edinburgh obtained effective powers of control over all sorts of advertising in public places, and this achieve- ment has been followed by no little agitation in favour of a Parliamentary enactment which should once for all do away with the defacing of the landscape in any part of the United Kingdom. In 1907 an act was passed (Advertisements Regulation Act) of a permissive character purely, under which a local authority is enabled to make by-laws, subject to the confirmation of the Home Secretary, regulating (1) the erection of hoardings, &c, exceeding 12 feet in height, and (2) the exhibition of advertise- ments which might affect the " amenities " of a public place or landscape. The English law with regard to posters has undergone very little change. The Metropolitan Police Act 1839 (2 and 3 Vict, cap. 47) first put a stop to unauthorized posting, and the In- decent Advertisements Act of 1889 (§ 3) penalized the public exposure of any picture or printed or written matter of an in- decent or obscene nature. But in general practice there is hardly any limitation to the size or character of poster advertise- ments, other than good taste and public opinion. On the other hand, public opinion is a somewhat vague entity, and there have been cases in which a conflict has arisen as to what public opinion really was, when its legally authorized exponent was in a position to insist on its own arbitrary definition. Such an instance occurred some few years ago in the case of a large poster issued by a well-known London music-hall. The Progressive majority on the London County Council, led by Mr (afterwards Sir) J. M'Dougall, a well-known " purity " advocate, took exception to this poster, which represented a female gymnast in " tights " posed in what was doubtless intended for an alluring and attractive attitude; and, in spite of any argument, the fact remained that the decision as to renewing the licence of this music-hall rested solely with the Council. In showing that it would have no hesitation in provoking even a charge of meddling prudery, the Council probably gave a salutary warning to people who were inclined to sail rather too near the wind. But in Great Britain and America, at all events (though a doubt may perhaps exist as to some Continental countries!, the advertiser and the artist 1 are restrained, not only by their own sense of propriety, but by fear of offending the sense of propriety in their customers. Posters and placards in railway stations and upon public vehicles still embarrass the traveller who desires to find the name of a station or the destination of a vehicle. In respect of all these abuses it is a ^regrettable fact that unpopularity cannot be expected to deter the advertiser. If a name has once been fixed in the memory, it remains there long after the method of its impression has been forgotten, and the purpose of advertise- ments of the class under discussion is really no more than the fixing of a trade name in the mind. The average man or woman who goes into a shop to buy soap is more or less affected by a vague sense of antagonism towards the seller. There is a rudimentary feeling that even the most ordinary transaction of purchase brings into contact two minds actuate/! by diametrically opposed interests. The purchaser, who is not asking for a soap he has used before, has some hazy suspicion that the shopkeeper will try to sell, not the article best worth the price, but the article which leaves the largest margin of profit; and the purchaser imagines that he in some measure secures himself against a bad bargain when he exercises his authority by asking for some specific brand or make of the commodity he seeks. If hehasseen any one soap so persistently advertised that his memory retains its name, he will ask for it, not because he has any reason to believe it to be better or cheaper than others, but simply because he baffles the shopkeeper, and assumes an authoritative attitude by exerting his own freedom of choice. This curious and obscure principle of action probably lies at the root of all poster advertis- ing, for the poster does not set forth an argument as does the newspaper advertisement. It hardly attempts to reason with the reader, but merely impresses a name upon his memory. It is possible, by lavish advertising, to go so far in this direction that the trade-mark of a certain manufacturer becomes synony- mous with the name of a commodity, so that when the consumer thinks of soap or asks for soap, his concept inevitably couples the maker's name with the word " soap " itself. In order that the poster may leave any impression upon his mind, it must of course first attract his attention. The assistance which the advertiser receives from the artist in this connexion is discussed in the article Poster. The fact that the verb " to circularize " was first used in 1848, sufficiently indicates the very recent origin of the practice of plying possible purchasers with printed letters and pamphlets. The penny postage was not established m ™ t 6 * e " in England until 1840; the halfpenny post for circulars circular. was not introduced until 1855. In the United States a uniform rate of postage at two cents was not established until 1883. In both countries cheap postage and cheap printing have so greatly encouraged the use of circulars that the sort of people whom the advertiser desires to reach — those who have the most money to spend, and whose addresses, published in directories, indicate their prosperous condition — are overwhelmed by trades- men's price-lists, appeals from charitable institutions, and other suggestions for the spending of money. The addressing of en- velopes and enclosing of circulars is now a recognized industry in many large towns both in Great Britain and in the United States. It seems, however, to be the opinion of expert advertisers that what is called " general circularizing " is unprofitable, and that circulars should only be sent to persons who have peculiar reason to be interested by their specific subject-matter. It may be noted, as an instance of the assiduity with which specialized circularizing is pursued, that the announcement of a birth, marriage or death in the newspapers serves to call forth a grotesque variety of circulars supposed to be adapted to the momentary needs of the recipient. In concluding this review of methods of advertising, other than advertisements in periodical publications, we may add , that the most extraordinary attempt at advertisement which is known to exist is to be found at the churchyard at Godalming, Surrey, where the following epitaph was placed upon a tomb- stone: — ADVERTISEMENT 239 Sacred To the memory of Nathaniel Godbold Esq. Inventor & Proprietor of that excellent medicine The Vegetable Balsam For the Cure of Consumptions & Asthmas. He departed this Life The 17th. day of Deer. 1799 Aged 69 years. Hie Cineres, ubique Fama. The preparation of advertisements for the periodical press has within the last twenty years or so become so important a Adver- tas ' 1 t ' la *- a S reat number of writers and artists — many Using in of the latter possessing considerable abilities — gain a periodical livelihood from this pursuit. The ingenuity displayed pubiica- j n moc j ern newspaper advertising is unquestionably due to American initiative. The English newspaper advertisement of twenty years ago consisted for the most part of the mere reiteration of a name. An advertiser who took a column's space supplied enough matter to fill an inch, and ingenuously repeated his statement throughout the column. Such departures from this childlike method as were made were for the most part eccentric to the point of incoherence. It may, how- ever, be said in defence of English advertisers, that newspaper publishers for a long time sternly discountenanced any attempt to render advertisements attractive. So long as an advertiser was rigidly confined to the ordinary single-column measure, and so long as he was forbidden to use anything but the smallest sort of type, there was very little opportunity for him to attract the reader's attention. The newspaper publisher must always remember that the public buy a newspaper for the sake of the news, not for the sake of the advertisements, and that if the ad- vertisements are relegated to a position and a scope, in respect of display, so inferior that they may be overlooked, the adver- tiser cannot afford to bear his share of the cost of publication. Of late The Times, followed by almost all newspapers in the United Kingdom, has given the advertiser as great a degree of liberty as he really needs, and many experienced advertisers in America incline to the belief that the larger licence accorded to American advertisers defeats its own ends. The truth, would seem to be that the advertiser will always demand, and may fairly expect, the right to make his space as fantastic in appear- ance as that allotted to the editor. When some American editors see fit to print a headline in letters as large as a man's hand, and to begin half-a-dozen different articles on the first page of a newspaper, continuing one on page 2, another on page 4, and another on page 6, to the bewilderment of the reader, it can hardly be expected that the American advertiser should submit to any very strict code of decorum. The subject of the relation between a newspaper proprietor and his advertisers cannot be dismissed without reference to the notable independence of advertisers' influence, which English and American newspaper proprietors authorize their editors to display. Whenever an in- surance company or a bank goes wrong, the cry is raised that all the editors in Christendom had known for years that the directors were imbeciles and rogues, but had conspired to keep mute for the sake of an occasional advertisement. When the British public persisted, not long ago, in paying premium prices for the shares of over-capitalized companies, the crash had no sooner come than the newspapers were accused of having puffed pro- motions for the sake of the money received for publishing pros- pectuses. As a matter of fact, in the case of the best dailies in England and America, the editor does not stand at all in awe of the advertiser, and time after time the Money Article has ruth- lessly attacked a promotion of which the prospectus appeared in the very same issue. It is indeed to the interest of the ad- vertiser, as well as to the interest of the reader, that this inde- pendence should be preserved, for the worth of any journal as an advertising medium depends upon its possessing a bona fide circulation among persons who believe it to be a serious and honestly conducted newspaper. All advertisers know that the minor weeklies, which contain nothing but trade puffs, and are scattered broadcast among people who pay nothing for their copies, are absolutely worthless from the advertiser's point of view. The most striking difference between the periodical press of Great Britain and that of America is, that in the former country the magazines and reviews play but a secondary role, while in the United States the three or four monthlies possessing .the largest circulation are of the very first importance as advertising mediums. One reason for this is that the advertisements in an American magazine are printed on as good paper, and printed with as great care, as any other part of the contents. There are probably very few among American magazine readers who do not habitually look through the advertising pages, with the cer- tainty that they will be entertained by the beauty of the adver- tiser's illustrations and the quaint curtness of his phrases. Another reason is that the American monthly magazine goes to all parts of the United States, while, owing to the time required for long journeys on even the swiftest trains, no American daily paper can have so general a circulation as The Times in the United Kingdom. In comparison with points on the Pacific coast, Chicago does not seem far from New York, yet, with the excep- tion of one frenzied and altogether unsuccessful attempt, no New York daily has ever attempted to force a circulation in Chicago. The American advertiser would, therefore, have to spend money on a great number of daily papers in order to reach as widespread a public as one successful magazine offers him. There is reason to believe that the English magazine publishers have erred gravely in taking what are known in the trade as " insets," consisting of separate cards or sheets printed at the advertiser's cost, and accepted by the publisher at a specific charge for every thousand copies. This system of insetting has the grave inconvenience that the advertiser finds himself com- pelled to print as many insets as the publisher asserts that he can use. The publisher, on the other hand, is somewhat at the mercy of too enthusiastic agents and employ6s, who estimate over-confidently the edition of the periodical which will probably be printed for a certain month, and advertisers have had reason to fear that many of their insets were wasted. The added weight and bulk of the insets cause inconvenience and expense to the newsdealer, as two or three insets printed upon cardboard are equivalent to at least sixteen additional pages. Some news- dealers have further complicated the inset question by threaten- ing to remove insets unless special tribute be paid to them; and with all these difficulties to be considered, many magazine publishers have seriously considered the advisability of alto- gether discontinuing the practice of taking insets, and of confin- ing their advertisements to the sheets they themselves print. In connexion with this subject, it may be added that many readers habitually shake loose bills out of a magazine before they begin to turn the pages, and that railway stations, railway carriages and even public streets are thus littered with trampled and muddy advertisements. The old practice of distributing handbills in the streets is dying a natural death, more or less hastened by local by-laws, and when the loose bills in magazines and cheap novels have ceased to exist no one will be the loser. Advertisements in the weekly press are on the whole more successful in England than in America. A few American weeklies cope successfully with the increasing competition of the huge Sunday editions of American daily papers. But even the most successful among them — a paper for boys— has hardly attained the prosperity of some among its English contemporaries in the field of weekly journalism. The merchant who turns to these pages for practical sugges- tions concerning the advertising of his own business, can be given no better advice than to betake himself to an established adver- tising agent of good repute, and be guided by his counsels. The chief part that he can himself play with advantage is to note from day to day whether the agent is obtaining advantageous positions for his announcements. Every advertiser will naturally prefer a right-hand page to a left-hand page, and the right side of the page to the left side of the page; while the advertiser who most indefatigably urges his claims upon the agent will, in the long run, obtain the largest share of the favours to be 240 ADVERTISEMENT distributed. To the merchant who inclines to consider adver- tising in connexion with the broader aspects of his calling, it may be suggested that a new channel of trade demands very serious attention. What is called in England " postal trade," and in America " mail order business," is growing very rapidly. Small dealers in both countries have complained very bitterly of the competition they suffer from the general dealers and from stores made up of departments which, under one roof, offer to the consumer every imaginable sort of merchandise. This general trading, which, on the one hand, seriously threatens the small trader, and on the other hand offers greater possibilities of profit to the proportionately small number of persons who can undertake business on so large a scale, becomes infinitely more formidable when the general dealer endeavours not only to attract the trade of a town, but to make his place of business a centre from which he distributes by post his goods to remote parts of the country. In America, where the weight of parcels carried by post is limited to 4 lb, and where the private carrying companies are forced to charge a very much higher rate for carriage from New York to California than for shorter distances, the centralization of trade is necessarily limited; but it is no secret that, at the present moment, persons residing in those parts of the United Kingdom most remote from London habitually avail themselves of the English parcel post, which carries packages up to n lb, in order to procure a great part of their household supplies direct from general dealers in London. A trading company, which conducts its operations upon such a scale as this, can afford to spend an almost un- limited sum in advertising throughout the United Kingdom, and even the trader who offers only one specific class of merchan- dise is beginning to recognize the possibility of appealing to the whole country. The following is a brief summary of the laws and regulations dealing with advertisements in public places in certain regulation. °^ tne countries of Continental Europe and in the United States of America, the chief authority for which is an official return issued by the British Home Office in 1903. France. — The permission of the owner is alone required for the placing of advertisements on private buildings; but build- ings, walls, &c, belonging to the government or local authorities are reserved exclusively for official notices, &c. ; these alone can be printed on white paper, all others must be on coloured paper. Municipal authorities control the size, construction, &c, of hoardings used for advertising purposes, and the police have full powers over the exhibition of indecent or other objectionable advertisements. The Somite pour la protection des paysages, founded in 1001, has for one of its objects the prevention of advertisements which disfigure the scenery or are otherwise objectionable. Germany. — By §43 of the Imperial Commercial Ordinance permission to post any trade advertisement in a public street, square, &c, must be first obtained from the local police. The police also control (by §55 of the Imperial Press Law 1874) advertisements which are not of a trade character, but this regulation does not affect the right of the federal legislatures to make regulations in regard to them (§30). It would be impossible to give in any detail the police regulations as to advertisements which exist, e.g. in Prussia, but the following rules in force in Berlin may be given:— Public advertisements in public streets and places may be posted only on the appliances, such as pillar posts, &c, provided for the purpose. Owners of property may post advertisements on their own property but only such as concern their own interests. Advertisements on public conveyances are forbidden. In 1902 a Prussian law was passed authorizing the police to forbid all advertisement hoard- ings, &c, which would disfigure particularly beautiful landscapes in rural districts. The Hesse-Darmstadt Act of 1902 prohibits the placing of any advertisements, posters, &c, on a monument officially protected under the act, if it would be likely to injure the appearance of the monument. As instances of the numerous local provisions against the abuse of advertising may be cited those of Augsburg and Liibeck, by which any advertisement that would injure the Stadtbild or appearance of the town may be prohibited and removed by the local authority (see G. Baldwin Brown, The Care of Ancient Monuments, 1905). Full powers exist under the Imperial Criminal Code for the suppression of indecent or objectionable advertisements. Austria. — Permission of the police is required for the exhibi- tion of printed notices in public places other than such as are of purely local or industrial interest, such as notices of entertain- ment, leases, sales, &c, or theatre programmes, and these can only be shown in places approved by the local authorities (Press Law 1862). The press-police act as advertisement censors and determine whether an advertisement can be allowed or not. In Hungary there are no general laws or regulations, but the municipalities have power to issue ordinances dealing with the question. Italy. — All control rests with the municipal and communal authorities, who may decide on the places where advertisements may or may not be posted, and can prevent hoardings being placed on or near ancient monuments or public buildings. Switzerland.— The Federal Government has no authority to deal with this question; certain of the cantons have regulations, e.g. Lucerne prohibits the public advertising of inferior goods by means of a false description, Basel-Stadt gives the police the power of censoring all advertisements. Many of the communal authorities throughout Switzerland have special restrictions and regulations. In Zurich the police choose the advertising stations, in Berne the municipality possesses a monopoly of the right of erecting advertisements. The Society known as the Ligue pour la conservation de la Suisse pittoresque or Schweitzeri- scher Heitnatschutz has for one of its objects the preservation of scenery from disfiguring advertisements. United States.— There is no federal legislation on the subject, the matter being one for regulation by the states, which in most cases have left it to the various municipalities and other local authorities. With regard to indecent and objectionable advert- isements some states have special legislation on the matter, others are content with the ordinary criminal laws or police powers or with the law of nuisance or of trespass. Thus control can be exercised over such advertisements as are dangerous to public safety, health or morals. The state of New York prohibits advertisements of lotteries. It would be impossible to give in detail the different laws and regulations passed in the various states or by municipalities. The following are some of the more striking measures adopted in certain of the states. In Massa- chusetts no advertising signs or devices are allowed on the public highways. Power has been granted to city and town authorities to regulate advertisements in, near or visible from public parks. In the District of Columbia no advertisement is allowed which obstructs a highway, and all distribution of handbills, circulars, &c, in public streets, parks, &c, is prohibited. This prohibition against what are generally known as " dodgers " is very general in the local regulations throughout the states. In Illinois, city councils are empowered on the incorporation of the city to regu- late and prevent the use of streets, sidewalks and public grounds for signs, handbills and advertisements, &c, and also the exhibi- tion of banners, placards, in the streets or sidewalks. Chicago has a body of most stringent rules, but they apparently have been found impossible to enforce; thus no advertisement board more than 12 ft. square within 400 ft. of a public park or boulevard, no advertisements other than small ones relating to the business carried on in the premises where the advertisement is posted, or of sales, &c, are allowed in streets where three- quarters of the houses are " residences "only. Prohibition is also extended to the advertisements of those professing to cure diseases or giving notice of the sale of medicines. In Boston there are regulations prohibiting projecting or overhanging signs in the streets, and special rules as to the height at which street signs and advertisements must be placed. The distribu- tion of " dodgers " in the streets is prohibited. Advertisements for places of amusement must be approved by the committee qi> licences. ADVICE^ADVOCATE 241 France, Belgium, Italy and certain of the cantons in Switzer- land impose a tax on advertisements, as do certain of the United Taxation States of America, where the form is usually that of a licence duty on billposters or advertising agencies. In many cases in the United States this is imposed by the muni- cipalities. In every case both in Europe and America advertise- ments in newspapers are not subject to any tax. With regard to the literature of advertising, in addition to the his- torical article in the Edinburgh Review for February 1843, already mentioned, and that in the Quarterly Review for June 1855, the Society for Checking the Abuses of Public Advertising issue a jour- nal, A Beautiful World. The Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation (N.S. xvi. 1906) contains an article by W.J.B. Byles on Foreign Law and the Control of Advertisements in Public Places. The advertisers' handbooks, issued by the leading advertising agents, will also be found to contain practical information of great use to the advertiser. (H. R. H.*; C. We.) ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed), counsel given after consideration, or information from a distance giving particulars of something prospective ( e.g. " advice " of an imminent battle, or of a cargo due). In commerce it is a common word for a formal notice from one person concerned in a transaction to another. ADVOCATE (Lat. advocatus, from advocare, to summon, especially in law to call in the aid of a counsel or witness, and so generally to summon to one's assistance), a lawyer authorized to plead the causes of litigants in courts of law. The word is used technically in Scotland (see Advocates, Faculty of) in a sense virtually equivalent to the English term barrister, and a deriva- tive from the same Latin source is so used in most of the countries of Europe where the civil law is in force. The word advocatus is not often used among the earlier jurists, and appears not to have had a strict meaning. It is not always associated with legal proceedings, and might apparently be applied to a supporter or coadjutor in the pursuit of any desired object. When it came to be applied with a more specific limitation to legal services, the position of the advocatus was still uncertain. It was different from, and evidently inferior to, that of the juris-consultus, who gave his opinion and advice in questions of law, and may be identified with the consulting counsel of the present day. Nor is the merely professional advocate to be confounded with the more distinguished orator, or palronus, who came forward in the guise of the disinterested vindicator of justice. This dis- tinction, however, appears to have arisen in later times, when the profession became mercenary. By the lex Cincia, passed about two centuries B.C., and subsequently renewed, the acceptance of remuneration for professional assistance in lawsuits was pro- hibited. This law, like all others of the kind, was evaded. The skilful debater was propitiated with a present; and though he could not sue for the value of his services, it was ruled that any honorarium so given could not be demanded back, even though he died before the anticipated service was performed. The traces of this evasion of a law may be found in the existing practice of rewarding counsel by fees in anticipation of services. The term advocatus came eventually to be the word employed when the bar had become a profession, and the qualifications, admission, numbers and fees of counsel had become a matter of state regulation, to designate the pleaders as a class of pro- fessional men, each individual advocate, however, being still spoken of as patron in reference to the litigant with whose interest he was entrusted. The advocatus fisci, or fiscal advocate, was an officer whose function, like that of a solicitor of taxes at the present day, was connected with the collection of the revenue. The lawyers who practised in the English courts of common law were never officially known as advocates, the word being reserved for those who practised in the courts of the civil and canon law (see Doctors' Commons). There was formerly an important official termed his majesty's advocate-general, or more shortly, the king's advocate, who was the principal law officer of the crown in the College of Advocates or Doctors' Commons, and in the admiralty and ecclesiastical courts. He discharged for these courts the duties which correspond to those of the solicitor of the treasury (see Solicitor). His opinion was taken by the foreign office on international matters, and on high ecclesiastical matters he was also consulted; all orders in council were submitted to him for approval. The office may now be said to be obsolete, for after the resignation of Sir Travers Twiss, the last holder, in 1872, it was not filled up. There was also a second law officer of the crown in the admiralty court called the admiralty advocate. This office has long been vacant. Advo- cate is also the title still in use in some of the British colonies to denote the chief law officer of the crown there. For instance, in Sierra Leone (until 1896), Lagos and Cyprus he is called the king's advocate; in Malta, crown advocate; in Mauritius, procureur and advocate-general, and in the provinces of India advocate-general. In France, the avocats, as a body, were re- organized under the empire by a decree of the 15th of December 1810. There is, however, a distinction between avocats and avou&s. The latter, whose number is limited, act as procurators or agents, representing the parties before the tribunals, draft and prepare for them all formal acts and writings, and prepare their lawsuits for the oral debates. The office of the avocat, on the other hand, consists in giving advice as to the law, and con- ducting the causes of his clients by written and oral pleadings. The number of avocats is not limited; every licentiate of law being entitled to apply to the corporation of avocats attached to each court, and aftef presentation to the court, taking the oath of office and passing three years in attendance on some older advocate, to have himself recognised as an advocate. In Germany the advocat no longer forms a distinct class of lawyer. Since 1870, when a sweeping judicature act (Deutsche Justizgesetzgebung) reconstituted the judicial system, the advo- cat in his character of adviser, as distinguished from the pro- curator, who formerly represented the client in the courts, has become merged in the Rechtsanwalt, who has the dual character of counsellor and pleader. In the middle ages the word' advocatus (Fr. avoue, Ger. Vogt) was used on the continent as the title of the lay lord charged with the protection and representation in secular matters of an abbey. The office is traceable as early ^ ocatus as the beginning of the 5th century in the Roman ecciesiae. empire, the churches being allowed to choose defen- sors from the body of advocates to represent them in the courts. In the Frankish kingdom, under the Merovingians, these lay representatives of the churches appear as agentes, defensores and advocati; and under the Carolingians it was made obli- gatory on bishops, abbots and abbesses to appoint such officials in every county where they held property. The office was not hereditary, the advocatus being chosen, either by the abbot alone, or by the abbot and bishop concurrently with the count. The same causes that led to the development of the feudal system also affected the advocatus. In times of confusion churches and abbeys needed not so much a legal representative as an armed protector, while as feudal immunities were conceded to the ecclesiastical foundations, these required a representative to defend their rights and to fulfil their secular obligations to the state, e.g. to lead the ecclesiastical levies to war. A new class of advocatus thus arose, whose office, commonly rewarded by a grant of land, crystallized into a fief, which, like other fiefs, had by the beginning of the nth century become hereditary. In France the advocati (avoues) were of two classes — (1) great barons, who held the advocateship of an abbey or abbeys rather as an office than a fief, though they were indemnified for the protection they afforded by a domain and Fn„ch revenues granted by the abbey: thus the duke of avoue. Normandy was advocatus of nearly all the abbeys in the duchy; (2) petty seigneurs, who held their avoueries as heredi- tary fiefs and often as their sole means of subsistence. The avoui of an abbey, of this class, corresponded to the vidame (q.v.) of a bishop. Their function was generally to represent the abbot in his capacity as feudal lord; to act as his representative in the courts of his superior lord; to exercise secular justice in the abbot's name in the abbatial court; to lead the retainers of the abbey to battle under the banner of the patron saint. 242 ADVOCATES, FACULTY OfV-ADVOWSON In England the word advocatus was never ; used to denote an hereditary representative of an abbot; but in some of the larger abbeys there were hereditary stewards whose functions England. an( ^ privileges were not dissimilar to those of the continental advocati. The word advocatus, however, was in constant use in England to denote the patron of an ecclesiastical benefice, whose sole right of any importance was an hereditary one of presenting a parson to the bishop for in- stitution. In this way the hereditary right of presentation to a benefice came to be called in English an " advowson " (advocatio). The advocatus played a more important part in the feudal polity of the Empire and of the Low Countries than in France, where his functions, confined to the protection of the interests of religious houses, were superseded from the 13th century on- wards by the growth of the central power and the increasing efficiency of the royal administration. They had, indeed, long ceased to be effective for their original purpose; and from the time when their office became a fief they had taken advantage of their position to pillage and suppress those whom- it was their function to defend. The medieval records, not in France only, are full of complaints by abbots of their usurpations, .exactions and acts of violence. In Germany the title of advocatus ( Vogt) was given not only to the advypati of churches and abbeys, but to the officials appointed, from early in the middle ages, by the German emperor to administer their immediate domains, in Vogt. contradistinction to the counts, who had become hereditary princes of the Empire. The territory so administered was known as Vogtland {terra advocatorum) , a name still sometimes employed to designate the strip of country which embraces the principalities of Reuss and adjacent portions of Saxony, Prussia and Bavaria. These imperial advocati tended in their turn to become hereditary. Sometimes the emperor himself assumed the title of Vogt of some particular part of his immediate domain. In the Netherlands as well as in Germany advocati were often appointed in the cities, by the overlord or by the emperor, sometimes to take the place of the bailiff (Ger. Schultheiss, Dutch schout, Lat. scultetus), some- times alongside this official. See Du Cange, Glossariuni (ed. 1,883, Niort), s. " Advocati "; A. Luchaire, Manuel des institutions frangaises (Paris, 1892) ; Herzog- Hauck, Realencyklopadie (ed. Leipzig, 1896), s. " Advocatus ec- clesiae," where further references will be found. ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF, the collective term by which what in England are called barristers are known in Scotland. They professionally attend the supreme courts in Edinburgh; but they are privileged to plead in any cause before the inferior courts, where counsel are not excluded by statute. They may act in cases of appeal before the House of Lords; and in some of the British colonies, where the civil law is in force, it is cus- tomary for those who practise as barristers to pass as advocates in Scotland. This body has existed by immemorial custom. Its privileges are constitutional, and are founded on no statute or charter of incorporation. The body formed itself gradually, from time to time, on the model of the French corporations of avocats, appointing like them by a general vote, a dean or doyen, who is their principal officer. It also differs from the English and Irish societies in that there is no governing body similar to the benchers, nor is there any resemblance to the quasi-collegiate discipline and the usages and customs prevailing in an inn of court. No curriculum of study, residence or professional train- ing was, until 1856, required on entering this profession; but the faculty have always had the power, believed to-be liable to control by the Court of Session, of rejecting any candidate for admission. The candidate undergoes two private examinations — the one in general scholarship, in lieu of which, however, he may produce evidence of his having graduated as master of arts in a Scottish university, or obtained an equivalent degree in an English or foreign university; and the other, at the interval of a year, in Roman, private international and Scots law. He must, before the latter examination, produce evidence of attendance at classes of Scots law and conveyancing in a Scottish university, and at classes of, civil law, public or international law, consti- tutional law and medical jurisprudence in a Scottish or other approved university. He has then to undergo the old academic form of the public impugnment of a thesis on some title of the pandects; but this ceremony, called the public examination, has : degenerated into a mere form. A large proportion of the candi- date's entrance fees (amounting to £339) is devoted to the magnificent library belonging to the faculty, which literary investigators in Edinburgh find so eminently useful. ADVOCATUS DIABOLI, devil's. advocate, the name popularly given to the promoter of the Faith (promoter fidei) , and officer of the Sacred Congregation of Rites at Rome, whose duty is to prepare all possible arguments against the admission of any one to the posthumous honours of beatification and canonization. This functionary is first formally mentioned under Leo X.(i5i3~ 1521) in the proceedings in connexion with the canonization of St Lorenzo Giustiniani. In 1631 Urban VIII. made his presence,, either in person or by deputy, necessary for the validity of any act connected with the process of beatification or canonization (see Canonization). The phrase, " devil's advocate," has by an easy transference come to be used of any one who puts himself up, or is put up, for the sake of promoting debate, to argue a case in which he does not necessarily believe. ADVOWSON, or Advowzen (through O. Fr. advouson, from Lat. advocatio, a summons to), the right of presentation to a vacant ecclesiastical benefice, so called because the patron defends or advocates the claims of the person whom he presents. At what period the right of advowson arose is uncertain; it was probably the result of gradual growth. The earliest trace of the practice is found in the decree of the council of Orangej a.d. 441, which allowed a bishop, who had built a church in the, diocese of another bishop, to nominate the clerk, but not to consecrate the church. The 123rd Novel of Justinian, promul- gated about the end of the 5th century, decreed " that if any man should erect an oratory, and desire to present a clerk thereto by himself or his heirs, if they furnish a competency for his live- lihood, and nominate to the bishop such as are worthy, they may be ordained." The 57th Novel empowered the bishop to examine them and judge of their qualifications, and, where those were sufficient, obliged him to admit the clerk. In England, for quite two centuries after its conversion, the clergy administered only pro tempore in the parochial churches, receiving their maintenance from the cathedral church, all the appointments within the dio- cese lying with the bishop. But in order to promote the building and endowment of parochial churches those who had contributed to their erection either by a grant of land, by building or by endowment, became entitled to present a clerk of their own choice to the bishop, who was invested with the revenues derived from such contribution. After the Norman Conquest, when the boundaries between church and state were more clearly marked, it became usual for patrons to appoint to livings not only without the consent, but even against the will, of the bishops. Advowsons are divided into two kinds, appendant and in gross. Originally the right of nominating 1 or presenting was annexed to the person who built or endowed the church, but the right gradually became annexed to the manor in which it was built, for the endowment was considered parcel of the manor, the church being built for the use'of the inhabitants, and the tithes of the manor being attached to the church. Consequently where the right of patronage (the right of the patron to present to the bishop the person whom he has nominated to become rector or vicar of the parish to the benefice of which he claims the right of advowson) remains attached to the manor, it is called an advowson appendant, and passes with the estate by inheritance 1 The distinction between nomination to a living and presentation is to be noted. Nomination is the power, by virtue of a manor or otherwise, to appoint a clerk to the patron of a benefice, to be byi him presented to the ordinary. Presentation is the act of a patron, in offering his clerk to the bishop, to be instituted in a benefice of his gift. Nomination and presentation, though generally used in law for the same thing, must be so distinguished, for it is possible that the rights of nomination may be in one person, and the rights of presentation in another. ADYE 243 or sale without any special conveyance. But where, as is often the case, the right of presentation has been sold by itself, and so separated from the manor, it is called an advowson in gross. An advowson may also be partly appendant, and partly in gross, e.g. if an owner granted to another every second presentment, the advowson would be appendant for the grantor's turn and in gross for the grantee's. Advowsons are further distinguished into presentative and collative. In a presentative advowson, the patron presents a clergyman to the bishop, with the petition that he be instituted into the vacant living. The bishop is bound to induct if he find the clergyman canonically qualified, and a refusal on his part is subject to an appeal to an ecclesiastical court either by patron or by presentee. In a collative advowson the bishop is himself the patron, either in his own right or in the right of the proper patron, which has lapsed to him through not being exercised within the statutory period of six months after the vacancy occurred. No petition is necessary in this case, and the bishop is said to collate to the benefice. Before 1898 there were also donative advowsons, but the Benefices Act 1898 made all dona- tions with cure of souls presentative. In a donative advowson, the sovereign, or any subject by special licence from the sover- eign, conferred a benefice by a simple letter of gift, without any reference to the bishop, and without presentation and in- stitution. The, .incumbent of such a living was to a great extent free from the jurisdiction of the bishop, who could only reach him through the action of an ecclesiastical court. The Benefices Act of 1898 did not make any substantial change in the legal character of advowsons, which remain practically the same as before the act. Briefly, it prevents the dealing with the right of presentation as a thing apart from the advowson itself; increases the power of the bishops to refuse the presentation of unfit persons, and removes several abuses which had arisen in the transfer of patronage. Under the pre- viously existing law, simony, or " the corrupt presentation of any person to an ecclesiastical benefice for gift, money or reward," renders the presentation void, and subjects the persons privy or party to it to penalties; a presentation to a vacant benefice cannot be sold, and no clerk in holy orders can purchase for himself a next presentation. An advowson may, however, be sold during a vacancy, though that will not give the right to present to that vacancy; and a clerk may buy an advowson even though it be only an estate for life, and present himself on the next vacancy. Under the Benefices Act, advowsons may not be sold by public auction except in conjunction with landed property adjacent to the benefice; transfers of patronage must be registered in the registry of the diocese, and no such transfers can be made within twelve months after the last admission or institution to the benefice. Restrictions had also been imposed on the transfer of patronage of churches built under the Church Building Acts and New Parishes Acts, and on that of benefices in the gift of the lord chancellor, and sold by him in order to augment others; but agreements may be made as to the patron- age of such churches in favour of persons who have contri- buted to their building or enlargement without being void for simony. The right of presentation may be exercised by its owner whether he be an infant, executors, trustees, coparceners (who, if they cannot agree, present in turn in order of age) or mort- gagee (who must present the nominee of the mortgagor), or a bankrupt (who, although the advowson belongs to his creditors, yet has the right to present to a vacancy). Certain owners of advowsons are temporarily or permanently disabled from exer- cising the right which devolves upon other persons; and the crown as patron paramount of all benefices can fill all churches not regularly filled by other patrons. It thus presents to all vacancies caused by simoniacal presentations, or by the incum- bent having been presented to a bishopric or in benefices belong- ing to a bishopric when the see is vacant by the bishop's death, translation or deprivation. Where a presentation belongs to a lunatic, the lord chancellor presents for him. Where it belongs to a Roman Catholic the right is exercised in his behalf by the university of Oxford if the benefice be situate south of the river Trent, and by that of Cambridge if it be north of that river. Besides the qualifications required of a presentee by canon law, such as being of the canonical age, and in priest's orders before admission, sufficient learning and proper orthodoxy or morals, the Benefices Act requires that a year shall have elapsed since a transfer of the right of patronage, unless it can be shown that such transfer was not made in view of a probable vacancy; that the presentee has been a deacon for three years; and that he is not unfit for the discharge of his duties by reason of physical or mental infirmity or incapacity, grave pecuniary embarrass- ment, grave misconduct or neglect of duty in an ecclesiastical office, evil life, or conduct causing grave scandal concerning his moral character since his ordination, or being party to an illegal agreement with regard to the presentation; that notice of the presentation has been given to the parish of the benefice. Except by leave of the bishop or sequestrator, the incumbent of a seques- tered benefice cannot be presented. The act also gives to both patron and presentee an alternative mode of appeal against a bishop's refusal to institute or admit, except on a ground of doctrine or ritual, to a court composed of an archbishop of the province and a judge of the High Court nominated for that purpose by the lord chancellor, a course which, however, bars resort being had to the ordinary suits of duplex querela or action of quare impedit. In case of refusal of one presentee, a lay patron may present another, and a clerical patron may do so after an unsuccessful appeal against the refusal. Upon institution the church is full against everybody except the crown, and after six months' peaceable possession the clerk is secured in possession of the benefice, even though he may have been presented by a person who is not the proper patron. The true patron can, however, exercise his right to present at the next vacancy, and can reserve the advowson from an usurper at any time within three successive incumbencies so created adversely to his right, or within sixty years. Collation, which otherwise corresponds to institution, does not make the church full, and the true patron can dispossess the clerk at any time, unless he is a patron who collates. Possession of the benefice is completed by induction, which makes the church full against any one, including the crown. If the proper patron fails to exer- cise his right within six calendar months from the vacancy, the right devolves or lapses to the next superior patron, e.g. from an ordinary patron to the bishop, and if he makes similar default to the archbishop, and from him on similar default to the Crown. If a bishopric becomes vacant after a lapse has accrued to it, it goes to the metropolitan; but in case of a vacancy of a benefice during the vacancy of the see the crown presents. Until the right of presentation so accruing to a bishop or archbishop is exercised, the patron can still effectually present but not if lapse has gone to the crown. (See also Benefice; Glebe; Incumbent; Vicar.) Authorities. — Burn, Ecclesiastical Law; Bingham's Origines Ecclesiasticae, or, the Antiquities of the English Church; Mirehouse, On Advowson; Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law. ADYE, SIR JOHN MILLER (1819-1900), British general, son of Major James P. Adye, was born at Sevenoaks, Kent, on the 1st of November 1819. He entered the Royal Artillery in 1836, was promoted captain in 1846, and served throughout the Crimean War as brigade-major and assistant adjutant-general of artillery (C.B., brevets of major and lieutenant-colonel). In the Indian Mutiny he served on the staff in a similar capacity. Promoted brevet-colonel in i860, he was specially employed in 1863 in the N.W. frontier of India campaign, and was deputy- adjutant-general, Bengal, from 1863 to 1866, when he returned home. From 1870 to 1875 Adye was director of artillery and stores at the War Office. He was made a K.C.B. in 1873, and was promoted to be major-general and appointed governor of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, in 1875, and surveyor- general of the ordnance in 1880. In 1882 he was chief of staff and second in command of the expedition to Egypt, and served throughout the campaign (G.C.B. and thanks of parliament). He held the government of Gibraltar from 1883 to 1886. Promoted 244 ADYTUM— AEDUI lieutenant-general in 1879, general and colonel commandant of the Royal Artillery in 1884, he retired in 1886. He unsuccess- fully contested Bath in the Liberal interest in 1892. He died on the 26th of August 1900. He was author of A Review of The Crimean War; The Defence of Cawnpore; A Frontier Cam- paign in Afghanistan; Recollections of a Military Life; and Indian Frontier Policy. ADYTUM, the Latinized form of aSvrov (not to be entered), the innermost sanctuary in ancient temples, access to which was forbidden to all but the officiating priests. The most famous adytum in Greece was in the temple of Apollo at Delphi. ADZE (from the Old Eng. adesa, of which the origin is un- known), a tool used for cutting and planing. It is somewhat like an axe reversed, the edge of the blade curving inward and placed at right angles to the handle. This shape is most suitable for planing uneven timber, as inequalities are " hooked off " by the curved blade. (See Tools.) AEACUS, in Greek legend, ancestor of the Aeacidae, was the son of Zeus and Aegina, daughter of the river-god Asopus. His mother was carried off by Zeus to the island of Oenone, which was afterwards called by her name. The island having been depopulated by a pestilence, Zeus changed the ants upon it into human beings (Ovid, Met. vii. 520), who were called Myrmidones (juiipAiijxes =5.ants) . Aeacus ruled over his people with such justice and impartiality that after his death he was made judge of the lower world together with Minos and Rhadamanthus. By his wife Endeis he was the father of Telamon and Peleus. His successful prayer to Zeus for rain at a time of drought (Isocrates, Evagoras, 14) was commemorated by a temple at Aegina (Pau- sanias ii. 29). He himself erected a temple to Zeus Panhellenios and helped Poseidon and Apollo to build the walls of Troy. See Hutchinson, Aeacus, 1901. AECLANUM, an ancient town of Samnium, Italy, 15 m. E.S.E. of Beneventum, on the Via Appia (near the modern Mirabella). It became the chief town of the Hirpini after Beneventum had become a Roman colony. Sulla captured it in 89 B.C. by setting on fire the wooden breastwork by which it was defended, and new fortifications were erected. Hadrian, who repaired the Via Appia from Beneventum to this point, made it a colony; it has ruins* of the city walls, of an aqueduct, baths and an amphi- theatre; nearly 400 inscriptions have also been discovered. Two different routes to Apulia diverged at this point, one (Via Aurelia Aeclanensis) leading through the modern Ariano to Herdoniae, the other (the Via Appia of the Empire) passing the Lacus Ampsanctus and going on to Aquilonia and Venusia; while the road from Aeclanum to Abellinum (mod. Avellini) may also follow an ancient line. H. Nissen {Italische Landes- kunde, Berlin, 1902, ii. 819) speaks of another road, which he believes to have been that followed by Horace, from Aeclanum to Trevicum and thence to Ausculum; but Th. Mommsen (Corpus Inscrip. Lai., Berlin, 1883, ix. 602) is more likely to be right in supposing that the road taken by Horace ran directly from Beneventum to Trevicum and thence to Aquilonia (though the course of this road is not yet determined in detail), and that the easier, though somewhat longer, road by Aeclanum was of later date. AEDESIUS (d. a.d. 355), Neoplatonist philosopher, was born of a noble Cappadocian family. He migrated to Syria, attracted by the lectures of lamblichus, whose follower he became. Ac- cording to Eunapius, he differed from lamblichus on certain points connected with magic. He taught at Pergamum, his chief disciples being Eusebius and Maximus. He seems to have modified his doctrines through fear of Constantine. See'Ritter and Preller, 552; Ritter's Geschichte der Philosophic, T. Whittaker, The Neoplatonisls (Cambridge, 1901). AEDICULA (diminutive of Lat. aedis or aedes, a temple or house), a small house or terhple, — a household shrine holding small altars or the statues of the Lares and Penates. AEDILE (Lat. aedilis), in Roman antiquities, the name of certain Roman magistrates, probably derived from aedis (a temple), because they had the care of the temple of Ceres, where the plebeian archives were kept. They were originally two in number, called " plebeian " aediles. They were created in the same year as the tribunes of the people (494 B.C.), their persons were sacrosanct or inviolable, and (at least after 471) they were elected at the Comitia Tributa out of the plebeians alone. Originally intended as assistants to the tribunes, they exercised certain police functions, were empowered to inflict fines and managed the plebeian and Roman games. According to Livy (vi. 42), after the passing of the Licinian rogations, an extra day was added to the Roman games; the aediles refused to bear the additional expense, whereupon the patricians offered to undertake it, on condition that they were admitted to the aedile- ship. The plebeians accepted the offer, and accordingly two " curule " aediles were appointed — at first from the patricians alone, then from patricians and plebeians in turn, lastly, from either — at the Comitia Tributa under the presidency of the consul. Although not sacrosanct, they had the right of sitting in a curule chair and wore the distinctive toga praetexta. They took over the management of the Roman and Megalesian games, the care of the patrician temples and had the right of issuing edicts as superintendents of the markets. But although the curule aediles always ranked higher than the plebeian, their functions gradually approximated and became practically identical. Cicero (Legg. iii. 3, 7) divides these functions under three heads: — (1) Care of the city: the repair and preservation of temples, sewers and aqueducts; street cleansing and paving; regulations regarding traffic, dangerous animals and dilapidated buildings; precautions against fire; superintendence of baths and taverns; enforcement of sumptuary laws; punishment of gamblers and usurers; the care of public morals generally, including the prevention of foreign superstitions. They also punished those who had too large a share of the ager publicus, or kept too many cattle on the state pastures. (2) Care of provi- sions: investigation of the quality of the articles supplied and the correctness of weights and measures; the purchase of corn for disposal at a low price in case of necessity. (3) Care of the games: superintendence and organization of the public games, as well as of those given by themselves and private individuals (e.g. at funerals) at their own expense. Ambitious persons often spent enormous sums in this manner to win the popular favour with a. view to official advancement. In 44 Caesar added two patrician aediles, called Cereales, whose special duty was the care of the corn-supply. Under Augustus the office lost much of its importance, its juridical functions and the care of the games being transferred to the praetor, while its city responsibilities were limited by the *j- pointment of a praefectus urbi. In the 3rd century \. d. it disappeared altogether. Authorities. — Schubert, De Romanorum Aedilibus (1828) ; Hoff- mann, De Aedilibus Romanis (1,842) ; Goll, De Aedilibus sub Caesarum Imperio (i860) ; Labatut, Les Ediles et les mtzurs (1868) ; Marquardt Mommsen, Handbuch der romischen Altertiimer, ii. (1888); Soltau, Die urspriingliche Bedeutung und Competenz der Aediles Plebis (Bonn, 1882). AEDUI, Haedui or Hedui (Gr. Mdovoi), a Gallic people of Gallia Lugdunensis, who inhabited the country between the Arar (Saone) and Liger (Loire). The statement in Strabo (ii. 3. 192) that they dwelt between the Arar and Dubis (Doubs) is incorrect. Their territory thus included the greater part of the modern departments of Sa6ne-et-Loire, Cote d'Or and Nievre. According to Livy (v. 34) , they took part in the expedi- tion of Bellovesus into Italy in the 6th century B.C. Before Caesar's time they had attached themselves to the Romans, and were honoured with the title of brothers and kinsmen of the Roman people. When the Sequani, their neighbours on the other side of the Arar, with whom they were continually quarrelling, invaded their country and subjugated them with the assistance of a German chieftain named Ariovistus, the Aedui sent Divitiacus, the druid, to Rome to appeal to the senate for help, but his mission was unsuccessful. On his arrival in Gaul (58 B.C.), Caesar restored their independence. In spite of this, the Aedui joined the Gallic coalition against Caesar (B.G. vii. 42), but after the surrender of Vercingetorix at Alesia AEGADIAN ISLANDS— AEGEAN CIVILIZATION 245 were glad to return to their allegiance. Augustus dismantled their native capital Bibracte on Mont Beuvray, and substituted a new town with a half-Roman, half-Gaulish name, Augusto- dunum (mod. Autun). During the reign of Tiberius (a.d. 21), they revolted under Julius Sacrovir, and seized Augustodunum, but were soon put down by Gaius Silius (Tacitus, Ann. iii. 43-46). The Aedui were the first of the Gauls to receive from the emperor Claudius the distinction of the jus honorum. The oration of Eumenius (g.v.), in which he pleaded for the restora- tion of the schools of his native place Augustodunum, shows that the district was neglected. The chief magistrate of the Aedui in Caesar's time was called Vergobrelus (according to Mommsen, "judgment-worker"), who was elected annually, possessed powers of life and death, but was forbidden to go beyond the frontier. Certain clientes, or small communities, were also dependent upon the Aedui. See A. E. Desjardins, Geographic de la Gaule, ii. (1 876-1 893) ; T. R. Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of Caul (1899). AEGADIAN ISLANDS (Ital. I sole Egati; anc. Aegates In- sulae), a group of small mountainous islands off the western coast of Sicily, chiefly remarkable as the scene of the defeat of the Carthaginian fleet by C. Lutatius Catulus in 241 B.C., which ended the First Punic War. Favignana (Aegusa), the largest, pop. (1901) 6414, lies 10 m. S.W. of Trapani; Levanzo (Phorbantia) 8 m. W.; while Maritimo, the ancient lepa vrjcros, 15 m. W. of Trapani, is now reckoned as a part of the group. They belonged to the Pallavicini family of Genoa until 1874, when they were bought by Signor Florio of Palermo. AEGEAN CIVILIZATION, the general term for the prehistoric civilization, previously called "Mycenaean" because its existence was first brought to popular notice by Heinrich Schliemann's excavations at Mycenae in 1876. Subsequent discoveries, how- ever, have made it clear that Mycenae was not its chief centre in its earlier stages, or, perhaps, at any period; and, accordingly, it is more usual now to adopt a wider geographical title. I. History of Discovery and Distribution of Remains. — Mycenae and Tiryns are the two principal sites on which evidence of a prehistoric civilization was remarked long ago by the classical Greeks. The curtain- wall and towers of the Mycenaean .citadel, its gate with heraldic lions, and the great " Treasury of Atreus " had borne silent witness for ages before Schliemann's time; but they were supposed only to speak to the Homeric, or at farthest a rude Heroic beginning of purely Hellenic, civiliza- tion. It was not till Schliemann exposed the contents of the graves which lay just inside the gate (see Mycenae), that scholars recognized the advanced stage of art to which pre- historic dwellers in the Mycenaean citadel had attained. There had been, however, a good deal of other evidence available before 1876, which, had it been collated and seriously studied, might have discounted the sensation that the discovery of the citadel graves eventually made. Although it was recognized that certain tributaries, represented e.g. in the XVIIIth Dynasty tomb of Rekhmara at Egyptian Thebes as bearing vases of peculiar forms, were of some Mediterranean race, neither their precise habitat nor the degree of their civilization could be determined while so few actual prehistoric remains were known in the Mediterranean lands. Nor did the Aegean objects which were lying obscurely in museums in 1870, or thereabouts, provide a sufficient test of the real basis underlying the Hellenic myths of the Argolid, the Troad and Crete, to cause these to be taken seriously. Both at Sevres and Neuchatel Aegean vases have been exhibited since about 1840, the provenience being in the one case Phylakope in Melos, in the other Cephalonia. Ludwig Ross, by his explorations in the Greek islands from 1835 onwards, called attention to certain early intaglios, since known as Inselsteine; but it was not till 1878 that C. T. Newton demon- strated these to be no strayed Phoenician products. In 1866 primitive structures were discovered in the island of Therasia by quarrymen extracting pozzolana for the Suez Canal works; and when this discovery was followed up in 1870, on the neigh- bouring Santorin (Thera), by representatives of the French School at Athens, much pottery of a class now known immedi- ately to precede the typical late Aegean ware, and many stone and metal objects, were found and dated by the geologist Fouqu6, somewhat arbitrarily, to 2000 B.C., by consideration of the superincumbent eruptive stratum. Meanwhile, in 1868, tombs at Ialysus in Rhodes had yielded to M. A. Biliotti many fine painted vases of styles which were called later the third and fourth " Mycenaean "; but these, bought by John Ruskin, and presented to the British Museum, excited less attention than they deserved, being supposed to be of some local Asiatic fabric of uncertain date. Nor was a connexion immediately detected between them and the objects found four years later in a tomb at Menidi in Attica and a rock-cut " bee-hive " grave near the Argive Heraeum. Even Schliemann's first excavations at Hissarlik in the Troad (q.v.) did not excite surprise. But the " Burnt City " of his second stratum, revealed in 1873, with its fortifications and vases, and a hoard of gold, silver and bronze objects, which the discoverer connected with it, began to arouse a curiosity which was destined presently to spread far outside the narrow circle of scholars. As soon as Schliemann came on the Mycenae graves three years later, light poured from all sides on the prehistoric period of Greece. It was recognized that the character of both the fabric and the decoration of the Mycenaean objects was not that of any well-known art. A wide range in space was proved by the identification of the Inselsteine and the Ialysus vases with the new style, and a wide range in time by collation of the earlier Theraean and Hissarlik discoveries. A relation between objects of art described by Homer and the Mycenaean treasure was generally allowed, and a correct opinion prevailed that, while certainly posterior, the civilization of the Iliad was reminiscent of the Mycenaean. Schliemann got to work again at Hissarlik in 1878, and greatly increased our knowledge of the lower strata, but did not recognize the Aegean remains in his " Lydian" city of the sixth stratum, which were not to be fully revealed till Dr W. Dorpfeld resumed the work at Hissarlik in 1892 after the first explorer's death (see Troad). But by laying bare in 1884 the upper stratum of remains on the rock of Tiryns (q.v.), Schlie- mann made a contribution to our knowledge of prehistoric domestic life which was amplified two years later by Chr. Tsountas's discovery of the Mycenae palace. Schliemann's work at Tiryns was not resumed till 1905, when it was proved, as had long been suspected, that an earlier palace underlies the one he had exposed. From 1886 dates the finding of Mycenaean sepulchres outside the Argolid, from which, and from the con- tinuation of Tsountas's exploration of the buildings and lesser graves at Mycenae, a large treasure, independent of Schliemann's princely gift, has been gathered into the National Museum at Athens. In that year were excavated dome-tombs, most already rifled but retaining some of their furniture, at Arkina and Eleusis in Attica, at Dimini near Volo in Thessaly, at Kampos on the west of Mount Taygetus, and at Maskarata in Cephalonia. The richest grave of all was explored at Vaphio in Laconia in 1889, and yielded, besides many gems and miscellaneous goldsmiths' work, two golden goblets chased with scenes of bull-hunting, and certain broken vases painted in a large bold style which remained an enigma till the excavation of Cnossus. In 1890 and 1893 Staes cleared out certain less rich dome-tombs at Thoricus in Attica; and other graves, either rock-cut " bee-hives " or chambers, were found at Spata and Aphidna in Attica, in Aegina and Salamis, at the Heraeum (see Argos) and Nauplia in the Argolid, near Thebes and Delphi, and not far from the Thessalian Larissa. During the excavations on the Acropolis at Athens, terminated in 1888, many potsherds of the Mycenaean style were found; but Olympia had yielded either none, or such as had not been recognized before being thrown away, and the temple site at Delphi produced nothing distinctively Aegean. The American explorations of the Argive Heraeum, concluded in 1895, also failed to prove that site to have been important in the prehistoric time, though, as was to be expected from its neighbourhood to Mycenae itself, there were traces of occupation in the later Aegean periods. Prehistoric research had now begun to extend beyond the Greek mainland. Certain central Aegean 246 AEGEAN CIVILIZATION islands, Antiparos, Ios, Amorgos, Syros and Siphnos, were all found to be singularly rich in evidence of the middle-Aegean period. The series of Syran built graves, containing crouching corpses, is the best and most representative that is known in the Aegean. Melos, long marked as a source of early objects, but not systematically excavated until taken in hand by the British School at Athens in 1896, yielded at Phylakope remains of all the Aegean periods, except the Neolithic. A map of Cyprus in the later Bronze Age (such as is given by J. L. Myres and M. O. Richter in Catalogue of the Cyprus Museum) shows more than five-and-twenty settlements in and about the Mesaorea district alone, of which one, that at Enkomi, near the site of Salamis, has yielded the richest Aegean treasure in precious metal found outside Mycenae. E. Chantre in 1894 picked up lustreless ware, like that of Hissarlik, in central Phrygia and at Pteria (q.v.), and the English archaeological expeditions, sent subsequently into north-western Anatolia, have never failed to bring back ceramic specimens of Aegean appearance from the valleys of the Rhyn- dacus, Sangarius and Halys. In Egypt in 1887 W. M. F. Petrie found painted sherds of Cretan style at Kahun in the Fayum, and farther up the Nile, at Tell el-Amarna, chanced on bits of no fewer than 800 Aegean vases in 1889. There have now been recognized in the collections at Cairo, Florence, London, Paris and Bologna several Egyptian imitations of the Aegean style which can be sjet off against the many debts which the centres of Aegean culture owed to Egypt. Two Aegean vases were found at Sidon in 1885, and many fragments of Aegean and especially Cypriote pottery have been turned up during recent excavations of sites in Philistia by the Palestine Fund. South-eastern Sicily, ever since P. Orsi excavated the Sicel cemetery near Lentini in 1877, has proved a mine of early remains, among which appear in regular succession Aegean fabrics and motives of decoration from the period of the second stratum at Hissarlik. Sardinia has Aegean sites, e.g. at Abini near Teti; and Spain has yielded objects recognized as Aegean from tombs near Cadiz and from Saragossa. One land, however, has eclipsed all others in the Aegean by the wealth of its remains of all the prehistoric ages, viz. Crete, so much so that, for the present, we must regard it as the fountain-head of Aegean civilization, and probably .for long its political and social centre. The island first attracted the notice of archaeologists by the remarkable archaic Greek bronzes found in a cave on Mount Ida in 1885, as well as by epigraphic monuments such as the famous law of Gortyna; but the first undoubted Aegean remains reported from it were a few objects extracted from Cnossus by Minos Kalokhairinos of Candia in 1878. These were followed by certain discoveries made in the S. plain (Messara) by F. Halbherr. W. J. Stillman and H- Schliemann both made unsuccessful attempts at Cnossus, and A. J. Evans, coming on the scene in 1893, travelled in succeed- ing years about the island picking up trifles of unconsidered evidence, which gradually convinced him that greater things would eventually be found. He obtained enough to enable him to forecast the discovery of written characters, till then not sus- pected in Aegean civilization. The revolution of 1897-98 opened the door to wider knowledge, and much exploration has ensued, for which see Crete. Thus the " Aegean Area " has now come to mean the Archipelago with Crete and Cyprus, the Hellenic peninsula with the Ionian isles, and Western Anatolia. Evidence is still wanting for the Macedonian and Thracian coasts. Off- shoots are found in the W. Mediterranean, in Sicily, Italy, Sardinia and Spain, and in the E. in Syria and Egypt. About the Cyrenaica we are still insufficiently informed. II. General Nature 0} the Evidence. — For details of monumental evidence the articles on Crete, Mycenae, Tiryns, Troad, Cyprus, &c, must be consulted. The most representative site explored up to now is Cnossus (see Crete, sect. Archaeology) , which has yielded not only the most various but the most continuous evidence from the Neolithic age to the twilight of classical civilization. Next in importance come Hissarlik, Mycenae, Phaestus, Hagia, Triada, Tiryns, Phylakope, Palai- kastro and Gournia. A. The internal evidence at present available comprises — (1) Structures. — Ruins of palaces, palatial villas, houses, built dome- or cist-graves and fortifications (Aegean isles, Greek mainland and N.W. Anatolia), but not distinct temples; small shrines, however, and temeni (religious enclosures, remains of one of which were probably found at Petsofa near Palaikastro by J. L. Myres in 1904) are represented on intaglios and frescoes. From like sources and from inlay-work we have also representations of palaces and houses. (2) Structural. Decoration. — Architectural features, such as columns, friezes and various mouldings; mural decoration, such as fresco-paintings, coloured reliefs and mosaic inlay. (3) Furniture, — (a) Domestic, such as vessels of all sorts and in many materials, from huge store-jars down to tiny unguent- pots; culinary and other implements; thrones, seats, tables, &c, these all in stone or plastered terra-cotta. (b) Sacred, such as models or actual examples of ritual objects; of these we have also numerous pictorial representations, (c) Funerary, e.g. coffins in painted terra-cotta. (4) Artistic fabrics, e.g. plastic objects, carved in stone or ivory, cast or beaten in metals (gold, silver, copper and bronze), or modelled in clay, faience, paste, &c. Very little trace has yet been found of large free sculpture, but many examples exist of sculptors' smaller work. Vases of all kinds, carved in marble or other stones, cast or beaten in metals or fashioned in clay, the latter in enormous number and variety, richly ornamented with coloured schemes, and sometimes bearing moulded decora- tion. Examples of painting on stone, opaque and transparent. Engraved objects in great number, e.g. ring-bezels and gems; and an immense quantity of clay impressions, taken from these. (5) Weapons, tools and implements, in stone, clay and bronze, and at the last iron, sometimes richly ornamented or inlaid. Numerous representations also of the same. No actual body- armour, except suGh as was ceremonial and buried with the dead, like the gold breastplates in the circle-graves at Mycenae. (6) Articles of personal use, e.g. brooches (fibulae), pins, razors, tweezers, &c, often found as dedications to a deity, e.g. in the Dictaean Cavern of Crete. No textiles have survived. (7) Written documents, e.g. clay tablets and discs (so far in Crete only) , but nothing of more perishable nature, such as skin, papyrus, &c. ; engraved gems and gem impressions; legends written with pigment on pottery (rare); characters incised on stone or pottery. These show two main systems of script (see Crete). (8) Excavated tombs, of either the pit or the grotto kind, in which the dead were laid, together with various objects of use and luxury, without cremation, and in either coffins or loculi or simple wrappings. (9) Public works, such as paved and stepped roadways, bridges, systems of drainage, &c. B. There-is also a certain amount of external evidence to be gathered from— (1) Monuments and records of other contemporary civiliza- tions, e.g. representations of alien peoples in Egyptian frescoes; imitation of Aegean fabrics and style in non-Aegean lands; allusions to Mediterranean peoples in Egyptian, Semitic or Babylonian records. (2) Literary traditions of subsequent civilizations, especially the Hellenic, such as, e.g., those embodied in the Homeric poems, the legends concerning Crete, Mycenae, &c; statements as to the origin of gods, cults and so forth, transmitted to us by Hellenic antiquarians such as Strabo, Pausanias, Diodorus Siculus, &c. (3) Traces of customs, creeds, rituals, &c, in the Aegean area at a later time, discordant with the civilization in which they were practised and indicating survival from earlier systems. There are also possible linguistic and even physical survivals to be considered. III. General Features of Aegean Civilization. — The leading features of Aegean civilization, as deduced from the evidence, must be stated very briefly. (1) Political Organization.— -The great Cretan palaces and the fortified citadels of Mycenae, Tiryns and Hissarlik, each AEGEAN CIVILIZATION GRAPHIC ART Plate f Fig. i— FLYING FISH FRESCO, PHYLAKOPI. Cf. J.B.S. Suppl. Papers, iv. Fig. 2— BULL, WITH LEAPING BULL-FIGHTER, TIRYNS. Cf. Schlicmann, Tiryns, Plate XIII. Fig. 4.— MIDDLE MINOAN VASE, CNOSSUS. B.S.A. is.. 120, Fig. 75. '*''+*? *'#' mm Fig. 3.— LAMP-STAND, PHYLAKOPI. Fig. 5.— MINIATURE FRESCOES, SHOW- Fig. 6— FILLER VASE, ZAKRO. 3- Cf. J.H.S. Suppl. Papers, iv. Plate XXII. I. 246. ING SPECTATORS AT ATHLETIC J.H.S. vol. X xii. plate XII. SPORTS, CNOSSUS. From Photo by Dr A. J. Evans. By permission of the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies. Plate II. AEGEAN CIVILIZATION PLASTIC ART Fig. 2.— MARBLE IDOLS, AMORGOS; 6-u. FIDDLE AND MALLET TYPES, 12-14, DEVELOPED TYPES. Man, 1901, 185, No 146. By permission of the Royal Anthropological Institute. Fig. i— FAIENCE PLAGUE, CNOSSUS. B.S.A. a. Plate III. Fig. ■x —COLOURED BAS-RELIEF IN GESSO Fig. 4 — MARBLE HEAD DURO, REPRESENTING MALE FOSSO FROM AMORGOS (ASH- mIHT[ . n m .___,_, rM ^..,, WITH FLEUR-DE-LIS COLLAR. MOLEAN MUSEUM). Fig. 5— BULL IN PAINTED PLASTER, CNOoSUS B.S.A. vii. 17. Fig. 6. Ph"'" ''y Dr A - J- Evans - Figs 6 7— IVORY FIGURES AND HEADS OF ATHLETES, BULL-FIGHTERS OR ACROBATS, CNOSSUS. B.S.A. viii. Plates II. and III., and p. 72 sq. By permission of the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies. AEGEAN CIVILIZATION 247 Map showing the distribution of AEGEAN SITES Cnosstis* ... _ iSfH, PhaestusJ •ear containing little more than one great residence, and dominating lower towns of meaner houses, point to monarchy at all periods. Independent local developments of art before the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C. suggest the early existence of independent units in various parts, of which the strongest was the Cnossian. After that date the evidence goes strongly to show that one political dominion was spread for a brief period, or for two brief periods, over almost all the area (see later). The great number of tribute-tallies found at Cnossus perhaps indicates that the centre of power was always there. . (2) Religion. — The fact that shrines have so far been found within palaces and not certainly anywhere else indicates that the kings kept religious power in their own hands; perhaps they were themselves high-priests. Religion in the area seems to have been essentially the same everywhere from the earliest period, viz. the cult of a Divine Principle, resident in dominant features of nature (sun, stars, mountains, trees, &c.) and control- ling fertility. This cult passed through an aniconic stage, from which fetishes survived to the last, these being rocks or pillars, trees, weapons (e.g. bipennis, or double war-axe, shield), &c. When the iconic stage was reached, about 2000 B.C., we find the Divine Spirit represented as a goddess with a subordinate young god, as in many other E. Mediterranean lands. The god was probably son and mate of the goddess, and the divine pair represented the genius of Reproductive Fertility in its relations with humanity. The goddess sometimes appears with doves, as uranic, at others with snakes, as chthonic. In the ritual fetishes, often of miniature form, played a great part: all sorts of plants and animals were sacred: sacrifice (not burnt, and human very doubtful), dedication of all sorts of offerings and simulacra, invocation, &c, were practised. The dead, who returned to the Great Mother, were objects of a sort of hero- worship. This early nature-cult explains many anomalous features of Hellenic religion, especially in the cults of Artemis and Aphrodite. (See Crete.) (3) Social Organization. — There is a possibility that features of a primeval matriarchate long survived; but there is no certain evidence. Of the organization of the people under the monarch we are ignorant. There are so few representations of armed men that it seems doubtful if there can have been any professional military class. Theatral structures found at Cnossus and Phaestus, within the precincts of the palaces, were perhaps used for shows or for sittings of a royal assize, rather than for popular assemblies. The Cnossian remains contain evidence of an elaborate system of registration, account- keeping and other secretarial work, which perhaps indicates a considerable body of law. The life of the ruling class was comfortable and even luxurious from early times. Fine stone palaces, richly decorated, with separate sleeping apartments, Emery_Wal1cer IB large halls, ingenious devices for admitting light and air, sanitary conveniences and marvellously modern arrangements for supply of water and for drainage, attest this fact. Even the smaller houses, after the Neolithic period, seem also to have been of stone, plastered within. After 1600 B.C. the palaces in Crete had more than one story, fine stairways, bath-chambers, win- dows, folding and sliding doors, &c. In this later period, the distinction of blocks of apartments in some palaces has been held to indicate the seclusion of women in harems, at least among the ruling caste. Cnossian frescoes show women grouped apart, and they appear alone on gems. Flesh and fish and many kinds of vegetables were evidently eaten, and wine and beer were drunk. Vessels for culinary, table, and luxurious uses show an infinite variety of form and purpose. Artificers' implements of many kinds were in use, bronze succeeding obsidian and other hard stones as the material. Seats are found carefully shaped to the human person. There was evidently olive- and vine-culture on a large scale in Crete at any rate. Chariots were in use in the later period, as is proved by the pictures of them on Cretan tablets, and therefore, probably, the horse also was known. Indeed a horse appears on a gem impression. Main ways were paved. Sports, probably more or less religious, are often represented, e.g. bull-fighting, dancing, boxing, armed combats. (4) Commerce was practised to some extent in very early times, as is proved by the distribution of Melian obsidian over all the Aegean area and by the Nilotic influence on early Minoan art. We find Cretan vessels exported to Melos, Egypt and the Greek mainland. Melian vases came in their turn to Crete. After 1600 B.C. there is very close intercourse with Egypt, and Aegean things find their way to all coasts of the Mediterranean (see below). No traces of currency have come to light, unless certain axe-heads, too slight for practical use, had that char- acter; but standard weights have been found, and representa- tions of ingots. The Aegean written documents have not yet proved (by being found outside the area) epistolary correspond- ence with other lands. Representations of ships are not common, but several have been observed on Aegean gems, gem-sealings and vases. They are vessels of low free-board, with masts. Familiarity with the sea is proved by the free use of marine motives in decoration. (5) Treatment of the Dead. — The dead in the earlier period were laid (so far as we know at present) within cists constructed of upright stones. These were sometimes inside caves. After the burial the cist was covered in with earth. A little later, in Crete, bone-pits seem to have come into use, containing the remains of many burials. Possibly the flesh was boiled off the bones at once (" scarification "),. or left to rot in separate cists awhile; afterwards the skeletons were collected and the cists 248 AEGEAN CIVILIZATION re-used. The coffins are of small size, contain corpses with the knees drawn up to the chin and are found in excavated chambers or pits. In the later period a peculiar " bee-hive " tomb became common, sometimes wholly or partly excavated, sometimes (as in the magnificent Mycenaean " Treasuries ") constructed dome- wise. The shaft-graves in the Mycenae circle are also a late type, paralleled in the later Cnossian cemetery. The latest type of tomb is a flatly vaulted chamber approached by a horizontal or slightly inclined way, whose sides converge above. At no period do the Aegean dead seem to have been burned. Weapons, food, water, unguents and various trinkets were laid with the corpse at all periods. In the Mycenae circle an altar seems to have been erected over the graves, and perhaps slaves were killed to bear the dead chiefs company. A painted sarco- phagus, found at Hagia Triada, also possibly shows a hero-cult of the dead. (6) Artistic Production. — Ceramic art reached a specially high standard in fabric, form and decoration by the middle of the 3rd millennium B.C. in Crete. The products of that period com- pare favourably with any potters' work in the world. The same may be said of fresco-painting, and probably of metal work. Modelling in terra-cotta, sculpture in stone and ivory, engraving on gems, were following it closely by the beginning of the 2nd millennium. After 2000 B.C. all these arts revived, and sculpture, as evidenced by relief work, both on a large and on a small scale, carved stone vessels, metallurgy in gold, silver and bronze, advanced farther. This art and those of fresco- and vase-painting and of gem-engraving stood higher about the 15th century B.C. than at any subsequent period before the 6th century. The manufacture, modelling and painting of faience objects, and the making of inlays in many materials were also familiar to Aegean craftsmen, who show in all their best work a strong sense of natural form and an appreciation of ideal balance and decorative effect, such as are seen in the best products of later Hellenic art. Architectural ornament was also highly developed. The richness of the Aegean capitals and columns may be judged by those from the " Treasury of Atreus " now set up in the British Museum; and of the friezes we have examples in Mycenaean and Cnossian fragments, and Cnossian paintings. The magnificent gold work of the later period, preserved to us at Mycenae and Vaphio, needs only to be mentioned. It should be compared with stone work in Crete, especially the steatite vases with reliefs found at Hagia Triada. On the whole, Aegean art, at its two great periods, in the middle of the 3rd and 2nd millennia respectively, will bear comparison with any contemporary arts. IV. Origin, Nature and History of Aegean Civilization. — The evidence, summarized above, though very various and volumin- ous, is not yet sufficient to answer all the questions which may be asked as to the origin, nature and history of this civilization, or to answer any but a few questions with absolute certainty. We shall try to indicate the extent to which it can legitimately be applied. A. Distinctive Features. — The fact that Aegean civilization is distinguished from all others, prior or contemporary, not only by its geographical area, but by leading organic characteristics, has never been in doubt, since its remains came to be studied seriously and impartially. The truth was indeed obscured for a time by persistent prejudices in favour of certain alien Medi- terranean races long known to have been in relation with the Aegean area in prehistoric times, e.g. the Egyptians and especi- ally the Phoenicians. But their claims to be the principal authors of the Aegean remains grew fainter with every fresh Aegean discovery, and every new light thrown on their own proper products; with the Cretan revelations they ceased altogether to be considered except by a few Homeric enthusiasts. Briefly, we now know that the Aegean civilization developed these distinctive features. (1) An indigenous script expressed in characters of which only a very small percentage are identical, or even obviously connected, with those of any other script. This is equally true both of the pictographic and the linear Aegean systems. Its nearest affinities are with the " Asianic " scripts, preserved to us by Hittite, Cypriote and south-west Anatolian (Pamphylian, Lycian and Carian) inscriptions. But neither are these affinities close enough to be of any practical aid in deciphering Aegean characters, nor is it by any means certain that there is parentage. The Aegean script may be, and probably is, prior in origin to the " Asianic "; and it may equally well be owed to a remote common ancestor, or (the small number of common characters being considered) be an entirely independent evolution from representations of natural objects (see Crete). (2) An Art, whose products cannot be confounded with those of any other known art by a trained eye. Its obliga- tions to other contemporary arts are many and obvious, especi- ally in its later stages; but every borrowed form and motive undergoes an essential modification at the hands of the Aegean craftsman, and the product is stamped with a new character. The secret of this character lies evidently in a constant attempt to express an ideal in forms more and more closely approaching to realities. We detect the dawn of that spirit which afterwards animated Hellenic art. The fresco-paintings, ceramic motives, reliefs, free sculpture and toreutic handiwork of Crete have supplied the clearest proof of it, confirming the impression already created by the goldsmiths' and painters' work of the Greek mainland (Mycenae, Vaphio, Tiryns). (3) Architectural plans and decoration. The arrangement of Aegean palaces is of two main types. First (and perhaps earliest in time), the chambers are grouped round a central court, being engaged one with the other in a labyrinthine complexity, and the greater oblongs are entered from a long side and divided longitudinally by pillars. Second, the main chamber is of what is known as the megaron type, i.e. it stands free, isolated from the rest of the plan by corridors, is entered from a vestibule on a short side, and has a central hearth, surrounded by pillars and perhaps hypaethral; there is no central court, and other apartments form distinct blocks. For possible geographical reasons for this duality of type see Crete. In spite of many comparisons made with Egyptian, Babylonian and " Hittite " plans, both these arrangements remain incongruous with any remains of prior or contemporary structures elsewhere. Whether either plan suits the " Homeric palace " does not affect the present question. (4) A type of tomb, the dome or " bee-hive," of which the grandest examples known are at Mycenae. The Cretan " larnax " coffins, also, have no parallels outside the Aegean. There are other infinite singularities of detail; but the above are more than sufficient to establish the point. B. Origin and Continuity. — With the immense expansion of the evidence, due to the Cretan excavations, a question has arisen how far the Aegean civilization, whose total duration covers at least three thousand years, can be regarded as one and continuous. Thanks to the exploration of Cnossus, we now know that Aegean civilization had its roots in a primitive Neo- lithic period, of uncertain but very long duration, represented by a stratum which (on that site in particular) is in places nearly 20 ft. thick, and contains stone implements and sherds of hand- made and hand-polished vessels, showing a progressive develop- ment in technique from bottom to top. This Cnossian stratum seems to be throughout earlier than the lowest layer at Hissarlik. It closes with the introduction of incised, white-fijled decoration on pottery, whose motives are presently found reproduced in monochrome pigment. We are now in the beginning of the Bronze Age, and the first of Evans's " Minoan " periods (see Crete). Thereafter, by exact observation of stratification, eight more periods have been distinguished by the explorer of Cnossus, each marked by some important development in the universal and necessary products of the potter's art, the least destructible and therefore most generally used archaeological criterion. These periods fill the whole Bronze Age, with whose close, by the introduction of the superior metal, iron, the Aegean Age is conventionally held to end. Iron came into general Aegean use about 1000 B.C., and possibly was the means by which a body of northern invaders established their power on the ruins of the earlier dominion. The important point is this, that throughout the nine Cnossian periods, following the Neolithic Age (nam«d by Evans, " Minoaa I. 1, 2, 3; II. 1, 2, 3; III. 1, AEGEAN CIVILIZATION 249 2, 3 " ; see Crete), there is evidence of a perfectly orderly and continuous evolution in, at any rate, ceramic art. From one stage to another, fabrics, forms and motives of decoration develop gradually; so that, at the close of a span of more than two thousand years, at the least, the influences of the beginning can still be clearly seen and no trace of violent artistic intrusion can be detected. This fact, by itself, would go far to prove that the civilization continued fundamentally and essentially the same throughout. It is, moreover, supported by less abun- dant remains of other arts. That of painting in fresco, for in- stance, shows the same orderly development from at any rate Period II. 2 to the end. About institutions we have less certain knowledge, there being but little evidence for the earlier periods; but in the documents relating to religion, the most significant of all, it can at least be said that there is no trace of sharp change. We see evidence of a uniform Nature Worship passing through all the normal stages down to theoanthropism in the latest period. There is no appearance of intrusive deities or cult-ideas. We may take it then (and the fact is not disputed even by those who, like Dorpfeld, believe in one thorough racial change, at least, during the Bronze Age) that the Aegean civilization was indigenous, firmly rooted and strong enough to persist essen- tially unchanged and dominant in its own geographical area throughout the Neolithic and Bronze Ages. This conclusion can hardly entail less than a belief that, at any rate, the mass of those who-"possessed this civilization continued racially the same. There are, however, in certain respects at certain periods, evidences of such changes as might be due to the intrusion of small conquering castes, which adopted the superior civilization of the conquered people and became assimilated to the latter. The earliest palace at Cnossus was built probably in Period II. 1 or 2. It was of the type mentioned first in the description of palace-plans above. Before Period III. 1 it was largely re- built, and arguments have been brought forward by Dorpfeld to show that features of the second type were then introduced. A similar rebuilding took place at the same epoch at Phaestus, and possibly at Hagia Triada. Now the second type, the " megaron " arrangement, characterizes peculiarly the palaces discovered in the north of the Aegean area, at Mycenae, Tiryns and Hissarlik, where up to the present no signs of the first type, so characteristic of Crete, have been observed. These northern " megara " are all of late date, none being prior to Minoan III. 1. At Phylakope, a " megaron " appears only in the uppermost Aegean stratum, the underlying structures being more in con- formity with the earlier Cretan. At the same epoch a notable change took place in the Aegean script. The pictographic characters, found on seals and discs of Period II. in Crete, had given way entirely to a linear system by Period III. That system thenceforward prevailed exclusively, suffering a slight modification again in III. 2 and 3. These and other less well marked changes, say some critics, are signs of a racial convulsion not long after 2000 B.C. An old race was conquered by a new, even if, in matters of civilization, the former capta victorem cepit. For these races respectively Dorpfeld suggests the names " Lycian " and " Carian, " the latter coming in from the north Aegean, where Greek tradition remembered its former dominance. These names do not greatly help us. If we are to accept and profit by Dorpfeld's nomen- clature, we must be satisfied that, in their later historic habitats, both Lycians and Carians showed unmistakable signs of having formerly possessed the civilizations attributed to them in pre- historic times — signs which research has hitherto wholly failed to find. The most that can be said to be capable of proof is the infiltration of some northern influence into Crete at' the end of Minoan Period II. ; but it probably brought about no change of dynasty and certainly no change in the prevailing race. A good deal of anthropometric investigation has been devoted to human remains of the Aegean epoch, especially to skulls and bones found in Crete in tombs of Period II. The result of this, however, has not so far established more than the fact that the Aegean races, as a whole, belonged to the dark, long-headed Homo Mediterraneus, whose probable origin lay in mid-eastern Africa — a fact only valuable in the present connexion in so far as it tends to discredit an Asiatic source for Aegean civilization. Not enough evidence has been collected to affect the question of racial change during the Aegean period. From the skull- forms studied, it would appear, as we should expect, that the Aegean race was by no means pure even in the earlier Minoan periods. It only remains to be added that there is some ground for supposing that the language spoken in Crete before the later Doric was non-Hellenic, but Indo-European. This inference rests on three inscriptions in Greek characters but non-Greek language found in E. Crete. The language has some apparent affinities with Phrygian. The inscriptions are post-Aegean by many centuries, but they occur in the part of the island known to Homer as that inhabited by the Eteo-Cretans, or aborigines. Their language may prove to be that of the Linear tablets. C. History of Aegean Civilization. — History of an inferential and summary sort only can be derived from monuments in the absence of written records. The latter do, indeed, exist in the case of the Cretan civilization and in great numbers; but they are undeciphered and likely to remain so, except in the im- probable event of the discovery of a long bi-lingual text, partly couched in some familiar script and language. Even in that event, the information which would be derived from the Cnossian tablets would probably make but a small addition to history,, since in very large part they are evidently mere inventories of tribute and stores. The engraved gems probably record divine or human names. (See Crete.) (1) Chronology. — The earliest chronological datum that we possess is inferred from a close similarity between certain Cretan hand-made and polished vases of Minoan Period I. 1 and others discovered by Petrie at Abydos in Egypt and referred by. him to the 1st Dynasty. He goes so far as to pronounce the latter to be Cretan importations, their fabric and forms being unlike anything Nilotic. If that be so, the period at which stone im- plements were beginning to be superseded by bronze in Crete must be dated before 4000 B.C. But it will be remembered that below all Evans's " Minoan " strata lies the immensely thick Neolithic deposit. To date the beginning of this earliest record of human production is impossible at present. The Neolithic stratum varies very much in depth, ranging from nearly 20 ft. to 3 ft., but is deepest on the highest part of the hillock. Its variations may be due equally to natural denudation of a stratum once of uniform depth, or to the artificial heaping up of a mound by later builders. Even were certainty as to these alternatives attained, we could only guess at the average rate of accumula- tion, which experience shows to proceed very differently on different sites and under different social and climatic conditions. In later periods at Cnossus accumulation seems to have proceeded at a rate of, roughly, 3 ft. per thousand years. Reckoning by that standard we might push the earliest Neolithic remains back behind 10,000 B.C.; but the calculation would be worthy of little credence. Passing by certain fragments of stone vessels, found at Cnossus, and coincident with forms characteristic of the IVth Pharaonic Dynasty, we reach another fairly certain date in the synchronism of remains belonging to the Xllth Dynasty (c. 2500 B.C. accord- ing to Petrie, but later according to the Berlin School) with products of Minoan Period II. 2. Characteristic Cretan pottery of this period was found by Petrie in the Fayum in conjunction with XII th Dynasty remains, and various Cretan products of the period show striking coincidences with Xllth Dynasty styles, especially in their adoption of spiraliform ornament. The spiral, however, it must be confessed, occurs so often in natural objects (e.g. horns, climbing plants, shavings of wood or metal) that too much stress must not be laid on the mutual parentage of spirali- form ornament in different civilizations. A diorite statuette, referable by its style and inscription to Dynasty XIII., was dis- covered in deposit of Period II. .3 in the Central Court, and a cartouche of the " Shepherd King," Khyan, was also found at Cnossus. He is usually dated about 1900 B.C. This brings us to the next and most certain synchronism, that of Minoan Periods 250 AEGEAN CIVILIZATION III. i, 2, with Dynasty XVIII. (c. 1600-1400 B.C.). This co- incidence has been observed not only at Cnossus, but previously, in connexion with discoveries of scarabs and other Egyptian objects made at Mycenae, Ialysus, Vaphio, &c. In Egypt itself Kefti tributaries, bearing vases of Aegean form, and themselves similar in fashion of dress arid arrangement of hair to figures on Cretan frescoes and gems of Period III., are depicted under this and the succeeding Dynasties (e.g. Rekhmara tomb at Thebes). Actual vases of late Minoan style have been found with remains of Dynasty XVIII., especially in the town of Amenophis IV. Akhenaton at Tell el-Amarna; while in the Aegean area itself we have abundant evidence of a great wave of Egyptian influence beginning with this same Dynasty. To this wave were owed in all probability the Nilotic scenes depicted on the Mycenae daggers, on frescoes of Hagia Triada and Cnossus, on pottery of Zakro, on the shell-relief of Phaestus, &c. ; and also many forms and fabrics, e.g. certain Cretan coffins, and the faience industry of Cnossus. These serve to date, beyond all reasonable question, Periods III. 1-2 in Crete, the shaft-graves in the Mycenae circle, the Vaphio tomb, &c, to the 16th and 15th centuries B.C., and Period III. 3 with the lower town at Mycenae, the majority of the sixth stratum at Hissarlik, the Ialysus burials, the upper stratum at Phylakope, &c, to the century immediately suc- ceeding. The terminus ad quern is less certain — iron does not begin to be used for weapons in the Aegean till after Period III. 3, and then not exclusively. If we fix its introduction to about 1000 B.C. and make it coincident with the incursion of northern tribes, remembered by the classical Greeks as the Dorian Invasion, we must allow that this incursion did not altogether stamp out Aegean civilization, at least in the southern part of its area. But it finally destroyed the Cnossian palace and initiated the " Geometric ,: Age, with which, for convenience at any rate, we may close the history of Aegean civilization proper. (2) Annals. — From these and other data the outlines of primi- tive history in the Aegean may be sketched thus. A people, agreeing in its prevailing skull-forms with the Mediterranean race of N. Africa, was settled in the Aegean area from a remote Neolithic antiquity, but, except in Crete, where insular security was combined with great natural fertility, remained in a savage and unproductive condition until far into the 4th millennium B.C. In Crete, however, it had long been developing a certain civilization, and at a period more or less contemporary with Dynasties XI. and XII. (2500 B.C. ?) the scattered communities of the centre of the island coalesced into a strong monarchical state, whose capital was at Cnossus. There the king, probably also high priest of the prevailing nature-cult, built a great stone palace, and received the tribute of feudatories, of whom, prob- ably, the prince of Phaestus, who commanded the Messara plain, was chief. The Cnossian monarch had maritime relations with Egypt, and presently sent his wares all over the S. Aegean (e.g. to Melos in the earlier Second City Period of Phylakope) and to Cyprus, receiving in return such commodities as Melian obsidian knives. A system of pictographic writing came into use early in this Palace period, but only a few documents, made of durable material, have survived. Pictorial art of a purely indigenous character, whether on ceramic material or plaster, made great strides, and from ceramic forms we may legitimately infer also a high skill in metallurgy. The absence of fortifications both at Cnossus and Phaestus suggest that at this time Crete was in- ternally peaceful and externally secure. Small settlements, in very close relation with the capital, were founded in the east of the island to command fertile districts and assist maritime commerce. Gournia and Palaikastro fulfilled both these ends: Zakro must have had mainly a commercial purpose, as the starting-point for the African coast. The acme of this dominion was reached about the end of the 3rd millennium B.C., and there- after there ensued a certain, though not very serious, decline. Meanwhile, at other favourable spots in the Aegean, but chiefly, it appears, on sites in easy relation to maritime commerce, e.g. Tiryns and Hissarlik, other communities of the early race began to arrive at civilization, but were naturally influenced by the more advanced culture of Crete, in proportion to their nearness of vicinity. Early Hissarlik shows less Cretan influence and more external (i.e. Asiatic) than early Melos. The inner Greek mainland remained still' in a backward state. Five hundred years later— about 1600 B.C. — we observe that certain striking changes have taken place. The Aegean remains have become astonishingly uniform over the whole area; the local ceramic developments have almost ceased and been replaced by ware of one general type both of fabric and decoration. The Cretans have stayed their previous decadence, and are once more pos- sessors of a progressive civilization. They have developed a more convenient and expressive written character by stages of which one is best represented by the tablets of Hagia Triada. The art of all the area gives evidence of one spirit and common models ; in religious representations it shows the same anthropo- morphic personification and the same ritual furniture. Objects produced in one locality are found in others. The area of Aegean intercourse has widened and become more busy. Commerce with Egypt, for example, has increased in a marked degree, and Aegean objects or imitations of them are found to have begun to penetrate into Syria, inland Asia Minor, and the central and western Mediterranean lands, e.g. Sicily, Sardinia and Spain. There can be little doubt that a strong power was now fixed in one Aegean centre, and that all the area had come under its political, social and artistic influence. How was this brought about, and what was the imperial centre? Some change seems to have come from the north; and there are those who go so far as to say that the centre henceforward was the Argolid, and especially " golden " Mycenae, whose lords imposed a new type of palace and a modification of Aegean art on all other Aegean lands. Others again cite the old-established power and productivity of Crete; the immense advantage it derived from insularity, natural fertility and geo- graphical relation to the wider area of east Mediterranean civilizations; and the absence of evidence elsewhere for the gradual growth of a culture powerful enough to dominate the Aegean. They point to the fact that, even in the new period, the palm for wealth and variety of civilized production still remained with Crete. There alone we have proof that the art of writing was commonly practised, and there tribute- tallies suggest an imperial organization; there the arts of painting and sculpture in stone were most highly developed ; there the royal residences, which had never been violently destroyed, though remodelled, continued unfortified; whereas on the Greek mainland they required strong protective works. The golden treasure of the Mycenae graves, these critics urge, is not more splendid than would have been found at Cnossus had royal burials been spared by plunderers, or been happened upon intact by modern ex- plorers. It is not impossible to combine these views, and place the seat of power still in Crete, but ascribe the Renascence there to an influx of new blood from the north, large enough to instil fresh vigour, but too small to change the civilization in its essential character. If this dominance was Cretan, it was short-lived. The security of the island was apparently violated not long after 1500 B.C., the Cnossian palace was sacked and burned, and Cretan art suffered an irreparable blow. As the comparatively lifeless character which it possesses in the succeeding period (III. 3) is coincident with a similar decadence all over the Aegean area, we can hardly escape from the conclusion that it was due to the invasion of all the Aegean lands (or at least the Greek mainland and isles) by some less civilized conquerors, who remained politically dominant, but, like their forerunners, having no culture of their own, adopted, while they spoiled, that which they found. Who these were we cannot say; but the prob- ability is that they too came from the north, and were pre- cursors of the later " Hellenes." Under their rule peace was re-established, and art production became again abundant among the subject population, though of inferior quality. The Cnossian palace was re-occupied in its northern part by chieftains who have left numerous rich graves; and general commercial intercourse must have been resumed, for the uniformity of the AEGEAN CIVILIZATION religion plmeiii. Fig. i— LION-GUARDED GODDESS AND Fig. 2.— MALE DIVINITY BE- Fig. 3.— GOLD SIGNET FROM ACROPOLIS SHRINE, ON A CLAY SEALING FROM TWEEN LIONS, ON A LENTOID TREASURE, MYCENAE, SHOWING THE GOD CNOSSUS. GEM FROM KYDONIA, CRETE. DESS BENEATH A SACRED TREE, WITH B.S.A.™. a g,F,' e . 9 . J.tr.S.™. 163.Fig.43. ADORANTS AND SACRED EMBLEMS. J.H.S. xxi. 108, Fig, 4. if m 'msmk Fig. 4.— BIRDS ON A TRIAD OF PILLARS, CNOSSUS. B.S.A. viii. 29, Fig. 14. Fig. 5.— CLAY SEALINGS FROM ZAKRO, WITH MINOTAUR TYPES. B.S.A. vii. 133, Fig. 45. By permission of the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies. Fig. 6— DUAL PILLAR WORSHIP, ON A GOLD SIGNET RING, CNOSSUS. J.H.S. jim. 170, Fig. 48. Fig. 7.— FAIENCE FIGURE OF THE GODDESS, WITH Fig. 8— FACADE OF SMALL TEMPLES, COMPLETED SERPENT ATTRIBUTES, CNOSSUS. FROM A FRESCO PAINTING, CNOSSUS. B.S.A. ix. 75, Fig. 54. J.H.S. xxi. iq3. Fig. 66. Plate, IV AEGEAN CIVILIZATION TYPES AND COSTUMES, ETC. N< 1 Fig i —TESSERAE OF PORCELAIN MOSAIC IN FORM OF HOUSES AND TOWERS, CNOSSUS. B.S.A ym.ij,Fis-s. Fig. 2.— CUP-BEARER, CNOSSUS. Photo by Dr A. J. Evans. Figs. 3, 5.— IVORY HEADS FROM SP ATA (ATTICA). Reichei, Homerische Wofien, 1901, p. 103- By permission of A. Holder, Vienna. Fig. 4.— FRESCO PAINTING OF GIRL, CNOSSUS. B.S.A. vii. 57, Fig. 17. Fig. 5 — Sco Fig. 3. Fig. 6— FAIENCE FIGURE OF FEMALE VOTARY OF SNAKE-GODDESS, CNOSSUS. B.S.A. ix. 77, Fig. 56. Fig. 7— KEFTIU (CRETAN) BEARING AEGEAN VASE AS TRIBUTE TO PHARAOH. From H. R. Hall, Oldest Civilization inCrecce (1001). By permission of the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies. js^fSfeg ;' - j : -J MbsM, AEGEAN SEA— AEGINA 25* decadent Aegean products and their wide distribution become more marked than ever. About 1000 B.C. there happened a final catastrophe. The palace at Cnossus was once more destroyed, and never rebuilt or re-inhabited. Iron took the place of Bronze, and Aegean art, as a living thing, ceased on the Greek mainland and in the Aegean isles including Crete, together with Aegean writing. In Cyprus, and perhaps on the south-west Anatolian coasts, there is some reason to think that the cataclysm was less complete, and Aegean art continued to languish, cut off from its fountain-head. Such artistic faculty as survived elsewhere issued in the lifeless geometric style which is reminiscent of the later Aegean, but wholly unworthy of it. Cremation took the place of burial of the dead. This great disaster, which cleared the ground for a new growth of local art, was probably due to yet another in- cursion of northern tribes, more barbarous than their predecessors, but possessed of superior iron weapons — those tribes which later Greek tradition and Homer knew as the Dorians. They crushed a civilization already hard hit; and it took two or three centuries for the artistic spirit, instinct in the Aegean area, and probably preserved in suspended animation by the survival of Aegean racial elements, to blossom anew. On this conquest seems to have ensued a long period of unrest and popular movements, known to Greek tradition as the Ionian Migration and the Aeolic and Dorian " colonizations "; and when once more we see the Aegean area clearly, it is dominated by Hellenes, though it has not lost all memory of its earlier culture. Bibliography. — Much of the evidence is contained in archaeo- logical periodicals, especially Annual of (he British School at Athens (1900- ); Monumenli Antichi and Rendiconti d. R. Ac. d. Lincei (1901- ); Ephemeris Archaiologike (1885- ); Journal of Hellenic Studies, Alhenische Mittheilungen, Bulletin de correspondance hellenique, American Journal of Archaeology, &c. (all since about 1885). Special Works: H. Schliemann's books (seeScHLiEMANN), summarized by C. Schuchhardt, Schliemann's Excavations (1891); Chr. Tsountas, Mv/ojccu (1893); Chr. Tsountas and J. I. Manatt, The Mycenaean Age (1897) ; G. Perrot and Ch. Chipiez, Histoire de I' art dans I'antiquite, vol. vi. (1895); W. Dorpfeld, Troja (1893) and Troja und Ilios (1904) ; A. Furtwangler and G. Loschke, Mykenische Vasen (1886); A. S. Murray, Excavations in Cyprus (1900); W. Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece (1901 foil.); H. R. Hall, The Oldest Civilization of Greece (1901); A. J. Evans, " Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult " in Journ. Hell. Studies (1901) and " Prehistoric Tombs of Knossos " in Archaeologia (1905); P. Noack, Homerische Paldsie (1903) ; Excavations at Phylahopi, by members of the British School at Athens (1904) ; Harriet A. Boyd (Mrs Hawes), Excavations at Gournia (1907) ; D. G. Hogarth, " Aegean Religion " in Hastings' Did. of Religions (1906). For a recent view of the place of Aegean civilization in the history of Hellenic culture see Die Hellenische Kultur by F. Baumgarten, &c. (1905). Various summaries, controversial articles, &c, formerly quoted, are now superseded by recent discoveries. See also Crete, Mycenae, Troad, Ceramics, Plate, &c. (D. G. H.) AEGEAN SEA, a part of the Mediterranean Sea, being the archipelago between Greece on the west and Asia Minor on the east, bounded N. by European Turkey, and connected by the Dardanelles with the Sea of Marmora, and so with the Black Sea. The name Archipelago (q.v.) was formerly applied specifically to this sea. The origin of the name Aegean is uncertain. Various derivations are given by the ancient grammarians — one from the town of Aegae ; another from Aegea, a queen of the Amazons who perished in this sea; and a third from Aegeus, the father of Theseus, who, supposing his son dead, drowned himself in it. The following are the chief islands: — Thasos, in the extreme north, off the Macedonian coast; Samothrace, fronting the Gulf of Saros; Imbros and Lemnos, in prolongation of the peninsula of Gallipoli ( Thracian Chersonese) ; Euboea, the largest of all, lying close along the east coast of Greece; the Northern Sporades, including Sciathos, Scopelos and Halonesos, running out from the southern extremity of the Thessalian coast, and Scyros, with its satellites, north-east of Euboea; Lesbos and Chios; Samos and Nikaria; Cos, with Calymnos to the north; all off Asia Minor, with the many other islands of the Sporades; and, finally, the great group of the Cyclades, of which the largest are Andros and Tenos, Naxos and Paros. Many of the Aegean islands, or chains of islands, are actually prolongations of pro- montories of the mainland. Two main chains extend right across the sea — the one through Scyros and Psara (between which shallow banks intervene) to Chios and the hammer-shaped promontory east of it; and the other running from the south- eastern promontory of Euboea and continuing the axis of that island, in a southward curve through Andros, Tenos, Myconos, Nikaria and Samos. A third curve, from the south-easternmost promontory of the Peloponnese through Cerigo, Crete, Carpathos and Rhodes, marks off the outer deeps of the open Mediterranean from the shallow seas of the archipelago, but the Cretan Sea, in which depths occur over 1000 fathoms, intervenes, north of the line, between it and the Aegean proper. The Aegean itself is naturally divided by the island-chains and the ridges from which they rise into a series of basins or troughs, the deepest of which is that in the north, extending from the coast of Thessaly to the Gulf of Saros, and demarcated southward by the Northern Sporades, Lemnos, Imbros and the peninsula of Gallipoli. The greater part of this trough is over 600 fathoms deep. The pro- fusion of islands and their usually bold elevation give beauty and picturesqueness to the sea, but its navigation is difficult and dangerous, notwithstanding the large number of safe and commodious gulfs and bays. Many of the islands are of volcanic formation; and a well-defined volcanic chain bounds the Cretan Sea on the north, including Milo and Kimolos, Santorin (Thera) and Therasia, and extends to Nisyros. Others, such as Paros, are mainly composed of marble, and iron ore occurs in some. The larger islands have some fertile and well-watered valleys and plains. The chief productions are wheat, wine, oil, mastic, figs, raisins, honey, wax, cotton and silk. The people are em- ployed in fishing for coral and sponges, as well as for bream, mullet and other fish. The men are hardy, well built and hand- some; and the women are noted for their beauty, the ancient Greek type being well preserved. The Cyclades and Northern Sporades, with Euboea and small islands under the Greek shore, belong to Greece; the other islands to Turkey. AEGEUS, in Greek legend, son of Pandion and grandson of Cecrops, was king of Athens and the father of Theseus. He was deposed by his nephews, but Theseus defeated them and re- instated his father. When Theseus set out for Crete to deliver Athens from the tribute to the Minotaur he promised Aegeus that, if he were successful, he would change the black sail carried by his ship for a white one. But, on his return, he forgot to hoist the white sail, and his father, supposing that his son had lost his life, threw himself from a high rock on which he was keeping watch into the sea, which was afterwards called the Aegean. The Athenians honoured him with a statue and a shrine, and one of the Attic demes was named after him. Plutarch, Theseus; Pausanias i. 22; Hyginus, Fab. 43; Catullus lxiv. 207. AEGINA (Egina or Engia), an island of Greece in the Saronic Gulf, 20 m. from the Peiraeus. Tradition derives the name from Aegina, the mother of Aeacus, who was born in and ruled the island. In shape Aegina is triangular, 8 m. long from N.W. to S.E., and 6 m. broad, with an area of about 41 sq. m. The western side consists of stony but fertile plains, which are well cultivated and produce luxuriant crops of grain, with some cotton, vines, almonds and figs. The rest of the island is rugged and mountainous. The southern end rises in the conical Mount Oros, and the Panhellenian ridge stretches northward with narrow fertile valleys on either side. From the absence of marshes the climate is the most healthy in Greece. The island forms part of the modern nomas of Attica and Boeotia, of which it forms an eparchy. The sponge fisheries are of considerable importance. The chief town is Aegina, situated at the north-west end of the island, the summer residence of many Athenian merchants. Capo d'Istria, to whom there is a statue in the principal square, erected there a large building, intended for a barracks, which was subsequently used as a museum, a library and a school. The museum was the first institution of its kind in Greece, but the collection was transferred to Athens in 1834. Antiquities. — The archaeological interest of Aegina is centred in the well-known temple on the ridge near the northern corner of the island. .Excavations were made on its site in 18 jr, by 252 AEGINA Baron Haller von Hallerstein and the English architect C. R. Cockerell, who discovered a considerable amount of sculpture from the pediments, which was bought in 1812 by the crown prince Louis of Bavaria; the groups were set up in the Glypto- thek at Munich after the figures had been restored by B. Thor- valdsen. Their restoration was somewhat drastic, the ancient parts being cut away to allow of additions in marble, and the new parts treated in imitation of the ancient weathering. Various conjectures were made as to the arrangement of the figures. That according to which they were set up at Munich was in the main suggested by Cockerell; in the middle of each pediment was a figure of Athena, set well back, and a fallen warrior at her feet; on each side were standing spearmen, kneel- ing spearmen and bowmen, all facing towards the centre of the composition ; the corners were filled with fallen warriors. In 1001 Professor Furtwangler began a more systematic excavation of the site, and the new discoveries he then made, together with a fresh and complete study of the figures and fragments in Munich, have led to a rearrangement of the whole, which, if not certain in all details, may be regarded as approaching finality. Accord- ing to this the figures of combatants do not all face towards the centre, but are broken up, as in other early compositions, into a series of groups of two or three figures each. A figuoe of Athena still occupies the centre of each pediment, but is set farther forward than in the old reconstruction. On each side of this, in the western pediment, is a group of two combatants over a fallen warrior; in the eastern pediment, a warrior whose opponent is falling into the arms of a supporting figure; other figures also — the bowmen especially — face towards the angles, and so give more variety to the composition. The western pediment, which is more conservative in type, represents the earlier expedition of Heracles and Telamon against Troy; the eastern, which is bolder and more advanced, probably refers to episodes in the Trojan war. There are also remains of a third pediment, which may have been produced in competition, but never placed on the temple. For the character of the sculptures see Greek Art. The plan of the temple is chiefly remarkable for the unsymmetrically placed door leading from the back of the cella into the opisthodomus. This opisthodomus was completely fenced in with bronze gratings; and the excavators believe it to have been adapted for use as an adytum (shrine). It was disputed in earlier times whether the temple was dedicated to Zeus or Athena. Inscriptions found by the recent excavations seem to prove that it must be identified as the shrine of the local goddess Aphaea, identified by Pausanias with Britomartis and Dictynna. The excavations have laid bare several other buildings, includ- ing an altar, early propylaea, houses for the priests and remains of an earlier temple. The present temple probably dates from the time of the Persian wars. In the town of Aegina itself are the remains of another temple, dedicated to Aphrodite; one column of this still remains standing, and its foundations are fairly preserved. Authorities. — Antiquities of Ionia (London, 1797), ii. pi. ii.-vii.; C. R. Cockerell, The Temples of Jupiter Panhellenius at Aegina, &c. (London, i860); Ch. Gamier, Le Temple de Jupiter Panhellenien d, Egine (Paris, 1884); Ad. Furtwangler and others, Aegina, Heiligtum der Aphaia (Munich, 1906), where earlier authorities are collected and discussed. (E. Gr.) History. — (1) Ancient. Aegina, according to Herodotus (v. 83), was a colony of Epidaurus, to which state it was originally subject. The discovery in the island of a number of gold orna- ments belonging to the latest period of Mycenaean art suggests the inference that the Mycenaean culture held its own in Aegina for some generations after the Dorian conquest of Argos and Lacedaemon (see A. J. Evans, in Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. xiii. p. 195). It is probable that the island was not dorized before the 9th century B.C. One of the earliest facts known to us in its history is its membership in the League of Calauria, which included, besides Aegina, Athens, the Minyan (Boeotian) Orchomenos, Troezen, Hermione, Nauplia and Prasiae, and was probably an organization of states which were still Mycenaean, for the suppression of the piracy which had sprung up in the Aegean as a result of the decay of the naval supremacy of the Mycenaean princes. It follows, therefore, that the maritime importance of the island dates back to pre-Dorian times. It is usually stated, on the authority of Ephorus, that Pheidon (q.v.) of Argos established a mint in Aegina. Though this statement is probably to be rejected, it may be regarded as certain that Aegina was the first state of European Greece to coin money. Thus it was the Aeginetans who, within thirty or forty years of the invention of coinage by the Lydians (c. 700 B.C.), introduced to the western world a system of such incalculable value to trade. The fact that the Aeginetan scale of coins, weights and measures was one of the two scales in general use in the Greek world is sufficient evidence of the early commercial importance of the island. It appears to have belonged to the Eretrian league; hence, perhaps, we may explain the war with Samos, a leading member of the rival Chalcidian league in the reign of King Amphicfates (Herod, iii. 59), i.e. not later than the earlier half of the 7th century B.C. In the next century Aegina is one of the three principal states trading at the emporium of Nau- cratis (q.v.), and it is the only state of European Greece that has a share in this factory (Herod, ii. 178). At the beginning of the 5th century it seems to have been an entrepot of the Pontic grain trade, at a later date an Athenian monopoly (Herod, vii. 147). Unlike the other commercial states of the 7th and 6th centuries B.C., e.g. Corinth, Chalcis, Eretria and Miletus, Aegina founded no colonies. The settlements to which Strabo refers (viii. 376) cannot be regarded as any real exceptions to this statement. The history of Aegina, as it has come down to us, is almost exclusively a history of its relations with the neighbouring state of Athens. The history of these relations, as recorded by Herodotus (v. 79-89; vi. 49-51, 73, 85-94), involve critical problems of some difficulty and interest. He traces back the hostility of the two states to a dispute about the images of the goddesses Damia and Auxesia, which the Aeginetans had carried off from Epidaurus, their parent state. The Epidaurians had been accustomed to make annual offerings to the Athenian deities Athena and Erechtheus in payment for the Athenian olive-wood of which the statues were made. Upon the refusal of the Aeginetans to continue these offerings, the Athenians endeavoured to carry away the images. Their design was miracu- lously frustrated — according to the Aeginetan version, the statues fell upon their knees, — and only a single survivor returned to Athens, there to fall a victim to the fury of his comrades' widows, who pierced him with their brooch-pins. No date is assigned by Herodotus for this " old feud "; recent writers, e.g. J. B. Bury and R. W. Macan, suggest the period between Solon and Peisistratus, c. 570 B.C. It may be questioned, however, whether the whole episode is not mythical. A critical analysis of the narrative seems to reveal little else than a series of aetio- logical traditions, explanatory of cults and customs, e.g. of the kneeling posture of the images of Damia and Auxesia, of the use of native ware instead of Athenian in their worship, and of the change in women's dress at Athens from the Dorian to the Ionian style. The account which Herodotus gives of the hostili- ties between the two states in the early years of the 5th century B.C. is to the following effect. Thebes, after the defeat by Athens about 507 B.C., appealed to Aegina for assistance. The Aeginetans at first contented themselves with sending the images of the Aeacidae, the tutelary heroes of their island. Subse- quently, however, they entered into an alliance, and ravaged the sea-board of Attica. The Athenians were preparing to make reprisals, in spite of the advice of the Delphic oracle that they should desist from attacking Aegina for thirty years, and con- tent themselves meanwhile with dedicating a precinct to Aeacus, when their projects were interrupted by the Spartan intrigues for the restoration of Hippias. In 491 B.C. Aegina was one of the states which gave the symbols of submission (" earth and water ") to Persia. Athens at once appealed to Sparta to punish this act of. medism, and Cleomenes I. (q.v.), one of the Spartan kings, crossed over to the island, to arrest those who were responsible for it. His attempt was at first unsuccessful ; AEGINA 253 *^ Reproduced by permission, from FurCwangh Aegina , das Heiligtum der Aphaia LOWER TERRACE WALL THE SANCTUARY OF APHAEA ,,f Yards 10 *9 5 Metres 10 20 Emery Walker, V.E.R.Fiechter.del. but, after the deposition of Demaratus, he visited the island a second time, accompanied by his new colleague Leotychides, seized ten of the leading citizens and deposited them at Athens as hostages. After the death of Cleomenes and the refusal of the Athenians to restore the hostages to Leotychides, the Aeginetans retaliated by seizing a number of Athenians at a festival at Sunium. Thereupon the Athenians concerted a plot with Nicodromus, the leader of the democratic party in the island, for the betrayal of Aegina. He was to seize the old city, and they were to come to his aid on the same day with seventy vessels. The plot failed owing to the late arrival of the Athenian force, when Nicodromus had already fled the island. An engage- ment followed in which the Aeginetans were defeated. Subse- quently, however, they succeeded in winning a victory over the Athenian fleet. All the incidents subsequent to the appeal of Athens to Sparta are expressly referred by Herodotus to the interval between the sending of the heralds in 491 B.C. and the invasion of Datis and Artaphernes in 400 B.C. (cf. Herod, vi. 40 with 94) . There are difficulties in this story, of which the follow- ing are the principal: — (i.) Herodotus nowhere states or implies that peace was concluded between the two states before 481 B.C., nor does he distinguish between different wars during this period. Hence it would follow that the war lasted from shortly after 507 B.C. down to the congress at the Isthmus of Corinth in 481 B.C. (ii.) It is only for two years (490 and 491) out of the twenty-five that any details are given. It is the more remarkable that no incidents are recorded in the period between Marathon and Salamis, seeing that at the time of the Isthmian Congress the war is described as the most important one then being waged in Greece (Herod, vii. 145). (iii.) It is improbable that Athens would have sent twenty vessels to the aid of the Ionians in 498 B.C. if at the time she was at war with Aegina. (iv.) There is an incidental indication of time, which points to the period after Marathon as the true date for the events which are referred by Herodotus to the year before Marathon, viz. the thirty years that were to elapse between the dedication of the precinct to Aeacus and the final victory of Athens (Herod, v. 89). As the final victory of Athens over Aegina was in 458 B.C., the thirty years of the oracle would carry us back to the year 488 B.C. as the date of the dedication of the precinct and the outbreak of hostilities. This inference is supported by the date of the building of the 200 triremes " for the war against Aegina " on the advice of Themistocles, which is given in the Censtiiutien of Athens as 483-482 B.C. (Herod, vii. 144; Ath. Pol. 22. 7). It is '54 AEGINETA^AEGISTHUS probable, therefore, that Herodotus is in error both in tracing back the beginning of hostilities to an alliance between Thebes and Aegina (c. 507) and in putting the episode of Nicodromus before Marathon. Overtures were unquestionably made by Thebes for an alliance with Aegina c. 507 B.C., but they came to nothing. The refusal of Aegina was veiled under the diplomatic form of " sending the Aeacidae." The real occasion of the out- break of the war was the refusal of Athens to restore the hostages some twenty years later. There was but one war, and it lasted from 488 to 481. That Athens had the worst of it in this war is certain. Herodotus had no Athenian victories to record after the initial success, and the fact that Themistocles was able to carry his proposal to devote the surplus funds of the state to the building of so large a fleet seems to imply that the Athenians were themselves convinced that a supreme effort was neces- sary. It may be noted, in confirmation of this view, that the naval supremacy of Aegina is assigned by the ancient writers on chronology to precisely this period, i.e. the years 490-480 (Eusebius, Chron. Can. p. 337). In the repulse of Xerxes it is possible that the Aeginetans played a larger part than is conceded to them by Herodotus. The Athenian tradition, which he follows in the main, would naturally seek to obscure their services. , It was to Aegina rather than Athens that the prize of valour at Salamis was awarded, and the destruction of the Persian fleet appears to have been as much the work of the Aeginetan contingent as of the Athenian (Herod, viii. 91). There are other inditations, too, of the importance of the Aeginetan fleet in the Greek scheme of defence. In view of these considerations it becomes difficult to credit the number of the vessels that is assigned to them by Herodotus (30 as against 180 Athenian vessels, cf. Greek History, sect. Authorities). During the next twenty years the philo-laconian policy of Cimon {q.v.) secured Aegina, as a member of the Spartan league, from attack. The change in Athenian foreign pol ; cy, which was consequent upon the ostracism of Cimon in 46 1 , led to what is sometimes called the First Pelopon- nesian War, in which the brunt of the fighting fell upon Corinth and Aegina. The latter state was forced to surrender to Athens after a siege, and to accept the position of a subject-ally (c. 456 B.C.). The tribute was fixed at 30 talents. By the terms of the Thirty Years' Truce (445 B.C.) Athens covenanted to restore to Aegina her autonomy, but the clause remained a dead letter. In the first winter of the Peloponnesian War (431 B.C.) Athens expelled the Aeginetans, and established a cleruchy in their island. The exiles were settled by Sparta in Thyreatis, on the frontiers of Laconia and Argolis. Even in their new home they were not safe from Athenian rancour. 1 A force landed under Nicias in 424, and put most of them to the sword. At the end of the Peloponnesian War Lysander restored the scattered remnants of the old inhabitants to the island, which was used by the Spartans as a base for opera- tions against Athens in the Corinthian War. Its greatness, however, was at an end. The part which it plays hence- forward is insignificant. It would be a mistake to attribute the fall of Aegina solely to the development of the Athenian navy. It is probable that the power of Aegina had steadily declined during the twenty years after Salamis, and that it had declined absolutely, as well as relatively, to that of Athens. Commerce was the source of Aegina's greatness, and her trade, which appears to have been principally with the Levant, must have suffered seriously from the war with Persia. Her medism in 491 is to be explained by her commercial relations with the Persian Empire. She was forced into patriotism in spite of herself, and the glory won at Salamis was paid for by the loss of her trade and the decay of her marine. The completeness of the ruin of so powerful a state — we should look in vain for an analogous case in the history of the modern world — finds an explanation in the economic conditions of the island, the prosperity of which rested upon a basis of slave-labour. It is impossible, indeed, to accept Aristotle's (cf. Athenaeus vi. 272) estimate of 470,000 as the 1 Pericles called Aegina the "eye-sore" fam) of the Peiraeus. number of the slave-population; it is clear,' however, that the number must have been out of all proportion to that of the free inhabitants. In this respect the history of Aegina does but anticipate the history of Greece as a whole. The constitutional history of Aegina is unusually simple. So long as the island retained its independence the government was an oligarchy. There is no trace of the heroic monarchy and no tradition of a tyrannis. The story of Nicodromus, while it proves the existence of a democratic party, suggests, at the same time, that it could count upon little support.! (2) Modern. — Aegina passed with the rest of Greece under the successive dominations of Macedoh, the Aetolians, Attalus of Pergamum and Rome. In 1537 the island, then a prosperous Venetian colony, was overrun and ruined by the pirate Barba- rossa (Khair-ed-Din). One of the last Venetian strongholds in the Levant, it was ceded by the treaty of Passarowitz (1718) to the Turks. In 1826-1828 the town became for a time the capital of Greece and the centre of a large commercial population (about 10,000), which has dwindled to about 4300. i _ Bibliography. — Herodotus loc. cit.; Thucydides i. 105, 108, ii. 27, iv. 56, 57. For the criticism of Herodotus's account of the relations of Athens and Aegina, Wilamowitz, Aristoteles und A then, ii. 280-288, is indispensable. See also Macan, Herodotus iv.-vi., ii. 102-120. (E. M. W.) AEGINETA, PAULUS, a celebrated surgeon of the island of Aegina, whence he derived his name. According to Le Clerc's calculation, he lived in the 4th century of the Christian era; but Abulfaragius (Barhebraeus) places him with more prob- ability in the 7 th. The title of his most important work, as given by Suidas, is 'E^ito^s 'Icltpiktjs Bi/3\ta 'Eirrd (Synopsis of Medicine in Seven Books), the 6th book of which, treating of operative surgery, is of special interest for surgical history. The whole work in the original Greek was published at Venice in 1528, and another edition appeared at Basel in 1538. Several Latin translations have been published, and an excellent English version, with commentary, by Dr F. Adams .(1844-1848). AEGIS (Gr. Aigis), in Homer, the shield or buckler of Zeus, fashioned for him by Hephaestus, furnished with tassels and bearing the Gorgon's head in the centre. Originally symbolical of the storm-cloud, it is probably derived from cucrcra), signifying rapid, violent motion. When the god shakes it, Mount Ida is wrapped in clouds, the thunder rolls and men are smitten with fear. He sometimes lends it to Athene and (rarely) to Apollo. In the later story (Hyginus, Poet. Astronom. ii. 13) Zeus is said to have used the skin of the goat Amaltheia (aiyis = goat-skin), which suckled him in Crete, as a buckler when he went forth to do battle against, the giants. Another legend represents the aegis as a fire-breathing monster like the Chimaera, which was slain by Athene, who afterwards wore its skin as a cuirass (Diodorus Siculus iii. 70). It appears to have been really the goat's skin used as a belt to support the shield. When so used it would generally be fastened on the right shoulder, and would partially envelop the chest as it passed obliquely round in front and behind to be attached to the shield under the left arm. Hence, by transference, it would be employed to denote at times the shield which it supported, and at other times a cuirass, the purpose of which it in part served. In accordance with this double msaning the aegis appears in works of art sometimes as an animal's skin thrown over the shoulders and arms, sometimes as a cuirass, with a border of snakes corresponding to the tassels of Homer, usually with the Gorgon's head in the centre. It is often represented on the statues of Roman emperors, heroes and warriors, and on cameos and vases. See F. G. Welcker, Griechische Gotterlehre (1857); L. Preller, Griechische Mylhologie, i. (1887) ; articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Real- encyclopadie, Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie, Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des Antiquites, and Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed., 1890). AEGISTHUS, in Greek legend, was the son of Thyestes by his own daughter Pelopia. Having been exposed by his mother to conceal her shame, he was found by shepherds and suckled by a goat — whence his name. His uncle Atreus, who had married AEGOSPOTAMI— iELFRIC 255 Pelopia, took him to Mycenae, and brought him up as his own son. When he grew up Aegisthus slew Atreus, and ruled jointly with his father over Mycenae, until they were deposed by Agamemnon on his return from exile. After the departure of Agamemnon to the Trojan war, Aegisthus seduced his wife Clytaemnestra (more correctly Clytaemestra) and with her assistance slew him on his return. Eight years later his murder was avenged by his son Orestes. Homer, Od. iii. 263, iv. 517; Hyginus, Fab. 87. AEGOSPOTAMI (i.e. " Goat Streams "), a small creek issuing into the Hellespont, N.E. of Sestos, the scene of the decisive battle in 405 B.C. by which Lysander destroyed the last Athenian armament in the Peloponnesian War (q.v.). The township of that name, whose existence is attested by coins of the 5th and 4th centuries, must have been quite insignificant. AXFRIC, called the " Grammarian " (c. 955-1020?), English abbot and author, was born about 955. He was educated in the Benedictine monastery at Winchester under jEthelwold, who was bishop there from 963 to 984. iEthelwold had carried on the tradition of Dunstan in his government of the abbey of Abingdon, and at Winchester he continued his strenuous efforts. He seems to have actually taken part in the work of teaching. /Elfric no doubt gained some reputation as a scholar at Win- chester, for when, in 987, the abbey of Cernel (Cerne Abbas, Dorsetshire) was finished, he was sent by Bishop ^Elfheah (Alphege), ^Ethelwold's successor, at the request of the chief benefactor of the abbey, the ealdorman iEthelmasr, to teach the Benedictine monks there. He was then in priest's orders. ^Ethelma?r and his father ^Ethelweard were both enlightened patrons of learning, and became iEIfric's faithful friends. It was at Cernel, and partly at the desire, it appears, of /Ethel- weard, that he planned the two series of his English homilies (ed. Benjamin Thorpe, 1844-1846, for the yElfric Society), com- piled from the Christian fathers, and dedicated to Sigeric, arch- bishop of Canterbury (990-994). The Latin preface to the first series enumerates some of .-Elf ric's authorities, the chief of whom was Gregory the Great, but the short list there given by no means exhausts the authors whom he consulted. In the preface to the first volume he regrets that except for Alfred's translations Englishmen had no means of learning the true doctrine as ex- pounded by the Latin fathers. Professor Earle (A.S. Literature, 1884) thinks he aimed at correcting the apocryphal, and to modern ideas superstitious, teaching of the earlier Blickling Homilies. The first series of forty homilies is devoted to plain and direct exposition of the chief events of the Christian year; the second deals more fully with church doctrine and history. ^Elfric denied the immaculate birth of the Virgin (Homilies, ed. Thorpe, ii. 466), and his teaching on the Eucharist in the Canons and in the Sermo de sacrificio in die pascae (ibid. ii. 262 seq.) was appealed to by the Reformation writers as a proof that the early English church did not hold the Roman doctrine of transub- stantiation. 1 His Latin Grammar and Glossary 2 were written for his pupils after the two books of homilies. A third series of homilies, the Lives of the Saints, dates from 996 to 997. Some of the sermons in the second series had been written in a kind of rhythmical, alliterative prose, and in the Lives of the Saints (ed. W. W. Skeat, 1881-1900, for the Early English Text Society) the practice is so regular that most of them are arranged as verse by Professor Skeat. By the wish of ^Ethelweard he also began a paraphrase 3 of parts of the Old Testament, but under protest, for the stories related in it were not, he thought, suitable for simple minds. There is no certain proof that he remained at Cernel. It has been suggested that this part of his life was 1 See A Testimonie of Antiquitie, shewing the auncienl fayth in the Church of England touching the sacrament of the body and bloude of the Lord here publikely preached, printed by John Day (1567). It was quoted in John Foxe's Actes and Monuments (ed. 1610). 2 Ed. J. Zupitza in Sammlung englischer Denkmdler (vol. i., Berlin, 1880). 3 Edited by Edward Thwaites as Heptateuchus (Oxford, 1698); modern edition in Grein's Bibliathek der A . S. Prosa (vol. i. Cassel and Gottingen, 1872). See also B. Assmann, AbtJElfric's . . . Esther (Halle, 1885), and Abt Mlfric's Judith (in Anglia, vol. x.). chiefly spent at Winchester; but his writings for the patrons of Cernel, and the fact that he wrote in 998 bis Canons 4 as a pastoral letter for Wulfsige, the bishop of Sherborne, the diocese in which the abbey was situated, afford presumption of continued resi- dence there. He became in 1005 the first abbot of Eynsham or Ensham, near Oxford, another foundation of ./Ethelmaer's. After his elevation he wrote an abridgment for his monks of ^Ethelwold's De consuetudine monachorum, h adapted to their rudimentary ideas of monastic life; a letter to Wulfgeat of Ylmandun 6 ; an introduction to the study of the Old and New Testaments (about 1008, edited by William L'Isle in 1623); a Latin life of his master ^Ethelwold 7 ; a pastoral letter for Wulfstan, archbishop of York and bishop of Worcester, in Latin and English; and an English version of Bede's De Temporibus. 3 The Colloquium, 9 a Latin dialogue designed to serve his scholars as a manual of Latin conversation, may date from his life at Cernel. It is safe to assume that the original draft of this, afterwards enlarged by his pupil, ^Elfric Bata, was by ^Elfric, and represents what his own scholar days were like. The last mention of ^Elfric Abbot, probably the grammarian, is in a will dating from about 1020. There have been three suppositions about ^Elfric. (1) He was identified with ^Elfric (995-1005), archbishop of Canterbury. This view was upheld by John Bale (III. Maj. Brit. Scriptorum . . . 2nd ed., Basel, 1557-1559; vol. i. p. 149, s.v. Alfric); by Humphrey Wanley (Catalogus librorum septentrionalium, &c, Oxford, 1705, forming vol. ii. of George Hickes's Antiquae literaturae septentrionalis) ; by Elizabeth Els,tob, The English- Saxon Homily on the Birthday of St Gregory (1709; new edition, 1839); and by Edward Rowe Mores, ALlfrico, Dorobernensi, archiepiscopo, Commentarius (ed. G. J. Thorkelin, 1789), in which the conclusions of earlier writers on ^Elfric are reviewed. Mores made him abbot of St Augustine's at Dover, and finally archbishop of Canterbury. (2) Sir Henry Spelman, in his Concilia . . . (1639, vol. i. p. 583), printed the Canones ad Wulsinum episcopum, and suggested ^Elfric Putta or Putto, archbishop of York, as the author, adding some note of others bearing the name. The identity of yElfric the grammarian with jElfric archbishop of York was also discussed by Henry Wharton, in Anglia Sacra (1691, vol. i. pp. 125-134), in a dissertation reprinted in J. P. Migne's Patrologia (vol. 139, pp. 1459-70, Paris, 1853). (3) William of Malmesbury (De gestis pontificum anglorum, ed. N. E. S. A. Hamilton, Rolls Series, 1870, p. 406) suggested that he was abbot of Malmesbury and bishop of Crediton. The main facts of his career were finally elucidated by Eduard Dietrich in a series of articles contributed to C. W. Niedner's Zeitschrift fur historische Theologie (vols, for 1855 and 1856, Gotha), which have formed the basis of all subsequent writings on the subject. Sketches of ^Elfric's career are in B. Ten Brink's Early English Literature (to Wiclif) (trans. H. M. Kennedy, New York, 1883, pp. 105-112), and by J. S. Westlake in The Cambridge History of English Literature (vol. i., 1907, pp. 1 16-129). An excellent bibliography and account of the critical apparatus is given in Dr R. Wiilker's Grundriss zur Geschichte der angelsdchsischen Litteratur (Leipzig, 1885, pp. 452-480). See also the account by Professor Skeat in Pt. iv. pp. 8-61 of his edition of the Lives of the Saints, already cited, which gives a full account of the MSS., and a discussion of ^Elfric's sources, with further bibliographical references ; and JElfric, a New Study of his Life and Writings, by Miss C. L. White (Boston, New York and London, 1898) in the " Yale Studies in English." Alcuini Interro- gations Sigewulfi Presbyteri in Genesin (ed. G. E. McLean, Halle, 1883) is attributed to ^Elfric by its editor. There are other isolated sermons and treatises by /Elfric, printed in vol. iii. of Grein's Bibl. v. A.S. Prosa. 4 Printed by Benjamin Thorpe in Ancient Laws and Institutes of England (1840), with the later pastoral for Wulfstan. 6 See E. Breck, A Fragment of JElfric; translation of JElhelwold's De Consuetudine Monachorum and its relation to other MSS. (Leipzig, l8S 7)- . 6 Ilmington, on the borders of Warwickshire and Gloucestershire. 7 Included by J. Stevenson in the Chron. Monast. de Abingdon (vol. ii. pp. 253-266, Rolls Series, 1858). 8 See Oswald Cockayne, Leechdonis, Wortcunning and Starcraft (vol. iii., 1866, pp. xiv.-xix. and pp. 233 ei seq.) in the Rolls Series. 9 See an article by J. Zupitza in the Zeitschrift fur deutsches Altertum (vol. xix., new series, 1887). 256 AELIA CAPITOLINA— AEMILIA VIA AELIA CAPITOLINA, the city built by the emperor Hadrian, a.d. 131, and occupied by a Roman colony, on the site of Jeru- salem (q.v.), which was in ruins when he visited his Syrian dominions. Aelia is derived from the emperor's family name, and Capitolina from that of Jupiter Capitolinus, to whom a temple was built on the site of the Jewish temple. AELIAN (Aelianus Tacticus), Greek military writer of the 2nd century a.d., resident at Rome. He is sometimes confused with Claudius Aelianus, the Roman writer referred to below. Aelian's military treatise, TaKTi/07 Gecopia, is dedicated to Hadrian, though this is probably a mistake for Trajan, and the date a.d. 106 has been assigned to it. It is a handbook of Greek, i.e. Macedonian, drill and tactics as practised by the Hellenistic successors of Alexander the Great. The author claims to have consulted all the best authorities, the chief of which was a lost treatise on the subject by Polybius. Perhaps the chief value of Aelian's work lies in his critical account of preceding works on the art of war, and in the fulness of his technical details in matters of drill. Critics of the 18th century — Guichard Folard and the prince de Ligne — were unanimous in thinking Aelian greatly inferior to Arrian, but both on his immediate successors, the Byzantines, and on the Arabs, who translated the text for their own use, Aelian exercised a great influence. The emperor Leo VI. incorporated much of Aelian's text in his own work on, the military art. The Arabic version of Aelian was made about 1350. In spite of its academic nature, the copious details to be found in the treatise rendered it of the highest value to the army organizers of the 16th century, who were engaged in fashioning a regular military system out of the semi-feudal systems of previous generations. The Macedonian phalanx of Aelian had many points of resemblance to the solid masses of pikemen and the " squadrons " of cavalry of the Spanish and Dutch systems, and the translations made in the 16th century formed the groundwork of numerous books on drill and tactics. Moreover, his works, with those of Xenophon, Polybius, Aeneas and Arrian, were minutely studied by every soldier of the 16th and 17th centuries who wished to be master of his profession. It has been suggested that Aelian was the real author of most of Arrian's Tactica, and that the T(wt/o) Geoipta is a later revision of this original, but the theory is not generally accepted. The first edition of the Greek text is that of Robortelli (Venice, I 55 2 ) ! the Elzevir text (Leiden, 1613) has notes. The text in W. Rustow and H. Kochly's Griechische Kriegsschriftsteller (1855) is accompanied by a translation, notes and reproductions of the original illustrations. A Latin translation by Theodore Gaza of Thessalonica was included in the famous collection Veteres de re militari scriptores (Rome and Venice, 1487, Cologne, 1528, &c). The French transla- tion of Machault, included in his Milices des Grecs et Romains (Paris, 16 15) and entitled De la Sergenterie des Grecs, a German translation Lom Theodore Gaza (Cologne, 1524), and the English version of Jo. B(ingham), which includes a drill manual of the English troops in the Dutch service, Tacticks of Aelian (London, 1616), are of import- ance in the military literature of the period. A later French transla- tion by Bouchard de Bussy, La Milice des Grecs ou Tactique d'£lien (Paris, 1737 and 1757); Baumgartner's German translation in his incomplete Sammlung aller Kriegsschriftsteller der Griechen (Mann- heim and Frankenthal, 1779), reproduced in 1786 as Von Schlachtord- nungen, and Viscount Dillon's English version (London, 1814) may also be mentioned. See also R. Forster, Studien zu den griechischen Taktikern {Hermes, xii., 1877, pp. 444-449); F. Wustenfeld, Das Heerwesen der Muhammedaner und die arabische Uebersetsung der Taktik des Aelianus (Gottingen, 1880); M. Jahns, Gesch. der Kriegswissenschaften, i. 95-97 (Munich, 1889); Rustow and Kochly, Gesch. des griechischen Kriegswesens (1852); A. de Lort-Serignan, La Phalange (1880); P. Serre, Htudes sur I'hisioire militaire et mari- time des Grecs et des Romains (1887); K. K. Miiller, in Pauly- Wissowa, Realencyclopddie (Stuttgart, 1894). AELIAN (Claudius Aelianus), Roman author and teacher of rhetoric, born at Praeneste, flourished under Septimius Severus and probably outlived Elagabalus (d. 222). He spoke Greek so perfectly that he was called " honey-tongued " {neXlyXuaaos) ; although a Roman he preferred Greek authors, and wrote in Greek himself. His chief works are: On the Nature of Animals, curious and interesting stories of animal life, fre- quently used to convey moral lessons (ed. Schneider, 1784; Jacobs, 1832); Various History — for the most part preserved only in an abridged form — consisting mainly of anecdotes of men and customs (ed. Lunemann, 1811). Both works are valu- able for the numerous excerpts from older writers. Considerable fragments of two other works On Providence and Divine Mani- festations are preserved in Suidas; .twenty Peasants' Letters, after the manner of Alciphron but inferior, are also attributed to him. Editio princeps of complete works by Gesner, 1556; Hercher, 1864- 1866. English translation of the Various History only by Fleming, 1576, and Stanley, 1665; of the Letters by Quillard (French), 1895. JELRED, Ailred, Ethelred (1109-1166), English theo- logian, historical writer and abbot of Rievaulx, was born at Hexham about the year 1109. In his youth he was at the court of Scotland as an attendant of Henry, son of David I. He was in high favour with that sovereign, but renounced the prospect of a bishopric to enter the Cistercian house of Rievaulx in Yorkshire, which was founded in 1131 by Walter Espec. Here ^Elred remained for some time as master of the novices, but between the years 1142 and 1146 was elected abbot of Revesby in Lincolnshire and migrated thither. In 1146 he became abbot of Rievaulx. He led a life of the severest asceticism, and was credited with the power of working miracles; owing to his reputation the numbers of Rievaulx were greatly increased. In 1 1 64 he went as a missionary to the Picts of Galloway. He found their religion at a low ebb, the regular clergy apathetic and sensual, the bishop little obeyed, the laity divided by the family feuds of their rulers, unchaste and ignorant. He induced a Galwegian chief to take the habit of religion, and restored the peace of the country. Two years later he died of a decline, at Rievaulx, in the fifty-seventh year of his age. In the year 1 191 he was canonized. His writings are voluminous and have never been completely published. Amongst them are homilies "on the burden of Babylon in Isaiah "; three books "on spiritual friendship "; a life of Edward the Confessor; an account of miracles wrought at Hexham, and the tract called Relalio de Standardo. This last is an account of the Battle of the Standard (1138), better known than the similar account by Richard of Hexham, but less trustworthy, and in places obscured by a peculiarly turgid rhetoric. See the Vita Alredi in John of Tynemouth's Nova Legenda Anglie (ed. C. Horstmann, 1901, vol. i. p. 41), whence it was taken by Capgrave. From Capgrave the work passed into the Bollandist Acta Sanctorum (Jan. ii. p. 30). This life is anonymous, but of an early date. The most complete printed collection of jElred's works is in Migne's Patrologia Latina, vol. exev. ; but this does not include the Miracula Hagulstaldensis Ecclesiae which are printed in J. Raine's Priory of Hexham, vol. i.(Surtees Society, 1864). A complete list of works attributed to ^Elred is given in T. Tanner's Bibliotheca Britan- nico-Hibernica (1748), pp. 247-248. The Relalio de Standardo has been critically edited by R. Howlett in Chronicles, &c, of Stephen, Henry II. and Richard I., vol. iii. (Rolls Series, 1886). (H. W. C. D.) AEMILIA VIA, or Aemilian Way. (i) A highroad of Italy, constructed in 187 B.C. by the consul M. Aemilius Lepidus, from whom it takes its name; it ran from Ariminum to Placentia, a distance of 176 m. almost straight N.W., with the plain of the Po (Padus) and its tributaries on the right, and the Apennines on the left. The 79th milestone from Ariminum found in the bed of the Rhenus at Bononia records the restoration of the road by Augustus from Ariminum to the river Trebia in 2 B.C. (Notiz. Scav., 1902, 539). The bridge by which it crossed the Sillaro was restored by Trajan in a.d. 100 (Notizie degli Scavi, 1888, 621). The modern highroad follows the ancient line, and some of the original bridges still exist. After Augustus, the road gave its name to the district which formed the eighth region of Italy (previously known as Gallia or Provincia Ariminum), at first in popular usage (as in Martial), but in official language as early as the 2nd century; it is still in use (see Emilia). The district was bounded on the N. by the Padus, E. by the Adriatic, S. by the river Crustumium (mod. Conca), and W. by the Apen- nines and the Ira (mod. Staff ora) at Iria (mod. Voghera), and corresponds approximately with the modern district. «# (2) A road constructed in 109 B.C. by the censor M. Aemilius Scaurus from Vada Volaterrana and Luna to Vada Sabatia and thence over the Apennines to Dertona (Tortona), where it joined AEMILIUS— AENESIDEMUS 257 the Vra Postumia from Genua to Cremona. We must, however (as Mommsen points out in C.I.L. v. p. 885), suppose that the portion of the coast road from Vada Volaterrana to Genua at least must have existed before the construction of the Via Postumia in 148 B.C. Indeed Polybius (iii. 39. 8) tells us (and this must refer to the time of the Gracchi if not earlier) that the Romans had in his time built the coast road from the Rhone to Carthago Nova; and it is incredible that the coast road in Italy itself should not have been constructed previously. It is, how- ever, a very different thing to open a road for traffic, and so to construct it that it takes its name from that construction in perpetuity. (T. As.) AEMILIUS, PAULUS (Paolo Emilio ) (d. 1529), Italian his- torian, was born at Verona. He obtained such reputation in his own country that he was invited to France in the reign of Charles VIII., in order to write in Latin the history of the kings of France, and was presented to a canonry in Notre Dame. He enjoyed the patronage and support of Louis XII. He died at Paris on the 5th of May 1529. His De Rebus gestis Francorum was translated into French in 1581, and has also been translated into Italian and German. AENEAS, the famous Trojan hero, son of Anchises and Aphrodite, one of the most important figures in Greek and Roman legendary history. In Homer, he is represented as the chief bulwark of the Trojans next to Hector, and the favourite of the gods, who frequently interpose to save him from danger (Iliad, v. 311). The legend that he remained in the country after the fall of Troy, and founded a new kingdom (Iliad, xx. 308; Hymn to Aphrodite, 196) is now generally considered to be of comparatively late origin. The story of his emigration is post-Homeric, and set forth in its fullest development by Virgil in the Aeneid. Carrying his aged father and household gods on his back and leading his little son Ascanius by the hand, he makes his way to the coast, his wife Creusa being lost during the con- fusion of the flight. After a perilous voyage to Thrace, Delos, Crete and Sicily (where his father dies), he is cast up by a storm, sent by Juno, on the African coast. Refusing to remain with Dido, queen of Carthage, who in despair puts an end to her life, he sets sail from Africa, and after seven years' wandering lands at the mouth of the Tiber. He is hospitably received by Latinus, king of Latium, is betrothed to his daughter Lavinia, and founds a city called after her, Lavinium. Turnus, king of Rutuli, a rejected suitor, takes up arms against him and Latinus, but is defeated and slain by Aeneas on the river Numicius. The story of the Aeneid ends with the death of Turnus. According to Livy (i. 1. 2), Aeneas, after reigning a few years over Latium, is slain by the Rutuli; after the battle, his body cannot be found, and he is supposed to have been carried up to heaven. He receives divine honours, and is worshipped under the name of Jupiter Indiges (Dionysius Halic. i. 64). See J. A. Hild, La Legende d'linle avant Vergile (1883) ; F. Cauer, De Fabulis Graecis ad Romam conditam pertinentibus ( 1 884) and Die Romische Aeneassage,von Naevius bis Vergilius (1886) ; G. Boissier, "La Legende d'Enee " in Revue des Deux Mondes, Sept. 1883; A. Forstemann, Zur Geschichte des Aeneasmythus (1894) ; articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopddie (new ed., 1894); Roscher's Lexicon der Mythologie; Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites; Preller's Grieckische und romische Mythologie; and especially Schwegler, Romische Geschichte (1867). Romances. — The story of Aeneas, as a sequel to the legend of Troy, formed the subject of several epic romances in the middle ages. The Roman d'&neas (c. 1160, or later), of uncertain authorship (attributed by some to Benoit de Sainte-More), the first French poem directly imitated from the Aeneid, is a fairly close adaptation of the original. The trouvere, however, omits the greater part of the wanderings of Aeneas, and adorns his narrative with gorgeous descriptions, with accounts of the mar- vellous properties of beasts and stones, and of single combats among the knights who figure in the story. He also elaborates the episodes most attractive to his audience, notably those of Dido and Aeneas and Lavinia, the last of whom plays a far more important part than in the Aeneid. Where possible, he substitutes human for divine intervention, and ignores the idea of the glorification of Rome and Augustus, which dominates the Virgilian epic. On this work were founded the Eneide or Eneit (between n 80 and n 90) of Heinrich von Veldeke, written in Flemish and now only extant in a version in the Thuringian dialect, and the Eneydos, written by William Caxton in 1490. See B\neas, ed. J. Salverda de Grave (Halle, 1891); see also A. Peij, Essai sur li romans d' Eneas (Paris, 1856) ; A. Duval in Hist, litteraire de la France, xix. ; Veldeke's Eneide, ed. Ettmiiller (Leipzig, 1852) and O. Behaghel (Heilbronn, 1882); Eneydos, ed. F. J. Furni- vall (1890). For Italian versions see E. G. Parodi in Sludi di filologia romanza (v. 1887). AENEAS TACTICUS (4th century B.C.), one of the earliest Greek writers on the art of war. According to Aelianus Tacticus and Polybius, he wrote a number of treatises ('T7ro/wi7/xaTa) on the subject; the only one extant deals with the best methods of defending a fortified city. An epitome of the whole was made by Cineas, minister of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. The work is chiefly valuable as containing a large number of historical illus- trations. Aeneas was considered by Casaubon to have been a contemporary of Xenophon and identical with the Arcadian general Aeneas of Stymphalus, whom Xenophon (Hellenica, vii. 3) mentions as fighting at the battle of Mantinea (362 B.C.). Editions in I. Casaubon's (1619), Gronovius' (1670) and Ernesti's (1763) editions of Polybius; also separately, with notes, by J. C. Orelli (Leipzig, 18 18). Other texts are those of W. Riistow and H. Kochly (Grieckische Kriegsschriflsteller, vol. i. Leipzig, 1853) and A. Hug, Prolegomena Critica ad Aeneae . . . editionem (Zurich. University, 1874). See also Count Beausobre, Commentaires sur la defense des places d' Aeneas (Amsterdam, 1757); A. Hug, Aeneas von Stymphalos (Zurich, 1877) ; C. C. Lange, De Aeneae commentario poliorcelico (Berlin, 1879); M. H. Meyer, Observationes in Aeneam Tacticum (Halle, 1835) ; Haase, in Johns Jahrbuch, 1835, xiv. 1 ; Max Jahns, Gesch. der Kriegswissenschaflen, i. pp. 26-28 (Munich, 1889); Ad. Bauer, in Zeitschrift fur allg. Geschichte, &c, 1886, i.; T. H. Williams in American Journal of Philology, xxv. 4; E. Schwartz in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopddie (Stuttgart, 1894). AENESIDEMUS, Greek philosopher, was born at Cnossus in Crete and taught at Alexandria, probably during the first century B.C. He was the leader of what is sometimes known as the third sceptical school and revived to a great extent the doctrine of Pyrrho and Timon. His chief work was the Pyr- rhonian Principles addressed to Lucius Tubero. His philosophy consisted of four main parts, the reasons for scepticism and doubt, the attack on causality and truth, a physical theory and a theory of morality. Of these the two former are important. The reasons for doubt are given in the form of the ten " tropes ": (1) different animals manifest different modes of perception; (2) similar differences are seen among individual men; (3) even for the same man, sense-given data are self-contradictory, (4) vary from time to time with physical changes, and (5) accord- ing to local relations; (6) and (7) objects are known only in- directly through the medium of air, moisture, &c, and are in a condition of perpetual change in colour, temperature, size and motion; (8) all perceptions are relative and interact one upon another; (9) our impressions become less deep by repetition and custom; and (10) all men are brought up with different beliefs, under different laws and social conditions. Truth varies infinitely under circumstances whose relative weight cannot be accurately gauged. There is, therefore, no absolute knowledge, for every man has different perceptions, and, further, arranges and groups his data in methods peculiar to himself; so that the sum total is a quantity with a purely subjective validity. The second part of his work consists in the attack upon the theory of causality, in which he adduces almost entirely those considera- tions which are the basis of modern scepticism. Cause has no existence apart from,the mind which perceives; its validity is ideal, or, as Kant would have said, subjective. The relation between cause and effect is unthinkable. If the two things are different, they are either simultaneous or in succession. If simultaneous, cause is effect and effect cause. If not, since effect cannot precede cause, cause must precede effect, and there must be an instant when cause is not effective, that is, is not itself. By these and similar arguments he arrives at the funda- mental principle of Scepticism, the radical and universal opposi- tion of causes; Tram XSyi^ \6yos d»rwceiTcu. Having reached 1-9 2 5 8 AEOLIAN HARP— AEQUI this conclusion, he was able to assimilate the physical theory of Heraclitus, as is explained in the Hypotyposes of Sextus Empiricus. For admitting that contraries co-exist for the perceiving subject, he was able to assert the co-existence of contrary qualities in the same object. Having thus disposed of the ideas of truth and causality, he proceeds to undermine the ethical criterion, and denies that any man can aim at Good, Pleasure or Happiness as an absolute, concrete ideal. All actions are product of pleasure and pain, good and evil. The end of ethical endeavour is the conclusion that all endeavour is vain and illogical. The main tendency of this destructive scepticism is essentially the same from its first crystallization by Aenesidemus down to the most advanced sceptics of to-day (see Scepticism). For the immediate successors of Aenesidemus see Ageippa, Sextus Empiricus. See also Carneades and Arcesilaus. Of the Ilvppcovaoi. Xoyoi nothing remains; we have, however, an analysis in the Myriobiblion of Photius. See Zeller's History of Greek Philosophy; E. Saisset, JEnesid&me, Pascal, Kant; Ritter and Preller, §§ 364-370. AEOLIAN HARP (Fr. harpe Solienne; Ger. Aolsharfe, Windharje; Ital. or pa d' Eolo), a stringed musical instrument, whose name is derived from Aeolus, god of the wind. The aeolian harp consists of a sound-box about 3 ft. long, 5 in. wide, and 3 in. deep, made of thin deal, or preferably of pine, and having beech ends to hold the tuning-pins and hitch-pins. A dozen or less catgut strings of different thickness, but tuned in exact unison, and left rather slack, are attached to the pins, and stretched over two narrow bridges of hard wood, one at each end of the sound-board, which is generally pro- vided with two rose sound-holes. To ensure a proper passage for the wind, another pine board is placed over the strings, resting on pegs at the ends of the sound-board, or on a con- tinuation of the ends raised from 1 to 3 in. above the strings. Kaufmann of Dresden and Heinrich Christoph Koch, who im- proved the aeolian harp, introduced this contrivance, which was called by them Windfang and Windflilgel; the upper board was prolonged beyond the sound-box in the shape of a funnel, in order to direct the current of air on to the strings. The aeolian harp is placed across a window so that the wind blows obliquely across the strings, causing them to vibrate in aliquot parts, i.e. (the fundamental note not being heard) the half or octave, the third or interval of the twelfth, the second octave, and the third above it, in fact the upper partials of the strings in regular succession. With the increased pressure of the wind, the dis- sonances of the nth and 13th overtones are heard in shrill dis- cords, only to give place to beautiful harmonies as the force of the wind abates. The principle of the natural vibration of strings by the pressure of the wind was recognized in ancient times; King David, we hear from the Rabbinic records, used to hang his kinnor (kithara) over his bed at night, when it sounded in the midnight breeze. The same is related of St Dunstan of Canterbury, who was in consequence charged with sorcery. The Chinese at the present day fly kites of various sizes, having strings stretched across apertures in the paper, which produces the effect of an aerial chorus. See Athanasius Kircher, Musurgia Universalis, where the aeolian harp is first described (1 602-1 608), p. 148; Mathew Young, Bishop of Clonfert, Enquiry into the Principal Phenomena of Sounds anal Musical Strings, pp. 170-182 (London, 1784); Gottingen Pocket Calendar (1792); Mendel's Musikalisches Conversations-Lexikon, article " Aeolsharfe." An illustration is given in Rees' Encyclo- pedia, plates, vol. ii. Misc. pi. xxv. (K. S.) AEOLIS (Aeolia), an ancient district of Asia Minor, colonized at a very early date by Aeolian Greeks. The name was applied to the coast from the river Hermus to the promontory of Lectum, i.e. between Ionia to S. and Troas to N. The Aeolians founded twelve cities on the mainland, including Cyme, and numerous towns in Mytilene: they were said also to have settled in the Troad and even within the Hellespont. AEOLUS, in Greek mythology, according to Homer the son of Hippotes, god and father of the winds, and ruler of the island of Aeolia. In the Odyssey (x. 1) he entertains Odysseus, gives him a favourable wind to help him on his journey, and a bag in which the unfavourable winds have been confined. Out of curiosity, or with the idea that it contains valuable treasures, Odysseus' companions open the bag; the winds escape and drive them back to the island, whence Aeolus dismisses them with bitter reproaches. According to Virgil, Aeolus dwells on one of the Aeolian islands to the north of Sicily, Lipara or Strongyle (Stromboli), where he keeps the winds imprisoned in a vast cavern (Virgil, Aen. i. 52). Another genealogy makes him the son of Poseidon and Ame, granddaughter of Hippotes, and a descendant of Aeolus, king of Magnesia in Thessaly, the mythical ancestor of the tribe of the Aeolians (Diodorus iv. 67). AEON, a term often used in Greek (aLcw) to denote an indefinite or infinite duration of time; and hence, by metonymy, a being that exists for ever. In the latter sense it was chiefly used by the Gnostic sects to denote those eternal beings or manifestations which emanated from the one incomprehensible and ineffable God. (See Gnosticism.) AEPINUS, FRANZ ULRICH THEODOR (1724-1802), German natural philosopher, was born at Rostock in Saxony on the 13th of December 1724. He was descended from John Aepinus (1499-1553), the first to adopt the Greek form (aiiravos) of the family name Hugk or Huck, and a leading theologian and con- troversialist at the time of the Reformation. After studying medicine for a time, Franz Aepinus devoted himself to the physical and mathematical sciences, in which he soon gained such distinction that he was admitted a member of the Berlin academy of sciences. In 1757 he settled in St Petersburg as member of the imperial academy of sciences and professor of physics, and remained there till his retirement in 1798. The rest of his life was spent at Dorpat, where he died on the 10th of August 1802. He enjoyed the special favour of the empress Catherine II., who appointed him tutor to her son Paul, and endeavoured, without success, to establish normal schools throughout the empire under his direction. Aepinus is best known by his re- searches, theoretical and experimental, in electricity and mag- netism, and his principal work, Tentamen Theoriae Electricitatis et Magnetismi, published at St Petersburg in 1759, was the first systematic and successful attempt to apply mathematical reason- ing to these subjects. He also published a treatise, in 1761, De distributions caloris per tellurem, and he was the author of memoirs on different subjects in astronomy, mechanics, optics and pure mathematics, contained in the journals of the learned societies of St Petersburg and Berlin. His discussion of the effects of parallax in the transit of a planet over the sun's disc excited great interest, having appeared (in 1764) between the dates of the two transits of Venus that took place in the 18th century. AEQUI, an ancient people of Italy, whose name occurs con- stantly in Livy's first decade as hostile to Rome in the first three centuries of the city's existence. They occupied the upper reaches of the valleys of the Anio, Tolenus and Himella; the last two being mountain streams running northward ' to join the Nar. Their chief centre is said to have been taken by the Romans about 484 B.C. (Diodorus xi. 40) and again about ninety years later (id. xiv. 106), but they were not finally subdued till the end of the second Samnite war (Livy ix. 45, fx. 1; Diod. xx. 101), when they seem to have received a limited form of franchise (Cic. Off. i. n, 35). All we know of their subsequent political condition is that after the Social war the folk of Cliternia and Nersae appear united in a res publico Aequiculorum, which was a municipium of the ordinary type (C.I.L. ix. p. 388). The Latin colonies of Alba Fucens (304 B.C.) and Carsioli (298 B.C.) must have spread the use of Latin (or what passed as such) all over the district; through it lay the chief (and for some time the only) route (Via Valeria) to Luceria and the south. Of the language spoken by the Aequi before the Roman con- quest we have no record; but since the Marsi (q.v.), who lived farther east, spoke in the 3rd century B.C. a dialect closely akin to Latin, and since the Hernici (q.v.), their neighbours to the south-west, did the same, we have no ground for separating any of these tribes from the Latian group (see Latini). If we could be certain of the origin of the q in their name and of the relation between its shorter and its longer form (note that the i AERARII— AERATED WATERS 259 in Aequiculus is long — Virgil, Aen. vii. 744 — which seems to con- nect it with the locative of aequum " a plain," so that it would mean "dwellers in the plain"; but in the historical period they certainly lived mainly in the hills) , we should know whether they were to be grouped with the q or the p dialects, that is to say, with Latin on the one hand, which preserved an original q, or with the dialect of Velitrae, commonly called Volscian (and, the Volsci were the constant allies of the Aequi), on the other hand, in which, as in the Iguvine and Samnite dialects, an original q is changed into p. There is no decisive evidence to show whether the q in Latin aequus represents an Indo-European q as in Latin quis, Umbro-Volsc. pis, or an Indo-European J + xas in equns, Umb. ekvo-. The derivative adjective Aequicus might be taken to range them with the Volsci rather than the Sabini, but it is not clear that this adjective was ever used as a real ethnicon; the name of the tribe is always Aequi, or Aequicoli. At the end of the Republican period the Aequi appear, under the name Aequiculi or Aequicoli, organized as a municipium, the territory of which seems to have comprised the upper part of the valley of the Salto, still known as Cicolano. It is probable, however, that they continued to live in their villages as before. Of these Nersae (mod. Nesc'e) was the most considerable. The polygonal terrace walls, which exist in considerable numbers in the district, are shortly described in Rbmische Mitteilungen (1903), 147 seq., but require further study. See further thfe articles Marsi, Volsci, Latini, and the refer- ences there given; the place-names and other scanty records of the dialect are collected by R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, pp. 300 ff. (R. S. C.) AERARII (from Lat. aes, in its subsidiary sense of "poll- tax"), originally a class of Roman citizens not included in the thirty tribes of Servius Tullius, and subject to a poll-tax arbitrarily fixed by the censor. They were (1) the inhabitants of conquered towns which had been deprived of local self-govern- ment, who possessed the jus conubii and jus commercii, but no political rights; Caere is said to have been the first example of this (353 B.C.); hence the expression "in tabulas Caeritum referre " came to mean " to degrade to the status of an aerarius ": (2) full citizens subjected to civil degradation (infamia) as the result of following certain professions (e.g. acting), of dishonour- able acts in private life [e.g. bigamy) or of conviction for certain crimes; (3) persons branded by the censor. Those who were thus excluded from the tribes and centuries had no vote, were in- capable of filling Roman magistracies and could not serve in the army. According to Mommsen, the aerarii were originally the non-assidui (non-holders of land), excluded from the tribes, the comitia and the army. By a reform of the censor Appius Claudius in 312 b.c. these non-assidui were admitted into the tribes, and the aerarii as such disappeared. But in 304, Fabius Rullianus limited them to the four city tribes, and from that time the term meant a man degraded from a higher (country) to a lower (city) tribe, but not deprived of the right of voting or of serving in the army. The expressions " tribu movere " and " aerarium facere," regarded by Mommsen as identical in meaning (" to degrade from a higher tribe to a lower "), are explained by A. H. J. Greenidge — the first as relegation from a higher to a lower tribe or total exclusion from the tribes, the second as exclusion from the centuries. Other views of the original aerarii are that they were: — artisans and freedmen (Niebuhr) ; inhabitants of towns united with Rome by a hos- pilium publicum, who had become domiciled on Roman terri- tory (Lange) ; only a class of degraded citizens, including neither the cives sine sujfragio nor the artisans (Madvig) ; identical with the capite censi of the Servian constitution (Belot, Greenidge), See A. H. J. Greenidge, Infamia in Roman Law (1894), where Mommsen's theory is criticized; E. Belot, Histoire Aes chevaliers remains, i. p. 200 (Paris, 1866); L. Pardon, De Aerariis (Berlin, 1853); P. Willems, Le Droit public romain (1883); A. S., Wilkins in Smith's Did. of Greek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed., 1891) ; and the usual handbooks of antiquities. AERARIUM (from Lat. aes, in its derived sense of " money "), the name (in full, aerarium stabulum, treasure-house) given in ancient Rome to the public treasury, and in a secondary sense to the public finances. The treasury contained the moneys and accounts of the state, and also the standards of the legions; the public laws engraved on brass, the decrees of the senate and other papers and registers of importance. These public treasures were deposited in the temple of Saturn, on the eastern slope of the Capitoline hill, and, during the republic, were in charge of the urban quaestors (see Quaestor), under the super- intendence and control of the senate. This arrangement con- tinued (except for the year 4s B.C., when no quaestors were chosen) until 28 B.C., when Augustus transferred the aerarium to two praefecti aerarii, chosen annually by the senate from ex-praetors; in 23 these were replaced by two praetors (praetores aerarii or ad aerarium), selected by lot during their term of office; Claudius in a.d. 44 restored the quaestors, but nominated by the emperor for three years, for whom Nero in 56 substituted two ex-praetors, under the same conditions. In addition to the common treasury, supported by the general taxes and charged with the ordinary expenditure, there was a special reserve fund, also in the temple of Saturn, the aerarium* sanctum (or sanctius), probably originally consisting of the spoils of war, afterwards maintained chiefly by a 5% tax on the value of all manu- mitted slaves, this source of revenue being established by a lex Manlia in 357. This fund was not to be touched except in cases of extreme necessity (Livy vii. 16, xxvii. 10). Under the emperors the senate continued to have at least the nominal management of the aerarium, while the emperor had a separate exchequer, called jiscus. But after a time, as the power of the emperors increased and their jurisdiction extended till the senate existed only in form and name, this distinction virtually ceased. Besides creating the jiscus, Augustus also established in a.d. 6 a military treasury (aerarium militare), containing all moneys raised for and appropriated to the maintenance of the army, including a pension fund for disabled soldiers. It was largely endowed by the emperor himself (see Monumentum Ancyranum, iii. 35) and supported by the proceeds of the tax on public sales and the succession duty. Its administration was in the hands of three praefecti aerarii militaris, at first appointed by lot, but afterwards by the emperor, from senators of praetorian rank, for three years. The later emperors had a separate aerarium privatum, containing the moneys allotted for their own use, distinct from the jiscus, which they administered in the interests of the empire. The tribuni aerarii have been the subject of much discussion. They are supposed by some to be identical with the curatores tribuum, and to have been the officials who, under the Servian organization, levied the war-tax (tribulum) in the tribes and the poll-tax on the aerarii (q.v.). They also acted as paymasters of the equites and of the soldiers on service in each tribe. By the lex Amelia (70 B.C.) the list of judices was composed, in addition to senators and equites, of tribuni aerarii. Whether these were the successors of the above, or a new order closely connected with the equites, or even the same as the latter, is uncertain. According to Mommsen, they were persons who possessed the equestrian census, but no public horse. They were removed from the list of judices by Caesar, but replaced by Augustus. According to Madvig, the original tribuni aerarii were not officials at all, but private individuals of considerable means, quite distinct from the curatores tribuum, who undertook certain financial work connected with their own tribes. Then, as in the case of the equites, the term was subsequently extended to include all those who possessed the property qualification that would have entitled them to serve as tribuni aerarii. See Tacitus, Annals, xiii. 29, with Furneaux's notes; O. Hirsch- feld, " Das Aerarium militare in der romischen Kaiserzeit," in Fleckeisen's Jahrbuch, vol. xcvii. (1868); S. Herrlich, De Aerario et FisCo Romanorum (Berlin, 1872); and the usual handbooks and dictionaries of antiquities. On the tribuni aerarii see E. Belot, Hist, des chevaliers romains, ii. p. 276; J. N. Madvig, Opuscula Academica, ii. p. 242; J. B. Mispoulet, Les Institutions poliliques des Romains (1883), ii. p. 208; Mommsen, Romisches Staalsrecht, iii. p. 189; A. S. Wilkins in Smith s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed., 1890). AERATED WATERS. Waters charged with a larger pro- portion of carbon dioxide than they will dissolve at ordinary 260 AERONAUTICS atmospheric pressure occur in springs in various parts of the world (see Mineral Waters) . Such waters, which also generally hold in solution a considerable percentage of saline constituents, early acquired a reputation as medicinal agents, and when carbon dioxide (" fixed air ") became familiar to chemists the possibility was recognized, as by Joseph Priestley {Directions for impregnat- ing water with fixed air . . . to communicate the peculiar Spirit and Virtues of Pyrmont water, 17 7 2), of imitating them artificially. Many of the ordinary aerated waters of commerce, however, do not pretend to reproduce any known natural water; they are merely beverages owing their popularity to their effervescing properties and the flavour imparted by a small quantity of some salt such as sodium bicarbonate or a little fruit syrup. Their manufacture on a considerable scale was begun at Geneva so far back as 1790 by Nicholas Paul, and the excellence of the soda water prepared in London by J. Schweppe, who had been a partner of Paul's, is referred to by Tiberius Cavallo in his Essay on the Medicinal Properties of Factitious Airs, published in 1798. Many forms'of apparatus are employed for charging the water with the gas. A simple machine for domestic use, called a gasogene or seltzogene, consists of two strong glass globes con- nected one above the other by a wide glass tube which rises nearly to the top of the upper and smaller globe. Surmounting the small globe there is a spring valve, fitted to a narrow tube that passes through the wide tube to the bottom of the large globe. To use the machine, the lower vessel is filled with water, and in the upper one, round the base of the wide tube, is placed a mixture, commonly of sodium bicarbonate and tartaric acid, which with water yields carbon dioxide. The valve head is then fastened on, and by tilting the apparatus some water is made to flow through the wide tube from the lower to the upper vessel. The water in the lower globe takes up the gas thus produced, and when required for use is withdrawn by the valve, being forced up the narrow tube by the pressure of the gas. In another arrangement the gas is supplied compressed in little steel capsules, and is liberated into a bottle containing the water which has to be aerated. On a large scale, use is made of con- tinuously acting machinery which is essentially of the type devised by Joseph Bramah. The gas is prepared in a separate generator by the action of sulphuric acid on sodium bicarbonate or whiting, and after being washed is collected in a gas-holder, whence it is forced with water under pressure into a receiver or saturator in which an agitator is kept moving. Some manu- facturers buy their gas compressed in steel cylinders. The water thus aerated or carbonated passes from the receiver, in which the pressure may be 100-200 ft on the square inch, to bottling machines which fill and close the bottles; if beverages like lemonade are being made the requisite quantity of fruit syrup is also injected into the bottles, though sometimes the fruit syrup mixture is aerated in bulk. For soda water sodium bicarbonate should be added to the water before aeration, in varying proportions up to about 1 5 grains per pint, but the simple carbonated water often does duty instead. Potash water, lithia water and many others are similarly prepared, the various salts being used in such amounts as are dictated by the experience and taste of the manufacturer. Aerated waters are sent out from the factories either in siphons {q.v.) or in bottles; the latter may be closed by corks, or by screw-stoppers or by internal stoppers consisting of a valve, such as a glass ball, held up against an indiarubber ring in the neck by the pressure of the gas. For use in " soda-fountains " the waters are sent out in large cylinders. See W. Kirkby, Evolution of Artificial Mineral Waters (Manchester, 1902). AERONAUTICS, the art of " navigating " the " air." It is divis- ible into two main branches — aerostation, dealing properly with machines which like balloons are lighter than the air, and aviation, dealing with the problem of artificial flight by means of flying machines which, like birds, are heavier than the air, and also with attempts to fly made by human beings by the aid of artificial wings fitted to their limbs. Historically, aviation is the older of the two, and in the legends or myths of men or animals which are supposed to have travelled through the air, such as Pegasus, Medea's dragons and Daedalus, as well as in Egyptian bas-reliefs, wings appear as the means by which aerial locomotion is effected. In later times there are many stories of men who have attempted to fly in the same way. John Wilkins (1614-1672), one of the founders of the Royal Society and bishop of Chester, who in 1640 discussed the possi- bility of reaching the moon by volitation, says in his Mathe- matical Magick (1648) that it was related that " a certain English monk called Elmerus, about the Confessor's time," flew from a town in Spain for a distance of more than a furlong; and that other persons had flown from St Mark's, Venice, and at Nurem- berg. Giovanni Battista Dante, of Perugia, is said to have flown several times across Lake Trasimene. At the beginning of the 1 6th century an Italian alchemist who was collated to the abbacy of Tungland, in Galloway, Scotland, by James IV., undertook to fly from the walls of Stirling Castle through the air to France. He actually attempted the feat, but soon came to the ground and broke his thigh-bone in the fall — an accident which he ex- plained by asserting that the wings he employed contained some fowls' feathers, which had an " affinity " for the dung-hill, whereas if they had been composed solely of eagles' feathers they would have been attracted to the air. This anecdote furnished Dunbar, the Scottish poet, with the subject of one of his rude satires. Leonardo da Vinci about the same time approached the problem in a more scientific spirit, and his notebooks contain several sketches of wings to be fitted to the arms and legs. In the following century a lecture on flying delivered in 16 17 by Fleyder, rector of the grammar school at Tubingen, and pub- lished eleven years later, incited a poor monk to attempt to put the theory into practice, but his machinery broke down and he was killed. In Francis Bacon's Natural History there are two passages which refer to flying, though they scarcely bear out the assertion made by some writers that he first published the true principles of aeronautics. The first is styled Experiment Solitary, touching Flying in the Air: — " Certainly many birds of good wing (as kites and the like)would bear up a good weight as they fly; and spreading feathers thin and close, and in great breadth, will likewise bear up a great weight, being even laid, without tilting up on the sides. The farther extension of this experiment might be thought upon." The second passage is more diffuse, but less intelligible ; it is styled Experiment Solitary, touching the Flying of unequal Bodies in the Air: — "Let there be a body of unequal weight (as of wool and lead or bone and lead) ; if you throw it from you with the light end forward, it will turn, and the weightier end will recover to be forwards, unless the body be over long. The cause is, for that the more dense body hath a more violent pressure of the parts from the first impulsion, which is the cause (though heretofore not found out, as hath been often said) of all violent motions ; and when the hinder part moveth swifter (for that it less endureth pressure of parts) than the forward part can make way for it, it must needs be that the body turn over; for (turned) it can more easily draw forward the lighter part." The fact here alluded to is the resistance that bodies experience in moving through the air, which, depending on the quantity of surface merely, must exert a proportionally greater effect on rare substances. The passage itself, however, after making every allowance for the period in which it was written, must be deemed confused, obscure and unphilosophical. In his posthumous work, De Motu Animalium, published at Rome in i68o-i68i,G.A.Borelli gave calculations of the enormous strength of the pectoral muscles in birds; and his proposition cciv. (vol. i. pp. 322-326), entitled Est impossibile ut homines pro- priis viribus artificiose volare possint, points out the impossibility of man being able by his muscular strength to give motion to wings of sufficient extent to keep him suspended in the air. But during his lifetime two Frenchmen, Allard in 1660 and Besnier about 1678, are said to have succeeded in making short flights. An account of some of the modern attempts to construct flying machines will be found in the article Flight and Flying; here we append a brief consideration of the mechanical aspects of the problem. The very first essential for success is safety, which will probably only be attained with automatic stability. The underlying principle is that the centre of gravity shall at all times be on the same vertical line as the centre of pressure. The latter varies with the angle of incidence. For square planes it moves approximately as expressed AERONAUTICS 261 by joessel's formula, C + (o-2 +0-3 sin o) L, in which C is the distance frcm the front edge, L the length fore and aft, and a the angle of incidence. The movement is different on concave surfaces. The term aeroplane is understood to apply to flat sustaining surfaces, but experiment indicates that arched surfaces are more efficient. S. P. Langley proposed the word aerodrome, which seems the prefer- able term for apparatus with wing-like surfaces. This is the type to which results point as the proper one for further experiments. With this it seems probable that, with well-designed apparatus, 40 to 50 lb can be sustained per indicated h.p., or about twice that quantity per resistance or " thrust " h.p., and that some 30 or 40% of the weight can be devoted to the machinery, thus requiring motors, with their propellers, shafting, supplies, &c, weighing less than 20 lb per h.p. It is evident that the apparatus must be designed to be as light as possible, and also to reduce to a minimum all resistances to propulsion. This being kept in view, the strength and conse- quent section required for each member may be calculated by the methods employed in proportioning bridges, with the difference that the support (from air pressure) will be considered as uniformly distributed, and the load as concentrated at one or more points. Smaller factors of safety may also have to be used. Knowing the sections required and unit weights of the materials to be employed, the weight of each part can be computed. If a model has been made to absolutely exact scale, the weight of the full-sized apparatus may approximately be ascertained by the formula W ' = W \/(I) S - in which W is the weight of the model, S its surface', and W and S' the weight and surface of the intended apparatus. Thus if the model has been made one-quarter size in its homologous dimensions, the supporting surfaces will be sixteen times, and the total weight sixty- four times those of the model. The weight and the surface being determined, the three most important things to know are the angle of incidence, the " lift," and the required speed. The fundamental formula for rectangular air pressure is well known: P = KV 2 S, in which P is the rectangular normal pressure, in pounds or kilograms, K a coefficient (0-0049 for British, and o-ll for metric measures), V the velocity in miles per hour or in metres per second, and S the surface in square feet or in square metres. The normal on oblique surfaces, at various angles of incidence, is given by the formula P = KV 2 S?), which latter factor is given both for planes and for arched surfaces in the subjoined table: — Percentages of Air Pressure at Various Angles of Incidence Planes (Duchemin For- mula, VERIFIED BY LANGLEY). Wings (Lilienthal). N ■ P 2sina , Concavity 1 in 12. I+sin 2 a Tan- Angle. a. Nor- mal. 1- Lift. Tjcosa. Drift. T^sina. Nor- mal. 1- Lift. 7)COSa. Drift. Tjsino. gential force. a. -Q° o-o 0-0 o-o +0-070 -8° 0-040 0-0396 -0-0055 +0-067 0-080 0-0741 — 0-0097 +0-064 -6° 0-I2O 0-1193 —0-0125 +0-060 -s" 0-160 0-1594 -0-0139 +0-055 "4° O-20O 0-1995 -0-0139 +0-049 -3° 0-242 0-2416 — 0-0126 +0-043 -2° 0-286 0-2858 — O-OIOO +0-037 -i° 0-332 0-3318 —0-0058 +0-031 0° o-o o-o O-o 0-381 0-3810 — 0-0 +0-024 + i° 0-035 0-035 0-00061 1 0-434 0-434 +0-0075 +0-016 +2 U 0-070 0-070 0-00244 0-489 0-489 +0-0170 +o-oo8 +3" 0-104 0-104 0-00543 0-546 0-545 +0-0285 0-0 +< 0-139 0-139 0-0097 o-6oo o-597 +0-0418 —0-007 +5° 0-174 o-i73 0-0152 0-650 0-647 +0-0566 —0-014 +6° 0-207 0-206 0-0217 0-696 0-692 +0-0727 — 0-021 + K 0-240 0-238 0-0293 0-737 0-731 +0-0898 — 0-028 +8° 0-273 0-270 0-0381 0-771 0-763 +0-1072 -0-035 + 9 " 0-305 0-300 0-0477 0-800 0-790 +0-1251 —0-042 10° 0-337 0-332 0-0585 0-825 0-812 +0-1432 -0-050 n° 0-369 0-362 0-0702 0-846 0-830 +0-1614 -0-058 12° 0-398 0-390 0-0828 0-864 0-845 +0-1803 —0-064 *K 0-431 0419 0-0971 0-879 0-856 +0-1976 —0-070 l < 0-457 0-443 0-H55 0-891 0-864 +0-2156 -0-074 15" 0-486 0-468 01240 0-901 0-870 +0-2332 — 0-076 The sustaining power, or " lift," which in horizontal flight must be equal to the weight, can be calculated by the formula L = KV^Stjcoso, or the factor may be taken direct from the table, in which the " lift " and the "drift" have been obtained by multiply- ing the normal ij by the cosine and sine of the angle. The last column shows the tangential pressure on concave surfaces which O. Lilien- thal found to possess a propelling component between 3 and 32°, KSijcoso' W and therefore to be negative to the relative wind. Former modes of computation indicated angles of 10° to 15° as necessary for sup- port with planes. These were prohibitory in consequence of the great "drift"; but the present data indicate that, with concave surfaces, angles of 2° to 5 will produce adequate " lift." To com- pute the latter the angle at which the wings are to be set must first be assumed, and that of +3 will generally be found preferable. Then the required velocity is next to be computed by the formula V = \/- or for concave wings at +3 : _ V = Vo-545KS- Having thus determined the weight, the surface, the angle of inci- dence and the required speed for horizontal support, the next step is to calculate the power required. This is best accomplished by first obtaining the total resistances, which consist of the " drift " and of the head resistances due to the hull and framing. The latter are arrived at preferably by making a tabular statement showing all the spars and parts offering head resistance, and applying to each the coefficient appropriate to its " master section," as ascertained by experiment. Thus is obtained an " equivalent area " of resistance, which is to be multiplied by the wind pressure due to the speed. Care must be taken to resolve all the resistances at their proper angle of application, and to subtract or add the tangential force, which con- sists in the surface S, multiplied by the wind pressure, and by the factor in the table, which is, however, o for 3 and 32°, but positive or negative at other angles. When the aggregate resistances are known, the " thrust h.p." required is obtained by multiplying the resistance by the speed, and then allowing for mechanical losses in the motor and propeller, which losses will generally be 50% of indicated h.p. Close approximations are obtained by the above method whenapplied to full-sized apparatus. The following example will make the process clearer. The weight to be carried by an appar- atus was 189 lb on concave wings of 143-5 sq. ft. area, set at a positive angle of 3 . There were in addition rear wings of 29-5 sq. ft., set at a negative angle of 3 ; hence, L = i89=o-oo5XV 2 XH3-5Xo-545. Whence V= A/ — V o-i 189 = 22 miles per hour, ■005X143-5X0-545 at which the air pressure would be 2-42 lb per sq. ft. The area of spars and man was 17-86 sq. ft., reduced by various coefficients to an " equivalent surface " of 11-70 sq. ft., so that the resistances were : — Drift front wings, 143-5X0-0285X2-42 . . . =9-90 ft> „ rear wings, 29-5 X (0-043 — 0-242 Xo-0523)X2-42 =2-17,, Tangential force at 3° =0-00 „ Head resistance, 11-70X2-42 . . . . . =28-31 „ 2-36 h.p. for the Total resistance =40-38 lb Speed 22 miles per hour. Power = " thrust " or 4-72 h.p. for the motor, the resistance 40-38 lb, the gliding angle of descent was 40-38X22 375 The weight being 189 lb, and 40-38 .. 189 tangent of 12°, which was verified by many experiments. The following expressions will be found useful in computing such projects, with the aid of the table above given; — 1. Wind force, F = KV 2 . 2. Pressure, P = KV 2 S. 3. Velocity, V V W KSrjCOSa' Surface S varies as yj- Normal, N = KSVV, Lift, L = KSWosa. Weight, W = L = Ncosa. 8. Drift, D = KSVV»na. 9. Head area E, get an equiva- lent. 10. Head resistance, H = EF. 1 1 . Tangential force, T = Pa. 12. Resistance, R = D+H=T. 13. Ft. lb, M=RV. 14. Thrust, h.p., =jJ^ F 5- 6. 7- Aerostation. — Possibly the flying dove of Archytas of Tarentum is the earliest suggestion of true aerostation. According to Aulus Gellius (Nodes Atticae) it was a " model of a dove or pigeon formed in wood and so contrived as by a certain mechanical art and power to fly: so nicely was it balanced by weights and put in motion by hidden and enclosed air." This " hidden and enclosed air " may conceivably represent an anticipation of the hot-air balloon, but it is at least as probable that the apparent flight of the dove was a mere mechanical trick depending on the use of fine wires or strings invisible to the spectators. In the middle ages vague ideas appear of some ethereal sub- stance so light that vessels containing it would remain suspended in the air. Roger Bacon (12 14-1294) conceived of a large hollow globe made of very thin metal and filled with ethereal air or liquid fire, which would float on the atmosphere like a ship 262 AERONAUTICS on water. Albert of Saxony, who was bishop of Halberstadt from 1366 to 1390, had a similar notion, and considered that a small portion of the principle of fire enclosed in a light sphere would raise it and keep it suspended. The same speculation was advanced by Francis Mendoza, a Portuguese Jesuit, who died in 1626 at the age of forty-six, and by Gaspar Schott (1608- 1666), also a Jesuit and professor of mathematics at Wurzburg, though for fire he substituted the thin ethereal fluid which he believed to float above the atmosphere. So late as 1755 Joseph Galien (1600-1782), a Dominican friar and professor of philo- sophy and theology in the papal university of Avignon, proposed to collect the diffuse air of the upper regions and to enclose it in a huge vessel extending more than a mile every way, and intended to carry fifty-four times as much weight as did Noah's ark! A somewhat different but equally fantastic method of making heavy bodies rise is quoted by Schott from Lauretus Laurus, according to whom swans' eggs or leather balls filled with nitre, sulphur or mercury ascend when exposed to the sun. Laurus also stated that hens' eggs filled with dew will ascend in the same circumstances, because dew is shed by the stars and drawn up again to heaven by the sun's heat during the day. The same notion is utilized by Cyrano de Bergerac (1619-1655) in his romances describing journeys to the moon and sun, for his French traveller fastens round his body a multitude of very thin flasks rilled with the morning's dew, whereby through the attractive power of the sun's heat on the dew he is raised to the middle regions of the atmosphere, to sink again, however, on the breaking of some of the flasks. A distinct advance on Schott is marked by the scheme for aerial.inavigation proposed by the Jesuit, Francis Lana (163 1- 1687), in his book, published at Brescia in 1670, Prodrome* ovoero Saggio di alcune invenzioni nuove promesso all' Arte Maeslra. His idea, though useless and unpractical in so far that it could never be carried out, is yet de- serving of notice, as the principles involved are sound; and this can be said of no earlier attempt. His project was to procure four copper balls of very large dimensions (fig. 1), yet so extremely thin that after the air was exhausted from them they would be lighter than the air they dis- placed and so would rise; and to those four balls he proposed to attach a boat, with sails, &c, which would carry up a man. He sub- mitted the whole matter to calculation, and pro- posed that the globes should be about 25 ft. in diameter and •j-|-jth of an inch in thickness; this would give from all four balls a total ascensional force of about 1200 lb, which would be quite enough to raise the boat, sails, passengers, &c. But the obvious objection to the whole scheme is, that it would be quite im- possible to construct a globe "of so large a size and of such small thickness which would even support its own weight without col- lapsing if placed on the ground, much less bear the external atmospheric pressure when the internal air was removed. Lana himself noticed this objection, but he thought that the spherical form of the copper shell would, notwithstanding its extreme thin- ness, enable it, after the exhaustion was effected, to sustain the enormous pressure, which, acting equally on every point of the surface, would tend to consolidate rather than to break the metal. His proposal to exhaust the air from the globes Fig. I. — Lana's Aeronautical Machine. by attaching to each a tube 36 ft. long, fitted with a stopcock, and so producing a Torricellian vacuum, suggests that he was ignorant of the invention of the air-pump by Otto von Guericke about 1650. We now come to the invention of the balloon, which was due to Joseph Michel Montgblfier (1740-1810) and Jacques fitienne Montgolfier (1745-1700), sons of Pierre Mont- golfier, a large and celebrated papermaker at Annonay, ideation a town about 40 m. from Lyons. The brothers had balloon. observed the suspension of clouds in the atmosphere, and it occurred to them that if they could enclose any vapour of the nature of a cloud in a large and very light bag, it might rise and carry the bag with it into the air. Towards the end of 1782 they inflated bags with smoke from a fire placed under- neath, and found that either the smoke or some vapour emitted from the fire did ascend and carry the bag with it. Being thus assured of the correctness of their views, they determined to have a public ascent of a balloon on a large scale. They accord- ingly invited the States of Vivarais, then assembled at Annonay, to witness their aerostatic experiment; and on the 5th of June 1783, in the presence of a considerable concourse of spectators, a linen globe of 105 ft. in circumference was inflated over a fire fed with small bundles of chopped straw. When released it rapidly rose to a great height, and descended, at the expiration of ten minutes, at the distance of about ijm. This was the discovery of the balloon. The brothers Montgolfier imagined that the bag rose because of the levity of the smoke or other vapour given forth by the burning straw; and it was not till some time later that it was recognized that the ascending power was due merely to the lightness of heated air compared to an equal volume of air at a lower temperature. In this balloon, no source of heat was taken up, so that the air inside rapidly cooled, and the balloon soon descended. The news of the experiment at Annonay attracted so much attention at Paris that Barthelemi Faujas de Saint-Fond (1741- 1819), afterwards professor of geology at the Musee d'Histoire Naturelle, set on foot a subscription for paying the expense of repeating the experiment. The balloon was constructed by two brothers of the name of Robert, under the superintendence of the physicist, J. A. C. Charles. The first suggestion was to copy the process of Montgolfier, but Charles proposed the appli- cation of hydrogen gas, which was adopted. The filling of the balloon, which was made of thin silk varnished with a solution of elastic gum, and was about 13 ft. in diameter, was begun on the 23rd of August 1783, in the Place des Victoires. The hydrogen gas was obtained by the action of dilute sulphuric acid upon iron filings; and was introduced through leaden pipes; but as the gas was not passed through cold water, great difficulty was experienced in filling the balloon completely; and alto- 1 gether about 500 fb of sulphuric acid and twice that amount of iron filings were used (fig. 2). Bulletins were issued daily of the progress of the inflation; and the crowd was so great that on the 26th the bal- loon was moved secretly by night to the Champ de Mars, a distance of 2 m. On the next day an im- mense concourse of people covered the Champ de Mars, and every spot from which a view could be ob- tained was crowded. About five o'clock a cannon was discharged as the signal for the ascent, and the balloon when liberated rose to the height of about 3000 ft. with great rapidity. A shower of rain which began to fall directly after it had left the earth in no way checked its progress; and the excitement was so great, that thousands of well-dressed spectators, many of them ladies, stood exposed, watching it intently the whole time it was in sight and Fig. 2. — Charles' and Robert's Balloon. AERONAUTICS 263 were drenched to the skin. The balloon, after remaining in the air for about three-quarters of an hour, fell in a field near Gonesse, about 15 m. off, and terrified the peasantry so much that it was torn into shreds by them. Hydrogen gas was at this time known by the name of inflammable air; and balloons inflated with gas have ever since been called by the people air-balloons, the kind invented by the Montgolfiers being desig- nated fire-balloons. French writers have also very frequently styled them after their inventors, Charlieres and Monlgolfi'eres. On the 19th of September 1783 Joseph Montgolfier repeated the Annonay experiment at Versailles, in the presence of the king, the queen, the court and an immense number of spectators. The inflation was begun at one o'clock, and completed in eleven minutes, when the balloon rose to the height 6f about 1500 ft., and descended after eight minutes, at a distance of about 2 m., in the wood of Vaucresson. Suspended below the balloon, in a cage, had been placed a sheep, a cock and a duck, which were thus the first aerial travellers. They were quite uninjured, except the cock, which had its right wing hurt in consequence of a kick it had received from the sheep; but this took place before the ascent. The balloon, which was painted with orna- ments in oil colours, had a very showy appearance (fig. 3). Fig. 3. — Montgolfier's Balloon. The first human being who ascended in a balloon was Jean Francois Pilatre de Rozier (1756-1785), a native of Metz, who was appointed superintendent of the natural history collections of Louis XVIII. On the 15th of October 1783, and following days, he made several ascents (generally alone, but once with a companion, Girond de Villette) in a captive balloon (i.e. one attached by ropes to the ground) , and demonstrated that there was no difficulty in taking up fuel and feeding the fire, which was kindled in a brazier suspended under the balloon, when in the air. The way being thus prepared for aerial navigation, on the 21st of November 1783, Pilatre de Rozier and the marquis d'Arlandes first trusted themselves to a free fire-balloon. The experiment was made from the Jardin du Chateau de la Muette, in the Bois de Boulogne. A large fire-balloon was inflated at about two o'clock, rose to a height of about 500 ft., and passing over the Invalides and the Ecole Militaire, descended beyond the Boulevards, about 9000 yds. from the place of ascent, having been between twenty and twenty-five minutes in the air. Only ten days later, viz. on the 1st of December 1783, Charles ascended from Paris in a balloon inflated with hydrogen gas. The balloon, as in the case of the small one of the same kind previously launched from the Champ de Mars, was constructed by the brothers Robert, one of whom took part in the ascent. It was 27 ft. in diameter, and the car was suspended from a hoop surrounding the middle of the balloon, and fastened to a net, which covered the upper hemisphere. The balloon ascended very gently from the Tuileries at a quarter to two o'clock, and after remaining for some time at an elevation of about 2000 ft., it descended in about two hours at Nesle, a small town about 27 m. from Paris, when Robert left the car, and Charles made a second ascent by himself. He had intended to have replaced the weight of his companion by a nearly equivalent quantity of ballast; but not having any suitable means of obtaining such at the place of descent, and it being just upon sunset, he gave the word to let go, and the balloon being thus so greatly lightened, ascended very rapidly to a height of about 2 m. After staying in the air about half an hour, he descended 3 m. from the place of ascent, although he believed the distance traversed, owing to different currents, to have been about 9 m. In this second journey he experienced a violent pain in his right ear and jaw, no doubt produced by the rapidity of the ascent. He also witnessed the phenomenon of a double sunset on the same day; for when he ascended, the sun had set in the valleys, and as he mounted he saw it rise again, and set a second time as he descended. All the features of the modern balloon as now used are more or less due to Charles, who invented the valve at the top, sus- pended the car from a hoop, which was itself attached to the balloon by netting, &c. With regard to his use of hydrogen gas, there are anticipations that must be noticed. As early as 1766 Henry Cavendish showed that this gas was at least seven times lighter than ordinary air, and it immediately occurred to Dr. Joseph Black, of Edinburgh, that a thin bag filled with hydrogen gas would rise to the ceiling of a room. He provided, accordingly, the allantois of a calf, with the view of showing at a public lecture such a curious experiment; but for some reason it seems to have failed, and Black did not repeat it, thus allowing a great dis- covery, almost within his reach, to escape him. Several years afterwards a similar idea occurred to Tiberius Cavallo, who found that bladders, even when carefully scraped, are too heavy, and that China paper is permeable to the gas. But in 1782, the year before the invention of the Montgolfiers, he succeeded in elevating soap-bubbles by inflating them with hydrogen gas. Researches on the use of gas for inflating balloons seem to have been carried on at Philadelphia nearly simultaneously with the experiments of the Montgolfiers; and when the news .of the latter reached America, D. Rittenhouse and F. Hopkinson, members of the Philosophical Society at Philadelphia, con- structed a machine consisting of forty-seven small hydrogen gas-balloons attached to a car or cage. After several preliminary experiments, in which animals were let up to a certain height by a rope, a carpenter, one James Wilcox, was induced to enter the car for a small sum of money; the ropes were cut, and he remained in the air about ten minutes, and only then effected his descent by making incisions in a number of the balloons, through fear of falling into the river, which he was approaching. Although the news of the Annonay and subsequent experi- ments in France rapidly spread all over Europe, and formed a topic of general discussion, still it was not till five first months after the Montgolfiers had first publicly sent ascents la a balloon into the air that any aerostatic experiment ?"5?' was made in England. In November 1783 Count Francesco Zambeccari (1756-1812), an Italian who happened to be in London, made a balloon of oil-silk, 10 ft. in diameter, and weighing n lb. It was publicly shown for several days, and on the 25th it was three-quarters filled with hydrogen gas and launched from the Artillery ground at one o'clock. It descended after two hours and a half near Petworth, in Sussex, 48 m. from London. This was the first balloon that ascended from English ground. On the 22nd of February 1784 a hydrogen gas balloon, 5 ft. in diameter, was let up from Sandwich, in Kent, and descended at Warneton, in French Flanders, 264 AERONAUTICS 75 m. distant. This was the first balloon that crossed the Channel. The first person who rose into the air from British ground appears to have been J. Tytler, 1 who ascended from the Comely Gardens, Edinburgh, on the 27th of August 1784, in a fire-balloon of his own construction. He descended on the road to Restalrig, about half a mile from the place where he rose. But it was Vincent Lunardi who practically introduced aerostation into Great Britain. Although Tytler had the precedence by a few days still his attempts and partial success were all but unknown ; whereas Lunardi's experiments excited an enormous amount of enthusiasm in London. He was secre- tary to Prince Caramanico, the Neapolitan ambassador, and his published letters to his guardian, the chevalier Compagni, written while he was carrying out his project, and detail- ing all the difficulties, &c, he met with as they occurred, give an interesting and vivid account of the whole matter. His balloon was 33 ft. in circumference (fig.4),and was exposed to the public view at the Lyceum in the Strand, where it was visited by up- wards of 20,000 people. He originally intended to ascend from Chelsea Hospital, but the conduct of a crowd at a garden at Chelsea, which de- stroyed the fire-balloon of a Frenchman named de Moret, who announced an ascent on the nth of August, but was unable to keep his word, led to the withdrawal of the Ultimately he was permitted to ascend from the Artillery ground, and on the 15th of September 1 784 the inflation with hydrogen gas took place. It was intended that an English gentleman named Biggin should accompany Lunardi; but the crowd becoming impatient, the latter judged it prudent to ascend with the balloon only partially full rather than risk a longer delay, and accordingly Mr Biggin was obliged to leave the car. Lunardi therefore ascended alone, in presence of the prince of Wales and an enormous crowd of spectators. He took up with him a pigeon, a dog and a cat, and the balloon was provided with oars, by means of which he hoped to raise or lower it at pleasure. Shortly after starting the pigeon escaped, and one of the oars became broken and fell to the ground. In about an hour and a half he descended at South Mimms, in Hertfordshire, and landed the cat, which had suffered from the cold: he then ascended again, and descended, after the lapse of about three-quarters of an hour, at Standon, near Ware, where he had great difficulty in inducing the peasants to come to his assistance; but at length a young woman, taking hold of one of the cords, urged the men to follow her example, which they then did. The excitement caused by this ascent was immense, and Lunardi at once became the star of the hour. He was pre- sented to the king, and was courted and flattered on all sides. To show the enthusiasm displayed by the people during his ascent, he tells himself, in his sixth letter, how a lady, mistaking the oar which fell for himself, was so affected by his supposed destruction that she died in a few days ; but, on the other hand, he says he was told by the judges " that he had certainly saved the life of a young man who might possibly be reformed, and be to the public a compensation for the death of the lady "; for the jury were deliberating on the fate of a criminal, whom they must ultimately have condemned, when the balloon appeared, and to save time they gave a verdict of acquittal, and the whole court 1 Mr Tytier contributed largely to, and, indeed, appears to have been virtually editor ot, the second edition (1778-1783) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Fig. 4. — Lunardi's Balloon, leave that had been granted. came out to view the balloon. The king also was in conference with his ministers; but on hearing that the balloon was passing, he broke up the discussion, and with them watched the balloon through telescopes. The balloon was afterwards exhibited in the Pantheon. In the latter part of the following year (1785) Lunardi made several successful ascents from Kelso, Edinburgh and Glasgow (in one of which he traversed a distance of no m.) ; these he described in a second series of letters. The first ascent from Ireland was made on the 19th of January 1785 by a Mr Crosbie, who on the following 19th of July at- tempted to cross St George's Channel to England but fell into the sea. The second person who ascended from Ireland was Richard Maguire. Mr Crosbie had inflated his balloon on the 12th of May 1785, but it was unable to take him up. Maguire in these circumstances offered himself as a substitute, and his offer being accepted he made the ascent. For this he was knighted by the Lord-Lieutenant. Another attempt to cross St George's Channel was made by James Sadler on the 1st of October 181 2, and he had nearly succeeded when in consequence of a change of wind he was forced to descend into the sea off Liverpool, whence he was rescued by a fishing-boat. But on the 22nd of July 1817 his second son, Windham Sadler, succeeded in crossing from Dublin to Holyhead. The first balloon voyage across the English Channel was accomplished by Jean Pierre Blanchard (1 753-1809) and Dr. J. Jeffries, an American physician, on the 7 th of January voyages 1785. In the preceding year, on the 2nd of March, across Blanchard, who was one of the most celebrated of ^jf llsh . the earlier aeronauts, made his first voyage from Paris in a balloon 27 ft. in diameter (fig. 5), and descended at Billan- court near Sevres. Just as the balloon was about to start, a young man jumped into the car and draw- ing his sword declared his determination to ascend with Blanch- ard. He was ulti- mately removed by force. It has some- times been incorrectly stated that he was Napoleon Bonaparte ; his name in reality was Dupont de Cham- bon. In their Channel crossing Blanchard and his companion, who started from Dover, when about one-third across found themselves descend- ing, and threw out every available thing from the boat or car. When about three- quarters across they were Fig. 5. — Blanchard's Balloon. descending A, Balloon of taffeta, 26 ft. in diameter, again and had to covered with a net. ,-t ' . t 1 B, Car suspended by cords from hoop C. throw out not only D> D , D> D , Wings worked by rack-work E. the anchor and cords, F, Parachute to break the force of descent but also to strip and should the balloon burst, throw away part of *-*, Tube communicating with inside of their clothing, after balloon. which they found they were rising, and their last resource, viz. to cut away the car, was rendered unnecessary. As they ap- proached the shore the balloon rose, describing a magnificent arch high over the land. They descended in the forest of Guinnes. On the 15th of June 1785, Pilatre de Rozier made an attempt to repeat the exploit of Blanchard and Jeffries in the reverse direction, and cross from Boulogne to England. For this AERONAUTICS 265 purpose he contrived a double balloon, which he expected would combine the advantages of both kinds — a fire-balloon, 10 ft. in diameter, being placed underneath a gas-balloon of 37 ft. in diameter, so that by increasing or diminishing the fire in the former it might be possible to ascend or descend without waste of gas. Rozier was accompanied by P. A. Romain, and for rather less than half an hour after the aerostat ascended all seemed to be going on well, when suddenly the whole apparatus was seen in flames, and the unfortunate adventurers came to the ground from the supposed height of more than 3000 ft. Rozier was killed on the spot, and Romain only survived about ten minutes. A monument was erected on the place where they fell, which was near the sea-shore, about 4 m. from the starting-point. The largest balloon on record (if the contemporary accounts are correct) ascended from Lyons on the 19th of January 1784. It was more than 100 ft. in diameter, about 130 ft. t*-^ in height, and when distended had a capacity, it is balloons, said, of over half a million cubic feet. It was called the " Flesselles " (from the name of its proprietor, we believe), and after having been inflated from a straw fire in seventeen minutes, it rose with seven persons in the car to the height of about 3000 ft., but descended again after the lapse of about a quarter of an hour from the time of starting, in con- sequence of a rent in the upper part. Another large fire-balloon, 68 ft. in diameter, was constructed by the chevalier Paul Andreani of Milan, and on the 25th of February he ascended in it from Milan, remaining in the air for about twenty minutes. This is usually regarded as the first ascent in Italy (but see Monck Mason's Aeronautica, p. 247). On the 7th of November 1836, at half-past one o'clock, a large balloon containing about 85,000 cub. ft. of gas ascended from Vauxhall Gardens, London, carrying Robert Hollond, M.P., Monck Mason and Charles Green, and descended about two leagues from Weilburg, in the duchy of Nassau, at half-past seven the next morning, having thus traversed a distance of about 500 m. in 18 hours; Liege was passed in the course of the night, and Coblentz in the early morning. In consequence of this journey the balloon became famous as the " Nassau Balloon " (fig. 6). Charles Green (1785-1870), who constructed It and subsequently became its owner, was the most celebrated of English aeronauts, and made an extraordinary number of ascents. His first, made from the Green Park, London, on the 19th of July 1 82 1 at the coronation of George IV., was distin- guished for the fact that for the first time coal-gas was used instead of hydrogen for inflating the balloon. In 1828 he made an equestrian ascent from the Eagle Tavern, City Road, London, seated on his favourite pony. Such ascents have since been repeated; in 1852 Madame Poitevin made one from Cremorne Gardens, but was prevented from giving a second performance by police interference, the exhibition outraging public opinion. It was in descending from the " Nassau Balloon " in a parachute that Robert Cocking was killed in 1837 (see Parachute). Green was the inventor of the guide-rope, which consists of a long rope trailing below the car. Its function is to reduce the waste of gas and ballast required to keep the balloon at a proper altitude. When a balloon sinks so low that a good deal of the guide-rope rests on the ground, it is relieved of so much weight and therefore tends to rise; if on the other hand it rises so that most of the rope is lifted off the ground, it has to bear a greater weight and tends to sink. In 1863 A. Nadar, a Paris photographer, constructed " Le Geant," which was the largest gas-balloon made up to that time and contained over 200,000 cub. ft. of gas. Underneath it was placed a smaller balloon, called a compensator, the object of which was to prevent loss of gas during the voyage. The car had two stories, and was, in fact, a model of a cottage in wicker-work, 8 ft. in height by 13 ft. in length, containing a small printing-office, a photographic department, a refreshment- room, a lavatory, &c. The first ascent took place at five o'clock on Sunday the 4th of October 1863, from the Champ de Mars. There were thirteen persons in the car, including one lady, the princess de la Tour d'Auvergne, and the two aeronauts Louis and Jules Godard. In spite of the elaborate preparations that had been made and the stores of provisions that were taken up, the balloon descended at nine o'clock, at Meaux, the early descent being rendered necessary, it was said, bf an accident to the valve-line. At a second ascent, made a fortnight later, there were nine passengers, including Madame Nadar. The balloon descended at the expiration of seventeen hours, near Nienburg in Hanover, a distance of about 400 m. A strong wind was blowing, and it was dragged over the ground for 7 or 8 m. AH the passengers were bruised, and some seriously hurt. The balloon and car were then brought to England, and exhibited at the Crystal Palace at the end of 1863 and beginning of 1864. The two ascents of Nadar's balloon excited an extraordinary amount of enthusiasm and interest, vastly out of proportion to what they were entitled to. Nadar's idea was to obtain suffi- cient money, by the exhibition of his balloon, to carry out a plan Fig. 6. — The Great Nassau Balloon. of aerial locomotion he had conceived possible by means of the principle of the screw; in fact, he spoke of " Le Geant " as " the last balloon." He also started U Aeronaute, a newspaper devoted to aerostation, and published a small book, which was translated into English under the title The Right to Fly. Directly after Nadar's two ascents, Eugene Godard con- structed a fire-balloon of nearly half a million cubic feet capa- city — more than double that of Nadar's and only slightly less than that attributed to the " Flesselles " of 1783. The air was heated by an 18-ft. stove, weighing, with the chimney, 980 lb. This furnace was fed by straw; and the " car " consisted of a gallery surrounding it. Two ascents of this balloon, the first fire-balloon seen in London, were made from Cremorne Gardens in July 1864. After the first journey the balloon descended at Greenwich, and after the second at Walthamstow, where it was injured by being blown against a tree. Notwithstanding its enormous size, Godard asserted that it could be inflated in half an hour, and the inflation at Cremorne did not occupy more than an hour. In spite of the rapidity with which the inflation was effected, few who saw the ascent could fail to receive an impression unfavourable to the fire-balloon in the matter of safety, as a rough descent, with a heated furnace as it were in the car, could not be other than most dangerous. 266 AERONAUTICS In the summer of 1873 the proprietors of the New York Daily Graphic, reviving a project discussed by Green in 1840, deter- mined to construct a very large balloon, and enable balloon the American aeronaut, John Wise, to realize his voyages, favourite scheme of crossing the Atlantic Ocean to Europe, by taking advantage of the current from west to east which was believed by many to exist constantly at heights above 10,000 ft. The project came to nothing owing to the quality of the material of which the balloon was made. When it was being inflated in September 1873 a rent was observed after 325,000 cub. ft. of gas had been put in, and the whole rapidly collapsed. The size was said to be such as to contain 400,000 cub. ft., so that it would lift a weight of 14,000 lb. No balloon voyage has yet been made of a length comparable to the breadth of the Atlantic. In fact only two voyages exceeding 1000 m. are on record — that of John Wise from St Louis to Henderson, N.Y., 1120 m., in 1859, and that of Count Henry de la Vaulx from Paris to Korosticheff in Russia, 1103 m., in 1900. On the nth of July 1897 Salomon Andree, with two companions, Strendberg and Frankel, ascended from Spitsbergen in a daring attempt to reach the North Pole, about 600 m. distant. One carrier pigeon, apparently liberated 48 hours after the start, was shot, and two floating buoys with messages were found, but nothing more was heard of the explorers. At an earlydate the balloon was applied to scientific purposes. So far back as 1784, Dr Jeffries made an ascent from London in _. ._ which he carried out barometric, thermometric and ascents. hygrometric observations, also collecting samples of the air at different heights. In 1803 the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences, entertaining the opinion that the experi- ments made on mountain-sides by J. A. Deluc, H. B. de Saus- sure, A. von Humboldt and others must give results different from those made in free air at the same heights, resolved to arrange a balloon ascent. Accordingly, on the 30th of January 1804, Sacharof, a member of the academy, ascended in a gas- balloon, in company with a French aeronaut, E. G. Robertson, who at one time gave conjuring entertainments in Paris. The ascent was made at a quarter past seven, and the descent effected at a quarter to eleven. The height reached was less than i£ m. The experiments were not very systematically made, and the chief results were the filling and bringing down of several flasks of air collected at different elevations, and the supposed observation that the magnetic dip was altered. A telescope fixed in the bottom of the car and pointing vertically down- wards enabled the travellers to ascertain exactly the spot over which they were floating at any moment. Sacharof found that, on shouting downwards through his speaking-trumpet, the echo from the earth was quite distinct, and at his height was audible after an interval of about ten seconds (Phil. Mag., 1805, 21, p. 193). Some of the results reported by Robertson appearing doubtful, Laplace proposed to the members of the French Academy of Sciences that the funds placed by the government at their dis- posal for the prosecution of useful experiments should be utilized in sending up balloons to test their accuracy. The proposition was supported by J. A. C. Chaptal, the chemist, who was then minister of the interior, and accordingly the necessary arrange- ments were speedily effected, the charge of the experiments being given to L. J. Gay-Lussac and J. B. Biot. The principal object of this ascent was to determine whether the magnetic force experienced any appreciable diminution at heights above the earth's surface. On the 24th of August 1804, Gay-Lussac and Biot ascended from the Conservatoire des Arts at ten o'clock in the morning. Their magnetic experiments were incommoded by the rotation of the balloon, but they found that, up to the height of 13,000 ft., the time of vibration of a magnet was ap- preciably the same as on the earth's surface. They found also that the air became drier as they ascended. The height reached was about 13,000 ft., and the temperature declined from 63° to 51 F. The descent was effected about half-past one, at Meriville, 18 leagues from Paris. In a second experiment, which was made on the 16th of Sep- tember 1804, Gay-Lussac ascended alone. The balloon left the Conservatoire des Arts at 9.40 a.m., and descended at 3.45 p.m. between Rouen and Dieppe. The chief result obtained was that the magnetic force, like gravitation, did not experience any sensible variation at heights from the earth's surface which we can attain to. Gay-Lussac also brought down air collected at the height of nearly 23,000 ft., and on analysis it appeared that its composition was the same as that of air collected at the earth's surface. At the time of leaving the earth the thermometer stood at 82 F., and at the highest point reached (23,000 ft.) it was 14-9° F. Gay-Lussac remarked that at his highest point there were still clouds above him. From 1804 to 1850 there is no record of any scientific ascents in balloons having been undertaken. In the latter year J.- A. Bixio (1808-1865) and J. A. Barral (1819-1884) made two ascents of this kind. In the first they ascended from the Paris observa- tory on the 29th of June 1850, at 10.27 A - M -> the balloon being inflated with hydrogen gas. The day was a rough one, and the ascent took place without any previous attempt having been made to test the ascensional force of the balloon. When liber- ated, it rose with great rapidity, and becoming fully inflated it pressed upon the network, bulging out at the top and bottom. The ropes by which the car was suspended being too short, the balloon soon covered the travellers like an immense hood. In endeavouring to secure the valve-rope, they made a rent in the balloon, a,nd the gas escaped so close to their faces as almost to suffocate them. Finding that they were descending then too rapidly, they threw overboard everything available, including their coats and only excepting the instruments. The ground was reached at ioh. 45m., near Lagny. Of course no observa- tions were made. Their second ascent was made on the 27 th of July, and was remarkable on account of the extreme cold met with. At about 20,000 ft. the temperature was 1 5° F., the balloon being enveloped in cloud; but on emerging from the cloud, at 23,000 ft., the temperature sank to -38° F., no less than 53 F. below that experienced by Gay-Lussac at the same elevation. The existence of these very cold clouds served to explain certain meteorological phenomena that were observed on the earth both the day before and the day after the ascent. Some pigeons were taken up in this, as in most other high ascents; when liberated, they showed a reluctance to leave the car, and then fell heavily downwards. In July 1852 the committee of the Kew Observatory resolved to institute a series of balloon ascents, with the view of investi- gating such meteorological and physical phenomena as require the presence of an observer at a great height in the atmosphere. John Welsh (1824-1859) of the Kew Observatory was the observer, and the great " Nassau Balloon" was employed, with Green himself as the aeronaut. Four ascents were made in 1852, viz. on the 17th and 26th of August, the 31st of October and the 10th of November. The heights attained were 19,510, 19,100, 12,640 and 22,930 ft., and the lowest temperatures met with in the four ascents were 8-7° F. (19,380 ft.), 12-4° F. (18,370 ft), 16-4° F. (12,640 ft.) and 10-5° F. (22,370 ft.). The decline of temperature was very regular. A siphon baro- meter, dry and wet bulb thermometers, aspirated and free, and a Regnault hygrometer were taken up. Some air collected at a considerable height was found on analysis not to differ appreci- ably in its composition from air collected near the ground. For the original observations see Phil. Trans., 1853, pp. 311-346. At the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science held at Aberdeen in 1859, a committee was appointed for the purpose of making observations in the higher , strata of the atmosphere by means of the balloon. ascents . For two years nothing was effected, owing to the want both of an observer and of a suitable balloon. After its re- appointment at the Manchester meeting of 1861, the committee communicated with Henry Tracey Coxwell (1819-1900), an aeronaut who had made a good many ascents, and he agreed to construct a new balloon, of 90,000 cub. ft. capacity, on the condition that the committee would undertake to use it, and pay £25 for each high ascent made especially on its behalf, defraying AERONAUTICS 267 also the cost of gas, &c, so that the expense of each high ascent amounted to nearly £50. An observer being still wanted, James Glaisher, a member of the committee, offered himself to take the observations, and accordingly the first ascent was made on the 17th of July 1862, from the gas-works at Wolverhampton, this town being chosen on account of its central position in the country. Altogether, Glaisher made twenty-eight ascents, the last being on the 26th of May 1866. Of these only seven were specially high ascents, although six others were undertaken for the objects of the committee alone. On the other occasions he availed himself of public ascents from the Crystal Palace and other places of entertainment, merely taking his place like the other passengers. In the last six ascents another aeronaut and a smaller balloon were employed. The dates, places of ascent and greatest heights (in feet) attained in the twenty-eight ascents were — 1862: July 17, Wolverhampton, 26,177; July 30, Crystal Palace, 6937; August 18, Wolverhampton, 23,377; August 20, Crystal Palace, 5900; August 21, Hendon, 14,355; September 1, Crystal Palace, 4190; September 5, Wolverhamp- ton, 37,000; September 8, Crystal Palace, 5428. 1863: March 31, Crystal Palace, 22,884; . April 18, Crystal Palace, 24,163; June 26, Wolverton, 23,200; July n, Crystal Palace, 6623; July 21, Crystal Palace, 3298; August 31, Newcastle-upon- Tyne, 8033; September 29, Wolverhampton, 16,590; October 9, Crystal Palace, 7310. 1864: January 12, Woolwich, 11,897; April 6, Woolwich, 11,075; June 13, Crystal Palace, 3543; June 20, Derby, 4280; June 27, Crystal Palace, 4898; August 29, Crystal Palace, 14,581; December 1, Woolwich, 5431; December 30, Woolwich, 3735. 1865: February 27, Woolwich, 4865; October 2, Woolwich, 1949; December 2, Woolwich, 4628. 1866: May 26, Windsor, 6325. The primary object of the ascents was to determine the temperature of the air, and its hygrometrical state at different elevations to as great a height as could be reached; and the secondary objects were — (1) to determine the temperature of the dew-point by Daniell's and Regnault's hygrometers, as well as by the dry and wet bulb thermometers, and to compare the results; (2) to compare the readings of an aneroid barometer with those of a mercurial barometer up to the height of .5 m. ; (3) to determine the electrical state of the air, (4) the oxygenic condition of the atmosphere, and (5) the time of vibration of a magnet; (6) to collect air at different elevations; (7) to note the height and kind of clouds, their density and thickness; (8) to determine the rate and direction of different currents in the atmosphere; and (9) to make observations on sound. The instruments used were mercurial and aneroid barometers, dry and wet bulb thermometers, Daniell's dew-point hygrometer, Regnault's condensing hygrometer, maximum and minimum thermometers, a magnet for horizontal vibration, hermetically sealed glass tubes exhausted of air, and an electrometer. In one or two of the ascents a camera was taken up. The complete observations, both as made and after reduction, are printed in the British'- Association Reports, 1 862-1 866; here only a general account of the results can be given. It appeared that the rate of the decline of temperature with elevation near the earth was very different according as the sky was clear or cloudy; and the equality of temperature at sunset and increase with height after sunset were very remarkable facts which were not anticipated. Even at the height of 5 m., cirrus clouds were seen high in the air, apparently as far above as they seem when viewed from the earth. The results of the observations differed very much, and no doubt the atmospheric conditions depended not only on the time of day, but also on the season of the year, and were such that a vast number of ascents would be requisite to determine the true laws with anything approaching to certainty and completeness. It was also clear that England is a most unfit country for the pursuit of such investigations, as, from whatever place the balloon started, it was never safe to be more than an hour above the clouds for fear of reaching the sea. It appeared from the observations that an aneroid barometer could be trusted to read as accurately as a mercurial barometer to the heights reached. The time of vibration of a horizontal magnet was taken in very many of the ascents, and the results of ten different sets of observations indicated that the time of vibration was longer than on the earth. In almost all the ascents the balloon was under the influence of currents of air in different directions which varied greatly in thickness. The direc- tion of the wind on the earth was sometimes that of the whole mass of air up to 20,000 ft., whilst at other times the direction changed within 500 ft. of the earth. Sometimes directly oppo- site currents were met with at different heights in the same ascent, and three or four streams of air were encountered moving in different directions. The direct distances between the places of ascent and descent, apart from the movements of the balloon under the influence of these various currents, were always very much greater than the horizontal movement of the air as meas- ured by anemometers. For example, on the 12th of January 1862, the balloon left Woolwich at 2I1. 8m. p.m., and descended at Lakenheath ; 70 m. distant from the place of ascent, at 4I1. 19m. p.m. At the Greenwich Observatory, by a Robinson anemometer, during this time the motion of the air was 6 m. only. With regard to physiological observations, Glaisher found that the frequency of his pulse increased with elevation, as also did the number of inspirations. The number of his pulsa- tions was generally 76 per minute before starting, about 90 at 10,000 ft., 100 at 20,000 ft., and no at higher elevations. But a good deal depended on the temperament of the individual. This was also the case in respect to colour; at 10,000 ft. the faces of some would be a glowing purple, whilst others would be scarcely affected; at 4 m. high Glaisher found the pulsations of his heart distinctly audible, and his breathing was very much affected, so that panting was produced by the slightest exertion; at 29,000 ft. he became insensible. In reference to the propa- gation of sound, it was at all times found that sounds from the earth were more or less audible according to the amount of mois- ture in the air. When in clouds at 4 m. high, a railway train was heard; but when clouds were far below, no sound ever reached the ear at this elevation. The discharge of a gun was heard at 10,000 ft. The barking of a dog was heard at the height of 2 m., while the shouting of a multitude of people was not audible at heights exceeding 4000 ft. In his ascent of the 5th of September 1862, Glaisher considered that he reached a height of 37,000 ft. But that figure was based, not on actual record, but on the circumstances that at 29,000 ft., when he became insensible, the balloon was rising 1000 ft. a minute, and that when he recovered consciousness thirteen minutes later it was falling 2000 ft. a minute, and the accuracy of his conclusions has been questioned. Few scientific men have imitated Glaisher in making high ascents for meteorological observations. In 1867 and 1868 Camille Flammarion made eight or nine ascents from Paris for scientific purposes. The heights attained were not great, but the general result was to confirm the observations of Glaisher; for an account see Voyages aeriens, Paris, 1870, or Travels in the Air, London, 1871, in which also some ascents by W. de Fonvielle are noticed. On the 15th of April 1875, H. T. Sivel, J. E. Croce-Spinelli and Gaston Tissandier ascended from Paris in the balloon " Zenith," and reached a height of 27,950 ft.; but only Tissandier came down alive, his two companions being asphyxiated. This put an end to such attempts for a time. But Dr A. Berson and Lieut. Gross attained 25,840 ft. on the nth of May 1894; Berson, ascending alone from Strassfurt on the 4th of December 1894, attained about 31,500 ft. and recorded a temperature of —54° F.; and Berson and Stanley Spencer are stated by the latter to have attained 27,500 ft. on the 15th of September 1898 when they ascended in a hydrogen balloon from the Crystal Palace, the thermometer registering — 29 F. On the 31st of July 1901, Berson and R. J. Siiring, ascending at Berlin, actually noted a barometric reading corresponding to a height of 34,5°° ft., and possibly rose 1000 or 1500 ft. higher, though in spite of oxygen inhalations they were unconscious during the highest portion of the ascent. The personal danger attending high ascents led Gustave Hermite and Besancon in November 1892 to inaugurate the 268 AERONAUTICS sending up of unmanned balloons {ballons sondes) equipped with automatic recording instruments, and kites (q.v.) have also been employed for similar meteorological purposes. (See also Meteorology.) The balloon had not been discovered very long before it received a military status, and soon after the beginning of the French revolutionary war an aeronautic school was balloons. f° un ded at Meudon, in charge of Guyton de Morveau, the chemist, and Colonel J. M. J. Coutelle (1748-1835). Four balloons were constructed for the armies of the north, of the Sambre and Meuse, of the Rhine and Moselle, and of Egypt. In June r794 Coutelle ascended with the adjutant and general to reconnoitre the hostile army just before the battle of Fleurus, and two reconnaissances were made, each occupying four hours. It is generally stated that it was to the information so gained that the French victory was due. The balloon corps was in constant requisition during the campaign, but it does not appear that, with the exception of the reconnaissances just mentioned, any great advantages resulted, except in a moral point of view. But even this was of importance, as the enemy were much dis- concerted at having their movements so completely watched, while the French were correspondingly elated at the superior information it was believed they were gaining.- An attempt was made to revive the use of balloons in the African campaign of 1830, but no opportunity occurred in which they could be employed. It is said that in 1849 a reconnoitring balloon was sent up from before Venice, as also were small balloons loaded with bombs to be exploded by time-fuses. In the French cam- paign against Italy in 1859 the French had recourse to the use of balloons, but this time there was not any aerostatic corps, and their management was entrusted to the brothers Godard. Several reconnaissances were made, and one of especial interest the day before the battle of Solferino. No information of much importance seems, however, to have been gained thereby. In the American Civil War (1861) balloons were a good deal used by the Federals. There was a regular balloon staff attached to McClellan's army, with a captain, an assistant-captain and about 50 non-commissioned officers and privates. The apparatus consisted of two generators, drawn by four horses each; two balloons, drawn by four horses each, and an acid-cart, drawn by two horses. The two balloons used contained about 13,000 and 26,000 ft. of gas, and the inflation usually occupied about three hours. (See Royal Engineers' Papers, vol. xii.) By their aid useful information was gained about the enemy round Richmond and in other places, but eventually difficulties of transport and the topography of the theatre of war made balloon- ing impracticable; and little was heard of it after the first two years of the war. The balloon proved itself very valuable during the siege of Paris (1870-71). It was by it alone that communication was kept up between the besieged city and the external world, as the balloons carried away from Paris the pigeons which after- wards brought back to it the news of the provinces. The total number of balloons that ascended from Paris during the siege, conveying persons and despatches, was sixty-four — the first having started on the 23rd of September 1870, and the last on the 28th of January 187 1. Gambetta effected his escape from Paris, on the 7th of October, in the balloon "Armand-Barbes," an event which doubtless led to the prolongation of the war. Of the sixty-four balloons only two were never heard of; they were blown out to sea. One of the most remarkable voyages was that of the " Ville d'Orleans," which, leaving Paris at eleven o'clock on the 21st of November, descended fifteen hours afterwards near Christiania, having crossed the North Sea. Several of the balloons on their descent were taken by the Prussians, and a good many were fired at while in the air. The average size of the balloons was from 2000 to 2050 metres, or from 70,000 to 72,000 cub. ft. The above facts are extracted from Les Ballons du siig* de Paris, a sheet published by Bulla and Sons, Paris, and compiled by the brothers Tissandier, well- known French aeronauts, which gives the name, size and times of ascent and descent of every balloon that left Paris, with the names of the aeronaut and generally also of the passengers, the weight of despatches, the number of pigeons, &c. Only those balloons, however, are noticed in which some person ascended. The balloons were manufactured and despatched (generally from the platforms of the Orleans or the Northern railway) under the direction of the Post Office. The aeronauts employed were mostly sailors, who did their work very well. No use whatever was made in the war of balloons for purposes of reconnaissance. Ballooning, however, as a recognized military science, only dates back to about the year 1883 or 1884, when most of the powers organized regular balloon establishments. In 1884-85 the French found balloons very useful during their campaign in Tongking; and the British government also despatched balloons with the Bechuanaland expedition, and also with that to Suakin in those years. During the latter campaign several ascents were made in the presence of the enemy, on whom it was said that a great moral effect was produced. The employ- ment of balloons has been common in nearly all modern wars. We may briefly describe the apparatus used in military operations. The French in the campaigns of the 19th century used varnished silk balloons of about 10,000 cub. ft. capacity. The Americans in the Civil War used much larger ones,, those of 26,000 cub. ft. being found the most suitable. These were also of varnished silk. In the present day most nations use balloons of about 20,000 cub. ft., made of varnished cambric ; but the British war balloons, made of goldbeater skin, are usually of comparatively small size, the normal capacity being 10,000 cub. ft., though others of 7000 and 4500 cub. ft. have also been used, as at Suakin. The usual shape is spherical; but since 1896 the Germans, and now other nations, have adopted a long cylindrical-shaped balloon, so affixed to its cable as to present an inclined surface to the wind and thus act partly on the principle of a kite. Though coal-gas and even hot air may occasion- ally be used for inflation, hydrogen gas is on account of its lightness far preferable. In the early days of ballooning this had to be manu- factured in the field, but nowadays it is almost universally carried compressed in steel tubes. About 100 such tubes, each weighing 75 ft, are required to fill a 10,000-ft. balloon. Tubes of greater capacity have also been tried. The balloon is almost always used captive. If allowed to go free it will usually be rapidly carried away by the wind and the results of the observations cannot easily be transmitted back. Occasions may occur when such ascents will be of value, but the usual method is to send up a captive balloon to a height of somewhere about 1000 ft. With the standard British balloon two officers are sent up, one of whom has now particularly to attend to the management of the balloon, while the other makes the observations. With regard to observations from captive balloons much depends on circumstances. In a thickly wooded country, such as that in which the balloons were used in the American Civil War, and in the war in Cuba (in which the balloon merely served to expose the troops to severe fire), no very valuable information is, as a rule, to be ob- tained; but in fairly open country all important movements of troops should be discernible by an experienced observer at any point within about four or five miles of the balloon. The circumstances, it may be mentioned, are such as would usually preclude one un- accustomed to ballooning from affording valuable reports. Not only is he liable to be disturbed by the novel and apparently hazardous situation, but troops and features of the ground often have so peculiar an appearance from that point of view, that a novice will often have a difficulty in deciding whether an object be a column of troops or a ploughed field. Then again, much will depend on atmo- spheric conditions. Thus, in misty weather a balloon is well-nigh useless; and in strong winds, with a velocity of anything over 20 m. an hour, efficient observation becomes a matter of difficulty. When some special point has to be reported on, such as whether there is any large body of troops behind a certain hill or wood, a rapid ascent may still be made in winds up to 30 m. an hour, but the balloon would then be so unsteady that no careful scouting could be made. It is usually estimated that a successful captive ascent can only be made in England on half the days of the year. _ As a general rule balloon ascents would be made for one of the following objects : — to examine the country for an enemy; to reconnoitre the enemy's position ; to ascertain the strength of his force, number of guns and exact situation of the various arms; also to note the plan of his earthworks or fortifications. During an action the aerial observer would be on the look-out for any movements of the enemy and give warning of flank attacks or surprises. Such an observer could also keep the general informed as to the progress of various detached parties of his own force, as to the advance of reinforcements, or to the conduct of any fighting going on at a distance. Balloon observa- tions are also of especial aid to artillery in correcting their aim. The vulnerability of a captive balloon to the enemy's fire has been tested by many experiments with variable results. One established AERONAUTICS Fig. i.— CLEMENT-BAYARD DIRIGIBLE. Photo, Topical Press. Fig. 2— ZEPPELIN VII. (DEUTSCHLAND), WRECKED JUNE 28, 1910. Photo, Topical Press. AERONAUTICS Fig. 3.— BRITISH ARMY DIRIGIBLE, BETA. Photo, Topical Press. Fig. 4.— PARSEVAL DIRIGIBLE. Photo, Topical Press. AERONAUTICS 269 fact is that the range of a balloon in mid-air is extremely difficult to judge, and, as its altitude can be very rapidly altered, it becomes a very difficult mark for artillery to hit. A few bullet-holes in the fabric of a balloon make but little difference, since the size of the perforation is very minute as compared with the great surface of material, but on the other hand, a shrapnel bursting just in front of it may cause a rapid fall. It is therefore considered prudent to keep the balloon well away from an enemy, and two miles are laid down as the nearest approach it should make habitually. Besides being of use on land for war purposes, balloons have also been tried in connexion with the naval service. In France especially regular trials have been made of inflating balloons on board ships, and sending them aloft as a look-out; but it is now generally con- tended that the difficulties of storing the gas and of manoeuvring the balloon are so great on board ship as to be hardly worth the results to be gained. A very important development of military ballooning is that of the navigable balloon. If only a balloon could be sent up and. driven in any required direction, and brought back to its starting-point, it is obvious that it would be of the very greatest use in war. From the very first invention of balloons the problem has been how to navigate them by propulsion. General J. B. M. C. Meusnier (1754-1793) proposed an elongated balloon baitooas * n J 7^4- It was experimented on by the brothers Robert, who made two ascensions and claimed to have obtained a deviation of 22° from the direction of a light wind by means of aerial oars worked by hand. The relative speed was probably about 3 m. an hour, and it was so evident that a very rrruch more energetic light motor than any then known was required to stem ordinary winds that nothing more was attempted till 1852, when Henri Giffard (1825-1882) as- cended with a steam-engine of then unprecedented lightness. The subjoined table exhibits some of the results subsequently obtained : — Experiments with Dirigible Balloons Year. Inventor. Length. Dia- meter. Con- tents. Lifting Capa- city. Weight of Balloon. Weight of Motor. H.P. Speed per hour. 1852 1872 1884 1885 1897 1900 1901 1908 1908 Giffard . . . Dupuy de L6me . . . Tissandier Renard and Krebs . . Schwarz . . Zeppelin I. Santos Du- mont VI. " Republique " Zeppelin IV. . Ft. 144 118 92 165 157 420 108 195 446 Ft. 39 49 3° 27 IS) 39 20 35 42 i Cub. ft. 88,300 120,088 37.439 65,836 130,500 400,000 22,200 130,000 450,000 lb. 3.978 8,358 2,728- 4,402 8,133 25,000 3,100 lb. 2,794 4,728 933 2,449 6,800 19,000 lb. 462 2000 616 1174 800? 1500 3-0 o-8 i-5 9-0 16-0 32-0 16-20 80 220 Miles. 6-71 6-26 7-82 14-00 17-00 18-00 19-00 3° Giffard, the future inventor of the injector, devised a steam- engine weighing, with fuel and water for one hour, 154 lb per horse-power, and was bold enough to employ it in proximity to a balloon inflated with coal gas. He was not able to stem a medium wind, but attained some deviation. He repeated the experiment in 1855 with a more elongated spindle, which proved unstable and dangerous. During the siege of Paris the French government decided to build a navigable balloon, and entrusted the work to the chief naval constructor, Dupuy de Lome. He went into the subject very carefully, made estimates of all the strains, resistances and speeds, and tested the balloon in 1872. Deviations of 12 were obtained from the course of a wind blow- ing 27 to 37 m. per hour. The screw propeller was driven by eight labourers, a steam-engine being deemed too dangerous; but it was estimated that had one been used, weighing as much as the men, the speed would have been doubled. Tissandier and his brother applied an electric motor, lighter than any pre- viously built, to a spindle-shaped balloon, and went up twice in 1883 and 1884. On the latter occasion he stemmed a wind of 7 m. per hour. The brothers abandoned these experiments, which had been carried on at their own expense, when the French War Department took up the problem. Renard and Krebs, the officers in charge of the War Aeronautical Department at Meudon, built and experimented with in 1884 and 1885 the fusi- form balloon " La France," in which the " master " or maximum section was about one-quarter of the distance from the stem. The propelling screw was at the front of the car and driven by an electric motor of unprecedented lightness. Seven ascents were made on very calm days, a maximum speed of 14 m. an hour was obtained, and the balloon returned to its starting-point on five of the seven occasions. Subsequently another balloon was constructed, said to be capable of a speed of 22 to 28 m. per hour, with a different motor. After many years of experi- ment Dr Wolfert built and experimented with in Berlin, in 1897, a cigar-shaped balloon driven by a gasoline motor. An explosion took place in the air, the balloon fell and Dr Wolfert and his assistant were killed. It was also in 1897 that an aluminium balloon was built from the designs of D. Schwarz and tested in Berlin. It was driven by a Daimler benzine motor, and attained a greater speed than " La France "; but a driving belt slipped, and in coming down the balloon was injured beyond repair. From 1897 onwards Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, of the German army, was engaged in constructing an immense balloon, truly an airship, of most careful and most intelligent design, to carry five men. It consisted of an aluminium framework con- taining sixteen gas bags with a total capacity of nearly 400,000 cub. ft., and it had two cars, each containing a 16 h.p. motor. It was first tested in June 1900, when it attained a speed of 18 m. an hour and travelled a distance of 35 m. before an accident to the steering gear necessitated the discontinuance of the experiment. In 1905 Zeppelin built a second airship which had a slightly smaller capacity but much greater power, its two motors each developing 85 h.p. This, after making some successful trips, was wrecked in a violent gale, and was succeeded by a third airship, which, at its trial in October 1906, travelled round Lake Constance and showed itself able to execute numerous curves and traverses. At a second series of trials in September 1907, after some alterations had been effected, it attained a speed of 36 m. an hour, remaining in the air for many hours and carrying nine or eleven passengers. A fourth vessel of similar design, but with more powerful motors, was tried in 1908, and succeeded in travelling 250 m. in 11 hours, but owing to a storm it was wrecked when on land and burnt at Echterdingen on the 5 th of August. Subscriptions, headed by the emperor, were at once raised to enable Zeppelin to build another. Meanwhile in 1901 Alberto Santos Dumont had begun ex- periments with dirigible balloons in Paris, and on the 19th of October won the Deutsch prize by steering a balloon from St Cloud round the Eiffel tower and back in half an hour, encounter- ing on his return journey a wind of nearly 5 metres a second. An airship constructed by Pierre and Paul Lebaudy in 1904 also made a number of successful trials in the vicinity of Paris; with a motor of 40 h.p., its speed was about 25 m. an hour, and it regularly carried three passengers. In October 1907 the " Nulli Secundus," an airship constructed for the British War Office, sailed from Farnborough round St Paul's Cathedral, London, to the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, a distance of about 50 m., in 3 hours 35 minutes. The weight carried, including two occupants, was 3400 lb, and the maximum speed was 24 m. an hour, with a following wind of 8 m. an hour. Thus the principles which govern the design of the dirigible balloon may be said to have been evolved. As the lifting power grows as the cube of the dimensions, and the resistance approxi- mately as the square, the advantage lies with the larger sizes of balloons, as of ocean steamers, up to the limits within which they may be found practicable. Count Zeppelin gained an ad- vantage by attaching his propellers to the balloon, instead of to the car as heretofore; but this requires a rigid framework and a great increase of weight. Le Compagnon endeavoured, in 1892, 270 AEROTHERAPEUTICS to substitute flapping wings for rotary propellers, as the former can be suspended near the centre of resistance. C. Danilewsky followed him in 1898 and 1899, but without remarkable results. DuDuy de Lome was the first to estimate in detail the resistances to balloon propulsion, but experiment showed that in the aggregate they were greater than he calculated. Renard and Krebs also found that their computed resistances were largely exceeded, and after revising the results they gave the formula R = o-oi685 D 2 V 2 , R being the resistance in kilograms, D the diameter in metres and V the velocity in metres per second. Reduced to British measures, in pounds, feet and miles per hour, R = 0-0006876 D 2 V 2 , which is somewhat in excess of the formula computed by Dr William Pole from Dupuy de Lome's experiments. The above coefficient applies only to the shape and rigging of the balloon " La France," and combines all resist- ances into one equivalent, which is equal to that of a flat plane 18% of the "master section." This coefficient may perhaps hereafter be reduced by one-half through a better form of hull and car, more like a fish than a spindle, by diminished sections of suspension lines and net, and by placing the propeller at the centre of resistance. To compute the results to be expected from new projects, it will be preferable to estimate the resistances in detail. The following table shows how this was done by Dupuy de Lome, and the probable corrections which should have been made by him: — Resistances — Du puy de Lome's Balloon Computed by Dupuy de L6me. MoreProbableValues. V = = 2-22 m. per sec. V = 2-82 m. Der sec. Area, Co- Air Resist- Co- Air Resist- Part. Sq. effici- Pres- ance, effici- Pres- ance, Metres. ent. sure. Kg. ent. sure. Kg. Hull, with- out net. . 172-96 1/30 0-665 3-830 I/I5 0-875 10-091 Car . 3-25 i/5 ,, 0-432 i/5 ,, 0-569 Men's bodies 3-00 i/S ,, 0-400 1/2 1-312 Gas tubes . 6-40 i/5 ,, 0-850 1/2 2-750 Small cords IO-OO 1/2 ,, 3-325 1/2 ,, 4-375 Large cords 9-90 i/3 " 2-194 i/3 X 2-887 11-031 21-984 When the resistances have been reduced to the lowest possible minimum by careful design, the attainable speed must depend upon the efficiency of the propeller and the relative lightness of the motor. The commercial uses of dirigible balloons, however, will be small, as they must remain housed when the wind aloft is brisk. The sizes will be great and costly, the loads small, and the craft frail and short-lived, yet dirigible balloons constitute the obvious type for governments to evolve, until they are super- seded by efficient flying machines. (See further, as to the latter, the article Flight and Flying.) The chief danger attending ballooning lies in the descent; for if a strong wind be blowing, the grapnel will sometimes trail for miles over the ground at the rate of ten or twenty miles Practice an hour, catching now and then in hedges, ditches, roots station. °f trees > & c '> and, after giving the balloon a terrible jerk , breaking loose again, till at length some obstruction, such as the wooded bank of a stream, affords a firm hold. This danger, however, has been much reduced by the use of the " ripping-cord," which enables a panel to be ripped open and the balloon to be completely deflated in a few seconds, just as it is reaching the earth. But even a very rough descent is usually not productive of any very serious consequences; as, although the occupants of the car generally receive many bruises and are perhaps cut by the ropes, it rarely happens that anything worse occurs. On a day when the wind is light (supposing that there is no want of ballast) nothing can be easier than the descent, and the aeronaut can decide several miles off on the field in which he will alight. It is very important to have a good supply of ballast, so as to be able to check the rapidity of the descent, as in passing downwards through a wet cloud the weight of the balloon is enormously increased by the water deposited on it; and if there is no ballast to throw out in compensation, the velocity is sometimes very great. It is also convenient, if the district upon which the balloon is descending appear unsuitable for landing, to be able to rise again. The ballast consists of fine baked sand, which becomes so scattered as to be inappreciable before it has fallen far below the balloon. It is taken up in bags containing about f cwt. each. The balloon at starting is liberated by a spring catch which the aeronaut releases, and the ballast should be so adjusted that there is nearly equilibrium before leaving, else the rapidity of ascent is too great, and has to be checked by parting with gas. It is almost impossible to liberate the balloon in such a way as to avoid giving it a rotary motion about a vertical axis, which continues during the whole time it is in the air. This rotation makes it difficult for those in the car to discover in what direction they are moving; and it is only by looking down along the rope to which the grapnel is suspended that the motion of the balloon over the country below can be traced. The upward and downward motion at any instant is at once known by merely dropping over the side of the car a small piece of paper: if the paper ascends or remains on the same level or stationary, the balloon is descending; while, if it descends, the balloon is ascending. This test is exceedingly delicate. References. — Tiberius Cavallo, Treatise on the Nature and Prop- erties of Air and other permanently Elastic Fluids (London, 1781); Idem, History and Practice of Aerostation (London, 1785); Vincent Lunardi, Account of the First Aerial Voyage in England, in a Series of Letters to his Guardian (London, 1785) ; T. Forster, Annals of some Remarkable Aerial and Alpine Voyages (London, 1832) ;MonckMason, Aeronautica (London, 1838); John Wise, A System of Aeronautics, comprehending its Earliest Investigations (Philadelphia, 1850); Hatton Turnor, Astra Castra, Experiments and Adventures in the Atmosphere (London, 1865); J. Glaisher, C. Flammarion, W. de Fonvielle and G. Tissandier, Voyages aeriens (Paris, 1870) (translated and edited by James Glaisher under the title Travels in the Air (London, 1871); O. Chanute, Progress in Flying Machines (New York, 1894) ; W. de Fonvielle, Les Ballons sondes (Paris, 1899) ; Idem, Histoire de la navigation aerienne (Paris, 1907) ; F. Walker, Aerial Navigation (London, 1902) ; J. Lecornu, La Navigation aerienne (Paris, 1903) ; M. L. Marchis, Lecons surla navigation aerienne (Paris, 1904), containing many references to books and periodicals on pp. 701-704; Navigating the Air (papers collected by the Aero Club of America) (New York, 1907) ; A. Hildebrandt, Airships past and present (London, 1908). AEROTHERAPEUTICS, the treatment of disease by atmo- spheric air: a term which of late has come to be used somewhat more loosely to include also pneumotherapieutics, or the treat- ment of disease by artificially prepared atmospheres. The physical and chemical properties of atmospheric air, under ordinary pressure or under modified pressure, may be thera- peutically utilized either on the external surface of the body, on the respiratory surface, or on both surfaces together. Also modifications may be induced in the ventilation of the lungs by general gymnastics or respiratory gymnastics.. The beneficial effects of air under ordinary pressure are now utilized in the open-air treatment of phthisical patients, and the main indications of benefit resulting therefrom are reduction of the fever, improvement of appetite and the induction of sleep. The air, however, may be modified in composition or in tempera- ture. Inhalation is the most common and successful method of applying it — -when modified in composition— to the human body. The methods in use are as follows: (1) Inhalation of gases, as oxygen and nitrous oxide.. The dyspnoea and cyanosis of pneumonia, capillary bronchitis, heart failure, &c, are much relieved by the inhalation of oxygen; and nitrous oxide is largely used as an anaesthetic in minor operations. (2) Certain liquids are used as anaesthetics, which volatilize at low tempera- tures, as chloroform and ether. (3) Mercury and sulphur, both of which require heat for volatilization, are very largely used. In a mercurial or sulphur bath, the patient, enveloped in a sheet, sits on a chair beneath which a spirit lamp is placed to vaporize the drug, the best results being obtained when the atmosphere is surcharged with steam at the same time. The vapour envelops the patient and is absorbed by the skin. This method is extensively used in the treatment of syphilis, and also for scabies and other parasitic affections of the skin. (4) Moist inhalations are rather losing repute in the light of modern AERTSZEN— AESCHINES 271 investigations, which tend to show that nothing lower than the larger bronchial tubes is affected. Complicated apparatus has been devised for the application, although a wide-mouthed jug filled with boiling water, into which the drug is thrown, is almost equally efficacious. Artificial atmospheres may be made for invalids by respirators which cover the mouth and nose, the air being drawn through tow or sponge, on which is sprinkled the disinfectant to be used. This is most valuable in the intensely offensive breath of some cases of bronchiectasis. The air may be modified as to temperature. Cold air at 32-33 F. has been used in chronic catarrhal conditions of the lungs, with the result that cough diminishes, the pulse becomes fuller and slower and the general condition improves. The more recent observations of Pasquale di Tullio go far to show that this may be immensely valuable in the treatment of haemoptysis. The inspiration of superheated dry air has been the subject of much investigation, but with very doubtful results. Hot air applied to the skin is more noteworthy in its therapeutic effects. If a current of hot air is directed upon healthy skin, the latter becomes pale and contracts in consequence of vaso-con- striction. But if it is directed on a patch of diseased skin, as in lupus, an inflammatory reaction is set up and the diseased part begins to undergo necrosis. This fact has been used with good results in hipus, otorrhoea, rhinitis and other nasal and laryngeal troubles. Lastly the air may be either compressed or rarefied. The physiological effects of compressed air were first studied in diving-bells, and more recently in caissons. Caisson workers at first enjoy increased strength, vigour and appetite; later, how- ever, the opposite effect is produced and intense debility super- venes. In addition, caisson workers suffer from a series of troubles which are known as accidents of decompression. (See Caisson Disease.) But, therapeutically, compressed air has been utilized by means of pneumatic chambers large enough to hold one or more adults at the time, in which the pressure of the atmosphere can be exactly regulated. This form of treat- ment has been found of much value in the treatment of emphy- sema, early pulmonary tuberculosis (not in the presence of persistent high temperature, haemorrhage, softening or suppura- tion), delayed absorption of pleural effusions, heart disease, anaemia and chlorosis. But compressed air is contra-indicated in advanced tubercle, fever, and in diseases of kidneys, liver or intestines. Rarefied air was used as long ago as 1835, by V. T. Junod, who utilized it for local application by inventing the Junod Boot. By means of this the blood could be drawn into any part to which it was applied, the vessels of which became gorged with blood at the expense of internal organs. More recently this method of treatment has undergone far-reaching developments and is known as the passive hyperaemic treatment. There are also various forms of apparatus by means of which air at greater or lesser pressures may be drawn into the lungs, and for the performance of lung gymnastics of various kinds. Mr Ketchum of the United States has invented one which is much used. A committee of the Brompton Hospital, London, investigating its capabilities, decided that its use brought about (1) an increase of chest circumference, and (2) in cases of consolidation of the lung a diminution in the area of dulness. AERTSZEN (or Aartsen), PIETER (1507-1573), called "Long Peter " on account of his height, Dutch historical painter, was born and died at Amsterdam. When a youth he distinguished himself by painting homely scenes, in which he reproduced articles of furniture, cooking utensils, &c, with marvellous fidelity, but he afterwards cultivated historical painting. Several of his best works — altar-pieces in various churches — were destroyed in the religious wars of the Nether- lands. An excellent specimen of his style on a small scale, a picture of the crucifixion, may be seen in the Antwerp Museum. Aertszen was a member of the Academy of St Luke, in whose books he is entered as Langhe Peter, schilder. Three of his sons attained to some note as painters. AESCHINES (389-314 B.C.), Greek statesman and orator, was born at Athens. The statements as to his parentage and early life are conflicting; but it seems probable that his parents, though poor, were respectable. After assisting his father in his school, he tried his hand at acting with indifferent success, served with distinction in the army, and held several clerkships, amongst them the office of clerk to the B ou le. The fall of Olynthus (348) brought Aeschines into the political arena, and he was sent on an embassy to rouse the Peloponnesus against Philip. In 347 he was a member of the peace embassy to Philip of Macedon, who seems to have won him over entirely to his side. His dilatoriness during the second embassy (346) sent to ratify the terms of peace led to his accusation by Demosthenes and Timarchus on a charge of high treason, but he was acquitted as the result of a powerful speech, in which he showed that his accuser Timarchus had, by his immoral conduct, forfeited the right to speak before the people. In 343 the attack was renewed by Demosthenes in his speech On the False Embassy; Aeschines replied in a speech with the same title and was again acquitted. In 339, as one of the Athenian deputies {pylagorae) in the Amphi- ctyonic Council, he made a speech which brought about the Sacred War. By way of revenge, Aeschines endeavoured to fix the blame for these disasters upon Demosthenes. In 336, when Ctesiphon proposed that his friend Demosthenes should be rewarded with a golden crown for his distinguished services to the state, he was accused by Aeschines of having violated the law in bringing forward the motion. The matter remained in abeyance till 330, when the two rivals delivered their speeches Against Ctesiphon and On the Crown. The result was a complete victory for Demosthenes. Aeschines went into voluntary exile at Rhodes, where he opened a school of rhetoric. He afterwards removed to Samos, where he died in the seventy-fifth year of his age. His three speeches, called by the ancients " the Three Graces," rank next to those of Demosthenes. Photius knew of nine letters by him which he called the Nine Muses; the twelve published under his name (Hercher, Epistolographi Graeci) are not genuine. y . Ancient Authorities. — Demosthenes, De Corona and De Falsa Legatione; Aeschines, De Falsa Legatione and In Ctesiphontem;' Lives by Plutarch, Philostratus and Libanius; the Exegesis of Apollonius. Editions. — Benseler (1 855-1 860) (trans, and notes), Weidner (1872), Blass (1896); Against Ctesiphon, Weidner (1872), (l878),G.A.and W.H. Simcox(l866),Drake (i872),Richardson(i889), Gwatkin and Shuckburgh (1890). English Translations. — Leland (1771), Biddle (1881), and others. See also Stechow, Aeschinis Ora- toris vita (1841); Marchand, Charakteristik des Redners Aschines (1876) ; Castets, Eschine, VOrateur (1875) ; for the political problems see histories of Greece, esp. A. Holm, vol. iii. (Eng. trans., 1896) ; A. Schafer, Demosth. und seine Zeit (Leipzig, 1856-1858); also Demosthenes. AESCHINES (5th century B.C.), an Athenian philosopher. According to some accounts he was the son of a sausage-maker, but others say that his father was Lysanias (Diog. Laert. ii. 60; Suidas, s.v.). He was an intimate friend of Socrates, who is reported to have said that the sausage-maker's son alone knew how to honour him. Diogenes Laertius preserves a tradition that it was he, not Crito, who offered to help Socrates to escape from prison. He was always a poor man, and Socrates advised him " to borrow from himself, by diminishing his expenditure." He started a perfumery shop in Athens on borrowed capital, became bankrupt and retired to the Syracusan court, where he was well received by Aristippus. According to Diog. Laert. (ii. 61), Plato, then at Syracuse, pointedly ignored Aeschines, but this does not agree with Plutarch, De adulatore et amico (c. 26). On the expulsion of the younger Dionysius, he returned to Athens, and, finding it impossible to profess philosophy publicly owing to the contempt of Plato and Aristotle, was compelled to teach privately. He wrote also forensic speeches; Phrynichus, in Photius, ranks him amongst the best orators, and mentions his orations as the standard of the pure Attic style. Hermogenes also spoke highly of him (Uepl l8eS>v). He wrote several philo- sophical dialogues: (1) Concerning virtue, whether it can be 272 AESCHYLUS taught; (2) Eryxias, or Erasistratus; concerning riches, whether they are good; (3) Axiochus: concerning death, whether it is to be feared, — but those extant on the several subjects are not genuine remains. J. le Clerc has given a Latin translation of them, with notes and several dissertations, entitled Silvae Philologicae, and they have been edited by S. N. Fischer (Leipzig, 1786), and K. F. Hermann, De Aeschin. Socrat. relig. (Gott. 1850). The genuine dialogues appear to have been marked by the Socratic irony; an amusing passage is quoted by Cicero in the De inventione (i. 31). See Hirzel, Der Dialog, i. 129-140; T. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, vol. iii. p. 342 (Eng. trans. G. 6. Berry, London, 1905). AESCHYLUS (525-456 B.C.), Greek poet, the first of the only three Attic Tragedians of whose work entire plays survive, and in a very real sense (as we shall see) the founder of the Greek drama, was born at Eleusis in the year 525 B.C. His father, Euphorion, belonged to the " Eupatridae " or old nobility of Athens, as we know on the authority of the short Life of the Life P oet Si ven m tne Medicean Manuscript (see note on "authorities" at the end). According to the same tradition he took part as a soldier in the great struggle of Greece against Persia; and was present at the battles of Marathon, Artemisium, Salamis and Plataea, in the years 490-479. At least one of his brothers, Cynaegirus, fought with him at Marathon, and was killed in attempting a conspicuous act of bravery; and the brothers' portraits found a place in the national picture of the battle which the Athenians set up as a memorial in the Stoa Poecile (or "Pictured Porch") at Athens. The vigour and loftiness of tone which mark Aeschylus' poetic work was not only due, we may be sure, to his native genius and gifts, powerful as they were, but were partly in- spired by the personal share he took in the great actions of a heroic national uprising. In the same way, the poet's brooding thoughtfulness on deep questions — the power of the gods, their dealings with man, the dark mysteries of fate, the future life in Hades — though largely due to his turn of mind and temperament, was doubtless connected with the place where his childhood was passed. Eleusis was the centre of the most famous worship of Demeter, with its processions, its ceremonies, its mysteries, its impressive spectacles and nocturnal rites; and these were intimately connected with the Greek beliefs about the human soul, and the underworld. His dramatic career began early, and was continued for more than forty years. In 499, his 26th year, he first exhibited at Athens; and his last work, acted during his lifetime at Athens, was the trilogy of the Oresteia, exhibited in 458. The total number of his plays is stated by Suidas to have been ninety; and the seven extant plays, with the dramas named or nameable which survive only in fragments, amount to over eighty, so that Suidas' figure is probably based on reliable tradition. It is well known that in the 5th century each exhibitor at the tragic con- tests produced four plays; and Aeschylus must therefore have competed (between 499 and 458) more than twenty times, or once in two years. His first victory is recorded in 484, fifteen years after his earliest appearance on the stage; but in the remaining twenty-six years of his dramatic activity at Athens he was successful at least twelve times. This clearly shows that he was the most commanding figure among the tragedians of 500-458; and for more than half that time was usually the victor in the contests. Perhaps the most striking evidence of his exceptional position among his contemporaries is the well-known decree passed shortly after his death that whosoever desired to exhibit a play of Aeschylus should " receive a chorus," i.e. be officially allowed to produce the drama at the Dionysia. The existence of this decree, mentioned in the Life, is strongly confirmed by two passages in Aristophanes: first in the prologue of the Acharnians (which was acted in 425, thirty-one years after the poet's death), where the citizen, grumbling about his griefs and troubles, relates his great disappointment, when he took his seat in the theatre " expecting Aeschylus," to find that when the play came on it was Theognis; and secondly in a scene of the Frogs (acted 405 B.C.), where the throne of poetry is contested in Hades between Aeschylus and Euripides, the former com- plains {Fr. 866) that " the battle is not fair, because my own poetry has not died with me, while Euripides' has died, and therefore he will have it with him to recite " — a clear reference, as the scholiast points out, to the continued production at Athens of Aeschylus' plays after his death. Apart from fables, guesses and blunders, of which a word is said below, the only other incidents recorded of the poet's life that deserve mention are connected with his Sicilian visits, and the charge preferred against him of revealing the " secrets of Demeter." This tale is briefly mentioned by Aristotle (Eth. iii. 2), and a late commentator (Eustratius, i2th^ century) quotes from one Heraclides Pontius the version which may be briefly given as follows: — The poet was acting a part in one of his own plays, where there was a reference to Demeter. The audience suspected him of revealing the inviolable secrets, and rose in fury; the poet fled to the altar of Dionysus in the orchestra and so saved his life for the moment; for even an angry Athenian crowd respected the inviolable sanctuary. He was afterwards charged with the crime before the Areopagus; and his plea " that he did not know that what he said was secret " was accepted by the court and secured his acquittal. The commentator adds that the prowess of the poet (and his brother) at Marathon was the real cause of the leniency of his judges. The story was afterwards developed, and embellished by additions; but in the above shape it dates back to the 4th century; and as the main fact seems accepted by Aristotle, it is probably authentic. As to his foreign travel, the suggestion has been made that certain descriptions in the Persae, and the known facts that he wrote a trilogy on the story of the Thracian king Lycurgus, persecutor of Dionysus, seem to point to his having a special knowledge of Thrace, which makes it likely that he had visited it. This, however, remains at best a conjecture. For his repeated visits to Sicily, on the other hand, there is conclusive ancient evidence. Hiero the First, tyrant of Syracuse, who reigned about twelve years (478-467), and amongst other efforts after magnificence invited to his court famous poets and men of letters, had founded a new town, Aetna, on the site of Catana which he captured, expelling the inhabitants. Among his guests were Aeschylus, Pindar, Bacchylides and Simonides. About 476 Aeschylus; was entertained by him, and at his request wrote and exhibited a play called The Women of Aetna in honour of the new town. He paid a second visit about 472, the year in which he had produced the Persae at Athens; and the play is said to have been repeated at Syracuse at his patron's request. Hiero died in 467, the year of the Seven against Thebes; but after 458, when the Oresteia was exhibited at Athens, we find the poet again in Sicily for the last time. In 456 he died, and was buried at Gela; and on his tomb was placed an epitaph in two elegiac couplets saying: " Beneath this stone lies Aeschylus, son of Euphorion, the Athenian, who perished in the wheat- bearing land of Gela; of his noble prowess the grove of Marathon can speak, or the long-haired Persian who knows it well." The authorship of this epitaph is uncertain, as the Life says it was inscribed on his grave by the people of Gela, while Athenaeus and Pausanias attribute it to Aeschylus. Probably most people would agree that only the poet himself could have praised the soldier and kept silence about the poetry. Of the marvellous traditions which gathered round his name little need be said. Pausanias' tale, how Dionysus appeared to the poet when a boy, asleep in his father's vineyard, and bade him write a tragedy — or the account in the Life, how he was killed by an eagle letting fall on his head a tortoise whose shell the bird was unable to crack — clearly belong to the same class of legends as the story that Plato was son of Apollo, and that a swarm of bees settled upon his infant lips as he lay in his mother's arms. Less supernatural, but hardly more historical, is the statement in the Life that the poet left Athens for Sicily in consequence of his defeat in the dramatic contest of 468 by Sophocles; or the alternative story of the same authority that the cause of his chagrin was that Simonides' elegy on the heroes AESCHYLUS 273 Work. slain at Marathon was preferred to his own. Apart from the inherent improbability of such pettiness in such a man, neither story fits the facts; for in 467, the next year after Sophocles' success, we know that Aeschylus won the prize of tragedy with the Sepiem; and the Marathon elegy must have been written in 490, fourteen years before his first visit to Sicily. In passing from Aeschylus' life to his work, we have obviously far more trustworthy data, in the seven extant plays (with the fragments of more than seventy others), and par- ticularly in the invaluable help of Aristotle's Poetics. The real importance of our poet in the development of the drama (see Drama: Greek) as compared with any of his three or four known predecessors — who are at best hardly more than names to us — is shown by the fact that Aristotle, in his brief review of the rise of tragedy {Poet. iv. 13), names no one before Aeschy- lus. He recognizes, it is true, a long process of growth, with several stages, from the dithyramb to the drama; and it is not difficult to see what these stages were. , The first step was the addition to the old choric song of an interlude spoken, and in early days improvised, by the leader of the chorus {Poet. iv. 12). The next was the introduction of an actor (iwoKptr^s or " answerer "), to reply to the leader; and thus we get dialogue added to recitation. The " answerer " was at first the poet himself (Ar. Rhet. iii. 1). This change is traditionally attributed to Thespis (536 B.C.), who is, however, not mentioned by Aristotle. The mask, to enable the actor to assume different parts, by whomsoever invented, was in regular use before Aeschylus' day. The third change was the enlarged range of subjects. The lyric dithyramb-tales were necessarily about Dionysus, and the inter- ludes had, of course, to follow suit. Nothing in the world so tenaciously resists innovation as religious ceremony; ^nd it is interesting to learn that the Athenian populace (then, as ever, eager for " some new thing ") nevertheless opposed at first the introduction of other tales. But the innovators won; or other- wise there would have been no Attic drama. In this way, then, to the original lyric song and dances in honour of Dionysus was added a spoken (but still metrical) interlude by the chorus-leader, and later a dialogue with one actor (at first the poet), whom the mask enabled to appear in more than one part. But everything points to the fact that in the development of the drama Aeschylus was the decisive innovator. The two things that were important, when the 5th century began, if tragedy was to realize its possibilities, were (1) the disentangle- ment of the dialogue from its position as an interlude in an artistic and religious pageant that was primarily lyric; and (2) its general elevation of tone. Aeschylus, as we know on the express authority of Aristotle {Poet. iv. 13), achieved the first by the introduction of the second actor; and though he did not begin the second, he gave it the decisive impulse and con- summation by the overwhelming effect of his serious thought, the stately splendour of his style, his high dramatic purpose, and the artistic grandeur and impressiveness of the construction and presentment of his tragedies. As to the importance of the second actor no argument is needed. The essence of a play is dialogue; and a colloquy between the coryphaeus and a messenger (or, by aid of the mask, a series of messengers), as must have been the case when Aeschy- lus began, is in reality not dialogue in the dramatic sense at all, but rather narrative. The discussion, the persuasion, the in- struction, the pleading, the contention — in short, the interacting personal influences of different characters on each other— are indispensable to anything that can be called a play, as we understand the word; and, without two "personae dramatis" at the least, the drama in the strict sense is clearly impossible. The number of actors was afterwards increased; but to Aeschylus are due the perception and the adoption of the essential step; and therefore, as was said above, he deserves in a very real sense to be called the founder of Athenian tragedy. Of the seven extant plays, Supplices, Persae, Sepiem contra Thebas, Prometheus, Agamemnon, Choephoroe and Eumenides, five can fortunately be dated with certainty, as the archon's name is preserved in the Arguments; and the other two approximately. The dates rest, in the last resort, on the diSaaicaXiai, or the official records of the contests, of which we know that Aristotle (and others) compiled catalogues; and some actual fragments have been recovered. The order of the plays is probably that given above; and certainly the Persae was acted in 472, Sepiem in 467, and the last three, the trilogy, in 458. The Supplices is generally, though not unanimously, regarded as the oldest; and the best authorities tend to place it not far from 490. The early date is strongly confirmed by three things: the extreme simplicity of the plot, the choric (instead of dramatic) opening, and the fact that the percentage of lyric passages is 54, or the highest of all the seven plays. The chief doubt is in regard to Prometheus, which is variously placed by good authorities; but the very low percentage of lyrics (only 27, or roughly a quarter of the whole), and still more the strong characterization, a marked advance on anything in the first three plays, point to its being later than any except the trilogy, and suggest a date somewhere about 460, or perhaps a little earlier. A few com- ments on the extant plays will help to indicate the main points of Aeschylus' work. Supplices. — The exceptional interest of the Supplices is due to its date. Being nearly twenty years earlier than any other extant play, it furnishes evidence of a stage in the evolution of Attic drama which would otherwise have been unrepresented. Genius, as Patin says, is a " puissance libre," and none more so than that of Aeschylus; but with all allowance for the " un- controlled power " of this poet, we may feel confident that we have in the Supplices something resembling in general structure the lost works of Choerilus, Phrynichus, Pratinas and the 6th- century pioneers of drama. The plot is briefly as follows: the fifty daughters of Danaus (who are the chorus), betrothed by the fiat of Aegyptus (their father's brother) to his fifty sons, flee with Danaus to Argos, to escape the marriage which they abhor. They claim the pro- tection of the Argive king, Pelasgus, who is kind but timid; and he (by a pleasing anachronism) refers the matter to the people, who agree to protect the fugitives. The pursuing fleet of suitors is seen approaching;, the herald arrives (with a company of followers), blusters, threatens, orders off the cowering Danaids to the ships and finally attempts to drag them away. Pelasgus interposes with a force, drives off the Egyptians and saves the suppliants. Danaus urges them to prayer, thanksgiving and maidenly modesty, and the grateful chorus pass away to the shelter offered by their protectors. It is clear that we have here the drama in its nascent stage, just developing out of the lyric pageant from which it sprang. The interest still centres round the chorus, who are in fact the " protagonists " of the play. Character and plot — the two essentials of drama, in the view of all critics from Aristotle downwards — are both here rudimentary. There are some fluctuations of hope and fear; but the play is a single situation. The stages are: the appeal; the hesitation of the king, the re- solve of the people; the defeat of insolent violence; and the rescue. It should not be forgotten, indeed, that the play is one of a trilogy — an act, therefore, rather than a complete drama. But we have only to compare it with those later plays of which the same is true, to see the difference. Even in a trilogy, each play is a complete whole in itself, though also a portion of a larger whole. Persae. — The next play that has survived is the Persae, which has again a special interest, viz. that it is the only extant Greek historical drama. We know that Aeschylus' predecessor, Phryni- chus, had already twice tried this experiment, with the Capture of Miletus and the Phoenician Women; that the latter play dealt with the same subject as the Persae, and the handling of its opening scene was imitated by the younger poet. The plot of the Persae is still severely simple, though more developed than that of the Suppliants. The opening is still lyric, and the first quarter of the play brings out, by song and speech, the anxiety of the people and queen as to the fate of Xerxes' huge army. Then comes the messenger with the news of Salami's, 274 AESCHYLUS including a description of the sea-fight itself which can only be called magnificent. We realize what it must have been for the vast audience — 30,000, according to Plato (Symp. 175 e) — to hear, eight years only after the event, from the supreme poet of Athens, who was himself a distinguished actor in the war, this thrilling narrative of the great battle. But this reflexion at once suggests another; it is not a tragedy in the true Greek sense, according to the practice of the 5th-century poets. It may be called in one point of view a tragedy, since the scene is laid in Persia, and the drama forcibly depicts the downfall of the Persian pride. But its real aim is not the "pity and terror" of the developed drama; it is the triumphant glorification of Athens, the exultation of the whole nation gathered in one place, over the ruin of their foe. This is best shown by the praise of Aeschylus' great admirer and defender Aristophanes, who (Frogs, 1026-1027) puts into the poet's mouth the boast that in the Persae he had " glorified a noble exploit, and taught men to be eager to conquer their foe." Thus, both as an historic drama and in its real effect, the Persae was an experiment; and, as far as we know, the experi- ment was not repeated either by the author or his successors. One further point may be noted. Aeschylus always has a taste for the unseen and the supernatural; and one effective incident here is the raising of Darius's ghost, and his prophecy of the disastrous battle of Plataea. But in the ghost's revelations there is a mixture of audacity and naivete, characteristic at once of the poet and the early youth of the drama. The dead Darius prophesies Plataea, but has not heard of Salamis; he gives a brief (and inaccurate) list of the Persian kings, which the queen and chorus, whom he addresses, presumably know; and his only practical suggestion, that the Persians should not again invade Greece, seems attainable without the aid of super- human foresight. Septem contra Thebas. — Five years later came the Theban Tragedy. It is not only, as Aristophanes says (Frogs, 1024), " a play full of the martial spirit," but is (like the Supplices) one of a connected series, dealing with the evil fate of the Theban House. But instead of being three acts of a single story like the Supplices, these three plays trace the fate through three genera- tions, Laius, Oedipus and the two sons who die by each other's hands in the fight for the Theban sovereignty. This family fate, where one evil deed leads to another after many years, is a larger conception, strikingly suited to Aeschylus' genius, and con- stitutes a notable stage in the development of the Aeschylean drama. And just as here we have the tragedy of the Theban house, so in the last extant work, the Oresteia, the poet traces the tragedy of the Pelopid family, from Agamemnon's first sin to Orestes' vengeance and purification. And the names of several lost plays point to similar handling of the tragic trilogy. The Seven against Thebes is the last play of its series; and again the plot is severely simple, not only in outline, but in detail. Father and grandfather have both perished miserably; and the two princes have quarrelled, both claiming the kingdom. Eteo- cles has driven out Polynices, who fled to Argos, gathered a host under seven leaders (himself being one) , and when the play opens has begun the siege of his own city. The king appears, warns the people, chides the clamour of women,appoints seven Thebans, including himself, to defend the seven gates, departs to his post, meets his brother in battle and both are killed. The other six chieftains are all slain, and the enemy beaten off. The two dead princes are buried by their two sisters, who alone are left of the royal house. Various signs of the early drama are here manifest. Half the play is lyric; there is no complication of plot; the whole action is recited by messengers; and the fatality whereby the predicted mutual slaughter of the princes is brought about is no accidental stroke of destiny, but the choice of the king Eteocles himself. On the other hand, the opening is no longer lyric (like the two earlier plays) but dramatic; the main scene, where the mes- senger reports at length the names of the seven assailants, and the king appoints the seven defenders, each man going off in silence to his post, must have been an impressive spectacle. One novelty should not be overlooked. There is here the firs' t passage of kkvoia, or general reflexion of life, which later became a regular feature of tragedy. Eteocles muses on the fate which involves an innocent ma.n in the company of the wicked so that he shares unjustly their deserved fate. The passage (Theb. 507-608) is interesting; and the whole part of Eteocles shows a new effort of the poet to draw character, which may have some- thing to do with the rise of Sophocles, who in the year before (468) won with his first play, now lost, the prize of tragedy.. There remain only the Prometheus and the Oresteia, which show such marked advance that (it may almost be said) when we think of Aeschylus it is these four plays we have in mind. Prometheus. — The Prometheus-trilogy consisted of three plays: Prometheus the Fire-bringer, Prometheus Bound, Prometheus Unbound. The two last necessarily came in that order; the Fire-bringer is probably the first, though recently it has been held by some scholars to be the last, of the trilogy. That Prometheus sinned against Zeus, by stealing fire from heaven; that he was punished by fearful tortures for ages; that he finally was recon- ciled to Zeus and set free, — all this was the ancient tale indisput- ably. Those who hold the Fire-bringer (Jhjp6pos) to be the final play, conjecture that it dealt with the establishment of the worship of Prometheus under that title, which is known to have existed at Athens. But the other order is on all grounds more probable; it keeps the natural sequence — crime, punishment, reconciliation, which is also the sequence in the Oresteia. Arid if the reconciliation was achieved in the second play, no scheme of action sufficing for the third drama seems even plausible. 1 However that may be, the play that survives is a poem of unsurpassed force and impressiveness. Nevertheless, from the point of view of the development of drama, there seems at first sight little scope in the story for the normal human interest of a tragedy, since the actors are all divine, except Io, who is a dis- tracted wanderer, victim of Zeus' cruelty; and between the open- ing where Prometheus is nailed to the Scythian rock, and the close where the earthquake engulfs the rock, the hero and the chorus, action in the ordinary sense is ipso facto impossible. This is just the opportunity for the poet's bold inventiveness and fine imagination. The tortured sufferer is visited by the Oceanic Nymphs, who float in, borne by an (imaginary) winged car, to console; Oceanus (riding a .griffin, doubtless also imaginary) follows, kind but timid, to advise submission; then appears Io, victim of Zeus' love and Hera's jealousy, to whom Prometheus prophesies her future wanderings and his own fate; lastly Hermes, insolent messenger of the gods, who tries in vain to extort Prometheus' secret knowledge of the future. Oceanus, the well-meaning palavering old mentor, and Hermes, the blustering and futile jack-in-office, gods though they be, are vigorous, audacious and very human character-sketches; the soft entrance of the consoling nymphs is unspeakably beautiful; and the prophecy of Io's wanderings is a striking example of that new keen interest in the world outside which was felt by the Greeks of the 5th century, as it was felt by the Elizabethan English in a very similar epoch of national spirit and enterprise two thousand years later. Thus, though dramatic action is by the nature of the case impossible for the hero,. the visitors provide real drama. Another important point in the development of tragedy is what we may call the " balanced issue." The question in Suppliants is the protection of the threatened fugitives; in Persae the humiliation of overweening pride. So far the sym- pathy of the audience is not doubtful or divided. In- the Septem there is an approach to conflict of feeling; the banished brother has a personal grievance, though guilty of the impious crime of attacking his own country. The sympathy must be for the de- fender Eteocles; but it is at least somewhat qualified by his injustice to his brother. In Prometheus the issue is more nearly 1 The Eumenides is quoted as a parallel, because there the estab- lishment of this worship at Athens concludes the whole trilogy; but it is forgotten that in Eumenides there is much besides— the pursuit of Orestes, the refuge at Athens, the trial, the acquittal, the conciliation by Athena of the Furies; while here the story would be finished before the last play began. AESCHYLUS *75 balanced. The hero is both a victim and a rebel. He is punished for his benefits to man; but though Zeus is tyrannous and un- grateful, the hero's reckless defiance is shocking to Greek feeling. As the play goes on, this is subtly and delicately indicated by the attitude of the chorus. They enter overflowing with pity. They are slowly chilled and alienated by the hero's violence and impiety; but they nobly decline, at the last crisis, the mean advice of Hermes to desert Prometheus and save themselves; and in the final crash they share his fate. Oresteia. — The last and greatest work of Aeschylus is the Oresteia, which also has the interest of being the only complete trilogy preserved to us. It is a three-act drama of family fate, like the Oedipus-trilogy; and the acts are the sin, the revenge, the reconciliation, as in the Prometheus-trilogy. Again, as in Prometheus, the plot, at first sight, is such that the conditions of drama seem to exclude much development in character-drawing. The gods are everywhere at the root of the action. The inspired prophet, Calchas, has demanded the sacrifice of the king's daughter Iphigenia, to appease the offended Artemis. The in- spired Cassandra, brought in as a spear- won slave from conquered Troy, reveals the murderous past of the Pelopid house, and the imminent slaughter of the king by his wife. Apollo orders the son, Orestes, to avenge his father by killing the murderess, and protects him when after the deed he takes sanctuary at Delphi. The Erinnyes (" Furies ") pursue him over land and sea; and at last Athena gives him shelter at Athens, summons an Athenian council to judge his guilt, and when the court is equally divided gives her casting vote for mercy. The last act ends with the reconciliation of Athena and the Furies; and the latter receive a shrine and worship at Athens, and promise favour and pros- perity to the great city. The scope for human drama seems deliberately restricted, if not closed, by such a story so handled. Nevertheless, as a fact, the growth of characterization is, in spite of all, not only visible but remarkable. Clytemnestra is one of the most powerfully presented characters of the Greek drama. Her manly courage, her vindictive and unshaken pur- pose, her hardly hidden contempt for her tool and accomplice, Aegisthus, her cold scorn for the feebly vacillating elders, and her unflinching acceptance (in the second play) of inevitable fate, when she faces at last the avowed avenger, are all portrayed with matchless force — her very craft being scornfully assumed, as needful to her purpose, and contemptuously dropped when the purpose is served. And there is one other noticeable point. In this trilogy Aeschylus, for the first time, has attempted some touches of character in two of the humbler parts, the Watchman in Agamemnon, and the Nurse in the Choephoroe. The Watch- man opens the play, and the vivid and almost humorous senten- tiousness of his language, his dark hints, his pregnant metaphors drawn from common speech, at once give a striking touch of realism, and form a pointed contrast to the terrible drama that impends. A very similar effect is produced at the crisis of the Choephoroe by the speech of the Nurse, who coming on a message to Aegisthus pours out to the chorus her sorrow at the reported death of Orestes and her fond memories of his babyhood — with the most homely details; and the most striking realistic touch is perhaps the broken structure and almost inconsequent utter- ance of the old faithful slave's speech. These two are veritable figures drawn from contemporary life; and though both appear only once, and are quite unimportant in the drama, the innova- tion is most significant, and especially as adopted by Aeschylus. It remains to say a word on two more points, the religious ideas of Aeschylus and some of the main characteristics of his poetry. The religious aspect of the drama in one sense was teiisiics. prominent from the first, owing to its evolution from the choral celebration of the god Dionysus. But the new spirit imported by the genius of Aeschylus into the early drama was religious in a profounder meaning of the term. The sadness of human lot, the power and mysterious dealings of the gods, their terrible and inscrutable wrath and jealousy (0,7a and d6voi), their certain vengeance upon sinners, all the more fearful il delayed. — such are the poet's constant themes, delivered with strange solemnly and impressiveness in the lyric songs, especially in the Oresteia. And at times, particularly in the Trilogy, in his reference to the divine power of Zeus, he almost approaches a stern and sombre monotheism. " One God above all, who directs all, who is the cause of all" (Ag. 163, 1485); the watchfulness of this Power over human action (363-367), especially over the punishment of their sins; and the mysterious law whereby sin always begets new sin (Ag. 758-760): — these are ideas on which Aeschylus dwells in the Agamemnon with peculiar force, in a strain at once lofty and sombre. One specially noteworthy point in that play is his explicit repudiation of the common Hellenic view that prosperity brings ruin. In other places he seems to share the feeling; but here (Ag. 730) he goes deeper, and declares that it is not oXfios but always wickedness that brings about men's fall. All through there is a recurring note of fear in his view of man's destiny, expressed in vivid images — the " death that lurks behind the wall " (Ag. 1004), the " hidden reef which wrecks the bark, unable to weather the headland " (Eum. 561-565). In one remarkable passage of the Eumenides (517-525) this fear is extolled as a moral power which ought to be enthroned in men's hearts, to deter them from impious or violent acts, or from the pride that impels them to such sins. Of the poetic qualities of Aeschylus' drama and diction, both in the lyrics and the dialogue, no adequate account can be attempted ; the briefest word must here suffice. He is everywhere distinguished by grandeur and power of conception, presentation and expression, and most of all in the latest works, the Prome- theus and the Trilogy. He is pre-eminent in depicting the slow approach of fear, as in the Persae; the imminent horror of impending fate, as in the broken cries and visions of Cassandra in the Agamemnon (1072-1177), the long lament and prayers to the nether powers in the Choephoroe (315-478), and the gradual rousing of the slumbering Furies in the Eumenides (117-139). The fatal end in these tragedies is foreseen; but the effect is due to its measured advance, to the slowly darkening suspense which no poet has more powerfully rendered. Again, he is a master of contrasts, especially of the Beautiful with the Tragic: as when the floating vision of consoling nymphs appears to the tortured Prometheus (115-135); or the unmatched lyrics which tell (in the Agamemnon, 228-247) °f the death of Iphi- genia; or the vision of his lost love that the night brings to Menelaus (410-426). And not least noticeable is the extra- ordinary range, force and imaginativeness of his diction. One example of his lyrics may be given which will illustrate more than one of these points. It is taken from the long lament in the Septem, sung by the chorus and the two sisters, while following the funeral procession of the two princes. These laments may at times be wearisome to the modern reader, who does not see, and imperfectly imagines, the stately and pathetic spectacle; but to the ancient feeling they were as solemn and impressive as they were ceremonially indispensable. The solemnity is here heightened by the following lines sung by one of the chorus of Theban women (Sept. 854-860): — ■ Nay, with the wafting gale of your sighs, my sisters, Beat on your heads with your hands the stroke as of oars, The stroke that passes ever across Acheron, Speeding on its way the black-robed sacred bark, — The bark Apollo comes not near, The bark that is hidden from the sunlight — To the shore of darkness that welcomes all ! Authorities. — The chief authority for the text is a single MS. at Florence, of the early nth century, known as the Medicean or M., written by a professional scribe and revised by a contemporary scholar, who corrected the copyist's mistakes, added the scholia, the arguments and the dramatis personae of three plays (Theb., Agam . Eum.), and at the end the Life of Aeschylus and the Catalogue of his Dramas. The MS. has also been further corrected by later hands. In 1896 the Italian Ministry of Public Instruction publishd the MS. in photographic facsimile, with an instructive preface by Signor Rostagno. Besides M. there are some eight later MSS. (13th to 15th century), and numerous copies of the three select plays (Sept., Pen., Prom.) which were most read in the later Byzantine period, when Greek literature was reduced to gradually diminishing excerpts. These later MSS. are of little value or authority. _ The editions, from the beginning of the 15th century to the present time, are very numerous, and the text has been further continuously 276 AESCULAPIUS— AESOP improved by isolated suggestions from a host of scholars. The three first printed copies (Aldine, 1518; Turnebus and Robortello, 1552) give only those parts of Agamemnon found in M., from which MS. some leaves were lost; in 1557 the full text was restored by Vettori (Victorius) from later MSS. After these four, the chief editions of the seven plays were those of Schutz, Porson, Butler, Wellauer, Din- dorf, Bothe, Ahrens, Paley, Hermann, Hartung, Weil, Merkel, Kirch- hoff and Wecklein. Besides these, over a hundred scholars have thrown light on the corruptions or obscurities of the text, by editions of separate plays, by emendations, by special studies of the poet's work, or in other ways. Among recent writers who have made such contributions may be mentioned Wilamowitz-Moellendorf, Enger, Conington, Blaydes, Cobet, Meineke, Madvig, Ellis, W. Headlam, Davies, Tucker, Verrall and Haigh. The Fragments have been edited by Nauck and also by Wecklein. The Aeschylean staging is discussed in Albert Miiller's Lehrbuch der griechischen Biihnenalter- thiimer; in " DieBiihnedes Aeschylos," by Wilamowitz (Hermes, xxi.) ; in Smith's Diet, of Antiquities, art. " Theatrum " (R. C. Jebb) ; in Dorpfeld and Reisch (Das griechische Theater), Haigh's Attic Theatre, and Gardner and Jevons' Manual of Greek Antiquities. English Verse Translations: Agamemnon, Milman and R. Browning; Oresteia, Suppliants, Persae, Seven against Thebes, Prometheus Vinc- tus, by E. D. A. Morshead; Prometheus, E. B. Browning; the whole seven plays, Lewis Campbell. (A. Si.) AESCULAPIUS (Gr. 'Ao-kX-otios), the legendary Greek god of medicine, the son of Apollo and the nymph Coronis. Tricca in Thessaly and Epidaurus in Argolis disputed the honour of his birthplace, but an oracle declared in favour of Epidaurus. He was educated by the centaur Cheiron, who taught him the art of healing and hunting. His skill in curing disease and restoring the dead to life aroused the anger of Zeus, who, being afraid that he might render all men immortal, slew him with a thunder- bolt (Apollodorus iii. 10; Pindar, Phthia, 3; Diod. Sic. iv. 71). Homer mentions him as a skilful physician, whose sons, Machaon and Podalirius, are the physicians in the Greek camp before Troy (Iliad, ii. 731). Temples were erected to Aesculapius in many parts of Greece, near healing springs or on high mountains. The practice of sleeping (incubalio) in these sanctuaries was very common, it being supposed that the god effected cures or pre- scribed remedies to the sick in dreams. All who were healed offered sacrifice — especially a cock — and hung up votive tablets, on which were recorded their names, their diseases and the manner in which they had been cured. Many of these votive tablets have been discovered in the course of excavations at Epidaurus. Here was the god's most famous shrine, and games were celebrated in his honour every five years, accompanied by solemn processions. Herodas (Mimes, 4) gives a description of one of his temples, and of the offerings made to him. His worship was introduced into Rome by order of the Sibylline books (293 B.C.), to avert a pestilence. The god was fetched from Epidaurus in the form of a snake and a temple assigned him on the island in the Tiber (Livy x. 47; Ovid, Metam. xv. 622). Aesculapius was a favourite subject of ancient artists. He is commonly represented standing, dressed in a long cloak, with bare breast; his usual attribute is a club-like staff with a serpent (the symbol of renovation) coiled round it. He is often accom- panied by Telesphorus, the boy genius of healing, and his daughter Hygieia, the goddess of health. Votive reliefs repre- senting such groups have been found near the temple of Aescu- lapius at Athens. The British Museum possesses a beautiful head of Aesculapius (or possibly Zeus) from Melos, and the Louvre a magnificent statue. Authorities. — L. Dyer, The Gods in Greece (1891); Jane E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion (1903); R. Caton, Temples and Ritual of A. at Epidaurus and Athens (1900) ; articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Real-Encyclopadie, Roscher's Lexikon der Mytho- logie; T. Panofka, Asklepios und die Asklepiaden (1846); Alice Walton, " The Cult of Asklepios," in Cornell Studies in Classical Philology, iii. (New York, 1894); W. H. D. Rouse, Greek Votive Offerings (1902). • AESERNIA (mod. Isernia), a Samnite town on the road from Beneventum to Corfinium, 58 m. to the north-east of the former, at the junction of a road going past Venafrum to the Via Latina. These routes are all followed by modern railways — the lines to Campobasso, Sulmona and Caianello. A Roman colony was established there in 263 B.C. It became the headquarters of the Italian revolt after the loss of Corfinium, and was only recovered by Sulla at the end of the war, in 80 B.C. Remains of its fortifica- tions are still preserved — massive cyclopean walls, which serve as foundation to the walls of the modern town and of a Roman bridge, and the subterranean channel of an aqueduct, cut in the rock, and dating from Roman times. AESOP (Gr. Mo-uiivos), famous for his Fables, is supposed to have lived from about 620 to 560 B.C. The place of his birth is uncertain— Thrace, Phrygia, Aethiopia, Samos, Athens and Sardis all claiming the honour. We possess little trustworthy informa- tion concerning his life, except that he was the slave of Iadmon of Samos and met with a violent death at the hands of the in- habitants of Delphi. A pestilence that ensued being attributed to this crime, the Delphians declared their willingness to make compensation, which, in default of a nearer connexion, was claimed and received by Iadmon, the grandson of his old master. Herodotus, who is our authority for this (ii. 134), does not state the cause of his death; various reasons are assigned by later writers — his insulting sarcasms, the embezzlement of money entrusted to him by Croesus for distribution at Delphi, the theft of a silver cup. Aesop must have received his freedom from Iadmon, or he could not have conducted the public defence of a certain Samian demagogue (Aristotle, Rhetoric, ii. 20). According to the story, he subsequently lived at the court of Croesus, where he met Solon, and dined in the company of the Seven Sages of Greece with Periander at Corinth. During the reign of Peisistratus he is said to have visited Athens, on which occasion he related the fable of The Frogs asking for a King, to dissuade the citizens from attempting to exchange Peisistratus for another ruler. The popular stories current regarding him are derived from a life, or rather romance, prefixed to a book of fables, purporting to be his, collected by Maximus Planudes, a monk of the 14th century. In this he is described as a monster of ugliness and deformity, as he is also represented in a well-known marble figure in the Villa Albani at Rome. That this life, however, was in existence- a century before Planudes, appears from a 13th-century MS. of it found at Florence. In Plutarch's Sym- posium of the Seven Sages, at which Aesop is a guest, there are many jests on his original servile condition, but nothing deroga- tory is said about his personal appearance. We are further told that the Athenians erected in his honour a noble statue by the- famous sculptor Lysippus, which furnishes a strong argument against the fiction of his deformity. Lastly, the obscurity in which the history of Aesop is involved has induced some scholars to deny his existence altogether. It is probable that Aesop did not commit his fables to writing; Aristophanes (Wasps, 1259) represents Philocleon as having learnt the " absurdities " of Aesop from conversation at banquets, and Socrates whiles away his time in prison by turning some of Aesop's fables " which he knew " into verse (Plato, Phaedo, 61 b). Demetrius of Phalerum (345-283 B.C.) made a collection in ten books, probably in prose (Abyuv Aiv avvayuyai) for the use of orators, which has been lost. Next appeared an edition in elegiac verse, often cited by Suidas, but the author's name is unknown. Babrius, according to Crusius, a Roman and tutor to the son of Alexander Severus, turned the fables into choliambics in the earlier part of the 3rd century a.d. The most celebrated of the Latin adapters is Phaedrus, a freedman of Augustus. Avianus (of uncertain date, perhaps the 4th century) translated 42 of the fables into Latin elegiacs. The collections which we possess under the name of Aesop's Fables are late renderings of Babrius's version or Upoyvuvaa iiara, rhetorical exercises of varying age and merit. . Syntipas translated Babrius into Syriac, and Andreopulos put the Syriac back again into Greek. Ignatius Diaconus, in the 9th century, made a version of 5 3 fables in choliambic tetrameters. Stories from Oriental sources were added, and from these collections Maximus Planudes made and edited the collection which has come down to us under the name of Aesop, and from which the popular fables of modern Europe have been derived. For further information see the article Fable; Bentley, Dissert- ation on the Fables of Aesop; Du Meril, Poesies inedites du moyen dge (1854) ; J. Jacobs, The Fables of Aesop (1889) : i. The history of AESOPUS— AESTHETICS 277 the Aesopic fable; ii. The Fables of Aesop, as first printed by William Caxton, 1484, from his French translation; Hervieux, Les Fabulistes Latins (1893-1899). Before any Greek text appeared, a Latin translation of 100 Fabulae Aesopicae by an Italian scholar named Ranuzio (Renutius) was published at Rome, 1476. About 1480 the collection of Planudes was brought out at Milan by Buono Accorso (Accursius) , together with Ranuzio's translation. This edition, which contained 144 fables, was frequently reprinted and additions made from time to time from various MSS. — the Heidelberg (Palatine), Florentine, Vatican and Augsburg — by Stephanus (1547), Nevelet (1610), Hudson (1718), Hauptmann (1741), Furia (1810), Coray (1810), Schneider (1812) and others. A critical edition of all the previously known fables, prepared by Carl von Halm from the collections of Furia, Coray and Schneider, was published in the Teubner series of Greek and Latin texts. A Fabularum Aesopicarum sylloge (233 in number) from a Paris MS., with critical notes by Sternbach, appeared in a Cracow University publication, Rozprawy akademii umiejet- nosci (1894). AESOPUS, a Greek historian who wrote a history of Alexander the Great, a Latin translation of which, by Julius Valerius, was discovered by Mai in 1816. AESOPUS, CLODIUS, the most eminent Roman tragedian, flourished during the time of Cicero, but the dates of his birth and death are not known. The name seems to show that he was a freedman of some member of the Clodian gens. Cicero was on friendly terms with both him and Roscius, the equally distin- guished comedian, and did not disdain to profit by their instruc- tion. Plutarch '{Cicero, 5) mentions it as reported of Aesopus, that, while representing Atreus deliberating how he should revenge himself on Thyestes, the actor forgot himself so far in the heat of action that with his truncheon he struck and killed one of the servants crossing the stage. Aesopus made a last appearance in 55 B.C. — when Cicero tells us that he was advanced in years — on the occasion of the splendid games given "by Pompey at the dedication of his theatre. In spite of his somewhat ex- travagant living, he left an ample fortune to his spendthrift son, who did his best to squander it as soon as possible. Horace (Sat. iii. 3. 239) mentions his taking a pearl from the ear-drop of Caecilia Metella and dissolving it in vinegar, that he might have - the satisfaction of swallowing eight thousand pounds' worth at a draught. Cicero, De Divinatione, i. 37; pro Sestio, 56, 58; Quint., Instit- xi. 3, in ; Macrobius, Sat. iii. 14. AESTHETICS, a branch of study variously denned as the philosophy or science of the beautiful, of taste or of the fine arts. The name is something of an accident. In its original Pre, 'd'»'i Greek form (aicdrjTtKos) it means what has to do with J^_ * sense-perception as a source of knowledge; and this is still its meaning in Kant's philosophy (" Transcen- dental Aesthetic "). Its limitation to that function of sensuous perception which we know as the contemplative enjoyment of beauty is due to A. G. Baumgarten. Although the subject does not readily lend itself to precise definition at the outset, we may indicate its scope and aim, as understood by recent writers, by saying that it deals successively with one great department of human experience, viz. the pleasurable activities of pure con- templation. By pure contemplation is here understood that manner of regarding objects of sense-perception, and more particularly sights and sounds, which is entirely motived by the pleasure of the act itself. The term " object " means whatever can be perceived through one of the senses, e.g. a flower, a land- scape, the flight of a bird, a sequence of tones. The contemplation may be immediate when (as mostly happens) the object is present to sense; or it may be mediate, when as in reading poetry we dwell on images of objects of sense. Whenever we become interested in an object merely as presented for our contemplation our whole state of mind may be described as an aesthetic atti- tude, and our experience as an aesthetic experience. Other expressions such as the pleasure of taste, the enjoyment and appreciation of beauty (in the larger sense of this term), will serve less precisely to mark off this department of experience. Aesthetic experience is differentiated from other kinds of experience by a number of characteristics. We commonly speak of it as enjoyment, as an exercise and cultivation of feeling. The appreciation of beauty is pervaded and sustained by pleas- urable feeling. In aesthetic enjoyment our capacities of feel- ing attain their fullest and most perfect development. Yet, as its dependence on a quiet attitude of contemplation might tell us, aesthetic experience is characterized by Oifferen- a certain degree of calmness and moderation of feeling. aesthetic Even when we are moved by a tragedy our feeling is expert- comparatively restrained. A rare exhibition of beauty ence - may thrill the soul for a moment, yet in general the J^ r j£i cs enjoyment of it is far removed from the excitement as feeling. of passion. On the other hand, aesthetic pleasure is pure enjoyment. Even when a disagreeable element is present, as in a musical dissonance or in the suffering of a tragic hero, it contributes to a higher measure of enjoy- ment. It is, moreover, free from the painful elements of craving, fatigue, conflict, anxiety and disappointment, which are apt to accompany other kinds of enjoyment; such as the satisfaction of the appetites and other needs. To this purity of aesthetic pleasure must be added its refinement, winch implies not merely a certain remoteness from the bodily needs, but the effect of a union of sense and mind in giving amplitude as well as delicacy to our enjoyment of beauty. As the region of most pure and refined feeling, aesthetic Marked experience is clearly marked off from practical life, with off from its urgent desires and the rest. In aesthetic contempla- practical tion desire and will as a whole are almost dormant. acttYtt yt This detachment from the daily life of practical needs and aims is brought out in Kant's postulate that aesthetic enjoyment must be disinterested ("ohne Interesse"), that when we regard an object aesthetically we are not in the least concerned with its practical significance and value: one cannot, for example, at the same moment aesthetically enjoy looking at a also from painting and desire to be its possessor. In like manner, Intel- even if less apparently, aesthetic contemplation is lectuat marked off from the arduous mental work which enters actlvlt y- into the pursuit of knowledge. In contemplating an aesthetic object we are mentally occupied with the concrete, whereas all the more serious intellectual work of science involves the diffi- culties of the abstract. The contemplation is, moreover, free from those restraints which are imposed on our mental activity by the desire to obtain knowledge. While as the highest phase of feeling aesthetic experience appears to belong to our subjective life, the hidden region of the soul, it is connected just as clearly, through the act uniform- of sense-perception, with the world of objects which is ityof our common possession. Beingthusdependentonacon- aesthetic templation of things in this common world it raises the expert- question whether, like the perception of these objects, ence ' it is a uniform experience, the same for others as for myself. We touch here on the last characteristic of aesthetic experience which needs to be noted at this stage, its uniformity or subjection to law. It is a common idea that men's judgments about matters of taste disagree to so large an extent that each individual is left very much to his subjective impressions. With regard to many of the subtler matters of aesthetic appreciation, at any rate, there is undoubtedly on a first view the appearance of a want of agreement. Contrasted with logical judgments or even with ethical ones, aesthetic judgments may no ae ^ etional experience new forms of expres- sion whereby our sympathies are deepened and en- larged. 3 The further elucidation of this element of humanizing influence in aesthetic enjoyment may be expected to throw new light on the question, much discussed throughout the history of aesthetics, of the relation of the science to ethics, by showing that they have a common root in our sympathetic nature and interest in humanity. In order to complete the outline of aesthetic theory we need to glance at the relation of general aesthetics to the special prob- Aesthetic ' ems °^ Fine ^ rt- ^ ' s ey ident that the definition of theory and the aims and methods of art, both as a whole and in problems its several forms, involving as it does special technical of art. knowledge, may with advantage be treated apart from a general theory. (See Fine Arts.) At the same time the study of art raises larger problems which require to be dealt with to some extent by this theory. We may instance the group of problems which have to do with the relation of art to " beauty " in its narrower sense, such as the function of the painful and of the ugly in art, the meaning of artistic imitation and truth to nature, of idealization, and the nature of artistic illusion; also the question of the didactic and of the moral function of art. Even more special problems of art, such as the effect of the tragic, the nature of musical expression, can only be adequately treated in the light of a general aesthetic theory. In conclusion, it may be pointed out that the psychological theorist has of late been busy in an outlying region of art-lore, inquiring into the nature of the artistic impulse and tempera- ment, and into the processes of imaginative creation. These inquiries have been carried out to some extent in connexion with studies of the origin of art, and of the relation of art to the 1 See passage in Human Nature (first part of Tripos), ch. viii. § 5 (Molesworth's edition of Works, vol. iv. p. 38). 2 See among others, R. Wallascheck, Primitive Music, pp. 270 ff., and Y. Hirn, The Origin of Art, pp. 9 ff. ; cf. W. Jerusalem, Einleitung in die Philosophic, pp. 116, 117. 3 The idea of this social utility in aesthetic enjoyment is touched on by Kant, Critique of Judgment (Bernard's trans.), p. 174; and is more fully worked out by Guyau, L'Art au point de vue sociologique, ch. ii. and iii. ; cf. Rutgers Marshall, Aesthetic Principles, pp. 81-82. social environment. Their importance for aesthetics lies in the circumstance that they are fitted to throw light upon the aes- thetic consciousness as it is developed in those who are not only in a special sense cultivators of it, but represent in a peculiar manner the ideas and the aims of art. 1 History of Theories In the following summary of the most important contributions to aesthetic doctrine, only such writings will be recognized as contribute to a general conception of aesthetic objects or experi- ence. These include the more systematic treatment of the sub- ject in philosophic works as well as the more thoughtful kind of discussion of principles to be met with in writings on art by critics and others. 1. Greek Speculations. — Ancient Greece supplies us with the first important contributions to aesthetic theory, though these are scarcely, in quality or in quantity, what one might have expected from a people which had so high an appreciation of beauty and so strong a bent for philosophic speculation. The first Greek thinker of whose views on the subject we really know something is Socrates. We learn from Xenophon's account of him that he regarded the beautiful as coincident with the good, and both of them are resolvable into the useful. Every beautiful object is so called because it serves some rational end, whether the security or the gratification of man. Socrates appears to have attached little importance to the immediate gratification which a beautiful object affords to perception and contemplation, but to have emphasized rather its power of further- ing the more necessary ends of life. The really valuable point in his doctrine is the relativity of beauty. Unlike Plato, he recognized no self-beauty (airo to Ka\6v) existing absolutely and out of all relation to a percipient mind. Of the views of Plato on the subject, it is hardly less difficult to gain a clear conception from the Dialogues, than it is in the case of ethical good. In some of these, various definitions of the beautiful are rejected as inadequate by the Platonic Plato. Socrates. At the same time we may conclude that Plato's mind leaned decidedly to the conception of an absolute beauty, which took its place in his scheme of ideas or self -existing forms. This true beauty is nothing discoverable as an attribute in another thing, for these are only beautiful things, not the beautiful itself. Love (Eros) pro- duces aspiration towards this pure idea. Elsewhere the soul's in- tuition of the self-beautiful is said to be a reminiscence of its pre- natal existence. As to the precise forms in which the idea of beauty reveals itself, Plato is not very decided. His theory of an absolute beauty does not easily* adjust itself to the notion of its contributing merely a variety of sensuous pleasure, to which he appears to lean in some dialogues. He tends to identify the self -beautiful with the conceptions of the true and the good, and thus there arose the Platonic formula Ka\oK&.ya8ia. So far as his writings embody the notion of any common element in beautiful objects, it is proportion, harmony or unity among their parts. He emphasizes unity in its simplest aspect as seen in evenness of line and purity of colour. He recognizes in places the beauty of the mind, and seems to think that the highest beauty of proportion is to be found in the union of a beautiful mind with a beautiful body. He had but a poor opinion of art, regarding it as a trick of imitation (m£mw«) which takes us another step farther from the luminous sphere of rational intuition into the shadowy region of the semblances of sense. Accordingly, in his scheme for an ideal republic, he provided for the most inexorable censorship of poets, &c, so as to make art as far as possible an instrument of moral and political training. Aristotle proceeded to a more serious investigation of the aesthetic phenomena so as to develop by scientific analysis certain principles of beauty and art. In his treatises on poetry and rhetoric Ar i t a he gives us, along with a theory of these arts, certain Arlstot ' e - general principles of beauty; and scattered among his other writings we find many valuable suggestions on the same subject. He seeks (in the Metaphysics) to distinguish the good and the beautiful by saying that the former is always in action (iv irpa£«) whereas the latter may exist in motionless things as well (iv aKivtirois). At the same time he had as a Greek to allow that though essentially different things the good might under certain conditions be called beautiful. He further distinguished the beautiful from the fit, and in a passage of the Politics set beauty above the useful and necessary. He helped to determine another characteristic of the beautiful, the absence of all lust or desire in the pleasure it bestows. The universal elements of beauty, again, Aristotle finds (in the Metaphysics) to be 1 On the nature of the primitive art-culture, see Rutgers Marshall, Aesthetic Principles, ch. iii.; M. Baldwin, Social and Ethical Inter- pretations, pp. 151 ff: Y. Hirn, The Origin of Art, ch. ii. On artistic fenius and its creative process, see H. Taine, The Philosophy of Art, 'art ii. ; P. Souriau, V Imagination -de V artiste; G. Seailks, Essai sur la genie dans I'art; E. Grosse, Kunstwissenschaftliche Studien, iii. ; Arreat, Psychologie du peintre ; L. Dauriac, Essai sur V esprit musical. 286 AESTHETICS order (ra^ti), symmetry and definiteness or determinateness (t6 iipiuiikvoy) . In the Poetics he adds another essential, namely, a certain magnitude ; it being desirable for a synoptic view of the whole that the object should not be too large, while clearness of perception requires that it should not be too small. Aristotle's views on art are an immense advance on those of Plato. He distinctly recog- nized (in the Politics and elsewhere) that its aim is immediate pleasure, as distinct from utility, which is the end of the mechanical arts. He took a higher view of artistic imitation than Plato, hold- ing that so far from being an unworthy trick, it implied knowledge and discovery, that its objects not only comprised particular things which happen to most, but contemplated what is probable and what necessarily exists. The celebrated passage in the Poetics, where he declares poetry to be more philosophical and serious a matter (attovBcubTepov) than philosophy, brings out the advance of Aristotle on his predecessor. He gives us no complete classification of the fine arts, and it is doubtful how far his principles, e.g. his celebrated idea of a purification of the passions by tragedy, are to be taken as applicable to other than the poetic art. Of the later Greek and Roman writers the Neo-Platonist Plotinus deserves to be mentioned. According to him, objective reason (tous) as self-moving, becomes the formative influence Plotinus. w h; c h reduces dead matter to form. Matter when thus formed becomes a notion (\6yos), and its form is beauty. Objects are ugly so far as they are unacted upon by reason, and therefore formless. The creative reason is absolute beauty, and is called the more than beautiful. There are three degrees or stages of manifested beauty: that of human reason, which is the highest; of the human soul, which is less perfect through its connexion with a material body; and of real objects, which is the lowest mani- festation of all. As to the precise forms of beauty, he supposed, in opposition to,. Aristotle, that a single thing not divisible into parts might be beautiful through its unity and simplicity. He gives a high place to the beauty of colours in which material darkness is overpowered by light and warmth. In reference to artistic beauty he said that when the artist has notions as models for his creations, these may become more beautiful than natural objects. This is clearly a step away from Plato's doctrine towards our modern conception of artistic idealization. 2. German Writers. — We may pass by the few thoughts on the subject to be found among medieval writers and turn to modern German theories, beginning with those of German writers as writers *^ e mos t numerous and most elaborately set forth. The (a) Svs- fi rst °^ t ^ le Germans who attempted to develop an aes- " thetic theory as a part of a system of philosophy was Baumgarten (A esthetico) . Adopting the Leibnitz- Wolffian theory of knowledge, he sought to complete it by setting over against the clear scientific or " logical " knowledge garten. Q £ tne understanding, the confused knowledge of the senses, to which (as we have seen) he gave the name " aesthetic." Beauty with him thus corresponds with perfect sense-knowledge. Baumgarten is clearly an intellectualist in aesthetics, reducing taste to an intellectual act and ignoring the element of feeling. The details of his aesthetics are mostly unimportant. Arguing from Leibnitz's theory of the world as the best possible, Baumgarten concluded that nature is the highest embodiment of beauty, and that art must seek its supreme function in the strictest possible imitation of nature. The next important treatment of aesthetics by a philosopher is that of Kant. He deals with the " Judgment of Taste " in the Critique of the Power of Judgment (J. H. Bernard's trans- lation, 1892), which treatise supplements the two better- known critiques (vide Kant), and by investigating the conditions of the validity of feeling mediates between their respective subjects, cognition and desire (volition). He takes an important step in deny- ing objective existence to beauty. Aesthetic value for him is fitness to please as object of pure contemplation. This aesthetic satis- faction is more than mere agreeableness, since it must be disinter- ested and free — that is to say, from all concern about the real exist- ence of the object, and about our dependence on it. He appears to concede a certain formal objectivity to beauty in his doctrine of an appearance of purposiveness (Zweckmdssigkeit) in the beautiful object, this being defined as its harmony with the cognative faculties involved in an aesthetic judgment (imagination and understand- ing) ; a harmony the consciousness of which underlies our aesthetic pleasure. Yet this part of his doctrine is very imperfectly developed. While beauty thus ceases with Kant to have objective validity and remains valid only for the contemplator, he claims for it universal subjective validity, since the object we pronounce to be beautiful is fitted to please all men. We know that this must be so from re- flecting on the disinterestedness of our pleasure, on its entire inde- pendence of personal inclination. Kant insists that the aesthetic judgment is always, in logical phrase, an " individual," i.e. a singu- lar one, of the form " This object (e.g. rose) is beautiful." He denies that we can reach a valid universal aesthetic judgment of the form " All objects possessing such and such qualities are beautiful." (A judgment of this form would, he considers, be logical, not aesthetic.) In dealing with beauty Kant is thinking of nature, ranking this as a source of aesthetic pleasure high above art, for which he shows something of contempt. He seems to retreat from his doctrine of tematlc treatises Baum- pure subjectivity when he says that the highest significance oi beauty is to symbolize moral good ; going further than Ruskin when he attaches ideals of modesty, frankness, courage, &c, to the sever! primary colours of Newton's system. He has made a solid contribu- tion to the theory of the sublime, and has put forth a suggestive if a rather inadequate view of the ludicrous. But his main service to aesthetics consists in the preliminary critical determination of its aim and its fundamental problems. Schelling is the first thinker to attempt a Philosophy of Art. He develops this as the third part of his system of transcendental ideal- ism following theoretic and practical philosophy. (See . Schelling ; also Schilling's Werke, Bd. v., and J. Watson, * c * e ™»^ Schelling's Transcendental Idealism, ch. vii., Chicago, 1882.) Ac- cording to Schelling a new philosophical significance is given to art by the doctrine that the identity of subject and object — "'Inch is half disguised in ordinary perception and volition — is only clearly, seen in artistic perception. The perfect perception of its real self by intelligence in the work of art is accompanied by a feeling of infinite satisfaction. Art in thus effecting a revelation of the absolute seems to attain a dignity not merely above that of nature but above that of philosophy itself. Schelling throws but little light on the con- crete forms of beauty. His classification of the arts, based on his anti- thesis of object and subject, is a curiosity in intricate arrangement. He applies his conception in a suggestive way to classical tragedy. In Hegel's system of philosophy art is viewed as the first stage of the absolute spirit. (See Hegel; also Werke, Bd. x., and Bosan- quet's Introduction to Hegel's Philosophy of Fine Art.) In hi this stage the absolute is immediately present to sense- " e S e perception, an idea which shows the writer's complete rupture with Kant's doctrine of the " subjectivity " of beauty. The beautiful is defined as the ideal showing itself to sense or through a sensuous medium. It is said to have its life in show or semblance (Schein) and so differs from the true, which is not really sensuous, but the universal idea contained in sense for thought. The form of the beautiful is unity of the manifold. The notion (Begriff) gives necessity in mutual dependence of parts (unity) , while the reality demands the semblance (Schein) of liberty in the parts. He discusses very fully the beauty of nature as immediate unity of notion and reality, and lays great emphasis on the beauty of organic life. But it is in art that, like Schelling, Hegel finds the highest revelation of the beautiful. Art makes up for the deficiencies of natural beauty by bringing the idea, into clearer light, by showing the external world in its life and spiritual animation. The several species of art in the ancient and modern worlds depend on the various combinations of matter and form. He classifies the individual arts according to this same principle of the relative supremacy of form and matter, the lowest being architecture, the highest, poetry. Curious developments of the Hegelian conception are to be found in the dialectical treatment of beauty in its relation to the ugly, the sublime, &c, by Hegel's disciples, e.g. C. H. Weisse and J, K. F. Rosenkranz. The most important product of the Hegelian „.. . School is the elaborate system of aesthetics published by . * c F. T. Vischer (Asthetik, 3 Theile, 1846-1854). It illustrates °* .. the difficulties of the Hegelian thought and terminology; " c 2 e >iaBs. yet in dealing with art it is full of knowledge and highly suggestive. The aesthetic problem is also treated by. two other philosophers whose thought set out from certain tendencies in Kant's system, viz. Schopenhauer and Herbart. Schopenhauer (see c , Schopenhauer, also The World as Will and Idea, trans- * ca °J> ea - lated by R. B. Haldane, esp. vol. i. pp. 219-346), abandon- , bauen _ ing also Kant's doctrine of the subjectivity of beauty, found in aesthetic contemplation the perfect emancipation of intellect from will. In this contemplation the mind is filled with pure intellectual forms, the " Platonic Ideas " as he calls them, which are objecti- fications of the will at a certain grade of completeness of representa- tion. He exalts the state of artistic contemplation as the one in which, as pure intellect set free from will, the misery of existence is surmounted and something of blissful ecstasy attained. He holds that all things are in some degree beautiful, ugliness being viewed as merely imperfect manifestation or objectification of will. In this way the beauty of nature, somewhat slighted by Schelling and Hegel, is rehabilitated. J. F; Herbart (q.v.) struck out another way of escaping from Kant's idea of a purely subjective beauty (Kerbach's edition of Werke, Bd. ii. pp. 339 el seq.; Bd. iv. pp. 105 et seq., M er t, ar t and Bd. ix. pp. 92 et seq.). He did, indeed, adopt Kant's view of the aesthetic judgment as singular (" individual."); though he secures a certain degree of logical universality for it by emphasiz- ing the point that the predicate (beauty) is permanently true of the same aesthetic object. At the same time, by referring the beauty of concrete objects to certain aesthetic relations, he virtually accepted the possibility of universal aesthetic judgments (cf. supra). Since he thus reduces beauty to abstract relations he is known as a for- malist, and the founder of the formalistic school in aesthetics. He sets out with the idea that only relations please— in the Kantian sense of producing pleasure devoid of desire ; and his aim is to determine the " aesthetic elementary relations," or the simplest relations which produce this pleasure. These include those of will, so that, as he admits, ethical judgments are in a manner brought AESTHETICS 287 under an aesthetic form. His typical example of aesthetic relations in objects of sense-perception is that of harmony between tones. The science of thorough-bass has, he thinks, done for music what should be done also for other departments of aesthetic experience. This doctrine of elementary relations is brought into connexion with the author's psychological doctrine of presentations with their tendencies to mutual inhibition and to fusion, and of the varying feeling-tones to which these processes give rise. This mode of treat- ing the problem of beauty and aesthetic perception has been greatly developed and worked up into a complete system of aesthetics by one of Herbart's disciples, Robert Zimmermann {Asthetik, 1858). Lessing, in his Laocoon and elsewhere, sought to deduce the special function of an art from a consideration of the means at its disposal. Lesslasr ^ e to °k pains to define the boundaries of poetry and painting, and in so doing he reached general reflexions upon the ends and appliances of art. Among these his distinction between arts which employ the coexistent in space and those which employ the successive (as poetry and music) is of lasting value. In his dramatic criticisms he similarly endeavoured to develop clear general principles on such points as poetic truth, improving upon Aristotle, on whose teaching he mainly relies. Goethe wrote several tracts on aesthetic topics, as well as many aphorisms. He attempts to mediate between the claims of ideal Goethe beauty, as taught by J. J. Winckelmann, and the aims of Schiller individualization. Schiller (q.v.) discusses, in a number of disconnected essays and letters, some of the main ques- tions in the philosophy of art. He looks at art from the side of culture and the forces of human nature, and finds in an aesthetically cultivated soul the reconciliation of the sensual and rational. His letters on aesthetic education (Uber die asthetische Erziehung des Menschen, trans, by J. Weiss, Boston, 1845) are valuable, bringing out among other.' points the connexion between aesthetic activity and the universal impulse to play (Spieltrieb). Schiller's thoughts on aesthetic subjects are pervaded with the spirit of Kant's philo- sophy. Another example of this kind of reflective discussion of art by literary men is afforded us in the Vorschule der Asthetik of Jean Paul J ean P au ' Richter. This is a rather ambitious discussion of the sublime and ludicrous, which, however, contains much valuable matter on the nature of humour in romantic poetry. Among other writers who reflect more or less philosophically on the problems to which modern poetry gives rise are Wilhelm von Humboldt, the two Schlegels and Gervinus. A word may be said in conclusion on the attempts of German savants to apply a knowledge of physiological conditions to the Coatribu- investigation of the sensuous elements of aesthetic effect, tioasby as we " as to introduce into the study of the simpler German aesthetic forms the methods of natural science. The classic savants. work of Helmholtz on " Sensations of Tone " is a highly successful attempt to ground the known facts and laws of musical composition on physics and physiology. The endeavour to determine with a like degree of precision the physiological conditions of the pleasurable effects of colours and their combinations by E. VV. Briicke, Ewald Hering and more recent investigators, has so far failed to realize the desideratum laid down by Herbart, that there should be a theory of colour-relations equal in completeness and exactness to that of tone-relations. The experimental inquiry into simple aesthetically pleasing forms was begun by G. T. Fechner in seeking to test the soundness of Adolf Zeising's hypothesis that the most pleasing proportion in dividing a line, say the vertical part of a cross, is the " golden section," where the smaller division is to the larger as the latter to the sum. He describes in his work on " Experimental Aesthetics " (Zur experimentalen Asthetik) a series of experiments carried out on a large number ,of persons, bearing on this point, the results of which he considers to be infavour of Zeising's hypothesis. 3. French Writers. — In France aesthetic speculation grew out of the discussion by poets and critics on the relation of modern art, and „ _ especially poetry, to ancient. The writings of Malherbe Afxo"/ anc * B°'' eau m the 17th century, the development of the * " dispute between the " ancients " and the " moderns " at concrete tne en ^ °^ tne I ' 7tn centurv by B. le Bouvier de Fontenelle problems. anc ^ Charles Perrault, and the continuation of the discus- sion as to the aims of poetry and of art generally in the 1 8th century by Voltaire, Bayle, Diderot and others, not only offer to the modern theorists valuable material in the shape of a record by experts of their aesthetic experience, but disclose glimpses of im- portant aesthetic principles. A more systematic examination of the several arts (corresponding to that of Lessing) is to be found in the Cours de belles lettres of Charles Batteux (1765), in which the meaning and value of the imitation of nature by art are further elucidated, and the arts are classified (as by Lessing) according as they employ the forms of space or those of time. The beginning of a more scientific investigation of beauty in general is connected with the name of Pere Buffier (see First Truths, _. . English translation, 1780). He confines himself to organic o/onrante ^ orm ' an ^ illustrates his theory by the human face. A beauty. beautiful face is at once the most common and most rare Buffier. among members of the species. This seems to be a clumsy way of saying that it is a clear expression of the typical form of the species. This idea of typical beauty (which was adopted French systems aesthetics: The splri uallstes. developed beau). All Liv&que. by Reynolds) has been worked out more recently by H. Taine. In his work, The Ideal in Art (trans, by J. Durand), he proceeds in the manner of a botanist to determine a scale of characters Talne in the physical and moral man. The degree of the uni- versality or importance of a character, and of its beneficence or adaptation to the ends of life, determine the measure of its aesthetic value, and render the work of art, which seeks to represent it in its purity, an ideal work. The only elaborated systems of aesthetics in French literature are those constructed by the spiritualistes, the philosophic writers who under the influence of German thinkers effected a reaction against the crude sensationalism of the 18th ' . century. They aim at elucidating the higher and spiritual J^ jw/ c °. element in aesthetic impressions, appearing to ignore any ~ Be SD ; r /^.' capability in the sensuous material of affording a true aesthetic delight. V. Cousin and Jean Charles Levgque are the principal writers of this school. The latte an elaborate system of the subject (La Science du beauty is regarded as spiritual in its nature. The several beautiful characters of an organic body — of which the principal are magnitude, unity and variety of parts, intensity of colour, grace or flexibility, and correspondence to environment — may be brought under the conception of the ideal grandeur and order of the species. These are perceived by reason to be the mani- festations of an invisible vital force. Similarly the beauties of in- organic nature are to be viewed as the grand and orderly displays of an immaterial physical force. Thus all beauty is in its objective essence either spirit or unconscious force acting with fulness and in order. 4. English Writers. — There is nothing answering to the German conception of a system of aesthetics in English literature. The inquiries of English thinkers have been directed for the most part to such modest problems as the psychological process by which we perceive the beautiful — discussions which are apt to be regarded by German historians as devoid of real philosophical value. The writers may be conveniently arranged in two divisions, answering to the two opposed directions of English thought : (1) the Intuitionalists, those who recognize the existence of an objective beauty which is a simple unanalysable attribute or principle of things; and (2) the Analytical theorists, those who follow the analytical and psychological method, concerning themselves with the sentiment of beauty as a complex growth out of simpler elements. Shaftesbury is the first of the intuitional writers on beauty. In his Characteristics the beautiful and the good are combined in one ideal conception, much as with Plato. Matter in itself is ugly. The order of the world, wherein all beauty really resides, is a spiritual principle, all motion and life being the product of spirit. The principle of beauty is perceived not with the outer sense, but with an internal or moral sense which apprehends the good as well. This perception yields the only true delight, namely, spiritual enjoyment. Francis Hutcheson, in his System of Moral Philosophy, though he adopts many of Shaftesbury's ideas, distinctly disclaims any inde- pendent self-existing beauty in objects. " All beauty," he Hutche- says, " is relative to the sense of some mind perceiving it." son> The cause of beauty is to be found not in a simple sensa- tion such as colour or tone, but in a certain order among the parts, or " uniformity amidst variety." The faculty by which this principle is discerned is an internal sense which is defined as " a passive power of receiving ideas of beauty from all objects in which there is uniformity in variety." This inner sense resembles the external senses in the immediateness of the pleasure which its activity brings ; and further in the necessity of its impressions: a beautiful thing being always, whether we will or no, beautiful. He distinguishes two kinds of beauty, absolute or original, and relative or compara- tive. The latter is discerned in an object which is regarded as an imitation or semblance of another. He distinctly states that " an exact imitation may still be beautiful though the original were entirely devoid of it." He seeks to prove the universality of this sense of beauty, by showing that all men, in proportion to the enlarge- ment of their intellectual capacity, are more delighted with uni- formity than the opposite. In his Essays on the Intellectual Powers (viii. " Of Taste ") Thomas Reid applies his principle of common sense to the problem of beauty by saying that objects of beauty agree not only in pro- Reid. during a certain agreeable emotion, but in the excitation along with this emotion of a belief that they possess some perfection or excellence, that beauty exists in the objects independently of our minds. His theory of beauty is severely spiritual. All beauty resides primarily in the faculties of the mind, intellectual and moral. The beauty which is spread over the face of visible nature is an emanation from this spiritual beauty, and is beauty because it sym- bolizes and expresses the latter. Thus the beauty of a plant resides in its perfect adaptation to its end, a perfection which is an expres- sion of the wisdom of its Creator. In his Lectures on Metaphysics Sir W. Hamilton gives a short account of the- sentiments of taste, which (with a superficial resem- blance to Kant) he regards as subserving both the sub- n am ;iton. sidiary and the elaborative faculties in cognition, that is, the imagination and the understanding. The activity The Intui- tionalists. Shaftes- bury. of the 288 AESTHETICS former corresponds to the element of variety in a beautiful object, that of the latter with its unity. He explicitly excludes all other kinds of pleasure, such as the sensuous, from the proper gratification of beauty. He denies that the attribute of beauty belongs to fitness. John Ruskin's well-known speculations on the nature of beauty in Modern Painters (" Of ideas of beauty "), though sadly wanting in Ruskln. scientific precision, have a certain value in the history of aesthetics. For him beauty is spiritual and typical of di\ine attributes. Its true nature is appreciated by the theoretic faculty which is concerned in the moral conception and apprecia- tion of ideas of beauty, and must be distinguished from the imagina- tive or artistic faculty, which is employed in regarding in a certain way and combining the ideas received from external nature. He distinguishes between typical and vital beauty. The former is the external quality of bodies which typifies some divine attribute. The latter consists in " the appearance of felicitous fulfilment of function in living things." The forms of typical beauty are: — (i) infinity, the type of the divine incomprehensibility ; (2) unity, the type of the divine comprehensiveness; (3) repose, the type of the divine per- manence; (4) symmetry, the type of the divine justice; (5) purity, the type of the divine energy; and (6) moderation, the type of government by law. Vital beauty, again, is regarded as relative when the degree of exaltation of the function is estimated, or generic if only the degree of conformity of an individual to the appointed functions of the species is taken into account. Ruskin's writings illustrate the extreme tendency to identify aesthetic with moral perception. Addison's " Essays on the Imagination," contributed to the Spectator, though they belong to popular literature, contain the germ The °^ sc ' en tific analysis in the statement that the pleasures analytical °^ imagination (which arise originally from sight) fall into theorists, two'blasses : — (1) primary pleasures, which entirely pro- Addlson. ceed from objects before our eyes; and (2) secondary pleasures, flowing from the ideas of visible objects. The latter are greatly extended by the addition of the proper enjoyment of resemblance, which is at the basis of all mimicry and wit. Addison recognizes, too, to some extent, the influence of association upon our aesthetic preferences. In the Elements of Criticism of Home (Lord Karnes) another at- tempt is made to resolve the pleasure of beauty into its elements. Home Beauty and ugliness are simply the pleasant and un- pleasant in the higher senses of sight and hearing. He appears to admit no general characteristic of beautiful objects beyond this power of yielding pleasure. Like Hutcheson, he divides beauty into intrinsic and relative, but understands by the latter the appearance of fitness and utility, which is excluded from the beautiful by Hutcheson. Passing by the name of Sir Joshua Reynolds, whose theory of beauty closely resembles that of Pere Buffier, we come to the Hovarth speculations of anotherartist and painter, William Hogarth . ' He discusses, in his Analysis of Beauty, all the elements of visual beauty. He finds in this the following elements: — (1) fitness of the parts to some design; (2) variety in as many ways as possible; (3) uniformity, regularity or symmetry, which is only beautiful when it helps to preserve the character of fitness; (4) simplicity or distinctness, which gives pleasure not in itself, but through its enabling the eye to enjoy variety with ease; (5) intricacy, which provides employment for our active energies, ieading the eye " a wanton kind of chase "; (6) quantity or magnitude, which draws our attention and produces admiration and awe. The beauty of proportion he resolves into the needs of fitness. Hogarth applies these principles to the determination of the degrees of beauty in lines, figures and groups of forms. Among lines he singles out for special honour the serpentine (formed by drawing a line once round from the base to the apex of a long slender cone). Burke's speculations, in his Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful, illustrate the tendency of English writers „ . to treat the problem as a psychological one and to intro- ur e ' duce physiological considerations. He finds the elements of beauty to be : — (1) smallness; (2) smoothness; (3) gradual variation of direction in gentle curves; (4) delicacy, or the appearance of fragility: (5) brightness, purity and softness of colour. The sublime is rather crudely resolved into astonishment, which he thinks always contains an element of terror. Thus " infinity has a tendency to fill the mind with a delightful horror." Burke seeks what he calls " efficient causes " for these aesthetic impressions incertain affections of the nerves of sight analogous to those of other senses, namely, the soothing effect of a relaxation of the nerve fibres. The arbitrari- ness and narrowness of this theory cannot well escape the reader's attention. Alison, in his well-known Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste, proceeds by a method exactly the opposite to that of Hogarth and Burke. He seeks to analyse the mental process when son. wg eX p er ; ence t h e emotion of beauty or sublimity. He finds that this consists in a peculiar operation of the imagination, namely, the flow of a train of ideas through the mind, which ideas always correspond to some simple affection or emotion (e.g. cheer- fulness, sadness, awe) awakened by the object. He thus makes association the sole source of aesthetic delight, and denies the exist- ence of a primary source in sensations themselves. He illustrates the working of the principle of association at great length, and with much skill ; yet his attempt to make it the unique source of aesthetic pleasure fails completely. Francis Jeffrey's Essays on Beauty (in the Edinburgh Review, and Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th edition) are little more than a modification of Alison's theory. D. Stewart's chief contribution to aesthetic discussion in his Philosophical Essays consists in pointing out the unwarranted assumption lurking in the doctrine of a single quality oagald running through all varieties of beautiful object. He seeks Stewart. to show how the successive changes in the meaning of the term " beautiful "have arisen. He suggests that it originally connoted the pleasure of colour. The value of his discussion resides more in the criticism of his predecessors than in the contribution of new ideas. His conception of the sublime, suggested by the etymology of the word, emphasizes the element of height in objects. Of the association psychologists James Mill did little more towards the analysis of the sentiments of beauty than re-state Alison's doc- trine. Alexander Bain, in his treatise, The Emotions and Bain. the Will (" Aesthetic Emotions ") , carries this examination considerably further. He seeks to differentiate aesthetic from other varieties of pleasurable emotion by three characteristics; — (1) their freedom from life-serving uses, being gratifications sought for their own sakes; (2) their purity from all disagreeable concomitants; (3) their eminently sympathetic or shareable nature. He takes a comprehensive view of the constituents of aesthetic enjoyment, in- cluding the pleasures of sensation and of its revived or its " ideal " form; of revived emotional states; and lastly the satisfaction of those wide-ranging susceptibilities which we call thelove of novelty, of contrast and of harmony. The effect of sublimity is connected with the manifestation of superior power in its highest degrees, which manifestation excites a sympathetic elation in the beholder. The ludicrous, again, is defined by Bain, improving on Aristotle and Hobbes, as the degradation of something possessing dignity in circumstances that excite no other strong emotion. Herbert Spencer, in his First Principles, Principles of Psychology and Essays, has given an interesting turn to the psychology of aesthetics by the application of his doctrine of evolution. Adopting Schiller's idea of a connexion between aesthetic activity Herbert and play, he seeks to make it the starting-point in tracing Spencer. the evolution of aesthetic activity. Play is defined as the outcome of the superfluous energies of the organism : as the activity of organs and faculties which, owing to a prolonged period of in- activity, have become specially ready to discharge their function, and as a consequence vent themselves in simulated actions. Aesthetic activities supply a similar mode of self-relieving discharge to the higher organs of perception and emotion; and they further^ agree with play in not directly subserving any processes conducive to life ; in being gratifications sought for their own sake only. Spencer seeks to construct a hierarchy of aesthetic pleasures according to the degree of complexity of the faculty exercised: from those of sensation up to the revived emotional experiences which constitute the aesthetic sentiment proper. Among the more vaguely revived emotions Spencer includes more permanent feelings of the race transmitted by heredity ; as when he refers the deep and indefinable emotion excited by music to associations with vocal tones expressive of feeling built up during the past history of ourspecies. His bio- logical treatment of aesthetic activity has had a wide influence, some (e.g. Grant Allen) being content to develop his evolutional method. Yet, as suggested above, his theory is now recognized as taking us only a little way towards an adequate understanding of our aesthetic experience. Bibliography. 1 — (a) Works on General Aesthetics. English and American.— There are no important recent works which deal with the whole subject. The following will be found helpful : Herbert Spencer, Principles of Psychology, pt. viii. c. 9, "Aesthetic Sentiments," and the papers on "Use and Beauty," " Origin and Function of Music " and others in the Essays; A. Bain, Emotions and Will, "Aesthetic Emotions"; J. Sully, Human Mind, ii. "Aesthetic Sentiment"; Grant Allen, "Physiological Aesthetics" (Meth., PI., Senses, Play); Rutgers Marshall, Pain, Pleasure and Aesthetics, and Aesthetic Principles (Meth., PI., Play). French and Italian Works. — M. Guyau, Les Problemes de I' esthetique contemporaine (1884) (PI., Play) ; E. Veron, L 'Esthetique (1890) (slight PL); L. Bray, Du Beau (1002I. (PI., Play) ; P. Saurian, Li Beaute rationnelle (1904) (Meth., PI., Senses, Einf.) ; M. Pilo, Estetica (PI., Senses); A. Rolla, Storia delle idee esteliche in Italia (1905) (full account of ideas of Dante and other medieval writers, as well as of modern systems). German Works. — K. Kostlin, Prolegomena zur Asthetik (1889) 1 Only recent works are included. Important points in each are indicated by abbreviations, namely : — Einf., for Einfuhlung (cxpres- PI., for theory of pleasure. sional element in form). Play, for Play and aesthetic Evol., for bearings of evolution. enjoyment. 111., for aesthetic illusion. Senses, for aesthetic value of Judg., for aesthetic judgment. higher senses. Meth., for method of aesthetics. Val., for aesthetic value. Norm., for normative function of aesthetics. AESTIVATION— ^THELFRITH 289 (good introduction to subject) ; K. Groos, Der asthetische Genuss (1902) (Meth., Judg., Play, Senses, Einf. and 111.) ; J. Volkelt, System der Asthetik (1905) (very full and clear) (Meth., Norm., Evol., Senses, Einf.); J. Cohn, Allgemeine Asthetik (1901) (Val., Play, Einf.); K. Lange, Das Wesen der Kunst (1901) (Meth., Einf., 111., Play). (b) Works' on History oj Aesthetics. — H. Lotze, Geschichte der Asthetik in Deutschland; M. Schasler, Kritische Geschichte der Asthetik (full and elaborate, dealing with ancient and modern theories) ; E. von Hartmann, Die deutsche Asthetik seit Kant (Ausgewahlte Werke, iii.) ; K. H. von Stein, Die Entstehung der neueren Asthetik (theories of French critics, &c.) ; F. Brunetiere, V Evolution des genres (History of critical discussions in the 17th and 1 8th centuries); B. Bosanquet, History of Aesthetics (very full, especially on ancient theories and German systems) ; W. Knight, Philosophy of the Beautiful, pt. i. " History " (Univ. Extension Manuals, a popular resume with quotations). (J. S.) AESTIVATION (from Lat. aestivare, to spend the aestas, or summer; the word is sometimes spelled " estivation"), literally " summer residence," a term used in zoology for the condition of torpor into which certain animals pass during the hottest season in hot and dry countries, contrasted with the similar winter condition known as hibernation (q.v.). In botany the word is used of the praefloration or folded arrangement of the petals in a flower before expansion in the summer, contrasted with " vernation " of leaves which unfold in the spring. A3THELBALD, king of Mercia, succeeded Ceoired a.d. 716. According to Felix, Life of St Guthlac, he visited the saint at Crowland, when exiled by Ceoired and pursued by his emissaries before his accessfon, and was cheered by predictions of his future greatness. According to Bede, the whole of Britain as far north as the Humber was included within the sphere of his authority. His energy in preserving his influence is shown by several entries in the Chronicle. He made an expedition against Wessex in 733, in which year he took the royal vill of Somerton. In 740 he took advantage of the absence of Eadberht of Northumbria in a campaign against the Picts to invade his kingdom. In 743 he fought with Cuthred, king of Wessex, against the Welsh, but the alliance did not last long, as in 752 Cuthred took up arms against him. In 757 ^Ethelbald was slain by his guards at Seckington (Warwickshire) and buried at Repton. He seems to have been the most powerful and energetic king of Mercia be- tween Penda and Offa. A letter of St Boniface is preserved, in which he rebukes this king for his immoralities and encroach- ments on church property, while recognizing his merits as a monarch. By a charter of 749 he freed ecclesiastical lands from all obligations except the trinoda necessitas. See Bede, Hist. Ecc. (ed. Plummer), v. 23 and Continuatio s.a. 740, 750, 757; Saxon Chronicle (Earle and Plummer), s.a. 716, 733, 737, 740, 741, 743, 755; Mabillon, Acta Sanctorum, ii. pp. 264, 275, 276, 2 79i 283-284; P. Jaffe, Monumenta Moguntiaca, iii. pp. 168-177; W. de G. Birch, Cartul. Saxon. 178 (1885-1893). (F. G. M. B.) JETHELBALD, king of Wessex, was the son of ^Ethelwulf, with whom he led the West Saxons to victory against the Danes at Aclea, 851. According to Asser he rebelled against his father on the latter's return from Rome in 856, and deprived him of Wessex, which he ruled until his death in 860. On his father's death in 858 he married his widow, Judith. See Asser, Life of Alfred (W. H. Stevenson, 1904), 12; Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 851, 855, 860. &THELBERHT, king of Kent, son of Eormenric, probably came to the throne in a.d. 560. The first recorded event of his reign was a serious reverse at the hands of Ceawlin of Wessex in the year 568 (Chronicle) at a place called Wibbandune. jEthelberht married Berhta, daughter of Charibert, king of Paris, who brought over Bishop Liudhard as her private confessor. According to Bede, j£thelberht's supremacy in 597 stretched over all the English kingdoms as far as the Humber. The nature of this supremacy has been much disputed, but it was at any rate sufficient to guarantee the safety of Augustine in his con- ference with the British bishops. jEthelberht exercised a stricter sway over Essex, where his nephew Saberht was king. In 597 the mission of Augustine landed in Thanet and was re- ceived at first with some hesitation by the king. He seems to have acted with prudence and moderation during the conversion of his kingdom and did not countenance compulsory proselytism. jEthelberht gave Augustine a dwelling-place in Canterbury, and I. 10 Christ Church was consecrated in 603. He also made grants to found the see of Rochester, of which Justus became first bishop in 604, and his influence established Mellitus at London in the same year. A code of laws issued* by him which is still extant is probably the oldest document in the English language, and contains a list of money fines for various crimes. Towards the close of his reign his pre-eminence as Bretwalda was dis- turbed by the increasing power of Raedwald of East Anglia. He died probably in 616, and was succeeded by his son Eadbald. See Bede, Hist. Ecc. (Plummer) i. 25, 26, ii. 3, 5; Saxon Chronicle (Earle and Plummer), s.a. 568. (F. G. M. B.) iETHELBERHT, king of the West Saxons, succeeded to the sub-kingdom of Kent during the lifetime of his father ^Ethelwulf , and retained it until the death of his elder brother ^Ethelbald in 860, when he became sole king of Wessex and Kent, the younger brothers ^Ethelred and Alfred renouncing their claim. He ruled these kingdoms for five years and died in 865. His reign was marked by two serious attacks on the part of the Danes, who destroyed Winchester in 860, in spite of the resistance of the ealdormen Osric and /Ethelwulf with the levies of Hampshire and Berkshire, while in 865 they treacherously ravaged Kent. See Saxon Chronicle (Earle and Plummer), s.a. 860, 865; King Alfred's Will; W. de G. Birch, Cartul. Saxon. 553. ATHELFLAED (Ethelfleda), the " Lady of the Mercians," the eldest child of Alfred the Great, was educated with her brother Edward at her father's court. As soon as she was of marriageable age (probably about a.d. 886), she was married to ^Ethelred, earl of Mercia, to whom Alfred entrusted the control of Mercia. On the accession of her brother Edward, ^Ethelflaed and her husband continued to hold Mercia. In 907 they fortified Chester, and in 909 and 910 either ^Ethelflaed or her husband must have led the Mercian host at the battles of Tettenhall and Wednesfield (or Tettenhall- Wednesfield, if these battles are one and the same). It was probably about this time that yEthelred fell ill, and the Norwegians and Danes from Ireland unsuccessfully besieged Chester, ^thelflaed won the support of the Danes against the Norwegians, and seems also to have entered into an alliance with the Scots and the Welsh against the pagans. In 911 ^Ethelred died and Edward took over Middlesex and Oxford- shire. Except for this ^Ethelflaed's authority remained un- impaired. In 912 she fortified " Scergeat " and Bridgenorth, Tamworth and Stafford in 913, Eddisbury and Warwick in 914, Cherbury, " Weardbyrig " and Runcorn in 915. In 916 she sent an expedition against the Welsh, which advanced as far as Brecknock. In 917 Derby was captured from the Danes, and in the next year Leicester and York both submitted to her. She died in the same year at Tamworth (June 12), and was buried in St Peter's church at Gloucester. This noble queen, whose career was as distinguished as that of her father and brother, left one daughter, ^Elfwyn. For some eighteen months ^Elfwyn seems to have wielded her mother's authority, and then, just before the Christmas of 919, Edward took Mercia into his own hands, and ;£lfwyn was " led away " into Wessex. ^Ethel- flaed and her husband wielded almost kingly authority, and the royal title is often given them by the chroniclers. See The Saxon Chronicle, sub ann. (especially the Mercian register in MSS. B, C and D) ; Florence of Worcester; Fragments of Irish Annals (ed. O'Conor), pp. 227-237; D.N.B., s.v. (A. Mw.) ^THELFRITH, king of Northumbria, is said to have come to the throne in a.d. 593, being the son of ^Ethelric (probably reigned 568-572). He married Acha, daughter of Ella GElle), king of Deira, whom he succeeded probably in 605, expelling his son Edwin. In 603 he repelled the attack of Aidan, king of the Dalriad Scots, at Daegsastan, defeating him with great loss. The appearance of Hering, son of Hussa, ^Ethelfrith's prede- cessor, on the side of the invaders seems to indicate family quarrels in the royal house of Bernicia. Later in his reign, probably in 614, he defeated the Welsh in a great battle at Chester and massacred the monks of Bangor who were assembled to aid them by their prayers. This war may have been due partly to ^Ethelfrith's persecution of Edwin, but it had a stra- tegic importance in the separation of the North Welsh from the Strathclyde Britons. In 617 ^Ethelfrith was defeated and slain 11 290 jETHELING— ^THELRED II. at the river Idle by Rsedwald of East Anglia, whom Edwin had persuaded to take up his cause. See Bede, Chronica Majora, § 531; Hist. Ecc. (Plummer) i. 34, ii. 2; Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 593, 603, 605, 616; Hist. Brittonum, §§57.63; Annales Cambriae, s.a. 613. (F. G. M. B.) .ffiTHELING, an Anglo-Saxon word compounded of athele, or ethel, meaning noble, and ing, belonging to, and akin to the modern German words Adel, nobility, and adelig, noble. During the earliest years of the Anglo-Saxon rule in England the word was probably used to denote any person of noble birth. Its use was, however, soon restricted to members of a royal family, and in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle it is used almost exclusively for members of the royal house of Wessex. It was occasionally used after the Norman Conquest to designate members of the royal family. The earlier part of the word formed part of the name of several Anglo-Saxon kings, e.g. ^Ethelbert, ^Ethelwulf, /Ethelred, and was used obviously to indicate their noble birth. According to a document which probably dates from the 10th century, the wergild of an aetheling was fixed at 15,000 thrymsas, or 1 1,250 shillings. This wergild is equal to that of an archbishop and one-half of that of a king. JSTHELNOTH (d. 1038), archbishop of Canterbury, known also as Egelnodus or Ednodus, was a son of the ealdorman ^Ethelmaer, and a member of the royal family of Wessex. He became a monk at Glastonbury, then dean of the monastery of Christ Church,-- Canterbury, and chaplain to King Canute, and on the 13th of November 1020 was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury. In 1022 he went to Rome to obtain the pallium, and was received with great respect by Pope Benedict VIII. Returning from Rome he purchased at Pavia a relic said to be an arm of St Augustine of Hippo, for a hundred talents of silver and one of gold, and presented it to the abbey of Coventry. He appears to have exercised considerable influence over Canute, largely by whose aid he restored his cathedral at Canterbury. A story of doubtful authenticity tells how he refused to crown King Harold I., as he had promised Canute to crown none but a son of the king by his wife, Emma. ^Ethelnoth, who was called the " Good," died on the 29th of October 1038, and his name appears in the lists of saints. JETHELRED, king of Mercia, succeeded his brother Wulfhere in a.d. 675. In 676 he ravaged Kent with fire and sword, destroying the monasteries and churches and taking Rochester. iEthelred married Osthryth, the sister of Ecgfrith, king of Northumbria, but in spite of this connexion a quarrel arose between the two kings, presumably over the possession of the province of Lindsey, which Ecgfrith had won back at the close of the reign of Wulfhere. In a battle on the banks of the Trent in 679, the king of Mercia was victorious and regained the province. ^Elfwine, the brother of Ecgfrith, was slain on this occasion, but at the intervention of Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury, /Ethelred agreed to pay a wergild for the North- umbrian prince and so prevented further hostilities. Osthryth was murdered in 697 and ^Ethelred abdicated in 704, choosing Ccenred as his successor. He then became abbot of Bardney, and, according to Eddius, recommended Wilfrid to Ccenred on his return from Rome. ^Ethelred died at Bardney in 716. (See Wilfrid.) Sources. — Eddius, Vita Wilfridi (Raine), 23. 40, 43, 45-48, 57; Bede, Hist. Ecc. (ed. Plummer), iii. 11, iv. 12,21; Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 676, 679, 704, 716. (F. G. M. B.) .ffiTHELRED I., king of Wessex and Kent (866-871), was the fourth son of ^Ethelwulf of Wessex, and should, by his father's will, have succeeded to Wessex on the death of his eldest brother ^Ethelbald. He seems, however, to have stood aside in favour of his brother ^Ethelberht, king of Kent, to whose joint kingdoms he succeeded in 866. ^Ethelred's reign was one long struggle against the Danes. In the year of his succession a large Danish force landed in East Anglia, and in the year 868 iEthelred and his brother Alfred went to help Burgred, or Burhred, of Mercia, against this host, but the Mercians soon made peace with their foes. In 871 the Danes encamped at Reading, where they defeated ^Ethelred and his brother, but later in the year the English won a great victory at " ^Escesdun." A fortnight later they were defeated at Basing, but partially retrieved their fortune by a victory at " Maeretun " (perhaps Marden in Wiltshire), though the Danes held the field. In the Easter of this year JEihehed died, perhaps of wounds received in the wars against the Danes, and was buried at Wimborne. He left a son, .Ethelwold, who gave some trouble to his cousin Edward the Elder, when the latter succeeded to the kingdom. ^Ethelweard the historian was also a descendant of this king. Authorities. — The Saxon Chronicle, sub ann. ; Birch, Cartul. Saxon, vol. ii. Nos. 516-526; D.N.B., s.v.; Eng. Hist. Review, i. 218-234. (A- Mw.) iETHELRED II. (or Ethelred) (c. 968-1016), king of the English (surnamed The Unready, i.e. without rede or counsel), son of King Edgar by his second wife ^Elfthryth, was born in 968 or 969 and succeeded to the throne on the murder of his step-brother Edward (the Martyr) in 979. His reign was dis- astrous from the beginning. The year after his accession the Danish invasions, long unintermitted under Edgar the Peaceful, recommenced; though as yet their object was plunder only, not conquest, and the attacks were repeated in 981, 982 and 988. In 991 the Danes burned Ipswich, and defeated and slew the East Saxon ealdorman Brihtnoth at Maldon. After this, peace was purchased by a payment of £10,000 — a disastrous expedient. The Danes were .to desist from their ravages, but were allowed to stay in England. Next year /Ethelred himself broke the peace by an attack on the Danish ships. Despite the treachery of ^Elfric, the English were victorious; and the Danes sailed off to ravage Lindsey and Northumbria. In 994 Olaf Tryggvason, king of Norway, and Sweyn, king of Denmark, united in a great invasion and attacked London. Foiled by the valour of the citizens, they sailed away and harried the coast from Essex to Hampshire. ^Ethelred now resorted to the old experiment and bought them off for £16,000 and a promise of supplies. Olaf also visited ^Ethelred at the latter's request and, receiving a most honourable welcome, was induced to promise that he would never again come to England with hostile intent, an en- gagement which he faithfully kept. The Danish attacks were repeated in 997, 998, 999, and in ioooyEthelred availed himself of the temporary absence of the Danes in Normandy to invade Cumberland, at that time a Viking stronghold. Next year, however, the Northmen returned and inflicted worse evil than ever. The national defence seemed to have broken down alto- gether. In despair ^Ethelred again offered them money, which they again accepted, the sum paid on this occasion being £24,000. But soon afterwards the king, suspecting treachery, resolved to get rid of his enemies once and for all. Orders were issued commanding the slaughter on St Brice's day (December 2) of " all the Danish men who were in England." Such a decree could obviously not be carried out literally; but we cannot doubt that the slaughter was great. This violence, however, only made matters worse. Next year Sweyn returned, his hostility fanned by the desire for revenge. For two years he ravaged and slew; in 1003 Exeter was destroyed; Norwich and Thetford in 1004. No effectual resistance was offered, despite a gallant effort here and there; the disorganization of the country was complete. In 1005 the Danes were absent in Denmark, but came back next year, and emboldened by the utter lack of resistance, they ranged far inland. In 1007 ^Ethelred bought them off for a larger sum than ever (£36,000), and for two years the land enjoyed peace. In 1009, however, in accord- ance with a resolution made by the witan in the preceding year, ^Ethelred collected such a fleet " as never before had been in England in any king's day"; but owing to a miserable court quarrel the effort came to nothing. The king then summoned a general levy of the nation, with no better result, just as he was about to attack, the traitor Edric prevented him from doing so, and the opportunity was lost. In 1010 the Danes returned, to find the kingdom more utterly disorganized than ever. " There was not a chief man in the kingdom who could gather a force, but each fled as he best might; nor even at last would any there resist another." Incapable of offering resistance, the king again offered money, this time no less than £48,000. While it was being ^THELSTAN— ^THELWEARD 291 collected, the Danes sacked Canterbury and barbarously slew the archbishop Alphege. The tribute was paid soon afterwards; and about the same time the Danish leader Thurkill entered the English service. From 1013 an important change is discernible in the character of the Danish attacks, which now became definitely political in their aim. In this year Sweyn sailed up the Trent and received the submission of northern England, and then marching south, he attacked London. Failing to take it, he hastened west and at Bath received the submission of Wessex. Then he returned northwards, and after that " all the nation considered him as full king." London soon acknowledged him, and ^Ethelred, after taking refuge for a while with Thurkill's fleet, escaped to Normandy. Sweyn died in February 1014, and ^thelred was recalled by the witan, on giving a promise to reign better in future. At once he hastened north against Canute, Sweyn's son, who claimed to succeed his father, but Canute sailed away, only to return next year, when the traitor Edric joined him and Wessex submitted. Together Canute and Edric harried Mercia, and were preparing to reduce London, when ^Ethclred died there on the 23rd of April 1016. Weak, self-indulgent, improvident, he had pursued a policy of oppor- tunism to a fatal conclusion. jEthelred's wife was Emma, or /Elfgifu, daughter of Richard I. the Fearless, duke of the Normans, whom he married in 1002. After the king's death Emma became the wife of Canute the Great, and after his death in 1035 she struggled hard to secure England for her son, Hardicanute. In 1037, however, when Harold Harefoot became sole king, she was banished; she went to Flanders, returning to England with Hardicanute in 1040. In 1043, after Edward the Confessor had become king he seized the greater part of Emma's great wealth, and the queen lived in retirement at Winchester until her death on the 6th of March 1052. By ./Ethelred Emma had two sons, Edward the Confessor and the setheling ^Elfred (d. 1036), and by Canute she was the mother of Hardicanute. Emma's marriage with ^Ethelred was an important step in the history of the relations between England and Normandy, and J. R. Green says " it suddenly opened for its rulers a distinct policy, a distinct course of action, which led to the Norman conquest of England. From the moment of Emma's marriage Normandy became a chief factor in English politics." Authorities. — The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (edition by C. Plummer, 2 vols. Oxford, 1892-1899); Florence of Worcester (ed. B. Thorpe, London, 1 848-1 849) ; Encomium Emmae (ed. by G. H. Pertz in the Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum, Band xix., Hanover, 1866) for the latter part of the reign. See also J. M. Kemble, Codex Diplo- maticus acvi Saxonici (London, 1839-1848); and B. Thorpe, Ancient Laws (London, 1840). (C. S. P.*) ^THELSTAN (c. 804-940), Saxon king, was the son (probably illegitimate) of Edward the elder. He had been the favourite of his grandfather Alfred, and was brought up in the household of his aunt ^thelflaed, the " Lady of the Mercians." On the death of his father in 924, at some date after the 12th of November, ^Ethelstan succeeded him and was crowned at Kingston shortly after. The succession did not, however, take place without opposition. One Alfred, probably a descendant of jEthelred I., formed a plot to seize the king at Winchester; the plot was discovered and Alfred was sent to Rome to defend himself, but died shortly after. The king's own legitimate brother Edwin made no attempt on the throne, but in 933 he was drowned at sea under somewhat mysterious circumstances; the later chroniclers ascribe his death to foul play on the part of the king, but this seems more than doubtful. One of jEthelstan's first public acts was to hold a conference at Tamworth with Sihtric, the Scandinavian king of Northumbria, and as a result Sihtric received /Ethelstan's sister in marriage. In the next year Sihtric died and ^Ethelstan took over the Northumbrian kingdom. He now received, at Dacre in Cumber- land, the submission of all the kings of the island, viz. Howel Dda, king of West Wales, Owen, king of Cumbria, Constantine, king of the Scots, and Ealdred of Bamburgh, and henceforth he calls himself "rex totius Britanniae." About this time (the exact chronology is uncertain) ^Ethelstan expelled Sihtric's brother Guthfrith, destroyed the Danish fortress at York, received the submission of the Welsh at Hereford, fixing their boundary along the line of the Wye, and drove the Cornishmen west of the Tamar, fortifying Exeter as an English city. In 934 he invaded Scotland by land and sea, perhaps owing to an alliance between Constantine and Anlaf Sihtricsson. ' The army advanced as far north as Dunottar, in Kincardineshire, while the navy sailed to Caithness. Simeon of Durham speaks of a submission of Scotland as a result; if it ever took place it was a mere form, for three years later we find a great confederacy formed in Scotland against /Ethelstan. This confederacy of 937 was joined by Constantine, king of Scotland, the Welsh of Strathclyde, and the Norwegian chieftains Anlaf Sihtricsson and Anlaf Godfredsson, who, though they came from Ireland, had powerful English connexions. A great battle was fought at Brunanburh (perhaps Brunswark or Birrenswark hill in S.E. Dumfriesshire) , in which ^Ethelstan and his brother Edmund were completely victorious. England had been freed from its greatest danger since the days of the struggle of Alfred against Guthrum. ^Ethelstan was the first Saxon king who could claim in any real sense to be lord paramount of Britain. In his charters he is continually called " rex totius Britanniae," and he adopts for the first time the Greek title basileus. This was not merely an idle flourish, for some of his charters are signed by Welsh and Scottish kings as subreguli. Further, ^Ethelstan was the first king to bring England into close touch with continental Europe. By the marriage of his half-sisters he was brought into connexion with the chief royal and princely houses of France and_ Germany. His sister Eadgifu married Charles the Simple, Eadhild became the wife of Hugh the Great, duke of France, Eadgyth was married to the emperor Otto the Great, and her sister ^Elfgifu to a petty German prince. Embassies passed between ^Ethelstan and Harold Fairhair, first king of Norway, with the result that Harold's son Haakon was brought up in England and is known in Scandinavian history as Haakon Adalsteinsf6stri. yEthelstan died at Gloucester in 940, and was buried at Malmes- bury, an abbey which he had munificently endowed during his lifetime. Apparently he was never married, and he certainly had no issue. A considerable body of law has come down to us in ^Ethel- stan's name. The chief collections are those issued at Grately in Hampshire, at Exeter, at Thunresfeld, and the Judicia civitatis Lundonie. In the last-named one personal touch is found when the king tells the archbishop how grievous it is to put to death persons of twelve winters for stealing. The king secured the raising of the age limit to fifteen. Authorities. — Primary : The Saxon Chronicle, sub ann. ; William of Malmesbury, Gesta Regum, i. 141-157, Rolls Series, contain- ing valuable original information (v. Stubbs' Introduction, II. lx.- lxvii.) ; Birch, Cartul. Saxon, vol. ii. Nos. 641-747; A.S. Laws, (ed. Liebermann), i. 146-183; iFthelweard, Florence of Worcester. Secondary: Saxon Chronicle (ed. Plummer), vol. ii. pp. 132-142; D.N.B., s.v. (A. Mw.) &THELWEARD (Ethelward), Anglo-Saxon historian, was the great-grandson of yEthelred, the brother of Alfred, and ealdorman or earl of the western provinces (i.e. probably of the whole of Wessex). He first signs as dux or ealdorman in 973, and continues to sign until 998, about which time his death must have taken place. In the year 991 he was associated with archbishop Sigeric in the conclusion of a peace with the victorious Danes from Maldon, and in 994 he was sent with Bishop ^lfheah (Alphege) of Winchester to make peace with Olaf at Andover. iEthelweard was the author of a Latin Chronicle extending to the year 975. Up to the year 892 he is largely dependent on the Saxon Chronicle, with a few details of his own; later he is largely independent of it. jEthelweard gave himself the bom- bastic title " Patricius Consul Quaestor Ethelwerdus," and un- fortunately this title is only too characteristic of the man. His narrative is highly rhetorical, and as he at the same time attempts more than Tacitean brevity his narrative is often very obscure. .^thelweard was the friend and patron of iElfric the grammarian. Authorities. — Primary: The Saxon Chronicle, 994 E; Birch, 292 ^THELWULF— AETHER Cartularium Saxonicum; A.S. Laws (ed. Liebermann), pp. 220-224; Fabii Ethelwerdi Ckron., Mon. Hist. Brit. 449-454. Secondary: Plummer, Saxon Chronicle, vol. ii. p. ci. ; Napier and Stevenson, Crawford Charters, pp. 118-120; D.N.B., s.v. (A. Mw.) ^THELWULF, king of the West Saxons, succeeded his father Ecgberht in a.d. 839. It is recorded in the Saxon Chronicle for S23 that he was sent with Eahlstan, bishop of Sherborne, and the ealdorman Wulfheard to drive out Baldred, king of Kent, which was successfully accomplished. On the accession of .Ethelwulf, iEthelstan, his son or brother, was made sub-king of Kent, Surrey, Sussex and Essex. ^Ethelwulf's reign was chiefly occupied with struggles against the Danes. After the king's defeat 843-844, the Somerset and Dorset levies won a victory at the mouth of the Parret, c. 850. In 851 Ceorl, with the men of Devon, defeated the Danes at Wigganburg, and JSthelstan of Kent was victorious at Sandwich, in spite of which they wintered in England that year for the first time. In 851 also ^Ethelwulf and ^Ethelbald won their great victory at Aclea, probably the modern Ockley. In 853 ^Ethelwulf subdued the North Welsh, in answer to the appeal of Burgred of Mercia, and gave him his daughter ^Ethelswith in marriage. 855 is the year of the Dona- tion of ^Ethelwulf and of his journey to Rome with Alfred. On his way home he married Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald. According to Asser he was compelled to give up Wessex to his son jEthelbald on his return, and content himself with the eastern sub-kingdom. He died in 858. See Asser, Life of Alfred (W. H. Stevenson, 1904), 1-16; Saxon Chronicle, s.a. 823, 836, 840, 851, 853, 855. (F. G. M. B.) AETHER, or Ether (Gr. cddvp, probably from . If this relation is true along all paths, the velocity of the aether must be of irrotational type, like that of frictionless fluid. Moreover, this is precisely the condition for the absence of interference between the com- ponent of a split beam; because, the time of passage being to the first order fds/V —/{udx -\-vdy -\-wdz)V 2 , the second term will then be independent of the path ( being a single valued function) and therefore the same for the paths' of both the interfering beams. If therefore the aether can be put into motion, we conclude (with Stokes) that such motion, in free space, must be of strictly irrotational type. But our experimental data are not confined to free space. If c is the velocity of radiation in free space and /* the refractive index of a transparent body, V=c/ / u; thus it is the expres- sion c^fi^iu'dx+v'dy+w'dz) that is to be integrable explicitly, where now (u',v',ip') is what is added to V owing to the velocity (u,v,w) of the medium. As, however, our terrestrial optical appa- ratus is now all-in motion along with the matter, we must deal with the rays relative to the moving system, and to these also Fermat's principle clearly applies; thus V+ (lu'+mv'+nw') is here the velocity of radiation in the direction of the ray, but relative to the moving material system. Now the expression above given cannot be integrable exactly, under all circumstances and whatever be the axes of co-ordinates, unless (/j, 2 u',(j?v 1 ,frw') is the gradient of a continuous function. In the simplest case, that of uniform translation, these components of the gradient will each be constant throughout the region; at a distant place in free aether where there is no motion, they must thus be equal to -u,-v,- J w, as they refer to axes moving with the matter. Hence the paths and times of passage of all rays relative to the material system will not be altered by a uniform motion of the system, provided the velocity of radiation relative to the system, in material of index /x, is diminished by /z _z times the velocity of the system in the direction of the radiation, that is, provided the absolute velocity of radiation is increased by i-/i" 2 times the velocity of the material system; this involves that the free aether for which ix is unity shall remain at rest. This statement constitutes the famous hypothesis of Fresnel, which thus ensures that all phenomena of ray-path and refraction, and all those depending on phase, shall be unaffected by uniform convection of the material medium, in accordance with the results of experiment. 7s the Aether Stationary or Mobile? — This theory secures that the times of passage of the rays shall be independent of the motion of the system, only up to the first order of the ratio of its velocity to that of radiation. But a classical experiment of A. A. Michelson, in which the ray-path was wholly in air, showed that the independence extends to higher orders. This result is inconsistent with the aether remaining at rest, unless we assume that the dimensions of the moving system depend, though to an extent so small as to be not otherwise detectable, on its orienta- tion with regard to the aether that is streaming through it. It is, however, in complete accordance with a view that would make the aether near the earth fully partake in its orbital motion — a view which the null effect of convection on all terrestrial optical and electrical phenomena also strongly suggests. But the aether at a great distance must in any case be at rest ; while the facts of astronomical aberration require that the motion of that medium must be irrotational. These conditions cannot be consistent with sensible convection of the aether near the earth without involving discontinuity in its motion at some intermediate distance, so that we are thrown back on the previous theory. Another powerful reason for taking the aether to be stationary is afforded by the character of the equations of electrodynamics; they are all of linear type, and superposition of effects is possible. Now the kinetics of a medium in which the parts can have finite 296 AETHER relative motions will lead to equations which are not linear — as, for example, those of hydrodynamics— and the phenomena will be far more complexly involved. It is true that the theory of vortex rings in hydrodynamics is of a simpler type; but electric currents cannot be likened to permanent vortex rings, because their circuits can be broken and the element of cyclic steadiness on which the simplicity depends is thereby destroyed. Dynamical Theories of the Aether. — The analytical equations which represent the propagation of light in free aether, and also in aether modified by the presence of matter, were originally developed on the analogy of the equations of propagation of elastic effects in solid media. Various types of elastic solid medium have thus been invented to represent the aether, without complete success in any case. In T. MacCullagh's hands the correct equations were derived from a single energy formula by the principle of least action; and while the validity of this dynamical method was maintained, it was frankly admitted that no mechanical analogy was forthcoming. When Clerk Maxwell pointed out the way to the common origin of optical and electrical phenomena, these equations naturally came to repose on an electric basis, the connexion having been first definitely exhibited by FitzGerald in 1878; and according as the independent variable was one or other of the vectors which represent electric force, magnetic force or electric polarity, they took the form appropriate to one or other of the elastic theories above mentioned. In this place it must suffice to indicate the gist of the more recent developments of the electro-optical theory, which in- volve the dynamical verification of Fresnel's hypothesis regard- ing optical convection and the other relations above described. The aether is taken to be at rest; and the strain-forms belong- ing to the atoms are the electric fields of the intrinsic charges, or electrones, involved in their constitution. When the atoms are in motion these strain-forms produce straining and unstrain- ing in the aether as they pass across it, which in its motional or kinetic aspect constitutes the resulting magnetic field; as the strains are slight the coefficient of ultimate inertia here involved must be great. True electric current arises solely from con- vection of the atomic charges or electrons; this current is there- fore not restricted as to form in any way. But when the rate of change of aethereal strain — that is, of (f,g,h) specified as Max- well's electric displacement in free aether — is added to it, an analytically convenient vector (u,v ,w) is obtained which possesses the characteristic property of being circuital like the flow of an incompressible fluid, and has therefore been made funda- mental in the theory by Maxwell under the name of the total electric current. As already mentioned, all efforts to assimilate optical pro- pagation to transmission of waves in an ordinary solid medium have failed; and though the idea of regions of intrinsic strain, as for example in unannealed glass, is familiar in physics, yet on account of the absence of mobility of the strain no attempt had been made to employ them to illustrate the electric fields of atomic charges. The idea of MacCullagh's aether, and its property of purely rotational elasticity which had been ex- pounded objectively by W. J. M. Rankine, was therefore much vivified by Lord Kelvin's specification (Comptes Renins, 1889) of a material gyrostatically constituted medium which would possess this character. More recently a way has been pointed out in which a mobile permanent field of electric force could exist in such a medium so as to travel freely in company with its nucleus or intrinsic charge — the nature of the mobility of the latter, as well as its intimate constitution, remaining unknown. A dielectric substance is electrically polarized by a field of electric force, the atomic poles being made up of the displaced positive and negative intrinsic charges in the atom : the polariza- tion per unit volume (f',g',h') may be defined on the analogy of magnetism, and d/dt(f',g',h') thus constitutes true electric current of polarization, i.e. of electric separation in the molecules, specified per unit volume. The convection of a medium thus polarized involves electric disturbance, and therefore must con- tribute to the true electric current; the determination of this constituent of the current is the most delicate point in the in- vestigation. The usual definition of the component current in any direction, as the net amount of electrons which crosses, towards the positive side, an element of surface fixed in space at right angles to that direction, per umt area per unit time, here gives no definite result. The establishment and convection of a single polar atom constitutes in fact a #wr)H<:pis 'Apxa.u>\o-/i.Kri, (19OO) pp. 163-212, (19O3) pp. 73-94, and in Bulletin de Correspondance Hellenique (1907), pp. 139-184; C. Salvetti in Studi di Storia Antica, vol. ii. (Rome, 1893), PP- 270-320. (M. O. B. C.) AFARS (Danakil), a tribe of African " Arabs " of Hamitic stock. They occupy the arid coast-lands between Abyssinia and the sea. They claim to be Arabs, but are more akin to the Galla and Somali. The tribe is roughly divisible into a pastoral and a coast-dwelling group. Their religion is chiefly fetich and tree-worship; many, nominally, profess Mahommedanism. They are distinguished by narrow straight noses, thin lips and small pointed chins; their cheekbones are not prominent. They are more scantily clothed than the Abyssinians or Galla, wearing, generally, nothing but a waist-cloth. Their women, when quite young, are pretty and graceful. Their huts are often tastefully decorated, the floors being spread with yellow mats, embroidered with red and violet designs. The Afars are divided into many sub-tribes, each having an hereditary sultan, whose power is, however, limited. They are desperate fighters and in 1875 successfully resisted an attempt to bring them under Egyptian rule. In 1883-1888, however, their most important sultan concluded treaties placing his country under Italian protection. The Afar region is now partly under Abyssinian and partly under Italian authority. The Afars are also found in considerable numbers in French Somaliland. They have a saying " Guns are only useful to frighten cowards." They were formerly redoubtable pirates, but the descendants of these corsairs are now fishermen, and are the only sailors in the Red Sea who hunt the dugong. See Fr. Scazamucci and E. H. Giglioli, Notizie sui Danakil (1884) I P. Paulitschke, Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas (2 vols., Berlin, 1893- 1896), and Die geographische Erj 'orschung der Addl-Ldnder und Hardrs in Ost-Afrika (Leipzig, 1884). AFER, DOMITIUS, a Roman orator and advocate, born at Nemausus (Nimes) in Gallia Narbonensis, flourished in the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius and Nero. His pupil Quintilian calls him the greatest orator he had ever known; but he disgraced his talents by acting as public informer against some of the most distinguished personages in Rome. He gained the favour of Tiberius by accusing Claudia Pulcra, the widow of Germanicus, of adultery and the use of magic arts against the emperor. Judicious flattery secured him the consul- ship under Caligula (39) ; and under Nero he was superintendent of the water supply. He died a.d. 60, according to Jerome, of over-eating. Quintilian quotes some of his witty sayings (dicta), collections of which were published, and mentions two books by him On Witnesses. Quintilian, Instit. vi. 3. 42, viii. 5. 16, x. I. 118, &c. ; Tac. Ann. iv. 52; Dio Cassius lix. 19, lx. 33; Pliny, Epp. viii. 18. AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to, sc. a person), literally, a mental state resulting generally from an external influence. It is popularly used of a relation between persons amounting to more than goodwill or friendship. By ethical writers the word has been used generally of distinct 3oo AFFIDAVIT— AFFILIATION states of feeling, both lasting and spasmodic; some contrast it with " passion " as being free from the distinctively sensual element. More specifically the word has been restricted to emotional states which are in relation to persons. In the former sense, it is the Gr. irados, and as such it appears in Descartes and most of the early British ethical writers. On various grounds, however — e.g. that it does not involve anxiety or excite- ment, that it is comparatively inert and compatible with the entire absence of the sensuous element — it is generally and use- fully distinguished from passion. In this narrower sense the word has played a great part in ethical systems, which have spoken of the social or parental " affections " as in some sense a part of moral obligation. For a consideration of these and similar problems, which depend ultimately on the degree in which the affections are regarded as voluntary, see H. Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics, pp. 345-349. In psychology the terms " affection " and " affective " are of great importance. As all intellectual phenomena have by experimentalists been reduced to sensation, so all emotion has been and is regarded as reducible to simple mental affection, the element of which all emotional manifestations are ultimately composed. The nature of this element is a problem which has been provisionally, but not conclusively, solved by many psychologists; the method is necessarily experimental, and all experiments on feeling are peculiarly difficult. The solutions proposed are two. In the first, all affection phenomena are primarily divisible into those which are pleasurable and those which are the reverse. The main objections to this are that it does not explain the infinite variety of phenomena, and that it disregards the distinction which most philosophers* admit between higher and lower pleasures. The second solution is that every sensation has its specific affective quality, though by reason of the poverty of language many of these have no name. W. Wundt, Outlines of Psychology (trans. C. H. Judd, Leipzig, 1897), maintains that we may group under three main affective directions, each with its negative, all the infinite varieties in question; these are (a) pleasure, or rather pleasantness, and the reverse, (b) tension and relaxation, (c) excitement and depres- sion. These two views are antithetic and no solution has been discovered. Two obvious methods of experiment have been tried. The first, introduced by A. Mosso, the Italian psychologist, consists in recording the physical phenomena which are observed to accompany modifications of the affective consciousness. Thus it is found that the action of the heart is accelerated by pleasant, and retarded by unpleasant, stimuli; again, changes of weight and volume are found to accompany modifications of affection — and so on. Apart altogether from the facts that this investigation is still in its infancy and that the conditions of experiment are insufficiently understood, its ultimate success is rendered highly problematical by the essential fact that real scientific results can be achieved only by data recorded in connexion with a perfectly normal subject; a conscious or interested subject introduces variable factors which are probably incalculable. The second is Fechner's method; it consists of recording the changes in feeling-tone produced in a subject by bringing him in contact with a series of conditions, objects or stimuli graduated according to a scientific plan and presented singly in pairs or in groups. The result is a comparative table of likes and dislikes. Mention should also be made of a third method which has hardly yet been tried, namely, that of endeavouring to isolate one of the three " directions " by the method of suggestion or even hypnotic trance observations. For the subject of emotion in general see modern text-books of psychology, e.g. those of J. Sully, W. James, G. T. Fechner, O. Kiilpe; Angelo Mosso, La Paura (Milan, 1884, 1900; Eng. trans. E. Lough and F. Kiesow, Lond. 1896); E. B. Titchener, Experi- mental Psychology (1905) ; art. Psychology and works there quoted. AFFIDAVIT (Med. Lat. for " he has declared upon oath," from affidare, fides, faith), a written statement sworn or affirmed to before some person who has authority to administer an oath or affirmation. Evidence is chiefly taken by means of affidavits in the Chancery Division of the High Court of Justice in England on a petition, summons or motion. Interlocutory proceedings before trial are conducted by affidavits, e.g. for discovery of documents, hence called affidavit of documents. Affidavits are sometimes necessary as certificates that certain formalities have been duly and legally performed (such as service of proceed- ings, &c.). They are extensively used in bankruptcy practice, in the administration of the revenue and in the inferior and county courts. In testamentary causes, all documents of any kind, such as wills, codicils, drafts or instructions of same must be filed in the form of affidavits (termed affidavits of scripts). In Scotland the testimony of witnesses by affidavit is almost unknown, except in a few non-contentious cases as prima facie evidence. In the rules of the Supreme Court (R.S.C. Ord. XXXVIII.) certain formal requirements are laid down for all affidavits and affirmations in causes or matters depending in the High Court. An affidavit must consist of title, body or statement and jurat. It must be written or printed on foolscap, bookwise, in the first person; give correctly the names of the parties to the action; and the description and true place of abode of the deponent. An affidavit is confined, except on interlocutory motions, to such facts as the witness is able of his own knowledge to prove. The signature of the deponent must be written opposite to the jurat, which must contain the place, date and time of swearing, and this signed by the officer or magistrate before whom the affidavit is sworn. An affidavit sworn on a Sunday is not invalid. Quakers, Moravians and Separatists were first privileged to make a solemn declaration or affirmation, and by the Common Law Procedure Act 1852 and other statutes all persons prevented by religious belief from taking an oath were allowed to affirm; and, finally, by the Oaths Act 1888, every person who objects to be sworn is allowed to affirm in all places and for all purposes where an oath is required by law. By an act of 1835 justices are permitted to take affi- davits in any matter by declaration, and a person making a false affidavit in this way is liable to punishment. The same act prohibited justices of peace from administering oaths in any matter in which they had not jurisdiction as judges, except when an oath was specially authorized by statute, as in the bankruptcy law, and excepting criminal inquiries, parliamentary proceedings and instances where oaths are required to give validity to docu- ments abroad. Scottish justices can act in England and vice versa. The Oaths Act 1888 and the Commissioner of Oaths Act 1889 consolidated all previous enactments relating to oaths and gave the lord chancellor power to appoint commissioners for oaths to take affidavits for all purposes (see Oath), Under the Debtors Act 1869 a plaintiff may file an affidavit for the arrest of a debtor {affidavit to hold to bail) when the debt amounts to £50 or upwards, where it can be shown that the debtor's absence from the kingdom would materially prejudice the prosecution of the action. Affidavits may be made abroad before any British ambassador, envoy, minister, chargS d'affaires, secretary of embassy or lega- tion, consul or consular agent. In the United States affidavit has the same meaning as in England and its general uses are the same, but it is not sub- stituted for oral evidence in court to anything like the extent to which that is done in the English courts of chancery. The statutes of each state designate the persons before whom affi- davits may be made outside the state, and special commissioners are appointed for that purpose by each state. Affidavits made abroad must be made before such commissioners or persons so designated, who are usually diplomatic and consular officials, justices, notaries public or mayors. " Affidavit of documents " is not generally used in the United States; discovery is procured by motion. AFFILIATION (from Lat. ad-filiare, to adopt as a son), in law, the procedure by which the paternity of a bastard child is determined, and the obligation of contributing to its support enforced. In England a number of statutes on the subject have been passed, the chief being the Bastardy Act of 1845, and the Bastardy Laws Amendment Acts of 1872 and 1873. The mother of a bastard may summon the putative father tq AFFINITY— AFFRE 3° J petty sessions within twelve months of the birth (or at any later time if he is proved to have contributed to the child's support within twelve months after the birth), and the justices, after hearing evidence on both sides, may, if the mother's evidence be corroborated in some material particular, adjudge the man to be the putative father of the child, and order him to pay a sum not exceeding five shillings a week for its maintenance, together with a sum for expenses incidental to the birth, or the funeral expenses, if it has died before the date of order, and the costs of the proceedings. An order ceases to be valid after the child reaches the age of thirteen, but the justices may in the order direct the payments to be continued until the child is sixteen years of age. An appeal to quarter sessions is open to the defendant, and a further appeal on questions of law to the King's Bench by rule nisi or certiorari. Should the child after- wards become chargeable to the parish, the sum due by the father may be received by the parish officer. When a bastard child, whose mother has not obtained an order, becomes chargeable to the parish, the guardians may proceed against the putative father for a contribution. Any woman who is single, a widow, or a married woman living apart from her husband, may make an application for a summons, and it is immaterial where the child is begotten, provided it is born in England. • An application for a summons may be made before the birth of the child, but in this case the statement of the mother must be in the form of a sworn deposition. The defendant must be over fourteen years of age. No agreement on the part of the woman to take a sum down in discharge of the liability of the father is a bar to the making of an affiliation order. In the case of twins it is usual to make separate applications and obtain separate summonses. The Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879 makes due provision for the enforcement of an order of affiliation. In the case of soldiers an affiliation order cannot be enforced in the usual way, but by the Army Act 1881, if an order has been made against a soldier of the regular forces, and a copy of such order be sent to the secretary of state, he may order a portion of the soldier's pay to be retained. There is no such special legislation with regard to sailors in the royal navy. In the British colonies, and in the states of the United States (with the exception of California, Idaho, Missouri, Oregon, Texas and Utah), there is some procedure (usually termed filiation) akin to that described above, by means of which a mother can obtain a contribution to the support of her illegitimate child from the putative father. The amount ordered to be paid may subsequently be increased or diminished (1905; 94 N.Y. Supplt. 372). On the continent of Europe, however, the legis- lation of the various countries differs rather widely. France, Belgium, Holland, Italy, Russia, Servia and the canton of Geneva provide no means of inquiry into the paternity of an illegitimate child, and consequently all support of the child falls upon the mother; on the other hand, Germany, Austria, Norway, Sweden, Denmark and the majority of the Swiss cantons pro- vide for an inquiry into the paternity of illegitimate children, and the law casts a certain amount of responsibility upon the father. Affiliation, in France, is a term applied to a species of adoption by which the person adopted succeeds equally with other heirs to the acquired, but not to the inherited, property of the deceased. (See Adoption. Also Bastard; Poor Laws.) Authorities. — Saunders, Law and Practice of Orders of Affilia- tion; Lushington, Law of Affiliation and Bastardy; Little, Poor Law Statutes. (T. A. I.) AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from affinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary), in law, as distinguished from consanguinity (q.v.), the term applied to the relation which each party to a marriage, the husband and wife, bears to the kindred of the other. Affinity is usually de- scribed as of three kinds. (1) Direct: that relationship which subsists between the husband and his wife's relations by blood or between the wife and the husband's relations by blood. The marriagehaving made them one person, the blood relations of each are held as related by affinity in the same degree to the one spouse as by consanguinity to the other. But the relation is only with the married parties themselves, and does not bring those in affinity with them in affinity with each other; so a wife's sister has no affinity to her husband's brother. This is (2) Secondary affinity. (3) Collateral affinity is the relationship subsisting between the husband and the relations of his wife's relations. The subject is chiefly important from the matrimonial prohibi- tions by which the canon law has restricted relations by affinity. Taking the table of degrees within which marriage is prohibited on account of consanguinity, the rule has been thus extended to affinity, so that wherever relationship to a man himself would be a bar to marriage, relationship to his deceased wife will be the same bar, and vice versa on the husband's decease. Briefly, direct affinity is a bar to marriage. This rule has been founded chiefly on interpretations of the eighteenth chapter of Leviticus. Formerly by law in England, marriages within the degrees of affinity were not absolutely null, but they were liable to be annulled by ecclesiastical process during the lives of both parties; in other words, the incapacity was only a canonical, not a civil, disability. By the Marriage Act 1835 all marriages of this kind not disputed before the passing of the act were declared absolutely valid, while all subsequent to it were declared null. This rendered null in England, and not merely voidable, a marriage with a deceased wife's sister or niece. (See Consan- guinity; Marriage.) AFFINITY, CHEMICAL, the property or relation in virtue of which dissimilar substances are capable of entering into chemi- cal combination with each other. (See Chemistry; Chemical Action; Valency.) AFFIRMATION (from Lat. affirmare, to assert), the declara- tion that something is true; in logic, a positive judgment, the union of the subject and predicate of a proposition; particularly, in law, the solemn declaration allowed to those who conscien- tiously object to taking an oath. (See Oath.) AFFRAY, in law, the fighting of two or more persons in a public place to the terror (a V effroi ) of the lieges. The offence is a misdemeanour at English common law, punishable by fine and imprisonment. A fight in private is an assault and battery, not an affray. As those engaged in an affray render themselves also liable to prosecution for Assault (q.v.), Unlawful Assembly (see Assembly, Unlawful), or Riot (q.v.), it is for one of these offences that they are usually charged. Any private person may, and constables and justices must, interfere to put a stop to an affray. In the United States the English common law as to affray applies, subject to certain modifications by the statutes of particular states (Bishop, Amer. Crim. Law, 8th ed., 1892, vol. i. § 53 s). The Indian Penal Code (sect. 159) adopt j the English definition of affray, with the substitution of " actual disturbance of the peace " for " causing terror to the lieges." The Queensland Criminal Code of 1899 (sect. 72) defines affray as taking part in a fight in a public highway or taking part in a fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place to which the public have access. This definition is taken from that in the English Criminal Code Bill of 1880, cl. 96. Under the Roman Dutch law in force in South Africa affray falls within the definition of vis publica. AFFRE, DENIS AUGUSTE (1793-1848), archbishop of Paris, was born at St Rome, in the department of Tarn, on the 27th of September 1793. He was educated for the priesthood at St Sulpice, where in 181 8 he became professor of dogmatic theology. After filling a number of ecclesiastical offices, he was elevated to the archbishopric of Paris in 1840. Though opposed to the government of Louis Philippe, he took no part in politics, but devoted himself to his pastoral work. His episcopate, however, is chiefly remembered owing to its tragic close. During the insurrection of June 1848 the archbishop was led to believe that by his personal interference peace might be restored between the soldiery and the insurgents. Accordingly, in spite of the warning of General Cavaignac, he mounted the barricade at the entrance to the Faubourg St Antoine, bearing a green branch as sign of peace. He had spoken only a few words, however, when the insurgents, hearing some shots, and fancying they 302 AFFREIGHTMENT were betrayed, opened fire upon the national guard, and the archbishop fell, struck by a stray bullet. He was removed to his palace, where he died on the 27th of June 1848. Next day the National Assembly issued a decree expressing their great sorrow on account of his death; and the public funeral on the 7th of July was one of the most striking spectacles of its kind. The archbishop wrote several treatises of considerable value, including an Essai sur les hiProglyphes egyptiens (Paris, 1834), in which he showed that Champollion's system was insufficient to explain the hieroglyphics. See Ricard, Les grands eveques de I'eglise de France au XIXe Steele (Lille, 1893); L. Alazard, Denis- Auguste Affre, archevique de Paris (Paris, 1905). AFFREIGHTMENT (from "freight," q.v.). Contract of Affreightment is the expression usually employed to describe the contract between a shipowner and some other person called the freighter, by which the shipowner agrees to carry goods of the freighter in his ship, or to give to the freighter the use of the whole or part of the cargo-carrying space of the ship for the carriage of his goods on a specified voyage or voyages or for a specified time; the freighter on his part agreeing to pay a specified price, called " freight," for the carriage of the goods or the use of the ship. A ship may be let like a house to some person who takes possession and control of it for a specified term. The ..person who hires a ship in this way occupies during the currency of his term the position of shipowner. The contract by which a ship is so let may be called a charter-party; but it is not, properly speaking, a contract of affreightment, and is mentioned here only because it is necessary to remember the distinction between a charter-party of this kind, .which is some- times called a demise of the ship, and a charter-party which is a form of contract of affreightment, as will hereinafter appear. The law with regard to the contract of affreightment is, of course, a branch of the general law of contract. The rights and obligations of the shipowner and the freighter depend, as in the case of all parties to contracts, upon the terms of the agreement entered into between them. The law, however, interferes to some extent in regulating the effect to be given to contracts. Certain contracts are forbidden by the law, and being illegal are, therefore, incapable of enforcement. The most important example of illegality in the case of contracts of affreightment is when the contract involves trading with an enemy. The law interferes again with regard to the interpretation of the contract. The meaning to be given to the words of the contract, or, in other words, its construction, when a dispute arises about it, must be determined by the judge or court. The result is, that certain more or less common clauses in contracts of affreightment have come before the courts for construction, and the decisions in these cases are treated practically, though not perhaps quite logically, as rules of law determining the sense to be put upon certain forms of expression in common use in shipping contracts. A third way in which the law interferes is by laying down certain rules by which the rights of the parties are to be regulated in the absence of any express stipulation with regard to the matter dealt with by such rules. This is done either by statutory enactment, as by that part- (Part VIII.) of the Merchant Shipping Act 1894 which deals with the liability of shipowners; or by established rules of the unwritten law, the " common law " as it is called, as, for instance, the rule that the common 0/ law. carrier is absolutely responsible for the safe delivery of the goods carried, unless it is prevented by t v c act of God or the king's enemies. These rules of law, whether common law or statute law, regulating the obligations of carriers of goods by sea, are of most importance in cases which are uncommon though not unknown at the present day, in which there is an affreightment without any written agreement of any kind. It will, therefore, be convenient to consider first cases of this kind where there is no express agreement, oral or written, except as to the freight and destination of the goods, and where, conse- quently, the rights and obligations of the parties as to all other terms of carriage depend wholly upon the rules of law, remember- ing always that these same rules apply when there is a written contract, except in so far as they are qualified or negatived by the terms of such contract. The rules of the common or ancient customary law of England with.regard to the carriage of goods were no doubt first considered by the courts and established with regard to the carriage of goods by common carriers on land. These rules were applied to common carriers by water, and it may now be taken to be the general rule that shipowners who carry goods by sea are by the English law subject to the liabilities of common carriers. (See, as to the grounds and precise extent of this doctrine, the judg- ments in Liver Alkali Company v. Johnson (1874), L.R., 9 Ex. 338, and Nugent v. Smith (1876) 1 C.P.D. 423.) In practice goods are not often shipped without a written contract or acknowledgment of the terms upon which they are to be carried. For each separate consignment or parcel of goods shipped a bill of lading is almost invariably given, and when a whole cargo is agreed to be carried the terms are set out in a document called a charter-party, signed by or on behalf of the shipowner on the one part, and the shipper, who is called the charterer, on the other part. But at present we are considering the relations of shipowner and shipper independently of any express contract, as in a case when goods are shipped and received to be carried to the place to which the ship is bound for a certain freight, but without any further agreement as to the terms of carriage. In such a case the rights of the parties depend on the rules of law, or, which is much the same thing, upon the warranties or promises which though not expressed must, as the l " f *'™* courts have held, be implied as arising from the relation contract between the parties as shipper and carrier. The obli- gations on the one side and the other may be defined shortly to be as follows: — The shipper must not ship goods of a nature or in a condition which he knows, or ought, if he used reasonable care, to know to be dangerous to the ship, or to other goods, unless the shipowner has notice of or has sufficient opportunity to observe their dangerous character. The shipper must be prepared, without notice from the shipowner, to take delivery of his goods with reasonable despatch on the arrival of the ship at the place of destination, being ready there to discharge in some usual discharging place. The shipper must pay the agreed freight, and will not be entitled to claim delivery until the freight has been paid. In other words, the shipowner has a lien on the goods carried for the freight payable in respect of the carriage. On the other hand, the obligation upon the shipowner is first and foremost to deliver safely at their destination the goods shipped, and this obligation is, by the common law, subject to this exception only that the shipowner is not liable for loss or damage caused by the act of God or the king's enemies; but by statute (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, Part VIII.) it is further qualified to this extent that the shipowner is not liable for loss, happening without his actual fault or privity, by fire on board the ship, or by the robbery or embezzlement of or making away with gold or silver or jewellery, the true nature and value of which have not been declared in writing at the time of shipment; and, further, the shipowner is not liable for damage to or loss of goods or merchandise beyond an aggregate amount, not exceeding eight pounds per ton for each ton of the ship's tonnage. The shipowner is bound by an implied undertaking, or, in other words, is made responsible by the law as if he had entered into an express undertaking: (1) that the ship is seaworthy; (2) that she shall proceed upon the voyage with reasonable despatch, and shall not deviate without necessity from the usual course of the voyage. It is not our purpose in this article to discuss minute or doubtful questions; but in their general outline the obligations of shipper and shipowner, where no terms of carriage have been agreed, except as to the freight and destination of the goods, are such as have been described above. The importance of appreciating clearly this view of the relations of shipper and shipowner arises from the fact that these fundamental rules apply to all contracts of affreightment, whether by bill of lading, charter-party or otherwise, except in so far as they are modified or negatived by the express terms of the contract. AFFREIGHTMENT 303 Bills of Lading. The document signed by the master or agent for the ship- owner, by which are acknowledged the shipment of a parcel of goods and the terms upon which it is to be carried, is called a Bill of Lading. Very many different forms of bills of lading are used. For the purpose of illustration the following form (from Mr Scrutton's book on Charier-parties and Bills of Lading) has been selected as a sample: — Shipped, in apparent good order and condition by in and upon the good Vessel called the now lying in the port of and bound for , with liberty to call at any ports in any order, to sail without Pilots, and to tow and assist Vessels in dis- tress, and to deviate for the purpose of saving life or property ; and to be delivered in the like good order and condition at the afore- said port of unto or to his or their assigns, freight and all other conditions as per Charter Party. The act of God, perils of the sea, fire, barratry of the Master and Crew, enemies, pirates, and thieves, arrests, and restraints of princes, rulers, and people, collisions; stranding, and other accidents of navigation excepted, even when occasioned by negligence, default, or error in judgment of the Pilot, Master, Mariners, or other servants of the Shipowners. Ship not answerable for losses through explosion, bursting of boilers, breakage of shafts, or any latent defect in the machinery or hull, not resulting from want of due diligence by the Owners of the Ship, or any of them, or by the Ship's Husband or Manager. General Average payable according to York-Antwerp Rules. In Witness whereof, the Master or Agent of the said Ship hath affirmed to three Bills of Lading, all of this tenor and date, drawn as first, second and third, one of which Bills being accomplished, the others to stand void. Dated in this day of 188 . The bill of lading is an acknowledgment of the shipment of- goods in a named vessel for carriage to a specified destination on terms set forth in the document. It is usually signed by the master of the vessel, but very commonly by the agents of the shipowner or sometimes of the charterers of the vessel. A vessel may be employed by its owners to earn freight in various ways: (1) It may be placed, as it is said, on the berth as a general ship, to receive cargo from any shippers who may desire to send goods to the port, or one of the ports, to which the vessel is bound. The mate or chief officer usually superintends the load- ing, and, as goods are shipped, a mate's receipt is given as an acknowledgment of the shipment. The mate's receipt is after- wards exchanged for the bill of lading. In the case of a shipment by a general ship the bill of lading is the evidence and memor- andum of the contract between the shipowner and the shipper. (2) A shipper may, however, require the whole cargo space of the vessel to carry, for example, a full cargo of grain. In such a case the vessel will be chartered by the shipowner to the shipper, and the contract will be the charter-party. Even in such a case a bill or bills of lading will usually be given to enable the shipper to deal more conveniently with the goods by way of sale or otherwise. By the ancient custom of merchants recognized and incorporated in the law, the bill of lading is a document of title, representing the goods themselves, by the transfer of which symbolical delivery of the goods may be made. But when a cargo is shipped under a charter-party, although bills of lading may be given to the charterer, it is the charter-party, and not the bills of lading, which constitutes the record of the contract between the parties — of charter-parties we shall treat below. (3) There is a third class of case which is a combination of the two with which we have dealt above. A vessel is very commonly chartered by her owner to a charterer who has no intention to ship and does not ship any cargo on his own account, but places the vessel on the berth to receive cargo from shippers who ship under bills of lading. The charterer receives the bill of lading freight and pays the charter-party freight, his object being of course to obtain a total bill of lading freight in excess of the chartered freight, and so make a profit. The master, although he usually remains the servant of the shipowner during the term of the charter-party, acts nevertheless under the directions and on behalf of the charterer in signing bills of lading. The legal effect of this situation is that shippers who ship goods under bills of lading without knowledge of the terms of the charter-party are entitled to look to the shipowner as the person responsible to them for the safe carriage of their goods. This right depends essentially on the fact that the master who signs the bills of lading, although in doing so he is acting for the charterer, remains nevertheless the servant of the shipowner, who is not allowed to deny as against third persons, who do not know the relations between the charterer and the shipowner, that his servant, the master of the ship, has the ordinary authority of a master to bind his owner by signing bills of lading. The forms of bills of lading vary very much, and their clauses have been the subject of judicial consideration and decision in a vast number of reported cases. The essential particulars, or at all events those common to all bills of lading, may be stated as follows: 1. The name of the shipper. 2. The name of the ship. 3. The place of loading and destination of the ship. 4. A description of the goods shipped. 5. The place of delivery. 6. The persons to whom delivery is to be made. 7. The freight to be paid. 8. The excepted perils. 9. The shipowner's lien. The description of (1) the shipper and (2) the ship calls for no remark. The (3) description of the voyage is important, because there is, as we have already explained, an implied undertaking by the shipowner in every contract of carriage not unnecessarily to deviate from the ordinary route of the voyage upon which the goods are received to be carried. The consequences of a deviation are serious, inasmuch as the shipowner is liable, not only for any ,> loss or damage which the shipper suffers in consequence of the deviation, but for any loss of goods which occurs after the devia- tion, even though such loss is caused by one of the excepted perils. The only exception to this rule is that a deviation may be made to save life, but not to save property. It is, however, very usual to qualify the strictness of this implied undertaking by introducing in the bill of lading certain " liberties " to deviate, as, for example, in the form given above, " liberty to call at any ports in any order, to tow and assist vessels in distress, and to deviate for the purpose of saving life and property." The nature and extent of the liberty will depend on the words of the contract. The inclination of English courts has been to construe clauses giving a liberty to deviate somewhat strictly against the ship- owner. The (4) importance of the description of the goods shipped and their condition is obvious, as the contract is to deliver them as described and in the like good condition, subject, of course, to the exceptions. It must, moreover, be noted that, as against the master or person who has himself signed the bill of lading, the statement therein of the goods shipped is absolutely con- clusive. But as against the shipowner, unless he has himself signed the bill of lading, the statement of the goods shipped is not conclusive. It is evidence as against him that the goods described were shipped, but he is allowed to rebut this evidence by proving, if he can, that the goods mentioned, or some of them, were not in fact shipped. As to (5) the place of delivery, very serious questions frequently arise. Primarily, of course, the shipowner is bound to deliver at the place named. Should he be prevented by some obstacle or difficulty which is of a temporary nature, the vessel must wait, and delivery must be made as soon as possible. Where, however, the obstacle is permanent, or at all events such as must cause unreasonable delay, having regard to the nature of the adventure, the shipowner is excused from delivery at the place named in the bill of lading, provided the difficulty arises from an excepted peril, or in consequence of delivery at the place named being forbidden by the law of England, as may happen, for example, in the case of a declaration of war between Great Britain and the state in which the port named in the bill of lading is situate. A party to a contract cannot be held liable for break- ing his contract if its performance' has become illegal. There may be other cases in which, from the circumstances of the voyage and adventure, it must be inferred that the parties intended the performance of the contract to be conditional ori 3°4 AFFREIGHTMENT the existence at the time of performance of a certain state of things, the non-existence of which would render performance impossible. For instance, if the port named in the bill of lading became permanently closed and inaccessible to shipping in consequence of an earthquake, it would probably be held that the continued existence of the place named as a port was an implied condition of the contract, and that the shipowner was excused. Where, however, the performance of the contract remains lawful, and is not excused by the express terms of the contract, or by some implied condition, the shipowner is liable for any loss or damage suffered by the shipper by reason of his goods not being delivered at the named place, even though such delivery has become impossible. There is another reason why the precise description of the place of delivery often becomes important. It is only on the arrival of the ship at the place described as the place of delivery that the obligation of the consignee of the goods to take delivery commences. Delay in- volves considerable loss and expense to the shipowner. The shipper or consignee is not responsible for any delay which occurs before the ship has arrived at the place of delivery described in the bill of lading. (6) The goods may be deliverable by the terms of the bill of lading to a named consignee, and to him only, "but more usually they are made deliverable to the " order or assigns " of the named consignee or of the shipper. If the goods are made deliverable to order or assigns the bill of lading is a negotiable instrument, or, in other words, the right to the goods, and the rights and liabilities under the contract contained in the bill of lading, may be transferred by indorsement and delivery of the document. When an indorsement has once been made by the shipper or consignee writing his name and nothing more on the back of the bill of lading, the rights in and under it may be trans- ferred from hand to hand by mere delivery. A bill of lading so indorsed is said to be indorsed " in blank." But the shipper or consignee may restrict the negotiability of the bill of lading by indorsing it not " in blank," but with a direction requiring delivery to be made to a particular person or indorsee, or to his order. This is called an indorsement " in full." When an in- dorsement has been made " in full " to a named indorsee or order, such indorsee must again indorse " in blank " or " in full " to effect a new transfer of the rights in the bill of lading. (7) The amount or rate of freight payable is stated in the bill of lading, either expressly, or, not uncommonly when the freight under the bill of lading is the same as under the charter-party, by reference to the charter-party. A common form of such reference is " freight and other conditions, as per charter-party." It may here be mentioned that this form of words does not in- corporate in the contract under the bill of lading all the terms and conditions of the charter-party, but only those which apply to the person who is to take delivery, and relate to matters ejusdem generis, or similar to the payment of freight, such as demurrage and the like. The conditions of the charter-party thus incorporated do not include, for 'instance, the exceptions in the charter-party so as to add them to the exceptions in the bill of lading. Freight, unless it is otherwise provided by the contract, is payable only on delivery of the goods at their destination. If the voyage is interrupted and its completion becomes impossible, the shipowner cannot claim payment of freight even pro rata itineris. He loses his freight altogether. This is so even when the completion of the voyage is prevented by causes for which the shipowner is not responsible, such as the act of God or the king's enemies, or perils which are within the express exceptions in the bill of lading. When the voyage is interrupted by accident, and indeed in any case, the goods may, by agreement between the shipowner and the consignee, be delivered at some place short of their destination upon payment of a freight pro rata; that is to say, proportional to the length of voyage accomplished, and such an agreement may be implied in certain circumstances from the conduct of the consignee in taking delivery before they arrive at their destination. In all such cases it will be a question of fact whether the goods were in fact delivered upon the terms, express or implied, that freight pro rata should be paid. As a rule such an agreement would not be implied where the shipowner is unable or unwilling to forward the goods to their destination, and the owner of the goods, therefore, has no option but to take delivery where offered. When the ship is disabled and cannot proceed, or she is pre- vented by some obstacle from proceeding to the place of delivery named in the bill of lading, and the shipowner is unwilling or unable to forward the goods by another ship, even though he may be excused for his failure to carry the goods to their destina- tion, he is not entitled to be paid any part of the freight; and the consignee is entitled to have the goods delivered to him either at the place where the vessel has taken refuge in her disabled condition, or, if the obstacle arises without disablement of the vessel, at the place which is nearest and most reasonably convenient at the time and in the circumstances when the further prosecution of the voyage has to be abandoned. On the other hand, after the goods have been shipped, so long as the shipowner is ready and willing to carry the goods to their destina- tion, or, if the ship is disabled, to forward them to their destina- tion by some other ship without unreasonable delay, the owner of the goods cannot require the goods to be delivered to him at any place short of their destination without payment of the full freight. Sometimes the freight, either wholly or in part, is made payable in advance. If freight payable in advance has become due, even though the ship is lost before it is paid, it must, in the absence of some special provision to the contrary, still be paid, and freight already paid in advance does not become repayable because the goods do not reach their destination. If, however, goods upon which freight has been paid in advance are lost, and the shipowner is liable for their loss, the amount of freight paid in advance must be taken into account in assessing the damage recoverable from the shipowner. (8) There is no part of the bill of lading which is of greater practical importance or which demands more careful considera- tion by shipowner and shipper alike than that which sets forth the excepted perils: those perils, or in other words causes of loss, for which the shipowner is to be exempt from liability. By the common law, as we have seen, the exemption of the carrier, apart from express contract, extended only to loss by the act of God or the king's enemies. The expression " act of God " requires a word of explanation. It will be sufficient to say that it is not synonymous with force majeure; but it includes every loss by force majeure in which human agency, by act or negligence, has had no part. The list of excepted perils varies much in different forms of bills of lading. In the older forms it usually included perils of the seas, robbers and pirates, restraint of princes and rulers, fire and barratry (that is, wilful wrong- doing) of the master and crew. The list, however, has grown in modern times, and is still growing; the tendency being to exempt the shipowner from liability for all loss which does not arise from his own personal default, or from the negligence of his managers or agents in failing to provide a vessel seaworthy and fit for the voyage at its commencement. It is important to point out in this connexion that there are two duties which the shipowner is always presumed to undertake, and which are assumed to be unaffected and unqualified by the exceptions, unless a contrary intention is very clearly expressed by the terms of the contract. In the first place, he undertakes abso- lutely that the ship in which the goods are shipped is fit at the commencement of the voyage for the service to be performed. If during the voyage loss arises even from dangers of the seas or other excepted peril which would not have occurred if the vessel had been seaworthy and fit for the voyage at its commencement, the shipowner is not protected by the exceptions, and is liable for the loss. In the second place, there is an implied undertaking by the shipowner that all reasonable care will be taken by himself, his servants and agents, safely to carry and deliver at their destination the goods received by him for carriage. Should loss or damage occur during the voyage, though the direct cause of such loss or damage be perils of the seas or other excepted peril, still the shipowner cannot claim exemption under the exceptions, if the shipper can prove that the loss or damage AFFREIGHTMENT 3o$ would not have occurred but for the negligence of the master or crew, or other servants of the shipowner. The shipowner, in other words, is bound, with his servants, to use all reasonable care to prevent loss by excepted perils and by any other cause. It must not be supposed that even these primary obligations, which aje introduced into every contract of affreightment not by words but by implication, may not be excluded by the i Pr f ss express terms of the contract. It has now become stlpula- common form to stipulate that the shipowner shall not twos. ^ liable for any loss arising from the negligence of his servants, or that he shall not be liable for loss by the excepted perils even when brought about by the negligence of his servants. And with regard to sea worthiness, it isnot uncommon for the shipownerto stipu- late that he shall not be responsible for loss arising even from the unseaworthiness of the ship on sailing, provided that due care has been taken by the owner and his agents and servants to make the ship seaworthy at the commencement of the voyage. There is indeed no rule of English law which prevents a shipowner from exempting himself by the terms of the bill of lading from liability for damage and loss of every kind, whether arising from unseaworthiness or any other cause whatsoever. In such a case the goods are carried at their owner's risk, and if he desires protection he must obtain it by insurance. In this respect the law of England permits greater freedom of contract than is allowed by the law of some other states. The owners, agents and masters of vessels loading in the United States of America are forbidden by an act of Congress, commonly called the Harter Act, passed in the year 1893, to insert in their contracts of affreightment any clause exempting the shipowner from liability for the negligence of his servants; but it is at the same time enacted that, provided all reasonable skill and care has been exercised by the shipowner to make the vessel seaworthy and fit for the voyage at its commencement, the shipowner shall not be liable for any loss caused by the negligence of the master or crew in the navigation of the vessel, or by perils of the sea or certain other causes set forth in the act. It is now very usual to insert in the bills of lading of British vessels loading in the United States a reference to the Harter Act, incorporating its provisions so as to make them terms and conditions of the bill of lading. The difficulty of construing the terms of bills of lading with regard to the excepted perils, often expressed in obscure and inexact lan- guage, has given rise to much litigation, the results of which are recorded in the law reports. Where such difficulties arise the ques- tion must be, What is the true and natural meaning of the language used by the parties? This question is not governed by the general rules which we have endeavoured to explain; but the words of the contract must always be considered with reference to these rules, which are founded upon the well-established customs of merchants recognized and formulated by the courts of law. (9) The bill of lading sometimes contains a clause as to the shipowner's lien. Without any express provision for it the ship- owner has by the common law a lien for freight. If it is desired to give the shipowner a lien for demurrage (see below) or other charges, it must be expressly provided for. The lien is the right of the shipowner to retain the goods carried until payment has been made of the freight or the demurrage, or other charge for which a lien has been given. The lien may be waived, and is lost by delivery of the goods, or by any dealing with the consignee which is inconsistent with a rfght of the shipowner to retain possession of the goods until payment has been made. The ship- owner may preserve his lien by landing the goods and retaining them in his own warehouse, or by storing them in a public ware- house, subject to the conditions required by the Merchant Shipping Act 1894. Charter-parties. Charter-parties are, as we have already explained, either for a voyage or for a period of time. (1) A charter-party for a voyage is a formal agreement made between the owner of the vessel and the charterers by which it is agreed that the vessel " being tight, staunch and strong, and every way fitted for the voyage," shall load at a certain named place a full cargo either of goods of a specified description or of general merchandise, and being so loaded shall proceed with all possible despatch either to a specified place or-to a place to be named at a specified port of call, and there deliver the cargo to the charterers or their assigns. There are clauses which provide for the amount of freight to be paid and the manner and time of payment; for the time, usually described as lay days, to be allowed for loading and discharging, and for the demurrage to be paid if the vessel is detained beyond the lay days; usually also a clause requiring " the cargo to be brought to and taken from alongside at merchant's risk and expense "; a clause that the master shall sign bills of lading for the cargo shipped either at the same rate of freight as is payable under the charter- party or very commonly at any rate of freight (but in this case with a stipulation that, if the total bill of lading freight is less than the total freight payable under the charter-party, the dif- ference is to be paid by the charterers to the master before the sailing of the vessel); and there is usually what is called the cesser clause, by which the charterer's liability under the charter- party is to cease on shipment of the cargo, the shipowner taking a lien on the cargo for freight, dead freight and demurrage. The charter-party is made subject to exceptions similar to those which are found in bills of lading. There are also usually clauses pro- viding for the commissions to be paid to the brokers on signing the charter-party, the " address " commission to be paid to the agents for the vessel at the port of discharge, and other matters of detail. The clauses in charter-parties vary, of course, inde- finitely, but the above is probably a sufficient outline of the ordinary form of a charter-party for a voyage. What has been said with regard to bills of lading as to the voyage, the place of delivery, the exceptions and excepted perils, and the liability of the shipowner and his lien applies equally to charter- parties. It may be desirable to add a few words on demurrage, dead freight, and on the cesser clause. Demurrage is, properly speaking, a fixed sum per day or per hour agreed to be paid by the charterer for any time during which the vessel is detained in loading or discharging over and above the time allowed, which is, as we have said, usually described as the lay days. Sometimes the number of days during which the vessel may be kept on demurrage at the agreed rate is fixed by the charter-party. If no demurrage is provided for by the charter-party, and the vessel is kept loading or discharging beyond the lay days, the shipowner is entitled to claim damages in respect of the loss which he has suffered by the detention of his ship ; or, if the vessel is detained beyond the fixed number of demurrage days, damages for detention will be re- coverable. Sometimes there is no time fixed by the charter-party for loading or discharging. The obligation in such cases is to load or discharge with all despatch that is possible and reasonable in the circumstances; and if the loading or discharging is not done with such reasonable despatch, the shipowner will be entitled to claim damages for detention of his ship. The rate of demurrage (if any) will generally be accepted as the measure of the damages for deten- tion, but is not necessarily the true measure. When the claim is for detention and not demurrage the actual loss is recoverable, which may be more or may be less than the agreed rate of demurrage. The contract usually provides that Sundays and holidays shall be excepted in counting the lay days, but unless expressly stipulated this exception does not apply to the computation of the period of detention after the lay days have expired. Dead freight is the name given to the amount of freight lost, and therefore recoverable by the shipowner from the charterer as damages if a full and complete cargo is not loaded in accordance with the terms of the charter-party. The cesser clause has come into common use because very fre- quently the charterers are not personally interested in the cargo shipped. They may be agents merely, or they may have chartered the vessel as a speculation to make a profit upon the bill of lading freight. The effect of the clause is that when the charterers have shipped a full cargo they have fulfilled all their obligations, the ship- owner discharging them from all further liability and taking instead a lien on the cargo for payment of all freight, demurrage or dead freight that may be payable to him. It has become an established rule for the construction of the cesser clause that, if the language used will permit it, the cesser of liability is assumed to be co-extensive only with the lien given to the shipowner; or, in other words, the charterers are released from those liabilities only for which a lien is given to the shipowner. The shipowner is further secured by the stipulation already referred to, that if the total freight payable under the bills of lading is less than the full chartered freight the difference shall be paid to the shipowner before the vessel sails. A difficulty which sometimes arises, notwithstanding these precautions, is that although an ample lien is given by the charter-party, the terms ot the bills of lading may be insufficient to preserve the same extensive lien as against the holder of the bills of lading. The shippers under the bills of lading, if they are not the charterers, are not liable for the chartered freight, but only for the bill of lading freight; and unless the bill of lading expressly reserves it, they are not subject to a lien for the chartered freight. The master may guard against this difficulty by refusing to sign bills of lading which do not preserve the shipowner's lien for his full chartered freight. But he is often put into a difficulty by a somewhat improvident clause in- the charter- party requiring him to sign bills of lading as presented. See Kruger v. Moel Tryvan, 1907 A. C. 272. (2) A time charter-party is a contract between the shipowner and charterers, by which the shipowner agrees to let and the 306 AFGHANISTAN charterers to hire the vessel for a specified term for employment, either generally in any lawful trade or upon voyages within certain limits. A place is usually named at which the vessel is to be re-delivered to the owners at the end of the term, and the freight is payable until such re-delivery; the' owner almost always pays the wages of the master and crew, and the charterers provide coals and pay port charges; the freight is usually fixed at a certain rate per gross register ton per month, and made payable monthly in advance, and provision is made for suspension of hire in certain cases if the vessel is disabled; the master, though he usually is and remains the servant of the owner, is required to obey the orders of the charterers as regards the employment of the vessel, they agreeing to indemnify the owners from all liability to which they may be exposed by the master signing bills of lading or otherwise complying with the orders of the charterers; and the contract is made subject to exceptions similar to those in bills of lading and voyage charter-parties. This is the general outline of the ordinary form of a time charter-party, but the forms and their clauses vary, of course, very much, according to the circum- stances of each case. It is apparent that under a time charter-party the shipowner jo a large extent parts with the control of his ship, which is employed within certain limits according to the wish and direc- tions, and for the purposes and profit of, the charterers. But, as we have already explained at the beginning of this article, the shipowner continues in possession of his vessel by his servant the master, who remains responsible to his owner for the safety and proper navigation of the ship. The result of this, as has been already pointed out, is that the holder of a bill of lading signed by the master, if he has taken the bill of lading without knowledge of the terms of the time charter-party, may hold the owner responsible for the due performance of the contract signed by the master in the ordinary course of his duties, and within his ostensible authority as servant of the shipowner, although in fact in signing the bill of lading the master was acting as agent for and at the direction of the time charterer, and not the shipowner. In the language of the ordinary time charter-party the ship is let to the charterers; but there is no true demise, because, as we have pointed out, the vessel remains in the possession of the shipowner, the charterer enjoying the advantages and control of its employ- ment. Where the possession of a ship is given up to a hirer, who appoints his own master and crew, different considera- tions apply; but though the instrument by which the ship is let may be called a charter-party, it is not truly a contract of affreightment. There are certain rights and obligations arising out of the relationship of shipowner and cargo-owner in circumstances of extraordinary peril or urgency in the course of a voyage, rights. which, though not strictly contractual, are well estab- lished by the customs of merchants and recognized by the law. It is obvious that, when a ship carrying a cargo is in the course of a voyage, the master to some extent represents the owners of both ship and cargo. In cases of emergency it may be necessary that the master should, without waiting for authority or instructions, incur expense or make sacrifices as agent not only of his employer, the shipowner, but also of the cargo-owner. Ship and cargo may be in peril, and it may be necessary for the safety of both to put into a port of refuge. There it may be necessary to repair the ship, and to land and warehouse, and afterwards re-ship the cargo. For these purposes the master will be obliged to incur expense, of which some part, such as the cost of repairing the ship, will be for the benefit of the shipowner; part, such as the warehousing expenses, will be for the benefit of the cargo-owner; and part, such as the port charges incurred in order to enter the port of refuge, are for the common benefit and safety of ship and cargo. Again, in a storm at sea, it may be necessary for the safety of ship and cargo to cut away a mast or to jettison, that is to say, throw overboard part of the cargo. In such a case the master, acting for the shipowner or cargo-owner, as the case may be, makes a sacrifice of part of the ship or part of the cargo, in either case for the purpose of saving ship and cargo from a danger common to both. Voluntary sacrifices so made and extraordinary expenses incurred for the common safety are called general average (see Average) sacrifices and expenses, and are made good to the person who has made the sacrifice or incurred the expense by a general average contribution, which is recoverable from the owners of the property saved in proportion to its value, or, in other words, each contributes rateably accord- ing to the benefit received. The law regulating the righls of the parties with regard to such contribution is called the law of General Average. It must, however, be remembered that the owner of the cargo is entitled under the contract of affreightment to the ordinary service of the ship and crew for the safe carriage of the cargo to its destination, and the shipowner is bound to pay all ordinary expenses incurred for the purpose of the voyage. He must also bear all losses arising from damage to the ship by accidents. But when extraordinary expense has been incurred by the shipowner for the safety of the cargo, he can recover such expense from the owner of the cargo as a special charge on cargo; or when an extraordinary expense has been incurred or a volun- tary sacrifice made by the shipowner to save the ship and cargo from a peril common to both, he may require the owner of cargo , to contribute in general average to make good the loss. See Carver, Carriage by Sea (London, 1905) ; Scrutton, Charter- parties and Bills of Lading (London, 1904). (W.) AFGHANISTAN, a country of Central Asia. Estimated area 245,000 sq. m. (including Badakshan and Kafiristan). Pop. about 5,000,000. It is bounded on the N. by Russian Turkestan, on the W. by Persia, and on the E. and S. by Kashmir and the independent tribes of the North- West Frontier of India and Baluchistan. The chief importance of Afghanistan in modern days is due to its position as a " buffer state " intervening be- tween the two great empires of Asiatic Russia and British India. During the last quarter of the 19th century our knowledge of the country was greatly increased, and its boundaries on the N., E. and S. were strictly delimited. The second Afghan war of 1878-80 afforded an opportunity for the extension of wide geographical surveys on a scientific basis. The Russian-Afghan Boundary Commission of 1884-1886 resulted in the delimitation and mapping of the northern frontier. The Durand agreement of 1893 led to the partition of the Pathan tribes on the southern and eastern frontiers. The Pamir Commission of 1895 settled its north-eastern border. Finally the Perso-Baluch Commission of 1904-1905 defined its western face. Beginning with the Persian border at Zulfikar on the Hari Rud river, the boundary between Afghanistan and Russia follows a line roughly parallel to the course of the Paropamisus, and about 35 m. to the north of it, till it strikes the Kushk river in Jamshidi territory at a point which was once known as Chahil Dukteran, but is now the Russian post Kushkinski, and the terminus of a branch railway from Merv. Kushkinski is about 20 m. below the old Jamshidi settlement of Kushk, which is the capital of Badghis. The settlement and the post originally called Kushk must not be confused together. From Kushk- inski the boundary runs north-east, crossing the Murghab river near Maruchak (which is an Afghan fortress) , and thence passes north-east through the hills of the Chul, and the undulating deserts of the Aleli Turkmans, to the Oxus, leaving the valleys of Charshamba and of Andkhui (to which it runs approximately parallel) within Afghan limits. These valleys denote the limits of cultivation in this direction. Throughout all this region the boundary is generally of an artificial character, marked by pillars, but it is here and there indicated by natural features forming local lines of water-parting or water-course. The boundary meets the Oxus at Khamiab at the western extremity of the culti- vated district of Khwaja Salar, and from that point to the eastern end of Lake Victoria in the Pamirs the main channel of the Oxus river forms the northern limits of Afghanistan. (See Oxus.) Eastwards from Lake Victoria the frontier line was determined by the Pamir Boundary Commission of 1895. A part of the little Pamir is included in Afghan territory, but the boundary crosses this Pamir before the great bend northwards of the Aksu takes place, and, passing over a series of crags and un- traversable mountain ridges, is lost on the Chinese frontier in the AFGHANISTAN Doslit o^ *? REGISTA1 b° *"* L <-> p) jf bb° Longiludi East 68° of Grcenw AFGHANISTAN English Miles 5° 100 '.S c Boundary of Afghanistan .Wv snowfields of Sarikol. Bending back westwards upon itself, the line of Afghan frontier now follows the water-parting of the Hindu Kush; and as the Hindu Kush absolutely overhangs the Oxus nearly opposite Ishkashim, it follows that, at this point, Afghanistan is about 10 m. wide. Thus a small and highly elevated portion of the state extends eastwards from its extreme north-eastern corner, and is attached to the great Afghan quadri- lateral by the thin link of the Panja valley. These narrow limits (called Wakhan) include the lofty spurs of the northern flank of the Hindu Kush, an impassable barrier at this point, where the glacial passes reach 19,000 ft. in altitude, and the enclosing peaks 24,000 ft. The backbone or main water-divide of the Hindu Kush continues to form the boundary between Afghan- istan and those semi-independent native states which fringe Kashmir in this mountain region, until it reaches Kafiristan. From near the Dorah pass (14,800 ft.), which connects Chitral with the Panja (or Oxus) river, a long, straight, snow-clad spur reaches southwards, which divides the Kafiristan valley of Bashgol from that of Chitral, and this continues to denote the eastern limits of Afghanistan till it nearly touches the Chitral river opposite the village of Arnawai, 45 m. south of Chitral. Here the Bashgol and Chitral valleys unite and the boundary passes to the water-divide east of the Chitral river, after crossing it by a spur which leaves the insignificant Arnawai valley to the north; along this water-divide it extends to a point nearly opposite the quaint old town of Pashat in the Kunar valley (the Chitral river has become the Kunar in its course southwards), and then stretches away in an uneven and undefined line, dividing certain sections of the Mohmands from each other by hypo- thetical landmarks, till it strikes the Kabul river near Palosi. EmcryWalkcr *ft Thence following a course nearly due south, it reaches Landi Kotal. From the abutment of the Hindu Kush on the Sarikol in the Pamir regions to Landi Kotal, and throughout its eastern and southern limits, the boundary of Afghanistan touches districts which were brought under British political control with the formation of the North-West Frontier Provinces of India in 1901. From the neighbourhood of Landi Kotal the boundary is carried to the Safed Koh overlooking the Afridi Tirah, and then, rounding off the cultivated portions of the Kurram valley below the Peiwar, it crosses the Kaitu and passes to the upper reaches of the Tochi. Crossing these again, it is continued on the west of Waziristan, finally striking the Gomal river at Domandi. South of the Gomal it separates the interests of Afghanistan from those of Baluchistan, which here adjoins the North-West Frontier Province. From Domandi (the junction of the Kundar river with the Gomal) the Afghan boundary marches with that of Baluchistan. (See Baluchistan.) It is carried to the south-west on a line which is largely defined by the channels of the Kundar and the Kadanai to a point beyond the Sind-Peshin terminal station of New Chaman, west of the Khojak range, and then drops southward to Shorawak and Nushki. From Nushki it crosses the Helmund desert, touching the crest of a well-defined mountain watershed for a great part of the way, and, leaving Chagai to Baluchistan, it strikes nearly west to the Persian frontier, and joins it on the Koh-i- Malik Siah mountain, south of Seistan. Two points of this part of the Afghan boundary are notable. It leaves some of the most fanatical of the Durani Afghan people on the Baluch side of the frontier in the Toba district, north of the Quetta-Chaman line of railway; and it passes 50 m. south of the Helmund river, 3 o8 AFGHANISTAN enclosing within Afghanistan the only approach to Seistan from India which is available during the seasons of Helmund overflow. Between Afghanistan and Persia the boundary was defined by Sir F. Goldsmid's Commission in 1872 from the Malik-Siah-Koh to the Helmund Lagoons, and rectified by the Commission under Sir Henry MacMahon in 1903-1905. Beyond these lagoons to Hashtadan it is still indefinite. The eastern limits of Hashtadan had been previously fixed as far north as the Hari Rud river at Toman Agha. From this point to Zulfikar the Hari Rud is itself the boundary. Within the limits of this boundary Afghanistan comprises four main provinces, Northern Afghanistan or Kabul, Southern Afghanistan or Kandahar, Herat and Afghan Turkes- proviaces. tan > together with the minor dependencies of the Ghilzai and Hazara Highlands, Ghazni, Jalalabad and Kafiristan. All these are described in separate articles. The kingdom of Kabul is the historic Afghanistan; the link which unites it to Kandahar, Herat and the other outlying provinces having been frequently broken and again restored by amirs of sufficient strength and capability. The Herat province is largely Persian, while Afghan Turkestan is chiefly Usbeg; and in neither is the sentiment of loyalty to the central government very strong. The bond is geographical and political rather than racial. The geographical divisions of the country are created by the basins of its chief rivers, the Kabul, the Helmund, the Hari Rud and the Oxus. The Kabul river drains Northern Afghanistan, the Hari Rud the province of Herat, and the Oxus that of Afghan Turkestan. Afghanistan is largely a country of mountains and deserts; but there are wide tracts of highly irrigated and most productive country where fruit is grown in such abundance as to become an important item in the export trade. The Afghans are expert agriculturists' and make profitable use of all the natural sources of water-supply. As practical irrigation engineers they are only rivalled by the Chinese. The dominant mountain system of Afghanistan is the Hindu Kush, and that extension westwards of its water-divide which is indicated by the Koh-i-Baba to the north-west of systems. Kabul, and by the Firozkhoi plateau (Karjistan), which merges still farther to the west by gentle gradients into the Paropamisus, and which may be traced across the Hari Rud to Mashad. The culminating peaks of the Koh-i-Baba overlooking the sources of the Hari Rud, the Helmund, the Kunduz and the Kabul very nearly reach 17,000 ft. in height (Shah Fuladi, the highest, is 16,870), and from them to the south-west long spurs divide the upper tribu- taries of the Helmund, and separate its basin from that of the Farah Rud. These spurs retain a considerable altitude, for they are marked by peaks exceeding 1 I ,000 ft. They sweep in a broad band of roughly parallel ranges to the south-west, preserving their general direction till they abut on the Great Registan desert to the west of Kandahar, where they terminate in a series of detached and broken anticlinals whose sides are swept by a sea of encroaching sand. The long, straight, level-backed ridges which divide the Argandab, the Tarnak and Arghastan valleys, and flank the route from Kandahar to Ghazni, determining the direction of that route, are outliers of this system, which geographically includes the Khojak, or Kwaja Amran, range in Baluchistan. North of the main water-parting of Afghanistan the broad syn- clinal plateau into which the Hindu Kush is merged is traversed by the gorges of the Saighan, Bamian and Kamard tributaries of the Kunduz, and farther to the west by the Band-i-Amir or Balkh river. Between the debouchment of the Upper Murghab from the Firozkhoi uplands into the comparatively low level of the valley above Bala Murghab, extending eastwards in a nearly straight line to the upper sources of the Shibarghan stream, the Band-i-Turkestan range forms the northern ridge between the plateau and the sand formations of the Chul. It is a level, straight-backed line of sombre mountain ridge, from the crest of which, as from a wall, the extra- ordinary configuration of that immense loess deposit called the Chul can be seen stretching away northwards to the Oxus — ridge upon ridge, wave upon wave, like a vast yellow-grey sea of storm-twisted billows. The Band-i-Turkestan anticlinal may be traced eastwards of the Balkh-ab (the Band-i-Amir) within the folds of the Kara Koh to the Kunduz, and beyond ; but the Kara Koh does not mark the northern wall of the great plateau nor overlook the sands of the Oxus plain, as does the Band-i-Turkestan. Here there intervenes a second wide synclinal plateau, of which the northern edge is defined by the flat outlines of the Elburz to the south of Mazar-i-Sharif, and immediately at the foot of this range lie the alluvial plains of Mazar Geology. and Tashkurghan. Opposite Tashkurghan the Oxus plain narrows to a short 25 m. On the south this great band of roughly un- dulating central plateau is bounded by the Koh-i-Baba, to the west of Kabul, and by the Hindu Kush to the north and north-east of that city. Thus the main routes from Kabul to Afghan Turkestan must cross either one or other of these ranges, and must traverse one or other of the terrific defiles which have been carved out of them by the upper tributaries of the rivers running northwards towards the Oxus. Probably in no country in the world are there gathered together within comparatively narrow limits so many clean-cut waterways, measuring thousands of feet in depth, affording such a stupendous system of narrow roadways through the hills. After the Hindu Kush and the Turkestan mountains, that range which divides Ningrahar (or the valley of Jalalabad) from Kurram and the Afridi Tirah, and is called Safed Koh (also the name of the range south of the Hari Rud), is the most important, as it is the most impressive, in Afghanistan. The highest peak of the Safed Koh, Sikaram, is 15,600 ft. above sea-level. From this central dominating peak it falls gently towards the west, and gradually subsides in long spurs, reaching to within a few miles of Kabul and barring the road from Kabul to Ghazni. At a point which is not far east of the Kabul meridian an offshoot is directed southwards, which becomes the water-parting between the Kurram and the Logar at Shutargardan, and can be traced to a connexion with the great watershed of the frontier dividing the Indus basin from that of the Helmund. This main watershed retains its high altitude far to the south. There are peaks measur- ing over 12,000 ft. on the divide between the Tochi and the Ghazni plains. So far as we know at present the geological history of Afghan- istan differs widely from that of India. When, somewhere at the commencement of the Cretaceous period, the peninsula of India was connected by land with Mada- gascar and Southern Africa, all Afghanistan, Baluchistan and Persia formed part of an area which was not continuously below sea-level, but exhibited alternations of land and sea. The end of the Cretaceous period saw the beginning of a series of great earth movements ushered in by volcanic eruptions on a scale such as the earth has never since witnessed, which resulted in the upheaval of the Himalayas by a process of crushing and folding of the sedimentary rocks till marine fossils were forced to an altitude of 20,000 ft. above the sea. It was not till the Tertiary age, and even late in that age, that much of the land area of Afghanistan was raised above the sea-level. Then the ocean gradually retired into the great Central Asian depressions. Everywhere there have been great and constant changes of level since that period, and the process of flexure and the formation of anticlinals traversing the northern districts of Afghanistan is a process which is still in action. So rapid has been the land elevation of Central Afghanistan that the erosive action of rivers has not been able to keep pace with that of upheaval ; and the result all through Afghanistan (but specially marked in the great central highlands between Kabul and Herat) is the formation of those immensely deep gorges and defiles which are locally known as daras. One of these, in the Astarab, to the south-east of Maimana, is but 30 yds. wide, and is enclosed between perpendicular limestone cliffs 1500 ft. high. C. L. Griesbach considers that the general outline of the land con- figuration has remained much the same since Pliocene times, and that the force which brought about the wrinkling of the older de- posits still continues to add fold on fcld. The highlands which shut off the Turkestan provinces from Southern Afghanistan have afforded the best opportunities for geological investigation, and as might be expected from their geographical position, the general result of the examination of exposed sections leads to the identification of geo- logical affinity with Himalayan, Indian and Persian regions. The general configuration of the Turkestan highlands has been already indicated. Against the last great fold which terminates this mountain area northwards are ranged the Tertiaries and recent deposits. North of Maimana they form low undulating loess hills, in which most of the Band-i-Turkestan drainage is lost. This wide-spreading loess area, formed partly of wind-blown sand and partly of detritus from the mountains, is known as Chul, and merges into the great plains south of the Oxus river, a great part of which is covered with modern aerial deposits. Beneath this Chul formation the older beds of the outer and Turkestan ranges dip and pass to an irregular out- crop near the banks of the Oxus. Between the Oxus and the hills there has already been formed a rise or flexure in the ground, which extends more or less parallel to the northern edge of the hills, and, shutting in the cultivated area of the plains, arrests all tributaries seeking to effect a junction with theOxus from the south, and leads to the formation of marshes and swamps. This appears to be the beginning of a new anticlinal which has altered the levels of the Balkh plain, and is indicative of those elevating processes which AFGHANISTAN 309 may have been effective within historic times in changing the climate and the agricultural prospects of this part of Central Asia. The Oxus itself is steadily encroaching on its right banks and depositing detritus on the left. No fresh discoveries of minerals likely to be of high economic value to Afghanistan have been made of late years. Such as are known and worked at present have been worked from very ancient times, and their capacity is not likely to develop greatly under the Kabul government. The most important feature in this connexion which was noted by the geologist of the Russo- Afghan Commission is the existence of vast coal beds in northern Afghanistan. In 1903 some coal mines were discovered in the Jagdalak districts. There are no glaciers now to be found in Afghan Turkestan ; but evidences of their recent existence are abundant. The great boulder bed terraces in some of the valleys of the northern slopes of the Ferozkhoi plateau are probably of glacial origin. In the mountains west of Kabul glaciers have retired, leaving the moraines perfectly undisturbed. They are probably contemporary with the older alluvia. (T. H. H.*) The oldest rocks which have yet been identified 1 in Afghanistan occur along the axis of the main watershed, and have been referred Rocks. to t ^ le Carboniferous. At Robat-i-Pai near Herat, for example, there is a dark Productus limestone which seems to be identical with the Product us limestone of the Central Himalayas. These beds are conformably succeeded, along the Central Asian watershed, by a continuous series of strata which apparently repre- sent the Permian, Trias and Jurassic of Europe. They consist of marine beds alternating with freshwater and littoral deposits, together with plant beds and coal-seams of considerable thickness. The lowest beds of this series, which from their position may belong either to the Permian or to the upper part of the Carboniferous, have yielded no recognizable fossils; but they include a conglomerate which closely resembles the boulder bed near the base of the Talchir series in India. The Upper Trias has been definitely identified by the occurrence of Halobia and other fossils; while in the higher beds of the series marine forms belonging to the middle and upper Jurassic have been found. The plant beds occur at several horizons, and among the remains which have been found in them are several forms which occur also in the Gondwana beds of India. There can be no doubt that the series as a v/hole is the equivalent of the Gondwana system, and when the country has been more closely examined the association of marine fossils with Gondwana plants will be of the greatest value in determining the precise homotaxis of the Indian deposits. The Jurassic beds are followed, generally with perfect conformity, by the Cretaceous, which covers a large part of Afghan Turkestan and probably forms the greater part of the ranges which run south and south-west from the principal watershed. The lowest beds consist of red grits which contain Neocomian fossils, while the middle and upper Cretaceous consist chiefly of limestone and chalk. The entire system may be represented in the west, but in the Herat province and in Afghan Turkestan the middle Cretaceous seems to be absent, and it is probable that, as in other regions, the upper Cretaceous covers a much wider area than the lower beds. Tertiary and recent deposits are widely spread, filling most of the valleys and covering the plains of the Helmund. Eocene beds have not yet been proved to exist ; but this is probably owing to the imperfect know- ledge of the country, for the formation is known in Persia, Baluch- istan and the Suliman Hills. The lower part of the Miocene is marine in Herat and Afghan Turkestan; but the upper Miocene is usually of freshwater or estuarine origin. In Afghanistan, as in other regions near the great Eurasian system of folds, the Miocene includes extensive deposits of gypsum and salt. It was during this period that the forces which finally raised the country above the level of the sea began to take effect. The Pliocene consists entirely of freshwater and terrestrial deposits, which were probably laid down at the foot of the rising hills and on the floors of the intervening valleys. As the elevation continued, they were sometimes involved in the folding to which the mountains owe their origin. During this period the gradual desiccation of the country continued, and wind-blown deposits, such as the loess, began to make their appearance. Although volcanic cones are known both in Persia and in Baluch- istan, none have yet been described in Afghanistan itself. There is, however, ample evidence that at several distinct geological periods the region has been the seat of great volcanic activity. According to C. L. Griesbach, basic volcanic rocks are interbedded with the lowest part of the plant-bearing series, and enormous outbursts took place during the Neocomian period. But the most important igneous masses are the great intrusions of syenitic granite and of basic rock which penetrate the Cretaceous beds. These are probably of Eocene or of late Cretaceous age. (P. La.) 1 We owe our knowledge of the geology of Afghanistan almost entirely to the observations of C. L. Griesbach, and a summary of his researches will be found in Records of the Geological Survey of India, vol. xx. (1887), pp. 93-103, with map. Omitting the group of northern routes to India from Central Asia, which pass between Kashmir and Afghanistan through the defiles of Chitral and of the Indus (see passe s, Hindu Kush), the highways of Afghanistan may be classed under two heads: (1) Foreign trade routes, and (2) Internal communications. (1) Of the many routes which cross the frontiers of Afghanistan the most important commercially are those which connect the Oxus regions and the Central Asian khanates with Kabul, and those which lead from Kabul, Ghazni and Kandahar to the plains of India. Kabul is linked with Afghan Turkestan and Badakshan by three main lines of communication across the Koh-i-Baba and the Hindu Kush. One of these routes follows the Balkh river to its head from Tashkurghan, and then, preserving a high general level of 8000 to 9000 f t. , it passes over the water-divides separating the upper tribu- taries of the Kunduz river, and drops into the valley formed by an- other tributary at Bamian. From Bamian it passes over the central mountain chain to Kabul either by the well-known passes of Irak (marking the water-divide of the Koh-i-Baba) and of Unai (marking the summit of the Sanglakh, a branch of the Hindu Kush), or else, turning eastwards, it crosses into the Ghorband valley by the Shibar, a pass which is considerably lower than the Irak and is very seldom snowbound. From the foot of the Unai pass it follows the Kabul river, and from the foot of the Shibar it follows the circuitous route which is offered by the drainage of the Ghorband valley to Charikar, and thence southwards to Kabul. The main points on this route are Haibak, Bajgah and Bamian. It is full of awkward grades and minor passes, but it does not maintain a high level generally, no pass (if the Shibar route be adopted) much exceeding 10,000 ft. That this has for centuries been regarded as the main route northward from Kabul, the Buddhist relics of Bamian and Haibak bear silent witness; but it may be doubted whether Abdur Rahman's talent for roadmaking has not opened out better alternative lines. One of his roads connects Haibak with the Ghorband valley by the Chahardar pass across the Hindu Kush. The pass is high (nearly 14,000 ft.), but the road is excellently well laid out, and the route, which, south of Haibak, traverses a corner of the Ghori and Baghlan districts of Badakshan, is more direct. A third route also passes through Badakshan, and connects Kunduz with Charikar by the Khawlk pass and Panjshir river. The latter joins the Ghorband close to Charikar. The Khawak (11,600 ft.) is not a high pass; the grades are easy and the snowfall usually light. This high road is stated (on Afghan authority) to be kept open for khafila traffic all the year round by the employment of forced labour for clearing snow. It is a recently developed route and one of great importance to Kabul, both strategically and commercially. Routes that pass through the mountain barriers of the frontier between Peshawarandthe Gomaloccur at intervals alongthe western border, and in the northern section of the Indian frontier they are all well marked. The Khyber, Kurram arid Tochi are the best known, inasmuch as all these lines of advance into Afghanistan are held by British troops or Indian levies. But the Bara valley route into the heart of the Afridi Tirah is not to be altogether overlooked, although it is not a trade route of any importance. Between Kabul and Jalalabad there are two roads, one by the Lataband pass, and the other and more difficult by the Khurd-Kabul and Jagdalak passes, the latter being the scene of the massacre of a British brigade in 1842. Between Jalalabad and Peshawar is the Khyber pass (q.v.). The Khyber was not in ancient times the main route of advance from Kabul to Peshawar. From Kabul the old route followed the Kabul river through the valley of Laghman (or Lamghan, as the Afghans call it) over a gentle water-parting into the Kunar valley, leaving Ningrahar and Jalalabad to the south. From the Kunar it crossed into Bajour by one of several open and comparatively easy passes, and from Bajour descended into India either by the Malakand or some other contiguous frontier gateway to the plains of Peshawar. The Kurram route involves the Peiwar and Shutargardan passes (8600 and 10,800 ft. respectively) across the southern extensions of the Safed Koh range, and has never been a great trade route, however suitable as an alternative military line of advance. Trade does not extend largely between Afghanistan and India by the Tochi route, being locally confined to the valley and the dis- tricts at its head, yet this is the shortest and most direct route between Ghazni and the frontier, and in the palmy days of Ghazni raiding was the road by which the great robber Mahmud occasionally descended on to the Indus plains. . Traces of his raiding and road- making are still visible, but it is certain that he made use of the more direct route to Peshawar far more frequently than he did of the Tochi. The exact nature of the connexion between the head of the Tochi and the Ghazni plain is still unknown to us. The Gomal is the great central trade route between Afghanistan and India; and the position, which is held by a tribal post at Wana, will do much to ensure its continued popularity. The Gomal in- volves no passes of any great difficulty, although it is impossible to follow the actual course of the river on account of the narrow defiles which have been cut through the recent conglomerate beds which flank the plains of the Indus. It has been carefully surveyed for a possible railway alignment; and an excellent road now connects 3io AFGHANISTAN Climate. Tank (at its foot) with the Zhob line of communications to Quetta, and with Wana on the southern flank of Waziristan. The Gomal route is of immense importance, both as a commercial and strategic line, and in both particulars is of far greater significance than either the Kurram or the Tochi. (2) Of theinteriorlinesof communication, those which connect the great cities of Afghanistan, Herat, Kabul and Kandahar, are obvi- ously the most important. Between Kabul and Herat there is no " royal " road, the existing route passing over the frequently snow- bound wastes that lie below the southern flank of the great Koh-i- Baba into the upper valleys of the Hari Rud tributaries. It is a waste, elevated, desolate region that the route traverses, and the road itself is only open at certain seasons of the year. Between Kabul and Kandahar exists the well-known and oft-traversed route by Ghazni and Kalat-i-Ghilzai . There is but one insignificant water- parting — or kotal — a little to the north of Ghazni; and the road, although unmade, may be considered equal to any road of its length in Europe for military purposes. Between Kandahar and Herat there is the recognized trade route which crosses the Helmund at Girishkand passes through Farah and Sabzawar. It includes about 360 miles of easy road, with spaces where water is scarce. Thereis not a pass of any great importance, nor a river of any great difficulty, to be encountered from end to end, but the route is flanked on the north between Kandahar and Girishk by the Zamindawar hills, con- taining the most truculent and fanatical clans of all the Southern Afghan tribes. Little need be said of the 65 m. of route between Kandahar and the Baluchistan frontier at New Chaman. It is on the whole a route across open plains and hard, .stony " dasht"— a route which would offer no great difficulties to that railway extension from Chaman which has so long been contemplated. A very con- siderable trade,now passes along this route to India, in spite of almost prohibitive imposts ; but the trade does not follow the railway from New Chaman to the eastern foot of the Khojak. Long strings of camels may still be seen from the train windows patiently treading their slow way over the Khojak pass to Kila Abdullah, whilst the train alongside them rapidly twists through the mountain tunnel into the Peshin valley. The variety of climate is immense, as might be expected. Taking the highlands of the country as a whole, there is no great difference between the mean temperature of Afghanistan and that of the lower Himalayas. Each may be placed at a point between 50° and 6o° F. But the remark- able feature of Afghan climate (as also of that of Baluchistan) is its extreme range of temperature within limited periods. The least daily range in the north is during the cold weather, the greatest in the hot. For seven months of the year (frpm May to November) this range exceeds 30 F. daily. Waves of intense cold occur, lasting for several days, and one may have to endure a cold of 12 below zero, rising to a maximum of 17° below freezing-point. On the other hand the summer temperature is exceedingly high, especially in the Oxus regions, where a shade maximum of 1 io° to 1 20° is not uncommon. At Kabul, and over all the northern part of the country to the descent at Gandamak, winter is rigorous, but especially so on the high Arachosian plateau. In Kabul the snow lies for two or three months; th*e people seldom leave their houses, and sleep close to stoves. At Ghazni the snow has been known to lie long beyond the vernal equinox; the thermometer sinks to io° and 15° below zero (Fahr.); and tradition relates the entire destruction of the population of Ghazni by snowstorms more than once. At Jalalabad the winter and the climate generally assume an Indian character. The summer heat is great everywhere in Afghanistan, but most of all in the districts bordering on the Indus, especially Sewi, on the lower Helmund and in Seistan. All over Kandahar province the summer heat is intense, and the simoon is not unknown. The hot season throughout this part of the country is rendered more trying by frequent dust storms and fiery winds; whilst the bare rocky ridges that traverse the country, absorbing heat by day and radiating it by night, render the summer nights most oppressive. At Kabul the summer sun has great power, though the heat is tempered occasionally by cool breezes from the Hindu Kush, and the nights are usually cool. At Kandahar snow seldom falls on the plains or lower hills; when it does, it melts at once. At Herat, though 800 ft. lower than Kandahar, the summer climate is more temperate; and, in fact, the climate altogether is far from disagreeable. From May to September the wind blows from the N.\V. with great violence, and this extends across the country to Kandahar. The winter is tolerably mild; snow melts as it falls, and even on the mountains does not lie long. Three years out of four at Herat it does not freeze hard enough for the people to store ice; yet it was not very far from Herat, and could not have been at a greatly higher level (at Kafir Kala, near Kassan) that, in 1750, Ahmad Shah's army, retreating from Persia, is said to have lost 18,000 men from cold in a single night. In the northern Herat districts, too, records of the coldest month (February) show the mean minimum as 17° F., and the maximum 38 . The eastern reaches of the Hari Rud river are frozen hard in the winter, rapids and all, and the people travel on it as on a road. The summer rains that accompany the S.W. monsoon in India, beating along the southern slopes of the Himalaya, travel up the Kabul valley as far as Laghman, though they are more clearly felt in Bajour and Panjkora, under the high spurs of the Hindu Kush, and in the eastern branches of Safed Koh. Rain also falls at this season at the head of Kurram valley. South of this the Suliman mountains may be taken as the western limit of the monsoon's action. It is quite unfelt in the rest of Afghanistan, in which, as in all the west of Asia, the winter rains are the most considerable. The spring rain, though less copious, is more important to agriculture than the winter rain, unless where the latter falls in the form of snow. In the absence of monsoon influences there are steadier weather indica- tions than in India. The north-west blizzards which occur in winter and spring are the most noticeable feature, and their influence is clearly felt on the Indian frontier. The cold is then intense and the force of the wind cyclonic. Speaking generally, the Afghanistan climate is a dry one. The sun shines with splendour for three-fourths of the year, and the nights are even more clear than the days. Marked characteristics are the great differences of summer and winter temperature and of day and night temperature, as well as the extent to which change of climate can be attained by slight change of place. As the emperor Baber said of Kabul, at one day's journey from it you may find a place where snow never falls, and at two hours' journey a place where snow almost never melts! The Afghans vaunt the salubrity and charm of some local climates, as of the Toba hills above the Kakar country, and of some of the high valleys of the Safed Koh. The people have by no means that immunity from disease which the bright, dry character of the climate and the fine physical aspect of a large proportion of them might lead us to expect. Intermittent and remittent fevers are very prevalent; bowel complaints are common, and often fatal in the autumn. The universal custom of sleeping on the house-top in summer promotes rheumatic and neuralgic affections; and in the Koh Daman of Kabul, which the natives regard as having the finest of climates, the mortality from fever and bowel complaint, between July and October, is great, the immoderate use of fruit predisposing to such ailments. The term Afghan really applies to one section only of the mixed conglomeration of nationalities which forms the people of Afghanistan, but this is the dominant section known as the Durani. The Ghilzai (who is almost as powerful tl J£ a " as the Durani) claims to be of Turkish origin; the Hazaras, the Chahar-Aimak, Tajiks, Uzbegs, Kafirs and others are more or less subject races. Popularly any inhabitant of Afghanistan is known as Afghan on the Indian frontier without distinction of origin or language; but the language division between the Parsiwan (or Persian-speaking Afghan) and the Pathan is a very distinct one. The predominance of the Afghan in Afghanistan dates from the middle of the 18th century, when Ahmad Shah carved out Afghanistan from the previous con- quests of Nadir Shah and called it the Durani empire. The Durani Afghans claim to be Ben-i-Israel, and insist on their descent from the tribes who were carried away captive from Palestine to Media by Nebuchadrezzar. Yet they also claim to be Pukhtun (or Pathan) in common with all other Pushtu-speaking tribes, whom they do not admit to be Afghan. The bond of affinity between the various peoples who compose the Pathan community is simply the bond of a common language. AFGHANISTAN 3 11 All of them recognize a common code or unwritten law called Pukhtunwali, which appears to be similar in general character to the old Hebraic law, though modified by Mahommedan ordinances, and strangely similar in certain particulars to Rajput custom. Besides their division into clans and tribes, the whole Afghan people may be divided into dwellers in tents and dwellers in houses; and this division is apparently not coincident with tribal divisions, for of several of the great clans at least a part is nomad and a part settled. Such, e.g., is the case with the Durani and with the Ghilzai. The settled Afghans form the village communities, and in part the population of the few towns. Their chief occupation is with the soil. They form the core of the nation and the main part of the army. Nearly all own the land on which they live, and which they cultivate with their own hands or by hired labour. Roundly speaking, agriculture and soldiering are their sole occupations. No Afghan will pursue a handicraft or keep a shop, though the Ghilzai Povindahs engage largely in travelling trade and transport of goods. As a race the Afghans are very handsome and athletic, often with fair complexion and flowing beard, generally black or brown, sometimes, though rarely, red; the features highly aquiline. The hair is shaved off from the forehead to the top of the head, the remainder at the sides being allowed to fall in large curls over the shoulders. Their step is full of resolution; their bearing proud and apt to be rough. The women have handsome features of Jewish cast (the last trait often true also of the men) ; fair complexions, sometimes rosy, though usually a pale sallow; hair braided and plaited behind in two long tresses terminating in silken tassels. They are rigidly secluded, but intrigue is frequent. The Afghans, inured to bloodshed from childhood, are familiar with death, and audacious in attack, but easily discouraged by failure; excessively turbulent and unsubmissive to law or dis- cipline; apparently frank and affable in manner, especially when they hope to gain some object, but capable of the grossest brutality when that hope ceases. They are unscrupulous in perjury, treacherous, vain and insatiable, passionate in vindic- tiveness, which they will satisfy at the cost of their own lives and in the most cruel manner. Nowhere is crime committed on such trifling grounds, or with such general impunity, though when it is punished the punishment is atrocious. Among themselves the Afghans are quarrelsome, intriguing and distrustful; estrange- ments and affrays are of constant occurrence; the traveller conceals and misrepresents the time and direction of his journey. The Afghan is by breed and nature a bird of prey. If from habit and tradition he respects a stranger within his threshold, he yet considers it legitimate to warn a neighbour of the prey that is afoot, or even to overtake and plunder his guest after he has quitted his roof. The repression of crime and the demand of taxation he regards alike as tyranny. The Afghans are eternally boasting of their lineage, their independence and their prowess. They look on the Afghans as the first of nations, and each man looks on himself as the equal of any Afghan. They are capable of enduring great privation, and make excellent soldiers under British discipline, though there are but few in the Indian army. Sobriety and hardiness characterize the bulk of the people, though the higher classes are too often stained with deep and degrading debauchery. The first impression made by the Afghan is favourable. The European, especially if he come from India, is charmed by their apparently frank, open- hearted, hospitable and manly manners; but the charm is not of long duration, and he finds that the Afghan is as cruel and crafty as he is independent. No trustworthy statistics exist showing either present numbers or fluctuations in the population of Afghanistan. Within the amir's dominions there are probably from four to five millions of people, and of these the vast majority are agriculturists. The cultivators, including landowners, tenants, hired labourers and slaves, represent the working population of the country, and as industrious and successful agriculturists they are unsurpassed in Asia. They have carried the art of irrigation to great per- Religiott. fection, and they utilize every acre of profitable soil. Certain Ghilzai clans are specially famous for their skill in the construc- tion of the karez or underground water-channel. The religion of the country throughout is Mahommedan. Next to Turkey, Afghanistan is the most powerful Mahommedan kingdom in existence. The vast majority of Afghans are of the Sunni sect; but there are, in their midst, such powerful communities of Shiahs as the Hazaras of the central districts, the Kizilbashes of Kabul and the Turis of the Kurram border, nor is there between them that bitterness of sectarian animosity which is so marked a feature in India. The Kafirs of the mountainous region of Kafiristan alone are non-Mahom- medan. They are sunk in a paganism which seems to embrace some faint reflexion of Greek mythology, Zoroastrian principles and the tenets of Buddhism, originally gathered, no doubt, from the varied elements of their mixed extraction. Those contiguous Afghan tribes, who have not so long ago been converted to the faith of Islam, are naturally the most fanatical and the most virulent upholders of the faith around them. In and about the centre of civilization at Kabul, instances of Ghazism are com- paratively rare. In the western provinces about Kandahar (amongst the Durani Afghans — the people who claim to be Ben- i-Israel), and especially in Zamindawar, the spirit of fanaticism runs high, and every other Afghan is a possible Ghazi — a man who has devoted his life to the extinction of other creeds. Persian is the vernacular of a large part of the non-Afghan population, and is familiar to all educated Afghans; it is the language of the court and of literature. Pushtu, how- ever, is the prevailing language, though it does not a *d* ua * e seem to be spoken in Herat, or, roughly speaking, west literature. of the Helmund. Turki is spoken in Afghan Turkestan. There is a respectable amount of Afghan literature. The oldest work in Pushtu is a history of the conquest of Swat by Shaikh Mali, a chief of the Yusafzais, and leader in the conquest (a.d. 1413-24). In 1494 Kaju Khan became chief of the same clan; during his rule Buner and Panjkora were completely conquered, and he wrote a history of the events. In the reign of Akbar, Bayazid Ansari, called Pir-i-Roshan, " the Saint of Light," the founder of an heretical sect, wrote in Pushtu; as did his chief antagonist, a famous Afghan saint called Akhund Darweza. The literature is richest in poetry. Abdur Rahman (17th century) is the best known poet. Another very popular poet is Khushal Khan, the warlike chief of the Khattaks in the time of Aurangzeb. Many other members of his family were poets also. Ahmad Shah, the founder of the monarchy, likewise wrote poetry. Ballads are numerous. Education is confined to most elementary principles in Afghan- istan. Of schools or colleges for the purposes of a higher educa- tion befitted to the sons of noblemen and the more £ rfuca< / 01 , wealthy merchants there are absolutely none; but the village school is an ever-present and very open spectacle to the passer-by. Here the younger boys are collected and in- structed in the rudiments of reading, writing and religious creed by the village mullah, or priest, who thereby acquires an early influence over the Afghan mind. The method of teaching is confined to that wearisome system of loud-voiced repetition which is so annoying a feature in Indian schools; and the Koran is, of course, the text-book in all forms of education. Every Afghan gentleman can read and speak Persian, but beyond this acquirement education seems to be limited to the physical development of the youth by instruction in horsemanship and feats of skill. Such advanced education as exists in Afghan- istan is centred in the priests and physicians ; but the ignorance of both is extreme. The government of Afghanistan is an absolute monarchy under the amir, and succession to the throne is hereditary. There are five chief political divisions in the country — namely, Kabul, Turkestan, Herat, Kandahar and Badakshan, ttonand each of which is ruled by a " naib "or governor, who laws. is directly responsible to the amir. Under the governors of provinces the nobles and kazis (or district judges) dispense I justice much in the feudal fashion. There are three classes of 312 AFGHANISTAN Defence. chiefs who form the council or durbar of the king. These are the sirdars, the khans and the mullahs. The sirdars are hereditary nobles, the khans are representatives of the people, and the mullahs of Mahommedan religion. The khan is elected by the clan or tribe. The clannish attachment of the Afghans is rather to the community than to the chief. These three classes of representatives are divided into two assemblies, the Durbar Shahi or royal assembly, and the Kharwanin Mulkhi or commons. The mullahs take their place in one or the other according to their individual rank. The executive officials of the amir have a selected body, called the Khilwat, which acts as a cabinet council, but no member can give advice to the crown without being asked to do so, or beyond the jurisdiction of his own department. The amir, in addition to being chief executive officer, is chief judge and supreme court of appeal. Any one has the right to appeal to the amir for trial, and the great amirs, Dost Mahommed and Abdur Rahman, were accessible at all times to the petitions of their subjects. Next to the amir comes the court of the kazi, the chief centre of justice, and beneath the kazi comes the kotwal, who performs, as in India, the ordinary functions of a magistrate. In large provincial towns there is a punchait, or council, for the trial of commercial cases. There are government departments for the administration of revenue, customs, post-office, military affairs, &c. The general law administered in all the courts of Afghanistan is/ihat of Islam and of the customs of the country, with developments introduced by the Amir Abdur Rahman. The Afghan army probably numbers 50,000 regulars distributed between the military centres of Herat, Kandahar, Kabul, Mazar- i-Sharif, Jalalabad and Asmar, with detachments at frontier outposts on the side of India. Abdur Rahman claimed that he could put 100,000 men into the field within a week for the defence of Herat. In 1896 he introduced a system of semi-enforced service whereby one man in every eight between the ages of sixteen and seventy takes his turn at military training. In this way he calculated that he could have raised 1,000,000 men armed with modern weapons, but his chief difficulty would be money and transport. The pay of the army is apt to be irregular. The amir's factories at Kabul for arms and ammunition are said to turn out about, 20,000 cartridges and 15 rifles daily, with 2 guns per week; but the arms thus produced are very heterogeneous, and the different varieties of cartridge used would cause endless complications. The two chief fastnesses of Northern Afghanistan are Herat and Dehdadi near Balkh. The latter fort took twelve years to build, and commands all the roads leading from the Oxus into Afghan Turkestan. It is armed with naval quick-firing guns, Krupp,Hotchkiss, Nordenfeld and Maxim. The chief cantonment for the same district is at Mazar-i-Sharif, 12 m. from Balkh. Financially, Afghanistan has never, since it first became a kingdom, been able to pay for its own government, public works Finance an( ^ armv - There appears to be no inherent reason why this should be so. Whilst it can never (in the absence of any great mineral wealth) develop into a wealthy country, it can at least support its own population; and it would, but for the short-sighted trade policy of Abdur Rahman, certainly have risen to a position of respectable solvency. Its revenues (about which no trustworthy information is available) are subject to great fluctuations, and probably never exceed the value of one million sterling per annum. They fell in Shere Ali's time to £700,000. The original subsidy to the amir from the Indian government was fixed at 12 lakhs of rupees (£80,000) per annum, but in 1893, in connexion with the boundary settle- ment, it was increased to £1 20,000. Few minerals are wrought in Afghanistan, though Abdur Rahman claims in his autobiography that the country is rich Minerals * n mmes - Some small quantity of gold is taken from the streams in Laghman and the adjoining districts. Famous silver mines were formerly worked near the head of the Panjshir valley in Hindu Kush. Kabul is chiefly supplied with iron from the Permuli (or Farmuli) district, between the Upper Kurram and Gomal, where it is said to be abundant. Iron ore is most abundant near the passes leading to Bamian, and in other parts of Hindu Kush. Copper ore from various parts of Afghanistan has been seen, but it is nowhere worked. Lead is found in Upper Bangash (Kurram district), and in the Shinwari country (also among the branches of Saf ed Koh) , and in the Kakar country. There are reported to be rich lead mines near Herat scarcely worked. Lead, with antimony, is found near the Arghand-ab, 32 m. north-west of Ghazni, and in the Ghorband valley, north of Kabul. Most of the lead used, how- ever, comes from the Hazara country, where the ore is described as being gathered on the surface. An ancient mine of great extent and elaborate character exists at Feringal, in the Ghor- band valley. Antimony is obtained in considerable quantities at Shah-Maksud, about 30 m. north of Kandahar. Sulphur is said to be found at Herat, dug from the soil in small fragments, but the chief supply comes from the Hazara country and from Pirkisri, on the confines of Seistan, where there would seem to be a crater, or fumarole. Sal-ammoniac is brought from the same place. Gypsum is found in large quantities in the plain of Kandahar, being dug out in fragile coralline masses from near the surface. Coal (perhaps lignite) is said to be found in Zurmat (between the Upper Kurram and the Gomal) and near Ghazni. Nitre abounds in the soil over all the south-west of Afghanistan, and often affects the water of the karez or subterranean canals. The characteristic distribution of vegetation on the mountains of Afghanistan is worthy of attention. The great mass of it is confined to the main ranges and their Vegeta- immediate off-shoots, whilst on the more distant and terminal prolongations it is almost entirely absent; in fact, these are naked rock and stone. Take, for example, the Safed Koh. On the alpine ranee itself and its immediate branches, at a height of 6000 to 10,000 ft., we have abundant growth of large forest trees, among which conifers are the most noble and prominent, such as Cedrus Deodara, Abies excelsa, Pinus longijolia, P. Pinaster, P. Pinea (the edible pine) and the larch. We have also the yew, the hazel, juniper, walnut, wild peach and almond. Growing under the shade of these are several varieties of rose, honeysuckle, currant, gooseberry, hawthorn, rhododendron and a luxuriant herbage, among which the ranunculus family is im- portant for frequency and number of genera. The lemon and wild vine are also here met with, but are more common on the northern mountains. The walnut and oak (evergreen, holly-leaved and kermes) descend to the secondary heights, where they become mixed with alder, ash, khinjak, Arbor-vitae, juniper, with species of Astra- galus, &c. Here also are Indigoferae and dwarf laburnum. Lower again, and down to 3000 ft. we have wild olive, species of rock-rose, wild privet, acacias and mimosas, barberry and Zizyphus; and in the eastern ramifications of the chain, Chamaerops humilis (which is applied to a variety of useful purposes) , Bignonia or trumpet flower, sissu, Salvadora persica, verbena, acanthus, varieties of Gesnerae. The lowest terminal ridges, especially towards the west, are, as has been said, naked in aspect. Their scanty vegetation is almost wholly herbal ; shrubs are only occasional ; trees almost non-exist- ent. Labiate, composite and umbelliferous plants are most common. Ferns and mosses are almost confined to the higher ranges. In the low brushwood scattered over portions of the dreary plains of the Kandahar table-lands, we find leguminous thorny plants of the papilionaceous sub-order, such as camel-thorn (Hedysartim Alhagi), Astragalus in several varieties, spiny rest-harrow (Ononis spinosa), the fibrous roots of which often serve as a tooth-brush; plants of the sub-order Mimosae, as the sensitive mimosa ; a plant of the rue family, called by the natives lipdd; the common worm- wood; also certain orchids, and several species of Salsola. The rue and wormwood are in general use as domestic medicines — the former for rheumatism and neuralgia; the latter in fever, debility and dyspepsia, as well as for a vermifuge. The lipdd, owing to its heavy nauseous odour, is believed to keep off evil spirits. In some places, occupying the sides and hollows of ravines, are found the rose bay (Nerium Oleander), called in Persian khar-zarah, or ass-bane, the wild laburnum and various Indigoferae. In cultivated districts the chief trees seen are mulberry, willow, poplar, ash, and occasionally the plane ; but these are due to man's planting. One of the most important of these is the gum-resin of Narthex asafetida, which grows abundantly in the high and dry plains of Western Afghanistan, especially between Kandahar and u ncu ffl. Herat. The depot for it is Kandahar, whence it finds its vgtea „'„,. way to India, where it is much used as a condiment. It durts ot is not so used in Afghanistan, but the Seistan people eat Y atae. the green stalks of the plant preserved in brine. The collection of the gum-resin is almost entirely in the hands of the Kakar clan of Afghans. AFGHANISTAN 3*3 In the highlands of Kabul edible rhubarb is an important local luxury. The plants grow wild in the mountains. The bleached rhubarb, which has a very delicate flavour, is altered by covering the young leaves, as they sprout from the soil, with loose stones or an empty jar. The leaf-stalks are gathered by the neighbouring hill people, and carried down for sale. Bleached and unbleached rhubarb are both largely consumed, both raw and cooked. The walnut and edible pine-nut are both wild growths, which are exported. The sanjit (Elaeaguns orientalis), common on the banks of water- courses, furnishes an edible fruit. An orchis found in the mountain yields the dried tuber which affords the nutritious mucilage called salep; a good deal of this goes to India. Pistacia khinjak affords a mastic. The fruit, mixed with its resin, is used for food by the Achakzais in Southern Afghanistan. The true pistachio is found only on the northern frontier; the nuts are im- ported from Badakshan and Kunduz. Mushrooms and other fungi are largely used as food, especially by the Hindus of the towns, to whom they supply a substitute for meat. Manna, of at least two kinds, is sold in the bazaars. One, called turanjbiri, appears to exude, in small round tears, from the camel- thorn, and also from the dwarf tamarisk; the other, sir-kasht, in large grains and irregular masses or cakes with bits of twig imbedded, is obtained from a tree which the natives call siah chob (black wood), thought by Bellew to be a Fraxinus or Ornus. In most parts of the country there are two harvests, as gener- ally in India. One of these, called by the Afghans bakdrak, or the spring crop, is sown in the end of autumn and Jfjtun reaped in summer. It consists of wheat, barley and a variety of lentils. The other, called pdizah or tirmdi, the autumnal, is sown in the end of spring, and reaped in autumn. It consists of rice, varieties of millet and sorghum, of maize, Phaseolus Mungo, tobacco, beet, turnips, &c. The loftier regions have but one harvest. Wheat is the staple food over the greater part of the country. Rice is not largely distributed. In much of the eastern moun- tainous country bdjra (Holcus spicalus) is the chief grain. Most English and Indian garden-stuffs are cultivated; turnips in some places very largely, as cattle food. The growth of melons, water-melons and other cucurbitaceous plants is reckoned very important, especially near towns; and this crop counts for a distinct harvest. Sugar-cane is grown only in the rich plains; and though cotton is grown in the warmer tracts, most of the cotton cloth is imported. Madder is an important item of the spring crop in Ghazni and Kandahar districts, and generally over the west, and supplies the Indian demand. It is said to be very profitable, though it takes three years to mature. Saffron is grown and exported. The castor-oil plant is everywhere common, and furnishes most of the oil of the country. Tobacco is grown very generally; that of Kandahar has much repute, and is exported to India and Bokhara. Two crops of leaves are taken. Lucerne and a trefoil called shaflal form important fodder crops in the western parts of the country, and, when irrigated, are said to afford ten or twelve cuttings in the season. The komal (Prangos pabularia) is abundant in the hill country of Ghazni, and is said to extend through the Hazara country to Herat. It is stored for winter use, and forms an excellent fodder. Others are derived from the Holcus sorghum, and from two kinds of panick. It is common to cut down the green wheat and barley before the ear forms, for fodder, and the repetition of this, with barley at least, is said not to injure the grain crop. Bellew gives the following statement of the manner in which the soil is sometimes worked in the Kandahar district: — Barley is sown in November; in March and April it is twice cut for fodder; in June the grain is reaped, the ground is ploughed and manured and sown with tobacco, which yields two cuttings. The ground is then prepared for carrots and turnips, which are gathered in November or December. Of great moment are the fruit crops. All European fruits are produced profusely, in many varieties and of excellent quality. Fresh or preserved, they form a principal food of a large class of the people, and the dry fruit is largely exported. In the valleys of Kabul mulberries are dried, and packed in skins for winter use, This mulberry cake is often reduced to Fauna, flour, and used as such, forming in some valleys the main food of the people. Grapes are grown very extensively, and the varieties are very numerous. The vines are sometimes trained on trellises, but most frequently over ridges of earth 8 or 10 ft. high. The principal part of the garden lands in villages round Kandahar is vineyard, and the produce must be enormous. Open canals are usual in the Kabul valley, and in eastern Afghanistan generally; but over all the western parts of the country much use is made of the karez, which is a subterranean aqueduct uniting the waters of several springs, and conducting their combined volume to the surface at a lower level. As regards vertebrate zoology, Afghanistan lies on the frontier of three regions, viz. the Eurasian, the Ethiopian (to which region Baluchistan seems to belong) and the Indo-Malayan. Hence it naturally partakes somewhat of the forms of each, but is in the main Eurasian. Felidae. — F. catus, F. chaus (both Eurasian) ; F. caracal (Eur., Ind., Eth.), about Kandahar; a small leopard, stated to be found almost all over the country, perhaps rather the' cheetah (F. jubatus, Ind. and Eth.); F. pardus, the common leopard (Eth. and Ind.). The tiger exists in Afghan Turkestan. Cantdae. — The jackal (C. aureus, Eur., Ind., Eth.) abounds on the Helmund and Argand-ab, and probably elsewhere. Wolves (C. Bengalensis) are formidable in the wilder tracts, and assemble in troops on the snow, destroying cattle and sometimes attacking single horsemen. The hyena (H. striata, Africa to India) is common. These do not hunt in packs, but will sometimes singly attack a bullock ; they and the wolves make havoc among sheep. A favourite feat of the boldest of the young men of southern Afghanistan is to enter the hyena's den, single-handed, muffle and tie him. There are wild dogs, according to Elphinstone and Conolly. The small Indian fox ( Vulpes Bengalensis) is found ; also V. flavescens, common to India and Persia, the skin of which is much used as a fur. Musielidae. — Species of mungoose (Herpestes) , species of otter, Mustela erminea, and two ferrets, one of them with tortoise-shell marks, tamed by the Afghans to keep down vermin; a marten (M. flavigula, Indian). Bears are two: a black one, probably Ursus torquatus; and one of a dirty yellow, U. Isabellinus, both Himalayan species. Ruminants. — Capra aegagrus and C. megaceros; a wild sheep (Ovis cycloceros or Vignei) ; Gazella subgutturosa — these are often netted in batches when they descend to drink at a stream ; G. dorcas perhaps; Cervus Wattichii, the Indian barasingha, and probably some other Indian deer, in the north-eastern mountains. The wild hog (Sus scrofa) is found on the lower Helmund. The wild ass, Gorkhar of Persia (Equus onager), is frequent on the sandy tracts in the south-west. The Himalayan varieties of the markhor and ibex are abundant in Kafiristan. Talpidae. — A mole, probably Talpa Europaea; Sorex Indicus; Erinaceus collaris (Indian), and Er. auritus (Eurasian). Bats believed to be Phyllorhinus cineraceus (Punjab species), Scotophilus Bellii (W. India), Vesp. auritus and V. barbastellus , both found from England to India. Rodentia. — A squirrel (Sciurus Syriacusf) ; Mus Indicus and M. Gerbellinus ; a jerboa (Dipus teluml); Alactaga Bactriana; Gerbil- lus Indicus, and G. erythrinus (Persian and Indian); Lagomys Nepal- ensis, a Central Asian species. A hare, probably L. ruficaudatus. Birds. — The largest list of Afghan birds that we know of is given by Captain Hutton in the J. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. xvi. pp. 775 seq. ; but it is confessedly far from complete. Of 124 species in that list, 95 are pronounced to be Eurasian, 17 Indian, 10 both Eurasian and Indian, I (Turtur risorius) Eur., Ind. and Eth.; and 1 only, Carpo- dacus (Bucanetes) crassirostris, peculiar to the country. Afghanistan appears to be, during the breeding season, the retreat of a variety of Indian and some African (desert) forms, whilst in winter the avifauna becomes overwhelmingly Eurasian. Reptiles. — The following particulars are from Gray :— Lizards — Pseudopus gracilis (Eur.), Argyrophis Horsfieldii, Salea Horsfieldii, Calotes Maria, C. versicolor, C. minor, C. Emma, Phrynocephalus Tickelii — all Indian forms. A tortoise (Testudo Horsfieldii) appears to be peculiar to Kabul. There are apparently no salamanders or tailed Amphibia. The frogs are partly Eurasian, partly Indian; and the same may be said of the fish, but they are as yet most imperfectly known. The camel is of a more robust and compact breed than the tall beast used in India, and is more carefully tended. The two- humped Bactrian camel is commonly used in the Oxus regions, but is seldom seen near the Indian frontier. Horses form a staple export to India. The best of these, however, are reserved for the Afghan cavalry. Those exported to India are usually bred in Maimana and other places in Afghan 3i4 AFGHANISTAN Turkestan. The indigenous horse is the yabu, a stout, heavy- shouldered animal, of about 14 hands high, used chiefly for burden, but also for riding. It gets over incredible distances at an ambling shuffle, but is unfit for fast work and cannot stand excessive heat. The breed of horses was much improved under the amir Abdur Rahman, who took much interest in it. Generally, colts are sold and worked too young. The cows of Kandahar and Seistan give very large quantities of milk. They seem to be of the humped variety, but with the hump evanescent. Dairy produce is important in Afghan diet, especially the pressed and dried curd called krut (an article and name perhaps introduced by the Mongols). There are two varieties of sheep, both having the fat tail. One bears a white fleece, the other a russet or black one. Much of the white wool is exported to Persia, and now largely to Europe by Bombay. Flocks of sheep are the main wealth of the nomad population, and mutton is the chief animal food of the nation. In autumn large numbers are slaughtered, their carcases cut up, rubbed with salt and dried in the sun. The same is done with beef and camel's flesh. The goats, generally black or parti-coloured, seem to be a degenerate variety of the shawl-goat. The climate is found, to be favourable to dog-breeding. Pointers are bred in the Kohistan of Kabul and above Jalala- bad — large, heavy, slow-hunting, but fine-nosed and staunch; very like the old'double-nosed Spanish pointer. There are grey- hounds also, but inferior in speed to second-rate English dogs. The manufactures of the country have not developed much during recent years. Poshtins (sheepskin clothing) and the many varieties of camel and goat's hair-cloth which, commerce. under the name of " barak," " karak," &c, are manu- factured in the northern districts, are still the chief local products of that part of Afghanistan. Herat and Kandahar are famous for their silks, although a large proportion of the manufactured silk found on the Herat market, as well as many of the felts, carpets and embroideries, are brought from the Central Asian khanates. The district of Herat produces many of the smaller sorts of carpets (" galichas " or prayer-carpets), of excellent design and colour, the little town of Adraskand being especially famous for this industry; but they are not to be compared with the best products of eastern Persia or of the Turkman districts about Panjdeh. The nomadic Afghan tribes of the west are chiefly pastoral, and the wool of the southern Herat and Kandahar provinces is famous for its quality. In this direction, the late boundary settlements have undoubtedly led to a considerable development of local resources. A large quantity of wool, together with silk, dried fruit, madder and asafetida, finds its way to India by the Kandahar route. It is impossible to give accurate trade statistics, there being no trustworthy system of registration. The value of the imports from Kabul to India in 1892-1893 was estimated at 221,000 Rx(or tens of rupees). In 1899 it was little over 217,000 Rx, the period of lowest intermediate depression being in 1897. These imports include horses, cattle, fruits, grain, wool, silk, hides, tobacco, drugs and provisions (ghi, &c). All this trade emanates from Kabul, there being no transit trade with Bokhara owing to the heavy dues levied by the amir. The value of the exports from India to Kabul also shows great fluctuation. In the year 1892-1893 it was registered at nearly 611,000 Rx. In 1894-189511 had sunk to 274,000 Rx, and in 1899 it figured at 294,600 Rx. The chief items are cotton goods, sugar and tea. In 1 898-1 899 the imports from Kandahar to India were valued at 330,000 Rx, and the exports from India to Kandahar at about 264,000 Rx. Three- fourths of the exports consist of cotton goods, and three-eighths of the imports were raw wool. The balance of the imports was chiefly made up of dried fruits. Comparison with trade statistics of previous years on this side Afghanistan is difficult, owing to the inclusion of a large section of Baluchistan and Persia within the official " Kandahar " returns; but it does not appear that the value of the western Afghanistan trade is much on the increase. The opening up of the route between Quetta and Seistan has doubtless affected a trade which was already seriously hampered by restrictions. In the year after the mission of Sir Louis Dane to Kabul in 1905 it was authoritatively stated that the trade between Afghanistan and India had nearly doubled in value. The basin of -the Kabul river especially abounds in remains of the period when Buddhism flourished. Bamian is famous for its wall-cut figures, and at Haibak (on the route between Tashkurghan and Kabul) there are some most ties?" " interesting Buddhist remains. In the Koh-Daman, north of Kabul, are the sites of several ancient cities, the greatest of which, called Beghram, has furnished coins in scores of thousands, and has been supposed to represent Alexander's Nicaea. Nearer Kabul, and especially on the hills some miles south of the city, are numerous topes. In the valley of Jalalabad are many remains of the same character. In the valley of the Tarnak are the ruins of a great city (Ulan Robat) supposed to be the ancient Arachosia. About Girishk, on the Helmund, are extensive mounds and other traces of build- ings; and the remains of several great cities exist in the plain of Seistan, as at Pulki, Peshawaran and Lakh, relics of ancient Drangiana. An ancient stone vessel preserved in a mosque at Kandahar is almost certainly the same that was treasured at Peshawar in the 5th century as the begging pot of Sakya- Muni. In architectural relics of a later date than the Graeco- Buddhist period Afghanistan is remarkably deficient. Of the city of Ghazni, the vast capital of Mahmud and his race, no substantial relics survive, except the tomb of Mahmud and two remarkable brick minarets. A vast and fruitful harvest of coins has been gathered in Afghanistan and the adjoining regions. Bibliography. — Rawlinson, England and PMSsiain the East (1875) ; H. M. Durand, The First Afghan War (1879) ; Wyllie's Essays on the External Policy of India (1875); Elphinstcne, Account of the Kingdom of Kabul (1809); Parliamentary Papers, "Afghanistan"; Curzon, Problems in the Far East ; Holdich, Indian Borderland^ 1901) ; India (1903) ; Indian Survey Reports; Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission (1886) ; Pamir Boundary Commission (1896). (T. H. H.*) History The Afghan chroniclers call their people Beni-Israil (Arab, for Children of Israel), and claim descent from King Saul (whom they call by the Mahommedan corruption Talilt) through a son whom they ascribe to him, called Jeremiah, who again had a son called Afghana. The numerous stock of Afghana were removed by Nebuchadrezzar, and found their way to the moun- tains of Ghor and Feroza (east and north of Herat). Only nine years after Mahommed's announcement of his mission they heard of the new prophet, and sent to Medina a deputation headed by a wise and holy man called Kais, to make inquiry. The deputation became zealous converts, and on their return converted their countrymen. From Kais and his three sons the whole of the genuine Afghans claim descent. This story is repeated in great and varying detail in sundry books by Afghans, the oldest of which appears to be of the 16th century; nor do we know that any trace of the legend is found of older date. In the version given by Major Raverty (Introd. to Afghan Grammar), Afghanah is settled by King Solomon himself in the Sulimani mountains; there is nothing about Nebuchad- rezzar or Ghor. The historian Ferishta says he had read that the Afghans were descended from Copts of the race of Pharaoh. And one of the Afghan histories, quoted by Mr Bellew, relates " a current tradition " that, previous to the time of Kais, Bilo the father of the Biluchis, Uzbak (evidently the father of the Usbegs) and Afghana were considered as brethren. As Mahom- med Usbeg Khan, the eponymus of the medley of Tatar tribes called Usbegs, reigned in the 14th century a.d., this gives some possible light on the value of these so-called traditions. We have analogous stories in the literature of almost all nations that derive their religion or their civilization from a foreign source. To say nothing of the Book of Mormon, a con- siderable number of persons have been found to propagate the doctrine that the English people are descended from the tribes of Israel. But the Hebrew ancestry of the Afghans is AFGHANISTAN 3i5 more worthy at least of consideration, for a respectable number of intelligent officers, well acquainted with the Afghans, have been strong in their belief of it ; and though the customs alleged in proof will not bear the stress laid on them, undoubtedly a prevailing type of the Afghan physiognomy has a character strongly Jewish. This characteristic is certainly a remarkable one; but it is shared, to a considerable extent, by the Kash- miris (a circumstance which led Bernier to speculate on the Kashmiris representing the lost tribes of Israel), and, we believe, by the Tajik people of Badakshan. Relations with the Greeks. — In the time of Darius Hystaspes (500 B.C.) we find the region now called Afghanistan embraced in the Achaemenian satrapies, and various parts of it occupied by Sarangians (in Seistan), Arians (in Herat), Sattagydians (supposed in highlands of upper Helmund and the plateau of Ghazni), Dadicae (suggested to be Tajiks), Aparytae (mountain- eers, perhaps of Safed Koh, where lay the Paryetae of Ptolemy), Gandarii (in Lower Kabul basin) and Paktyes, on or near the Indus. In the last name it has been plausibly suggested that we have the Pukhtun, as the eastern Afghans pronounce their name. Indeed, Pusht, Pasht or Pakht would seem to be the oldest name of the country of the Afghans in their traditions. The Ariana of Strabo corresponds generally with the existing dominions of Kabul, but overpasses their limits on the west and south. About 310'B.c. Seleucus is said by Strabo to have given to the Indian Sandrocottus (Chandragupta), in consequence of a marriage-contract, some part of the country west of the Indus occupied by an Indian population, and no doubt embracing a part of the Kabul basin. Some sixty years later occurred the establishment of an independent Greek dynasty in Bactria. (See Bactria, Media, Eucratides, Menander of India, Euthy- demus, and Persia, Ancient History.) Of the details of their history and extent of their dominion in different reigns we know almost nothing, and conjecture is often dependent on such vague data as are afforded by the collation of the localities in which the coins of independent princes have been found. But their power extended certainly over the Kabul basin, and probably, at times, over the whole of Afghanistan. The ancient architecture of Kashmir, the tope of Manikyala in the Punjab, arid many sculptures found in the Peshawar valley, show unmistakable Greek influence. Demetrius (c. 190 B.C.) is supposed to have reigned in Arachosia after being expelled from Bactria, much as, at a later date, Baber reigned in Kabul after his expulsion from Samarkand. Eucratides (181 b.c.) is alleged by Justin to have warred in India. With his coins, found abundantly in the Kabul basin, commences the use of an Arianian inscription, in addition to the Greek, supposed to imply the transfer of rule to the south of the mountains, over a people whom the Greek dynasty sought to conciliate. Under Heliocles (147 B.C.?), the Parthians, who had already encroached on Ariana, pressed their conquests into India. Menander (126 B.C.) invaded India at least to the Jumna, and perhaps also to the Indus delta. The coinage of a succeeding king, Hermaeus, indicates a barbaric irruption. There is a general correspondence between classical and Chinese accounts of the time when Bactria was overrun by Scythian invaders. The chief nation among these, called by the Chinese Yue-Chi, about 126 B.C. established themselves in Sogdiana and on the Oxus in five hordes. Near the Christian era the chief of one of these, which was called Kushan, subdued the rest, and extended his conquests over the countries south of the Hindu Kush, including Sind as well as Afghanistan, thus establishing a great dominion, of which we hear from Greek writers as Indo-Scythia. (See Yue-Chi.) Buddhism had already acquired influence over the people of the Kabul basin, and some of the barbaric invaders adopted that system. Its traces are extensive, especially in the plains of Jalalabad and Peshawar, but also in the vicinity of Kabul. Various barbaric dynasties succeeded each other. A notable monarch was Kanishka (see India, History) or Kanerkes, whose date is variously fixed at from 58 B.C. to a.d. 125, and whose power extended over the upper Oxus basin, Kabul, Peshawar, Kashmir and probably far into India. His name and legends still filled the land, or at least the Buddhist portion of it, 600 years later, when the Chinese pilgrim, Hsiian Tsang, travelled in India; they had even reached the great Mahommedan philosopher, traveller and geographer, Abu-r-Raihan Muhammad al-Blrunl (see BIruni), in the nth century; and they are still celebrated in the Mongol versions of Buddhist ecclesiastical story. Turkoman Dynasties. — In the time of Hsiian Tsang (a.d. 630- 645) there were both Indian and Turk princes in the Kabul valley, and in the succeeding centuries both these races seem to have predominated in succession. The first Mahommedan attempts at the conquest of Kabul were unsuccessful, though Seistan and Arachosia were permanently held from an early date. It was not till the end of the 10th century that a Hindu prince ceased to reign in Kabul, and it fell into the hands of the Turk Sabuktagin, who had established his capital at Ghazni. There, too, reigned his famous son Mahmud, and a series of descendants, till the middle of the 12 th century, rendering the city one of the most splendid in Asia. We then have^a powerful dynasty, commonly believed to have been of Afghan race; and if so, the first. But the historians give them a legendary descent from Zohak, which is no Afghan genealogy. The founder of the dynasty was Alauddin, chief of Ghor, whose vengeance for the cruel death of his brother at the hands of Bahram the Ghaznevide was wreaked in devastating the great city. His nephew, Shahabuddin Mahommed, repeatedly invaded India, conquering as far as Benares. His empire in India indeed — ruled by his freedmen who after his death became independent — may be regarded as the origin of that great Mahommedan monarchy which endured nominally till 1857. For a brief period the Afghan countries were subject to the king of Khwarizm, and it was here chiefly that occurred the gallant attempts of Jalaluddin of Khwarizm to withstand the progress of Jenghiz Khan. A passage in Ferishta seems to imply that the Afghans in the Sulimani mountains were already known by that name in the first century of the Hegira, but it is uncertain how far this may be built on. The name Afghans is very distinctly mentioned in 'Utbi's History of Sultan Mahmud, written about a.d. 1030, coupled with that of the Khiljis. It also appears frequently in connexion with the history of India in the 13th and 14th cen- turies. The successive dynasties of Delhi are generally called Pathan, but were really so only in part. Of the Khiljis (1288- 1321) we have already spoken. The Tughlaks (1321-1421) were originally Tatars of the Karauna tribe. The Lodis (1450-1526) were pure Pathans. For a century and more after the Mongol invasion the whole of the Afghan countries were under Mongol rule; but in the middle of the 14th century a native dynasty sprang up in western Afghanistan, that of the Kurts, which extended its rule over Ghor, Herat and Kandahar. The history of the Afghan countries under the Mongols is obscure; but that regime must have left its mark upon the country, if we judge from the occurrence of frequent Mongol names of places, and even of Mongol expressions adopted into familiar language. The Mogul Dynasty. — All these countries were included in Timur's conquests, and Kabul at least had remained in the possession of one of his descendants till 1501, only three years before it fell into the hands of another and more illustrious one, Sultan Baber. It was not till 1522 that Baber succeeded in permanently wresting Kandahar from the Arghuns, a family of Mongol descent, who had long held it. From the time of his conquest of Hindustan (victory at Panipat, April 21, 1526), Kabul and Kandahar may be regarded as part of the empire of Delhi under the (so-called) Mogul dynasty which Baber founded. Kabul so continued till the invasion of Nadir Shah (1738). Kandahar often changed hands between the Moguls and the rising Safavis (or Sufis) of Persia. Under the latter it had remained from 1642 till 1708, when in the reign of Husain, the last of them, the Ghilzais, . provoked by the oppressive Persian governor Shahnawaz Khan (a Georgian prince of the Bagratid house), revolted under Mir Wais, and expelled the Persians. Mir Wais was acknowledged sovereign of Kandahar, 7i6 AFGHANISTAN and eventually defeated the Persian armies sent against him, but did not long survive (d. 1715). Mahmud, the son of Mir Wais, a man of great courage and energy, carried out a project of his father's, the conquest of Persia itself. After a long siege, Shah Husain came forth from Ispahan with all his court, and surrendered the sword and diadem of the Sufis into the hands of the Ghilzai (October 1722). Two years later Mahmud died mad, and a few years saw the end of Ghilzai rule in Persia. The Durani Dynasty. — In 1737-38 Nadir Shah both recovered Kandahar and took Kabul. But he gained the goodwill of the Afghans, and enrolled many in his army. Among these was a noble young soldier, Ahmad Khan, of the Saddozai family of the Abdali clan, who after the assassination of Nadir (1747) was chosen by the Afghan chiefs at Kandahar to be their leader, and assumed kingly authority over the eastern part of Nadir's empire, with the style of Dur-i-Dur&n, " Pearl of the Age," bestowing that of Durani upon his clan, the Abdalis. With Ahmad Shah, Afghanistan, as such, first took a place among the kingdoms of the earth, and the Durani dynasty, which he founded, still occupies its throne. During the twenty-six years of his reign he carried his warlike expeditions far and wide. Westward they extended nearly to the shores of the Caspian; eastward he repeatedly entered India as a conqueror. At his great battle of Panipat (January 6, 1761), with vastly inferior num- bers, he inflicted on the Mahrattas, then at the zenith of their power, a tremendous defeat, almost annihilating their vast army; but the success had for him no important result. Having long suffered from a terrible disease, he died in 1773, bequeath- ing to his son Timur a dominion which embraced not only Afghanistan to its utmost limits, but the Punjab, Kashmir and Turkestan to the Oxus, with Sind, Baluchistan and Khorasan as tributary governments. Timur transferred his residence from Kandahar to Kabul, and continued during a reign of twenty years to stave off the anarchy which followed close on his death. He left twenty- three sons, of whom the fifth, Zaman Mirza, by help of Payindah Khan, head of the Barakzai family of the Abdalis, succeeded in grasping the royal power. For many years barbarous wars raged between the brothers, during which Zaman Shah, Shuja-ul- Mulk and Mahmud successively held the throne. The last owed success to Payindah's son, Fatteh Khan (known as the "Afghan Warwick "), a man of masterly ability in war and politics, the eldest of twenty-one brothers, a family of notable intelligence and force of character, and many of these he placed over the provinces. Fatteh Khan, however, excited the king's jealously by his powerful position, and provoked the malignity of the king's son, Kamran, by a gross outrage on the Saddozai family. He was accordingly seized, blinded and afterwards murdered with prolonged torture, the brutal Kamran striking the first blow. The Barakzai brothers united to avenge Fatteh Khan. The Saddozais were driven from Kabul, Ghazni and Kandahar, and with difficulty reached Herat (1818). Herat remained thus till Kamran's death (1842), and after that was held by his able and wicked minister Yar Mahommed. The rest of the country was divided among the Barakzais — Dost Mahommed, the ablest, getting Kabul. Peshawar and the right bank of the Indus fell to the Sikhs after their victory at Nowshera in 1823. The last Afghan hold of the Punjab had been lost long before — Kashmir in 1819; Sind had cast off all allegiance since 1808; the Turkes- tan provinces had been practically independent since the death of Timur Shah. The First Afghan War, 1838-42. — In 1809, in consequence of the intrigues of Napoleon in Persia, the Hon. Mountstuart Elphinstone had been sent as envoy to Shah Shuja, then in power, and had been well received by him at Peshawar. This was the first time the Afghans made any acquaintance With Englishmen. Lieut. Alex. Burnes (afterwards Sir Alex. Burnes) visited Kabul on his way to Bokhara in 1832. In 1837 the Persian siege of Herat and the proceedings of Russia created uneasiness, and Burnes was sent by the governor-general as resident to the amir's court at Kabul. But the terms which the Dost sought were not conceded by the government, and the rash resolution was taken of re-establishing Shah Shuja, long a refugee in British territory. Ranjit Singh, king of the Punjab, bound himself to co-operate, but eventually declined to let the expedi- tion cross his territories. The war began in March 1838, when the "Army of the Indus," amounting to 21,000 men, assembled in Upper Sind and advanced through the Bolan Pass under the command of Sir John Keane. There was hardship, but scarcely any opposition. Kohandil Khan of Kandahar fled to Persia. That city was occupied in April 1839, an( i Shah Shuja was crowned in his grandfather's mosque. Ghazni was reached 21st July; a gate of the city was blown open by the engineers (the match was fired by Lieut., afterwards Sir Henry, Durand), and the place was taken by storm. Dost Mahommed, finding his troops deserting, passed the Hindu Kush, and Shah Shuja entered the capital (August 7). The war was thought at an end, and Sir John Keane (made a peer) returned to India with a considerable part of the force, leaving behind 8000 men, besides the Shah's force, with Sir W. Macnaghten as envoy, and Sir A. Burnes as his colleague. During the two following years Shah Shuja and his allies remained in possession of Kabul and Kandahar. The British outposts extended to Saighan, in the Oxus basin, and to Mullah Khan, in the plain of Seistan. Dost Mahommed surrendered (November 3, 1840) and was sent to India, where he was honour- ably treated. From the beginning, insurrection against the new government had been rife. The political authorities were over- confident, and neglected warnings. On the 2nd of November 1841 the revolt broke out violently at Kabul, with the massacre of Burnes and other officers. The position of the British camp, its communications with the citadel and the location of the stores were the worst possible; and the general (Elphinstone) was shattered in constitution. Disaster after disaster occurred, not without misconduct. At a conference (December 23) with the Dost's son, Akbar Khan, who had taken the lead of the Afghans, Sir W. Macnaghten was murdered by that chief's own hand. On the 6th of January 1842, after a convention to evacuate the country had been signed, the British garrison, still numbering 4500 soldiers (of whom 690 were Europeans), with some 12,000 followers, marched out of the camp. The winter was severe, the troops demoralised, the march a mass of confusion and massacre, and the force was finally overwhelmed in the Jagdalak pass between Kabul and Jalalabad. On the 13 th the last survivors mustered at Gandamak only twenty muskets. Of those who left Kabul, only Dr Brydon reached Jalalabad, wounded and half dead. Ninety-five prisoners were afterwards recovered. The garrison of Ghazni had already been forced to surrender (December 10). But General Nott held Kandahar with a stern hand, and General Sale, who had reached Jalalabad from Kabul at the beginning of the outbreak, maintained that important point gallantly. To avenge these disasters and recover the prisoners prepara- tions were made in India on a fitting scale; but it was the 16th of April 1842 before General Pollock could relieve Jalalabad, after forcing the Khyber Pass. After a long halt there he advanced (August 20), and gaining rapid successes, occupied Kabul (September 15), where Nott, after retaking and dismantling Ghazni, joined him two days later. The prisoners were happily recovered from Bamian. The citadel and central bazaar of Kabul were destroyed, and the army finally evacuated Afghan- istan, December 1842. This ill-planned and hazardous enterprise was fraught with the elements of inevitable failure. A ruler imposed upon a free people by foreign arms is always unpopular; he is unable to stand alont; and his foreign auxiliaries soon find themselves obliged to choose between remaining to uphold his power, or retiring with the probability that it will fall after their departure. The leading chiefs of Afghanistan perceived that the maintenance of Shah Shuja':? rule by British troops would soon be fatal to their own power and position in the country, and probably to their national independence. They were insatiable in tie** AFGHANISTAN 3*7 demands for office and emolument, and when they discovered that the shah, acting by the advice of the British envoy, was levying from among their tribesmen regiments to be directly under his control, they took care that the plan should fail. Without a regular revenue no effective administration could be organized; but the attempt to raise taxes showed that it might raise the people, so that for both men and money the shah's government was still obliged to rely principally upon British aid. All these circumstances combined to render the new regime weak and unpopular, since there was no force at the ruler's command except foreign troops to put down disorder or to protect those who submitted, while the discontented nobles fomented dis- affection and the inbred hatred of strangers in race and religion among the general Afghan population. British and Russian Relations. — It has been said that the declared object of this policy had been to maintain the inde- pendence and integrity of Afghanistan, to secure the friendly alliance of its ruler, and thus to interpose a great barrier of mountainous country between the expanding power of Russia in Central Asia and the British dominion in India. After 1840, when the annexation of the Punjab had carried the Indian north- western frontier up to the skirts of the Afghan highlands, the corresponding advance of the Russians south-eastward along the Oxus river became of closer interest to the British, particularly when, in 1856, the Persians again attempted to take possession of Herat. Dost Mahommed now became the British ally, but on his death in 1863 the kingdom fell back into civil war, until his son, Shere Ali, had won his way to undisputed rulership in 1868. In the same year Bokhara became a dependency of Russia. To the British government an attitude of non-intervention in Afghan affairs appeared in this situation to be no longer possible. The meeting between the amir Shere Ali and the viceroy of India (Lord Mayo) at Umballa in 1869 drew nearer the relations between the two governments; the amir consolidated and began to centralize his power; and the establishment of a strong, friendly and united Afghanistan became again the keynote of British policy beyond the north-western frontier of India. When, therefore, the conquest of Khiva in 1873 by the Russians, and their gradual approach towards the amir's northern border, had seriously alarmed Shere Ali, he applied for support to the British; and his disappointment at his failure to obtain distinct pledges of material assistance, and at Great Britain's refusal to endorse all his claims in a dispute with Persia over Seistan, so far estranged him from the British connexion that he began to entertain amicable overtures from the Russian authorities at Tashkend. In 1869 the Russian government had assured Lord Clarendon that they regarded Afghanistan as completely outside the sphere of their influence; and in 1872 the boundary line of Afghanistan on the north-west had been settled between England and Russia so far eastward as Lake Victoria. Nevertheless the correspondence between Kabul and Tash- kend continued, and as the Russians were now extending their dominion over all the region beyond Afghanistan on the north- west, the British government determined, in 1876, once more to undertake active measures for securing their political ascendancy in that country. But the amir, whose feelings of resentment had by no means abated, was now leaning toward Russia, though he mainly desired to hold the balance between two equally formidable rivals. The result of overtures made to him from India was that in 1877, when Lord Lytton, acting under direct instructions from Her Majesty's ministry, proposed to Shere Ali a treaty of alliance, Shere Ali showed himself very little disposed to welcome the offer; and upon his refusal to admit a British agent into Afghanistan the negotiations finally broke down. Second Afghan War, 1878-80.— In the course of the following year (1878) the Russian government, to counteract the inter- ference of England with their advance upon Constantinople, sent an envoy to Kabul empowered to make a treaty with the amir. It was immediately notified to him from India that a British mission would be deputed to his capital, but he demurred to receiving it; and when the British envoy was turned back on the Afghan frontier hostilities were proclaimed by the viceroy in November 1878, and the second Afghan War began. Sir Donald Stewart's force, marching up through Baluchistan by the Bolan Pass, entered Kandahar with little or no resistance; while another army passed through the. Khyber Pass and took up positions at Jalalabad and other places on the direct road to Kabul. Another force under Sir Frederick Roberts marched up to the high passes leading out of Kurram into the interior of Afghanistan, defeated the amir's troops at the Peiwar Kotal, and seized the Shutargardan Pass which commands a direct route to Kabul through the Logar valley. The amir Shere Ali fled from his capital into the northern province, where he died at Mazar-i-Sharif in February 1879. In the course of the next six months there was much desultory skirmishing between the tribes and the British troops, who defeated various attempts to dislodge them from the positions that had been taken up; but the sphere of British military operations was not materi- ally extended. It was seen that the farther they advanced the more difficult would become their eventual retirement; and the problem was to find a successor to Shere Ali who could and would make terms with the British government. In the meantime Yakub Khan, one of Shere Ali's sons, had announced to Major Cavagnari, the political agent at the head- quarters of the British army, that he had succeeded his father at Kabul. The negotiations that followed ended in the con- clusion of the treaty of Gandamak in May 1879, by which Yakub Khan was recognized as amir; certain outlying tracts of Afghan- istan were transferred to the British government; the amir placed in its hands the entire control of his foreign relations, receiving in return a guarantee against foreign aggression; and the establishment of a British envoy at Kabul was at last con- ceded. By this convention the complete success of the British political and military operations seemed to have been attained; for whereas Shere Ali had made a treaty of alliance with, and had received an embassy from Russia, his son had now made an exclusive treaty with the British government, and had agreed that a British envoy should reside permanently at his court. Yet it was just this final concession, the chief and original object of British policy, that proved speedily fatal to the whole settle- ment. For in September the envoy, Sir Louis Cavagnari, with his staff and escort, was massacred at Kabul, and the entire fabric of a friendly alliance went to pieces. A fresh expedition was instantly despatched across the Shutargardan Pass under Sir Frederick Roberts, who defeated the Afghans at Charasia near Kabul, and entered the city in October. Yakub Khan, who had surrendered, was sent to India; and the British army remained in military occupation of the district round Kabul until in December (1879) its communications with India were interrupted, and its position at the capital placed in serious jeopardy, by a general rising of the tribes. After they had been repulsed and put down, not without some hard fighting, Sir Donald Stewart, who had not quitted Kandahar, brought a force up by Ghazni to Kabul, overcoming some resistance on his way, and assumed the supreme command. Nevertheless the political situation was still embarrassing, for as the whole country beyond the range of British effective military control was masterless, it was undesirable to withdraw the troops before a government could be reconstructed which could stand without foreign support, and with which diplomatic relations of some kind might be arranged. The general position and prospect of political affairs in Afghanistan bore, indeed, an instructive resemblance to the situation just forty years earlier, in 1840, with the important differences that the Punjab and Sind had since become British, and that communications between Kabul and India were this time secure. Reign of Abdur Rahman. — Abdur Rahman, the son of the late amir Shere Ali's elder brother, had fought against Shere Ali in the war for succession to Dost Mahommed, had been driven beyond the Oxus, and had lived for ten years in exile with the Russians. In March 1880 he came back across the river, and began to establish himself in the northern province of Afghan- istan. The viceroy of India, Lord Lytton, on hearing of his 3 i8 AFGHANISTAN reappearance, instructed the political authorities at Kabul to communicate with him. By skilful negotiations a meeting was arranged, and after pressing in vain for a treaty he was induced to assume charge of the country upon his recognition by the British as amir, with the understanding that he should have no relations with other foreign powers, and with a formal assurance from the viceroy of protection from foreign aggression, so,long as he should unreservedly follow the advice of the British govern- ment in regard to his external affairs. The province of Kandahar was severed from the Kabul dominion; and the sirdar Shere AH Khan, a member of the Barakzai family, was installed by the British representative as its independent ruler. For the second time in the course of this war a conclusive settlement of Afghan affairs seemed now to have been attained; and again, as in 1879, it was immediately dissolved. In July 1880, a few days after the proclamation of Abdur Rahman as amir at Kabul, came news that Ayub Khan, Shere Ali's younger son, who had been holding Herat since his father's death, had marched upon Kandahar, had utterly defeated at Maiwand a British force that went out from Kandahar to oppose him, and was besieging that city. Sir Frederick Roberts at once set out from Kabul with 10,000 men to its relief, reached Kandahar after a rapid march of 313 miles, attacked and routed Ayub Khan's army on the 1st of September, and restored British authority in southern Afghanistan. As the British ministry had resolved to evacuate Kandahar, the sirdar Shere Ali Khan, who saw that he could not stand alone, resigned and withdrew to India, and the amir Abdur Rahman was invited to take posses- sion of the province. But when Ayub Khan, who had meanwhile retreated to Herat, heard that the British forces had retired, early in 1881, to India, he mustered a fresh army and again approached Kandahar. In June the fort of Girishk, on the Helmund, was seized by his adherents; the amir's troops were defeated some days later in an engagement, and Ayub Khan took possession of Kandahar at the end of July. The amir Abdur Rahman, whose movements had hitherto been slow and uncertain, now acted with vigour and decision. He marched rapidly from Kabul at the head of a force, with which he en- countered Ayub Khan under the walls of Kandahar, and routed his army on 22nd September, taking all his guns and equipage. Ayub Khan fled toward Herat, but as the place had meanwhile been occupied by one of the amir's generals he took refuge in Persia. By this victory Abdur Rahman's rulership was established. In 1884 it was determined to resume the demarcation, by a joint commission of British and Russian officers, of the northern boundary of Afghanistan. The work went on with much diffi- culty and contention, until in March 1885, when the amir was at Rawalpindi for a conference with the viceroy of India, Lord Dufferin, the news came that at Panjdeh, a disputed place on the boundary held by the Afghans, the Russians had attacked and driven out with some loss the amir's troops. For the moment the consequences seemed likely to be serious; but the affair was arranged diplomatically, and the demarcation pro- ceeded up to a point near the Oxus river, beyond which the commission were unable to settle an agreement. During the ten years following his accession in 1880 Abdur Rahman employed himself in extending and consolidating his dominion over the whole country. Some local revolts among the tribes were rigorously suppressed; and two attempts to upset his rulership — the first by Ayub Khan, who entered Afghanistan from Persia, the second and more dangerous one by Ishak Khan, the amir's cousin, who rebelled against him in Afghan Turkestan — were defeated. By 1801 the amir had enforced his supreme authority throughout Afghanistan more completely than any of his predecessor?. In 1895 the amir's troops entered Kafiristan, a wild mountainous tract on the north-east, inhabited by a peculiar race that had hitherto defied all efforts to subjugate them, but were now gradually reduced to submission. Meanwhile the delimitation of the northern frontier, up to the point where it meets Chinese territory on the east, was completed and fixed by arrangements between the governments of Russia and Great Britain; and the eastern border of the Afghan territory, towards India, was also mapped out and partially laid down, in accordance with a convention between the two governments. The amir not only received a large annual subsidy of money from the British government, but he also obtained considerable supplies of war material; and he, moreover, availed himself very freely of facilities that were given him for the importation at his own cost of arms through India. With these resources, and with the advantage of an assurance from the British government that he would be aided against foreign aggression, he was able to establish an absolute military despot- ism inside his kingdom, by breaking down the power of the warlike tribes which held in check, up to his time, the personal autocracy of the Kabul rulers, and by organizing a regular army well furnished with European rifles and artillery. Taxation of all kinds was heavily increased, and systematically collected. The result was that whereas in former times the forces of an Afghan ruler consisted mainly of a militia, furnished by the chiefs of tribes who held land on condition of military service, and who stoutly resisted any attempt to commute this service for money payment, the amir had at his command a large standing army, and disposed of a substantial revenue paid direct to his treasury. Abdur Rahman executed or exiled all those whose political influence he saw reason to fear, or of whose disaffection he had the slightest suspicion; his administration was severe and his punishments were cruel; but undoubtedly he put down disorder, stopped the petty tyranny of local chiefs and brought violent crime under some effective control in the districts. Travelling by the high roads during his reign was comparatively safe; although it must be added thai the excessive exactions of dues and customs very seriously damaged the external trade. In short, Abdur Rahman's reign produced an important political revolution, or reformation, in Afghanistan, which rose from the condition of a country distracted by chronic civil wars, under rulers whose authority depended upon their power to hold down or conciliate fierce and semi-independent tribes in the outlying parts of the dominion, to the rank of a formidable military state governed autocratically. He established, for the first time in the history of the. Afghan kingdom, a powerfully centralized administration strong enough to maintain order and to enforce obedience over all the country which he had united under his dominion, supported by a force sufficiently armed and disciplined to put down attempts at resistance or revolt. His policy, con- sistently maintained, was to permit no kind of foreign inter- ference, on any pretext, with the interior concerns or the econo- mical conditions of his country. From the British government he accepted supplies of arms and subsidies of money; but he would make no concessions in return, and all projects of a strategical or commercial nature, such as railways and telegraphs, proposed either for the defence or the development of his posses- sions, seem to have been regarded by the amir with extreme distrust, as methods of what has been called pacific penetration — so that on these points he was immovable. It was probably due to the strength and solidity of the executive administration organized, during his lifetime, by Abdur Rahman that, for the first time in the records of the dynasty founded by Ahmad Shah in the latter part of the 18th century, his death was not followed by disputes over the succession or by civil war. Succession of Habibullah. — The amir Abdur Rahman died on the 1st of October 1901; and two days later his eldest son, Habibullah, formally announced his accession to the rulership. He was recognized with acclamation by the army, by the religious bodies, by the principal tribal chiefs and by all classes of the people as their lawful sovereign; while a deputation of Indian Mahommedans was despatched to Kabul from India to convey the condolences and congratulations of the viceroy. The amir's first measures were designed to enhance his popularity and to improve his internal administration, particularly with regard to the relations of his government with the tribes, and to the system introduced by the late amir of compulsory military service, whereby each tribe was required to supply a propor- tionate number of recruits. With this object a council of state AFGHAN TURKESTAN— AFIUM-KARA-HISSAR 3i9 for tribal affairs was established; and it was arranged that a representative of each tribe shcrald be associated with the provincial governors for the adjudication of tribal cases. In the important matter of foreign relations Habibullah showed a determination to adopt the policy of his father, to whom the British government had given an assurance of aid to repel foreign aggression, on the condition that the amir should follow the advice of that government in regard to external affairs. This condition was loyally observed by the new amir, who referred to India all communications of an official kind received from the Russian authorities in the provinces bordering on Afghanistan. But toward the various questions left pending between the governments of India and Afghanistan the new amir maintained also his father's attitude. He gave no indications of a disposition to continue the discussion of them, or to entertain proposals for extending or altering his relations with the Indian government. An invitation from the viceroy to meet him in India, with the hope that these points might be settled in conference, was put aside by dilatory excuses, until at last the project was abandoned, and finally the amir agreed to receive at Kabul a diplomatic mission. The mission, whose chief was Sir Louis Dane, foreign secretary to the Indian government, reached Kabul early in December 1904, and remained there four months in negotiation with the amir personally and with his representatives. It was found impossible, after many inter- views, to obtain from Habibullah his consent to any addition to or variation of the terms of the assurance given by the British government in 1880, with which he professed himself entirely satisfied, so that the treaty finally settled in March 1905 went no further than a formal confirmation of all engagements previously concluded with the amir's predecessor. It was felt in British circles at the time that a very considerable concession to Habi- bullah's independence of attitude was displayed in the fact that he was styled in the treaty " His Majesty "; but, in the circum- stances, it seems to have been thought diplomatic to accede to the amir's determination to insist on this matter of style. But the rebuff showed that it was desirable in the interests both of the British government and of Afghanistan that an opportunity should be made for enabling the amir to have personal acquaint- ance with the highest Indian authorities. A further step, calculated to strengthen the relations of amity between the two governments, was taken when it was arranged that the amir should pay a visit to the viceroy, Lord Minto, in India, in January 1907; and this visit took place with great cordiality and success. The Anglo- Russian Convention, signed on the 31st of August 1907, contained the following important declarations with regard to Afghanistan. Great Britain disclaimed any intention of altering the political status or (subject to the observance of the treaty of 1905) of interfering in the administration or annexing any territory of Afghanistan, and engaged to use her influence there in no manner threatening to Russia. Russia, on her part, recognized Afghanistan as outside her sphere of influence. Authorities. — MacGregor, Gazetteer of Afghanistan (1871); Elphinstone, Account of the Kingdom of Kabul (1809) ; Ferrier, Histor y of the Afghans (1858); Bellew, Afghanistan and the Afghans (1879); Baber's Memoirs (1844); Kaye, History of the War in Afghanistan (1878); Malleson, History of Afghanistan (1879); Heusman, The Afghan War (1881) ; Sir H. M. Durand, The First Afghan War (1879) ; Forbes, The Afghan Wars (1892); Rawlinson, England and Russia in the East (1875); Wyllie, Essays on the External Policy of India (1875) ; A. C. Yate, England and Russia Face to Face in Asia (1887) ; C. E. Yate, Northern Afghanistan (1888); Curzon, Problems of the Far East (1894); Robertson, The Kafir of the Hindu Kush (1896); Holdich, Indian Borderland (1901); Thorburn, Asiatic Neighbours (1895); Lord Roberts, Forty-one Years in India (1898); Lady Betty Balfour, Lord Lytton's Indian Administration (1899); Hanna, Second Afghan War (1899); Gray, At the Court of the Amir (1895); Sultan Mohammad Khan, Constitution and Laws of Afghanistan (1900); Life of Abdur Rahman (1900); Angus Hamilton, Afghan- istan (1906). (H. Y.; A. C.L.) AFGHAN TURKESTAN, the most northern province of Afghanistan. It is bounded on the E. by Badakshan, on the N. by the Oxus river, on the N.W. and W. by Russia and the Hari Rud river, and on the S. by the Hindu Kush, the Koh-i-Baba and the northern watershed of the Hari Rud basin. Its northern frontier was decided by the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1873, and delimited by the Russo-Afghan boundary commission of 1885, which gave rise to the Panjdeh incident. The whole territory, from the junction of the Kokcha river with the Oxus on the north-east to the province of Herat on the south-west, is some 500 m. in length, with an average width from the Russian frontier to the Hindu Kush of 114 m. It thus comprises about 57,000 sq. m. or roughly two-ninths of the kingdom of Afghan- istan. Except in the river valleys it is a poor territory, rough and mountainous towards the south, but subsiding into undulat- ing wastes and pasture-lands towards the Turkman desert, and the Oxus riverain which is highly cultivated. The population, which is mostly agricultural, settled in and around its towns and villages, is estimated at 750,000. The province includes the khanates of Kunduz, Tashkurgan, Balkh with Akcha; the western khanates of Saripul, Shibarghan, Andkhui and Maimana, sometimes classed together as the Chahar Villayet, or " Four Domains"; and such parts of the Hazara tribes as lie north of the Hindu Kush and its prolongation. The principal town is Mazar-i-Sharif, .which in modern times has supplanted the ancient city of Balkh; and TakKtapul, near Mazar, is the chief Afghan cantonment north of the Hindu Kush. Ethnically and historically Afghan Turkestan is more con- nected with Bokhara than with Kabul, of which government it has been a dependency only since the time of Dost Mahommed. The bulk of the people of the cities are of Persian and Uzbeg stock, but interspersed with them are Mongol Hazaras and Hindus with Turkoman tribes in the Oxus plains. Over these races the Afghans rule as conquerors and there is no bond of racial unity between them. Ancient Balkh or Bactriana was a province of the Achaemenian empire, and probably was occupied in great measure by a race of Iranian blood. About 250 B.C. Diodotus (Theodotus), governor of Bactria under the Seleucidae, declared his independence, and commenced the history of the Greco-Bactrian dynasties, which succumbed to Parthian and nomadic movements about 126 B.C. After this came a Buddhist era which has left its traces in the gigantic sculptures at Bamian and the rock-cut topes of Haibak. The district was devastated by Jenghiz Khan, and has never since fully recovered its prosperity. For about a century it belonged to the Delhi empire, and then fell into Uzbeg hands. In the 18th century it formed part of the dominion of Ahmad Khan Durani, and so remained under his son Timur. But under the fratricidal wars of Timur's sons the separate khanates fell back under the independent rule of various Uzbeg chiefs. At the beginning of the 19th century they belonged to Bokhara; but under the great amir Dost Mahommed the Afghans recovered Balkh and Tashkurgan in 1850, Akcha and the four western khanates in 1855, and Kunduz in 1859. The sovereignty over Andkhui, Shibarghan, Saripul and Maimana was in dispute between Bokhara and Kabul until settled by the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1873 in favour of the Afghan claim. Under the strong rule of Abdur Rahman these outlying territories were closely welded to Kabul; but after the accession of Habibullah the bonds once more relaxed. (T. H. H.*) AFIUM-KARA-HISSAR {afium, opium), the popular name of Kara-hissar Sahib, a city of Asiatic Turkey, in the vilayet of Brusa, nearly 200 m. E. of Smyrna, and 50 m. S.S.E. of Kutaiah. Pop. 18,000 (Moslems, 13,000; Christians, 5000). Called Nicopolis by Leo III. after his victory over the Arabs in 740, its name was changed by the Seljuk Turks to Kara-hissar. It stands partly on level ground, partly on a declivity, and above it rises a precipitous trachytic rock (400 ft.) on the summit of which are the ruins of an ancient castle. From its situation on the route of the caravans between Smyrna and western Asia on the one hand, and Armenia, Georgia, &c, on the other, the city became a place of extensive trade, and its bazaars are well stocked with the merchandise of both Europe and the East. Opium in large quantities is produced in its vicinity and forms the staple article of its commerce ; and there are, besides, manufactures of black felts, carpets, arms and saddlery. Afium 320 A FORTIORI— AFRICA contains several mosques (one of them a very handsome building), and is the seat of an Armenian bishop. The town is connected by railway with Smyrna, Konia, Angora and Constantinople. See V. Cuinet, Turquie d'Asie (Paris, 1894), vol. iv. A FORTIORI (Lat. " from a stronger [reason] "), a term used of an argument which justifies a statement not itself specifically demonstrated by reference to a proved conclusion which includes it; thus, if A is proved less than B, and is known to be greater than C, it follows a fortiori that C is less than B without further proof. The argument is frequently based merely on a comparison of probabilities (cf. Matt. vi. 30), when it constitutes an appeal to common sense. AFRANIUS, LUCIUS, Roman general, lived in the times of the Sertorian (70-72), third Mithradatic (74-61) and Civil Wars. Of humble origin (Cic. ad Aft. i. 16. 20), from his early years he was a devoted adherent of Pbmpey. In 60, chiefly by Pompey's support, he was raised to the consulship, but in per- forming the duties of that office he showed an utter incapacity to manage civil affairs. In the following year, while governor of Cisalpine Gaul, he obtained the honour of a triumph, and on the allotment of Spain to Pompey (55), Afranius and Marcus Petreius were sent to take charge of the government. On the rupture between Caesar and Pompey they were . compelled, after a short campaign in which they were at first successful, to surrender to Caesar at Ilerda (49), and were dismissed on promising riot to serve again in the war. Afranius, regardless of his promise, joined Pompey at Dyrrhachium, and at the battle of Pharsalus (48) had charge of Pompey's camp. On the defeat of Pompey, Afranius, despairing of pardon from Caesar, went to Africa, and was present at the disastrous battle of Thapsus (46). Escaping from the field with a strong body of cavalry, he was afterwards taken prisoner, along with Faustus Sulla, by the troops of Sittius, and handed over to Caesar, whose veterans rose in tumult and put them to death. See Hirtius, Bell. Afric. 95; Plutarch, Pompey; Dio Cassius xxxvii., xli.-xliii.; Caesar, B.C. i. 37-87; Appian, B.C. ii. ; for the history of the period, articles on Caesar and Pompey. AFRANIUS, LUCIUS, Roman comic poet, flourished about 94 B.C. His comedies chiefly dealt with everyday subjects from Roman middle-class life, and he himself tells us that he borrowed freely from Menander and others. His style was vigorous and correct; his moral tone that of the period. Horace, Epp. ii. 1. 57; Cicero, Brutus, 45, de Fin. i. 3; Quintilian x. 1. 100; fragments, about 400 lines, in Ribbeck, Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta, ii. (1898). AFRICA, the name of a continent representing the largest of the three great southward projections from the main mass of the earth's surface. It includes within its remarkably regular outline an area, according to the most recent computations, of 11,262,000 sq. m., excluding the islands. 1 Separated from Europe by the Mediterranean Sea, it is joined to Asia at its N.E. extremity by the Isthmus of Suez, 80 m. wide. From the most northerly point, Ras ben Sakka, a little west of Cape Blanc, in 37 21' N., to the most southerly point, Cape Agulhas, 34° S 1 ' I S" S., is a distance approximately of 5000 m.; from Cape Verde, 17 33' 22" W., the westernmost point, to Ras Hafun, 51 27' 52" E., the most easterly projection, is a dis- tance (also approximately) of 4600 m. The length of coast-line is 16,100 m. and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is shown by the fact that Europe, which covers only 3,760,000 sq. m., has a coast-line of 19,800 m. I. Physical Geography The main structural lines of the continent show both the east-to-west direction characteristic, at least in the eastern hemisphere, of the more northern parts of the world, and the north-to-south direction seen in the southern peninsulas. Africa is thus composed of two segments at right angles, the northern running from east to west, the southern from north to south, the subordinate lines corresponding in the main to these two directions. Main Orographical Features. — The mean elevation of the con- 1 With the islands, 11,498,000 sq. m. tinent approximates closely to 2000 ft., which is roughly the elevation of both North and South America, but is considerably less than that of Asia (31 17 ft.). In contrast with the other continents it is marked by the comparatively small area both of very high and of very low ground, lands under 600 ft. occupying an unusually small. part of the surface; while not only are the highest elevations inferior to those of Asia and South America, but the area of land over 10,000 ft. is also quite insignificant, being represented almost entirely by individual peaks and mountain ranges. Moderately elevated tablelands are thus the characteristic feature of the continent, though the surface of these is broken by higher peaks and ridges. (So prevalent are these isolated peaks and ridges that a special term [Inselberg- landschafl] has been adopted in Germany to describe this kind of country, which is thought to be in great part the result of wind action.) As a general rule, the higher tablelands lie to the east and south, while a progressive diminution in altitude towards the west and north is observable. Apart from the low- lands and the Atlas range, the continent may be divided into two regions of higher and lower plateaus, the dividing line (somewhat concave to the north-west) running from the middle of the Red Sea to about 6° S. on the west coast. We thus obtain the following four main divisions of the continent: — (1) The coast plains— often fringed seawards by mangrove swamps — never stretching far from the coast, except on the lower courses of streams. Recent alluvial flats are found chiefly in the delta of the more important rivers. Elsewhere the coast lowlands merely form the lowest steps of the system of terraces which constitutes the ascent to the inner plateaus. (2) The Atlas range, which, orographically, is distinct from the rest of the continent, being unconnected with any other area of high ground, and separated from the rest of the continent on the south by a depressed and desert area (the Sahara) , in places below sea-level. (3) The high southern and eastern plateaus, rarely falling below 2000 ft., and having a mean elevation of about 3500 ft. (4) The north and west African plains, bordered and traversed by bands of higher ground, but generally below 2000 ft. This division includes the great desert of the Sahara. The third arid fourth divisions may be again subdivided. Thus the high plateaus include: — (a) The South African plateau as far as about 12 S., bounded east, west and south by bands of high ground which fall steeply to the coasts. On this account South Africa has a general resemblance to an inverted saucer. Due south the plateau rim is formed by three parallel steps with level ground between them. The largest of these level areas, the Great Karroo, is a dry, barren region, and a large tract of the plateau proper is of a still more arid character and is known as the Kalahari Desert. The South African plateau is connected towards the north-east with (b) the East African plateau, with probably a slightly greater average elevation, and marked by some distinct features. It is formed by a widening out of the eastern axis of high ground, which becomes subdivided into a number of zones running north and south and consisting in turn of ranges, tablelands and depressions. The most striking feature is the existence of two great lines of depression, due largely to the subsidence of whole segments of the earth's crust, the lowest parts of which are occupied by vast lakes Towards the south the two lines converge and give place to one great valley (occupied by Lake Nyasa), the southern part of which is less distinctly due to rifting and subsidence than the rest of the system. Farther north the western depression, sometimes known as the Central African trough or Albertine rift-valley, is occupied for more than half its length by water, forming the four lakes of Tanganyika, Kivu, Albert Edward and Albert, the first-named over 400 m. long and the longest freshwater lake in the world. Associated with these great valleys are a number of volcanic peaks, the greatest of which occur on a meridional line east of the eastern trough. The eastern depression, known as the East African trough or rift-valley, contains much smaller lakes, many of them brackish and without outlet, the only one comparable to those of the western trough being Lake Rudolf or Basso Norok. At no great distance east GEOGRAPHY] AFRICA 321 of this rift-valley are Kilimanjaro — with its two peaks Kibo and Mawenzi, the former 19,321 ft, and the culminating point of the whole continent — and Kenya (17,007 ft.). Hardly less important is the Ruwenzori range (over 16,600 ft.), which lies east of the western trough. Other volcanic peaks rise from the floor of the valleys, some of the Kirunga (Mfumbiro) group, north of Lake Kivu, being still partially active, (c) The third division of the higher region of Africa is formed by the Abys- sinian highlands, a rugged mass of mountains forming the largest continuous area of its altitude in the whole continent, little of its surface falling below 5°°° ft, while the summits reach heights of 15,000 to 16,000 ft This block of country lies just west of the line of the great East African trough, the northern continuation of which passes along its eastern escarp- ment as it runs up to join the Red Sea. There is, however, in the centre a circular basin occupied by Lake Tsana. Both in the east and west of the continent the bordering highlands are continued as strips of plateau parallel to the coast, the Abyssinian mountains being continued northwards along the Red Sea coast by a series of ridges reaching in places a height of 7000 ft. In the west the zone of high land is broader but somewhat lower. The most mountainous districts lie inland from the head of the Gulf of Guinea (Adamawa, &c), where heights of 6000 to 8000 ft. are reached. Exactly at the head of the gulf the great peak of the Cameroon, on a line of volcanic action continued by the islands to the south-west, has a height of 13,370 ft, while Clarence Peak, in Fernando Po, the first of the line of islands, rises to over 9000. Towards the extreme west the Futa Jallon highlands form an important diverging point of rivers, but beyond this, as far as the Atlas chain, the elevated rim of the continent is almost wanting. The area between the east and west coast highlands, which north of 17 N. is mainly desert, is divided into separate basins by other bands of high ground, one of which runs nearly centrally through North Africa in a line corresponding roughly with the curved axis of the continent as a whole. The best marked of the basins so formed (the Congo basin) occupies a circular area bisected by the equator, once probably the site of an inland sea. The arid region, the Sahara — the largest desert in the world, covering 3,500,000 sq. m. — extends from the Atlantic to the Red Sea. Though generally of slight elevation it contains mountain ranges with peaks rising to 8000 ft. Bordered N.W. by the Atlas range, to the N.E. a rocky plateau separates it from the Mediterranean; this plateau gives place at the extreme east to the delta of the Nile. That river (see below) pierces the desert without modifying its character. The Atlas range, the sorth-westerly part of the continent, between its seaward and landward heights encloses elevated steppes in places 100 m. broad. From the inner slopes of the plateau numerous wadis take a direction towards the Sahara. The greater part of that now desert region is, indeed, furrowed by old water-channels. The following table gives the approximate altitudes of the chief mountains and lakes of the continent: — Mountains. Ft. Lakes. Ft. Rungwe (Nyasa) . 10,400 Chad .... 850 1 Drakensberg . . 11,700' Leopold II . . 1100 Lereko or Sattima 13,214" Rudolf . . . 1250 (Aberdare Range) Nyasa . . . 1645" Cameroon . . 13,370 Albert Nyanza . 2028' Elgon . . . 14,152 s Tanganyika . . 2624" Karissimbi (Mfum- Ngami . . . 2950 biro) . . . 14,683" Mweru . . . 3000 Meru . . . 14,955" Albert Edward . 3004" Tagharat (Atlas) . 15,000' Bangweulu. . . 3700 Simen Mountains, 15,160' Victoria Nyanza . 3720" Abyssinia Abai . . . 4200 Ruwenzori . . 16,619" Kivu . . . 4829" Kenya . . . 17,007" Tsana . . . 5690 Kilimanjaro . . 19,321" Naivasha . . 6135" The Hydrographic Systems. — From the outer margin of the African plateaus a large number of streams run to the sea with comparatively short courses, while the larger rivers flow for long 1 Estimated. " See the calculations of Capt. T. T. Behrens, Geog. Journal, vol. lexix. (1907). I. U distances on the interior highlands before breaking through the outer ranges. The main drainage of the continent is to the north and west, or towards the basin of the Atlantic Ocean. The high lake plateau of East Africa contains the head-waters of the Nile and Congo: the former the longest, the latter the largest river of the continent. The upper Nile receives its chief supplies from the mountainous region adjoining the Central African trough in the neighbourhood of the equator. Thence streams pour east to the Victoria Nyanza, the largest African lake (covering over 26,000 sq. m.), and west and north to the Albert Edward and Albert Nyanzas, to the latter of which the effluents of the other two lakes add their waters. Issuing from it the Nile flows north, and between 7° and io° N. traverses a vast marshy level during which its course is liable to blocking by floating vegetation. After receiving the Bahr-el-Ghazal from the west and the Sobat, Blue Nile and Atbara from the Abyssinian highlands (the chief gathering ground of the flood- water), it crosses the great desert and enters the Mediterranean by a vast delta. The most remote head-stream of the Congo is the Chambezi, which flows south-west into the marshy Lake Bang- weulu. From this lake issues the Congo, known in its upper course by various names. Flowing first south, it afterwards turns north through Lake Mweru and descends to the forest-clad basin of west equatorial Africa. Traversing this in a majestic northward curve and receiving vast supplies of water from many great tributaries, it finally turns south-west and cuts a way to the Atlantic Ocean through the western highlands. North of the Congo basin and separated from it by a broad undulation of the surface is the basin of Lake Chad — a flat-shored, shallow lake filled principally by the Shari coming from the south-east. West of this is the basin of the Niger, the third river of Africa, which, though flowing to the Atlantic, has its principal source in the far west, and reverses the direction of flow exhibited by the Nile and Congo. An important branch, however — the Benue — comes from the south-east. These four river-basins occupy the greater part of the lower plateaus of North and West Africa, the remainder consisting of arid regions watered only by intermittent streams which do not reach the sea. Of the remaining rivers of the Atlantic basin the Orange, in the extreme south, brings the drainage from the Drakensberg on the opposite side of the continent, while the Kunene, Kwanza, Ogowe and Sanaga drain the west coast highlands of the southern limb; the Volta, Komoe, Bandama, Gambia and Senegal the highlands of the western limb. North of the Senegal for over 1000 m. of coast the arid region reaches to the Atlantic. Farther north are the streams, with comparatively short courses, which reach the Atlantic and Mediterranean from the Atlas mountains. Of the rivers flowing to the Indian Ocean the only one draining any large part of the interior plateaus is the Zambezi, whose western branches rise in the west coast highlands. The main stream has its rise in n° 21' 3" S. 24 22' E. at an elevation of 5000 ft. It flows west and south for a considerable distance before turning to the east. All the largest tributaries, including the Shire, the outflow of Lake Nyasa, flow down the southern slopes of the band of high ground which stretches across the continent in io° to 12° S. In the south-west the Zambezi system interlaces with that of the Taukhe (or Tioghe), from which it at times receives surplus water. The rest of the water of the Taukhe, known in its middle course as the Okavango, is lost in a system of swamps and saltpans which formerly centred in Lake Ngami, now dried up. Farther south the Limpopo drains a portion of the interior plateau but breaks through the bounding highlands on the side of the continent nearest its source. The Rovuma, Rufiji, Tana, Juba and Webi Shebeli principally drain the outer slopes of the East African highlands, the last named losing itself in the sands in close proximity to the sea. Another large stream, the Hawash, rising in the Abyssinian mountains, is lost in a saline depression near the Gulf of Aden. Lastly, between the basins of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans there is an area of inland drainage along the centre of the East African plateau, directed chiefly into the 11 322 AFRICA [GEOGRAPHY lakes in the great rift-valley. The largest river is the Omo, which, fed by the rains of the Abyssinian highlands, carries down a large body of water into Lake Rudolf. The rivers of Africa are generally obstructed either by bars at their mouths or by cataracts at no great distance up-stream. But when these obstacles have been overcome the rivers and lakes afford a network of navigable waters of vast extent. The calculation of the areas of African drainage systems, made by Dr A. Bludau (Petermanns Mitteilungen, 43, 1897, pp. 184-186) gives the following general results: — Basin of the Atlantic .... 4,070,000 sq. m. ,, ,, Mediterranean . . . 1,680,000 ,, ,, ,, _ Indian Ocean . . . 2,086,000 „ Inland drainage area 3,452,000 „ The areas of individual river-basins are: — Congo (length over 3000 m.) . . 1,425,000 sq. m. Nile ( ,, fully 4000 m.) . . I,o82,ooo l „ Niger ( ,, about 2600 m.) . . 808, ooo 2 „ Zambezi ( „ „ 2000 m.) , . 513,500 „ Lake Chad . . ..... 394,000 „ Orange (length about 1300 m.) . . 370,500 s „ ,, (actual drainage area) . . 172,500 ,, The area of the Congo basin is greater than that of any other river except the Amazon, while the African inland drainage area is greater than that of any continent but Asia, in which the corresponding area is 4,900,000 sq. m. The principal African lakes have been mentioned in the description of the East African plateau, but some of the pheno- mena connected with them may be spoken of more particularly here. As a rule the lakes which occupy portions of the great rift-valleys have steep sides and are very deep. This is the case with the two largest of the type, Tanganyika and Nyasa, the latter of which has depths of 430 fathoms. Others, however, are shallow, and hardly reach the steep sides of the valleys in the dry season. Such are Lake Rukwa, in a subsidiary depression north of Nyasa, and Eiassi and Manyara in the system of the eastern rift-valley. Lakes of the broad type are of moderate depth, the deepest sounding in Victoria Nyanza being under 50 fathoms. Apart from the seasonal variations of level, most of the lakes show periodic fluctuations, while a progressive desiccation of the whole region is said to be traceable, tending to the ultimate disappearance of the lakes. Such a drying up has been in progress during long geologic ages, but doubt exists as to its practical importance at the present time. The periodic fluctuations in the level of Lake Tanganyika are such that its outflow is intermittent. Besides the East African lakes the principal are: — Lake Chad, in the northern area of inland drainage; Bangweulu and Mweru, traversed by the head-stream of the Congo; and Leopold II. and Ntomba (Mantumba), within the great bend of that river. All, except possibly Mweru, are more or less shallow, and Chad appears to by drying up. The altitudes of the African lakes have already been stated. Divergent opinions have been held as to the mode of origin of the East African lakes, especially Tanganyika, which some geologists have considered to represent an old arm of the sea, dating from a time when the whole central Congo basin was under water; others holding that the lake water has accumulated in a depression caused by subsidence. The former view is based on the existence in the lake of organisms of a decidedly marine type. They include a jelly-fish, molluscs, prawns, crabs, &c, and were at first considered to form an isolated group found in no other of the African lakes; but this supposition has been proved to be erroneous. Islands. — With one exception — Madagascar — the African islands are small. Madagascar, with an area of 229,820 sq. m., is, after New Guinea and Borneo, the largest island of the world. It lies off the S.E, coast of the continent, from which it is separated by the deep Mozambique channel, 250 m. wide at its narrowest point. Madagascar in its general structure, as in flora and fauna, forms a connecting link between Africa and southern Asia. East of Madagascar are the small islands of Mauritius and Reunion. Sokotra lies E.N.E. of Cape Guardafui. Off the 1 The estimate of Capt. H. G. Lyons in 1905 was 1,107,227 sq. m. 2 Including waterless tracts naturally belonging to the river-basin. north-west coast are the Canary and Cape Verde archipelagoes, which, like some small islands in the Gulf of Guinea, are of volcanic origin. Climate and Health. — Lying almost entirely within the tropics, and equally to north and south of the equator, Africa does not show excessive variations of temperature. Great heat is ex- perienced in the lower plains and desert regions of North Africa, removed by the great width of the continent from the influence of the ocean, and here, too, the contrast between day and night, and between summer and winter, is greatest. (The rarity of the air and the great radiation during the night cause the temperature in the Sahara to fall occasionally to freezing point.) Farther south, the heat is to some extent modified by the moisture brought from the ocean, and by the greater elevation of a large part of the surface, especially in East Africa, where the range of temperature is wider than in the Congo basin or on the Guinea coast. In the extreme north and south the climate is a warm temperate one, the northern countries being on the whole hotter and drier than those in the southern zone; the south of the continent being narrower than the north, the influence of the surrounding ocean is more felt. The most important climatic differences are due to variations in the amount of rainfall. The wide heated plains of the Sahara, and in a lesser degree the corresponding zone of the Kalahari in the south, have an ex- ceedingly scanty rainfall, the winds which blow over them from the ocean losing part of their moisture as they pass over the outer highlands, and becoming constantly drier owing to the heating effects of the burning soil of the interior; while the scarcity of mountain ranges in the more central parts likewise tends to prevent condensation. In the inter-tropical zone of summer precipitation, the rainfall is greatest when the sun is vertical or soon after. It is therefore greatest of all near the equator, where the sun is twice vertical, and less in the direction of both tropics. The rainfall zones are, however, somewhat deflected from a due west-to-east direction, the drier northern conditions extending southwards along the east coast, and those of the south northwards along the west. Within the equatorial zone certain areas, especially on the shores of the Gulf of Guinea and in the upper Nile basin, have an intensified rainfall, but this rarely approaches that of the rainiest regions oi the world. The rainiest district in all Africa is a strip of coast- land west of Mount Cameroon, where there is a mean annual rainfall of about 390 in. as compared with a mean of 458 in. at Cherrapunji, in Assam. The two distinct rainy seasons of the equatorial zone, where the sun is vertical at half-yearly intervals, become gradually merged into one in the direction of the tropics, where the sun is overhead but once. Snow falls on all the higher mountain ranges, and on the highest the climate is thoroughly Alpine. The countries bordering the Sahara are much exposed to a very dry wind, full of fine particles of sand, blowing from the desert towards the sea. Known in Egypt as the khamsin, on the Mediterranean as the sirocco, it is called on the Guinea coast the harmattan. This wind is not invariably hot; its great dryness causes so much evaporation that cold is not infrequently the result. Similar dry winds blow from the Kalahari in the south. On the eastern coast the monsoons of the Indian Ocean are regularly felt, and on the south-east hurricanes are occasionally experienced. While the climate of the north and south, especially the south, is eminently healthy, and even the intensely heated Sahara is salubrious by reason of its dryness, the tropical zone as a whole is, for European races, the most unhealthy portion of the world. This is especially the case in the lower and moister regions, such as the west coast, where malarial fever is very prevalent and deadly; the most unfavourable factors being humidity with absence of climatic variation (daily or seasonal). The higher plateaus, where not only is the average temperature lower, -but such variations are more extensive, are more healthy; and in certain localities (e.g. Abyssinia and parts of British East Africa) Europeans find the climate suitable for permanent residence. On tablelands over 6500 ft. above the sea, frost is not uncommon at night, even in places directly under the equator. The FLORA AND FAUNA] AFRICA 323 acclimatization of white men in tropical Africa generally is dependent largely on the successful treatment of tropical diseases. Districts which had been notoriously deadly to Europeans were rendered comparatively healthy after the discovery, in 1899, of the species of mosquito which propagates malarial fever, and the measures thereafter taken for its destruction and the filling up of swamps. The rate of mortality among the natives from tropical diseases is also high, one of the most fatal being that known as sleeping sickness. (The ravages of this disease, which also attacks Europeans, reached alarming pro- portions between 1893 and 1907, and in the last-named year an international conference was held in London to consider measures to combat it.) When removed to colder regions natives of the equatorial districts suffer greatly from chest complaints. Smallpox also makes great ravages among the negro population. Flora. — The vegetation of Africa follows very closely the dis- tribution of heat and moisture. The northern and southern temperate zones have a flora distinct from that of the continent generally, which is tropical. In the countries bordering the Medi- terranean are groves of oranges and olive 1;rees, evergreen oaks, cork trees and pines, intermixed with cypresses, myrtles, arbutus and fragrant tree-heaths. South of the Atlas range the conditions alter. The zones of minimum rainfall have a very scanty flora, consisting of plants adapted to resist the great dryness. Charac- teristic of the Sahara is the date-palm, which flourishes where other vegetation can scarcely maintain existence, while in the semi-desert regions the acacia (whence is obtained gum-arabic) is abundant. The more humid regions have a richer vegetation — dense forest where the rainfall is greatest and variations of temperature least, conditions found chiefly on the tropical coasts, and in the west African equatorial basin with its extension towards the upper Nile; and savanna interspersed with trees on the greater part of the plateaus, passing as the desert regions are approached into a scrub vegetation consisting of thorny acacias, &c. Forests also occur on the humid slopes of mountain ranges up to a certain elevation. In the coast regions the typical tree is the mangrove, which flourishes wherever the soil is of a swamp character. The dense forests of West Africa contain, in addition to a great variety of dicotyledonous trees, two palms, the Elaeis guincensis (oil-palm) and Raphia vinifera (bamboo-pa'lm) , not found, generally speaking, in the savanna regions. The bombax or silk-cotton tree attains gigantic proportions in the forests, which are the home of the indiarubber-producing plants and of many valuable kinds of timber trees, such as odum (Chlorophora excclsa) , ebony, mahogany (Khaya senegalensis) , African teak or oak {Oldfieldia africana) and camwood (Baphia nitida). The climbing plants in the tropical forests are exceedingly luxuriant and the undergrowth or " bush " is extremely dense. In the savannas the most characteristic trees are the monkey bread tree or baobab (Adansonia digitata), doom palm (Hyphaene) and euphorbias. The coffee plant grows wild in such widely separated places as Liberia and southern Abyssinia. The higher mountains have a special flora showing close agreement over wide intervals of space, as well as affinities with the mountain flora of the eastern Mediterranean, the Himalayas and Indo- China (cf. A. Engler, Uber die Hochgebirgsflora des tropischen Ajrika, 1892). In the swamp regions of north-east Africa the papyrus and associated plants, including the soft-wooded ambach, flourish in immense quantities — and little else is found in the way of vegetation. South Africa is largely destitute of forest save in the lower valleys and coast regions. Tropical flora disappears, and in the semi-desert plains the fleshy, leafless, contorted species of kapsias, mesembryanthemums, aloes and other succu- lent plants make their appearance. There are, too, valuable timber trees, such as the yellow pine (Podocarpus elongatus), stink wood (Ocotea), sneeze wood or Cape ebony (Pteroxylon utile) and ironwood. Extensive miniature woods of heaths are found in almost endless variety and covered throughout the greater part of the year with innumerable blossoms in which red is very prevalent. Of the grasses of Africa alfa is very abundant in the plateaus of the Atlas range. Fauna. — The fauna again shows the effect of the character- istics of the vegetation. The open savannas are the home of large ungulates, especially antelopes, the giraffe (peculiar to Africa), zebra, buffalo, wild ass and four species of rhinoceros; and of carnivores, such as the lion, leopard, hyaena, &c. The okapi (a genus restricted to Africa) is found only in the dense forests of the Congo basin. Bears are confined to the Atlas region, wolves and foxes to North Africa. The elephant (though its range has become restricted through the attacks of hunters) is found both in the savannas and forest regions, the 'latter being otherwise poor in large game, though the special habitat of the chimpanzee and gorilla. Baboons and mandrills, with few excep- tions, are peculiar to Africa. The single-humped camel — as a domestic animal — is especially characteristic of the northern deserts and steppes. The rivers in the tropical zone abound with hippopotami and crocodiles, the former entirely confined to Africa. The vast herds of game, formerly so characteristic of many parts of Africa, have much diminished with the increase of intercourse with the interior. Game reserves have, however, been established in South Africa, British Central Africa, British East Africa, Somali- land, &c, while measures for the protection of wild animals were laid down in an international convention signed in May 1900. The ornithology of northern Africa presents a close resemblance to that of southern Europe, scarcely a species being found which does not also occur in the other countries bordering the Mediter- ranean. Among the birds most characteristic of Africa are the ostrich and the secretary-bird. The ostrich is widely dispersed, but is found chiefly in the desert and steppe regions. The secretary-bird is common in the south. The weaver birds and their allies, including the long-tailed whydahs, are abundant, as are, among game-birds, the francolin and guinea-fowl. Many of the smaller birds, such as the sun-birds, bee-eaters, the parrots and halcyons, as well as the larger plantain-eaters, are noted for the brilliance of their plumage. Of reptiles the lizard and chameleon are common, and there are a number of venomous serpents, though these are not so numerous as in other tropical countries. The scorpion is abundant. Of insects Africa has many thousand different kinds; of these the locust is the pro- verbial scourge of the continent, and the ravages of the termites or white ants are almost incredible. The spread of malaria by means of mosquitoes has already been mentioned. The tsetse fly, whose bite is fatal to all domestic animals, is common in many districts of South and East Africa. Fortunately it is found nowhere outside Africa. (E. He.; F. R. C.) II. Geology In shape and general geological structure Africa bears a close resemblance to India. Both possess a meridional extension with a broad east and west folded region in the north. In both a successive series of continental deposits, ranging from the Car- boniferous to the Rhaetic, rests on an older base of crystalline rocks. In the words of Professor Suess, " India and Africa are true plateau countries." Of the primitive axes of Africa few traces remain. Both on the east and west a broad zone of crystalline rocks extends parallel with the coast-line to form the margin of the elevated plateau of the interior. Occasionally the crystalline belt comes to the coast, but it is usually reached by two steps known as the coastal belt and foot-plateau. On the flanks of the primitive western axis certain ancient sedimentary strata are thrown into folds which were completed before the commencement of the mesozoic period. In the south, the later palaeozoic rocks are also thrown into acute folds by a movement acting from the south, and which ceased towards the close of the mesozoic period. In northern Africa the folded region of the Atlas belongs to the comparatively recent date of the Alpine system. None of these earth movements affected the interior, for here the. continental mesozoic deposits rest, undisturbed by folding, on the primary sedimentary and crystalline rocks. The crystalline massif, therefore, presents a solid block which has remained elevated since early palaeozoic 324 AFRICA [GEOLOGY times, and against which earth waves of several geological periods have broken. The formations older than the mesozoic are remarkably un- fossiliferous, so that the determination of their age is frequently a matter of speculation, and in the following table the European equivalents of the pre-Karroo formations in many regions must be regarded as subject to considerable revision. Rocks of Archean age cover wide areas in the interior, in West and East Africa and across the Sahara. Along the coastal margins they underlie the newer formations and appear in the deep valleys and kloofs wherever denudation has laid them bare. The prevailing types are granites, gneisses and schists. In the central regions the predominant strike of the foliae is north and south. The rocks, for convenience classed as pre-Cambrian, occur as several unconformable groups, chiefly developed in the south where alone their stratigraphy has been determined. They are unfossiliferous, and in the absence of undoubted Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian strata in Africa they may be regarded as of older date than any of these formations. The Emery Walker so general occurrence of jasper-bearing rocks is of interest, as these are always present in the ancient pressure-altered sedi- mentary formations of America and Europe. Some unfossili- ferous conglomerates, sandstones and dolomites in South Africa and on the west coast are considered to belong to the Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian formations, but merely from their occurrence beneath strata yielding Devonian fossils. In Cape Colony the Silurian age of the Table Mountain Sandstone is based on such evidence. The Devonian and Carboniferous formations are well repre- sented in the north and south and in northern Angola. Up to the close of the palaeozoic period the relative positions of the ancient land masses and oceans remain unsolved; but the absence of marine strata of early palaeozoic age from Central Africa points to there. being land in this direction. In late Car- boniferous times Africa and India were undoubtedly united to form a large continent, called by Suess Gondwana Land. In each country the same succession of the rocks is met with; over both the same specialized orders of reptiles roamedand were entombed. The interior of the African portion of Gondwana Land was occupied by several large lakes in which an immense thickness — amounting to over 18,000 ft. in South Africa — of sandstones and marls, forming the Karroo system, was laid down, This is par excellence the African formation, and covers immense areas in South Africa and the Congo basin, with detached portions in East Africa. During the whole of the time — Carboniferous to Rhaetic — that this great accumulation of freshwater beds was taking place, the interior of the continent must have been undergoing depression. The commencement of the period was marked by one of the most wonderful episodes in the geological history of Africa. Preserved in the formation known as the Dwyka Conglomerate, are evidences that at this time the greater portion of South Africa was undergoing extreme glacia- tion, while the same conditions appear to have prevailed in India Table of Formations Recent. Pleistocene. Pliocene. Miocene. Oligocene. Eocene. Cretaceous. rjurassic. Some volcanic islands ; rift- valley volcanoes. Trias. ^Permian. Carboniferous. Devonian. Silurian. Ordovician. Cambrian. Pre-Cambrian. Archean. Sedimentary. Allu viu m ; travertine ; coral ; sand dunes ; con- tinental dunes. Gener- ally distributed. Ancient alluviums and gravels ; travertine. Generally distributed. N. Africa; Madagascar. N. Africa. N-. Africa. N. Africa, along east and west coasts ; Madagas- car. Extensively developed in N. Africa; along coast and foot-plateaus in east and west ; Madagascar. N. Africa; E. Africa; Madagascar ; Stormberg period (Rhaetic) in S. Africa. Beaufort Series in S." Africa ; Congo basin ; Central Africa; Algeria; Tunis. Ecca Series in S. Africa. N. Africa; Sabaki Shales in E. Africa; Dwyka and Witteberg Series in S. Africa. N. Africa; Angola; Bokke- veld Series in S. Africa. Table Mountain Sandstone" in S. Africa, Silurian(?). Doubtfully represented in N. Africa, French Congo, Angola, and by Vaal River and Water- berg Series in S. Africa., Quartzites, conglomerates, " phyllites, jasper-bearing rocks and schists. Gener- ally distributed. Gneisses and schists of the continental platform. Igneous. A long-continued suc- cession in the cen- tral and northern regions and among the island groups. Doubtfully repre- sented south of the Zambezi. Diamond pipes of S. Africa ; Kaptian fissure eruptions; Ashangi traps of Abyssinia. Chief volcanic period in S. Africa. Feebly, if anywhere developed. . Not recorded. Klipriversberg and Ventersdorp Series of the Transvaal (?). S. Africa and gener- ally. Igneous complex of sheared igneous rocks ; granites. and Australia. At the close of the Karroo period there was a remarkable manifestation of volcanic activity which again has its parallel in the Deccan traps of India. How far the Karroo formation extended beyond its present confines has not been determined. To the east it reached India. In the south all that can be said is that it extended to the south of Worcester in Cape Colony. The Crystal Mountains of Angola may represent its western boundary; while the absence of mesozoic strata beneath the Cretaceous rocks of the mid-Sahara indicates that the system of Karroo lakeland had here reached its most northerly extension. Towards the close of the Karroo period, possibly about the middle, .the southern rim of the great central depression became ridged up to form the folded regions of the Zwaarteberg, Cedarberg and Langeberg mountains in Cape Colony. This folded belt gives Africa its abrupt southern ETHNOLOGY] AFRICA 325 termination, and may be regarded as an embryonic indication of its present outline. The exact date of the maximum develop- ment of this folding is unknown, but it had done its work and some 10,000 ft. of strata had been removed before the com- mencement of the Cretaceous period. It appears to approximate in time to the similar earth movement and denudation at the close of the palaeozoic period in Europe. It was doubtless connected with the disruption of Gondwana Land, since it is known that this great alteration of geographical outline com- menced in Jurassic times. The breaking up of Gondwana Land is usually considered to have been caused by a series of blocks of country being let down by faulting with the consequent formation of the Indian Ocean. Other blocks, termed horsts, remained unmoved, the island of Madagascar affording a striking example. In the African portion Ruwenzori is regarded by some geologists to be a block mountain or horst. In Jurassic times the sea gained access to East Africa north of Mozambique, but does not appear to have reached far beyond the foot-plateau except in Abyssinia. The Cretaceous seas appear to have extended into the central Saharan regions, for fossils of this age have been discovered in the interior. On the west coast Cretaceous rocks extend con- tinuously from Mogador to Cape Blanco. From here they are absent up to the Gabun river, where they commence to form a narrow fringe as far as the Kunene river, though often overlain by recent deposits. They are again absent up to the Sunday river in Cape Colony, where Lower Cretaceous rocks (for long con- sidered to be of Oolitic age) of an inshore character are met with. Strata of Upper Cretaceous age occur in Pondoland and Natal, and are of exceptional interest since the fossils show an intermingling of Pacific types with other forms having Euro- pean affinities. In Mozambique and in German East Africa, Cretaceous rocks extend from the coast to a distance inland of over 100 m. Except in northern Africa, the Tertiary formations only occur in a few isolated patches on the east and west coasts. In northern Africa they are well developed and of much interest. They contain the well-known nummulitic limestone of Eocene age, which has been traced from Egypt across Asia to China. The Upper Eocene rocks of Egypt have also yielded primeval types of the Prohoscidea and other mammalia. Evidences for the greater extension of the Eocene seas than was formerly con- sidered to be the case have been discovered around Sokoto. During Miocene times Passarge considers that the region of the Zambezi underwent extreme desiccation. The effect of the Glacial epoch in Europe is shown in northern Africa by the moraines of the higher Atlas, and the wider exten- sion of the glaciers on Kilimanjaro, Kenya and Ruwenzori, and by the extensive accumulations of gravel over the Sahara. The earliest signs of igneous activity in Africa are to be found in the granites, intrusive into the older rocks of the Cape peninsula, into those of the Transvaal, and into the gneisses and schists of Central Africa. The Ventersdorp boulder beds of the Transvaal may be of early palaeozoic age; but as a whole the palaeozoic period in Africa was remarkably free from volcanic and igneous disturbances. The close of the Stormberg period (Rhaetic) was one of great volcanic activity in South Africa. Whilst the later Secondary and Tertiary formations were being laid down in North Africa and around the margins of the rest of the continent, Africa received its last great accumulation of strata and at the same time underwent a consecutive series of earth-movements. The additional strata consist of the immense quantities of volcanic material on the plateau of East Africa, the basalt flows of West Africa and possibly those of the Zambezi basin. The exact period of the commencement of volcanic activity is unknown. In Abyssinia the Ashangi traps are cer- tainly post-Oolitic. In East Africa the fissure eruptions are con- sidered to belong to the Cretaceous. These early eruptions were followed by those of Kenya, Mawenzi, Elgon, Chibcharagnani, and these by the eruptions of Kibo, Longonot, Suswa and the Kyulu Mountains. The last phase of vulcanicity took place along the great meridional rifts of East Africa, and though feebly manifested has not entirely passed away. In northern Africa a continuous sequence of volcanic events has taken place from Eocene times to latest Tertiary; but in South Africa it is doubtful if there have been any intrusions later then Cretaceous. During this long continuance of vulcanicity, earth-movements were in progress. In the north the chief movements gave rise to the system of latitudinal folding and faulting of the Moroccan and Algerian Atlas, the last stages being represented by the formation of the Algerian and Moroccan coast-outline and the sundering of Europe from Africa at the Straits of Gibraltar. Whilst northern Africa was being folded, the East African plateau was broken up by a series of longitudinal rifts extending from Nyasaland to Egypt. The depressed areas contain the long, narrow, precipitously walled lakes of East Africa. The Red Sea also occupies a meridional trough. Lastly there are the recent elevations of the northern coastal regions, the Barbary coast and along the east coast. (W. G.*) III. Ethnology In attempting a review of the races and tribes which inhabit Africa, their distribution, movements and culture, it is advisable that three points be borne in mind. The first of these is the comparative absence of natural barriers in the interior, owing to which intercommunication between tribes, the dissemination of culture and tribal migration have been considerably facilitated. Hence the student must be prepared to find that, for the most part, there are no sharp divisions to mark the extent of the various races composing the population, but that the number of what may be termed " transitional " peoples is unusually large. The second point is that Africa, with the exception of the lower Nile valley and what is known as Roman Africa (see Africa, Roman), is, so far as its native inhabitants are concerned, a continent practically without a history, and possessing no records from which such a history might be reconstructed. The early movements of tribes, the routes by which they reached their present abodes, and the origin of such forms of culture as may be distinguished in the general mass of customs, beliefs, &c, are largely matters of conjecture. The negro is essentially the child of the moment; and his memory, both tribal and individual, is very short. The third point is that many theories which have been formulated with respect to such matters are unsatisfactory owing to the small amount of information concerning many of the tribes in the interior. Excluding the Europeans who have found a home in various parts of Africa, and the Asiatics, Chinese and natives of India introduced by them (see section History below), the population of Africa consists of the following elements: African — the Bushman, the Negro, the Eastern Hamite, races. the Libyan and the Semite, from the intermingling of which in various proportions a vast number of " transi- tional " tribes has arisen. The Bushmen (q.v.), a race of short yellowish-brown nomad hunters, inhabited, in the earliest times of which there is historic knowledge, the land adjoining the southern and eastern borders of the Kalahari desert, into which they were gradually being forced by the encroachment of the Hottentots and Bantu tribes. But signs of their former presence are not wanting as far north as Lake Tanganyika, and even, it is rumoured, still farther north. With them may be classed provisionally the Hottentots, a pastoral people of medium stature and yellowish-brown complexion, who in early times shared with the Bushmen the whole of what is now Cape Colony. Though the racial affinities of the Hottentots have been disputed, the most satisfactory view on the whole is that they represent a blend of Bushman, Negroid and Hamitic elements. Practically the rest of Africa, from the southern fringe of the Sahara and the upper valley of the Nile to the Cape, with the exception of Abyssinia and Galla and Somali-lands, is peopled by Negroes and the " transitional " tribes to which their ad- mixture with Libyans on the north, and Semites (Arabs) and Hamites on the north-east and east, has given rise. A slight qualification of the last statement is necessary, in so far as, among 326 AFRICA [ETHNOLOGY the Fula in the western Sudan, and the Ba-Hima, &c, of the Victoria Nyanza, Libyan and Hamitic elements are respectively stronger than the Negroid. Of the tracts excepted, Abyssinia is inhabited mainly by Semito-Hamites (though a fairly strong negroid element can be found), and Somali and Galla-lands by Hamites. North of the Sahara in Algeria and Morocco are the Libyans (Berbers, q.v.), a distinctively white people, who have in certain respects (e.g. religion) fallen under Arab influence. In the north-east the brown-skinned Hamite and the Semite mingle in varied proportions. The Negroid peoples, which inhabit the vast tracts of forest and savanna between the areas held by Bushmen to the south and the Hamites, Semites and Libyans to the north, fall into two groups divided by a line running from the Cameroon (Rio del Rey) crossing the Ubangi river below the bend and passing between the Ituri and the Semliki rivers, to Lake Albert and thence with a slight southerly trend to the coast. North of this line are the Negroes proper, south are the Bantu. The division is primarily philological. Among the true Negroes the greatest linguistic confusion prevails; for instance, in certain parts of Nigeria it is possible to find half-a-dozen villages within a comparatively small area speaking, not different dialects, but different languages, a fact which adds greatly to the difficulty of political administration. To the south of the line the condition of affairs is entirely different; here the entire population speaks one or another dialect of the Bantu Languages (q.v.). As said before, the division is primarily linguistic and, especially upon the border line, does not always correspond with the variations of physical type. At the same time it is extremely convenient and to a certain extent justifiable on physical and psycho- logical grounds; and it may be said roughly that while the linguistic uniformity of the Bantu is accompanied by great variation of physical type, the converse is in the main true of the Negro proper, especially where least affected by Libyan and Hamitic admixture, e.g. on the Guinea coast. The variation of type among the Bantu is due probably to a varying admixture of alien blood, which is more apparent as the east coast is approached. This foreign element cannot be identified with certainty, but since the Bantu seem to approach the Hamites in those points where they differ from the Negro proper, and since the physical characteristics of Hamites and Semites are very similar, it seems probable that the last two races have entered into the composi- tion of the Bantu, though it is highly improbable that Semitic influence should have permeated any distance from the east coast. An extremely interesting section of the population not hitherto mentioned is constituted by the Pygmy tribes inhabiting the densely forested regions along the equator from Uganda to the Gabun and living the life of nomadic hunters. The affinities of this little people are undecided, owing to the small amount of knowledge concerning them. The theories which connected them with the Bushmen do not seem to be correct. It is more probable that they are to be classed among the Negroids, with whom they appear to have intermingled to a certain .extent in the upper basin of the Ituri, and perhaps elsewhere. As far as is known they speak no language peculiar to themselves but adopt that of the nearest agricultural tribe. They are of a dark brown complexion, with very broad noses, lips but slightly everted, and small but usually sturdy physique, though often considerably emaciated owing to insufficiency of food. Another peculiar tribe, also of short stature, are the Vaalpens of the steppe region of the north Transvaal. Practically nothing is known of them except that they are said to be very dark in colour and live in holes in the ground, and under rock shelters. Having indicated the chief races of which in various degrees of purity and intermixture the population of Africa is formed, it remains to consider them in greater detail, particu- ethnofogi- ' ar 'y lrom the cultural standpoint. This is hardly cat zones, possible without drawing attention to the main physical characters of the continent, as far as they affect the inhabitants. For ethnological purposes three principal zones may be distinguished; the first two are respectively a large region of steppes and desert in the north, and a smaller region of steppes and desert in the south. These two zones are connected by a vertical strip of grassy highlaad lying mainly to the east of the chain of great lakes. The third zone is a vast region of forest and rivers in the west centre, comprising the greater part of the basin of the Congo and the Guinea coast. The rainfall, which also has an important bearing upon the culture of peoples, will be found on the whole to be greatest in the third zone and also in the eastern highlands, and of course least in the desert, the steppes and savannas standing midway between the two. As might be expected these variations are accompanied by certain variations in culture. In the best- watered districts agriculture is naturally of the greatest import- ance, except where the density of the forest renders the work of clearing too arduous. The main portion therefore of the inhabitants of the forest zone are agriculturists, save only the nomad Pygmies, who live in the inmost recesses of the forest and support themselves by hunting the game with which it abounds. Agriculture, too, flourishes in the eastern highlands, and throughout the greater part of the steppe and savanna region of the northern and southern zones, especially the latter. In fact the only Bantu tribes who are not agriculturists are the Ova-Herero of German South- West Africa, whose purely pastoral habits are the natural outcome of the barren country they in- habit. But the wide open plains and slopes surrounding the forest area are eminently suited to cattle-breeding, and there are few tribes who do not take advantage of the fact. At the same time a natural check is imposed upon the desire for cattle, which is so characteristic of the Bantu peoples. This is con- stituted by the tsetse fly, which renders a pastoral life absolutely impossible throughout large tracts in central and southern Africa. In the northern zone this check is absent, and the number of more essentially pastoral peoples, such as the eastern Hamites, Masai, Dinka, Fula, &c, correspondingly greater. The desert regions yield support only to nomadic peoples, such as the Tuareg, Tibbu, Bedouins and Bushmen, though the presence of numerous oases in the north renders the condition of life easier for the inhabitants. Upon geographical conditions likewise depend to a large extent the political conditions pre- vailing among the various tribes. Thus among the wandering tribes of the desert and of the heart of the forests, where large communities are impossible, a patriarchal system prevails with the family as the unit. Where the forest is less dense and small agricultural communities begin to make their appearance, the unit expands to the village with its headman. Where the forest thins to the savanna and steppe, and communication is easier, are found the larger kingdoms and " empires " such as, in the north those established by the Songhai, Hausa, Fula, Bagirmi, Ba-Hima, &c, and in the south the states of Lunda, Kazembe, the Ba-Rotse, &c. But if ease of communication is favourable to the rise of large states and the cultural progress that usually accompanies it, it is, nevertheless, often fatal to the very culture which, at first, it fostered, in so far as the absence of natural boundaries renders invasion easy. A good example of this is furnished by the history of the western Sudan and particularly of East and South-East Africa. From its geographical position Africa looks naturally to the east, and it is on this side that it has been most affected by external culture both by land (across the Sinaitic peninsula) and by sea. Though a certain amount of Indonesian and even aboriginal Indian influence has been traced in African ethnography, the people who have produced the most serious ethnic disturbances (apart from modern Europeans) are the Arabs. This is particularly the case in East Africa, where the systematic slave raids organized by them and carried out with the assistance of various warlike tribes reduced vast regions to a state of desolation. In the north and west of Africa, how- ever, the Arab has had a less destructive but more extensive and permanent influence in spreading the Mahommedan religion throughout the whole of the Sudan. The fact that the physical geography of Africa affords fewer natural obstacles to racial movements on the side most exposed to foreign influence, renders it obvious that the culture most characteristically African must be sought on the other side ETHNOLOGY] AFRICA 327 It is therefore in the forests of the Congo, and among the lagoons and estuaries of the Guinea coast, that this earlier culture will The char- most probably be found. That there is a culture acteristic distinctive of this area, irrespective of the linguistic African ]j ne diving the Bantu from the Negro proper, has now been recognized. Its main features may be summed as follows: — a purely agricultural life, with the plan- tain, yam and manioc (the last two of American origin) as the staple food; cannibalism common; rectangular houses with ridged roofs; scar-tattooing; clothing of bark-cloth or palm-fibre; occasional chipping or extraction of upper incisors; bows with strings of cane, as the principal weapons, shields of wood or wickerwork: religion, a primitive form of fetishism with the belief that death is due to witchcraft; ordeals, secret societies, the use of masks and anthropomorphic figures, and wooden gongs. With this may be contrasted the culture of the Bantu peoples to the south and east, also agriculturists, but in addition, where possible, great cattie-breeders, whose staple food is millet and milk. These are distinguished by circular huts with domed or conical roofs; clothing of skin or leather; occasional chipping or extraction of lower incisors; spears as the principal weapons, bows, where found, with a sinew cord, shields of hide or leather; religion, ancestor-worship with belief in the . power of the magicians as rain-makers. Though this difference in culture may well be explained on the supposition that the first is the older and more 'representative of Africa, this theory must not be pushed too far. Many of the distinguishing characteristics of the two regions are doubtless due simply to environment, even the difference in religion. Ancestor-worship occurs most naturally among a people where tribal organization has reached a fairly advanced stage, and is the natural outcome of patriotic reverence for a successful chief and his councillors. Rain-making, too, is of little importance in a well-watered region, but a matter of vital interest to an agricultural people where the rainfall is slight and irregular. Within the eastern and southern Bantu area certain cultural variations occur; beehive huts are found among the Zulu- Xosa and Herero, giving place among the Bechuana to the cylindrical variety with conical roof, a type which, with few exceptions, extends north to Abyssinia. The tanged spear- head characteristic of the south is replaced by the socketed variety towards the north. Circumcision, characteristic of the Zulu-Xosa and Bechuana, is not practised by many tribes farther north; tooth-mutilation, on the contrary, is absent among the more southern tribes. The lip-plug is found in the eastern area, especially among the Nyasa tribes, but not in the south. The head-rest common in the south-east and the southern fringe of the forest area is not found far north of Tanganyika until the Horn of Africa is reached. In the regions outside the western area occupied by the Negro proper, exclusive of the upper Nile, the similarities of culture outweigh the differences. Here the cylindrical type of hut prevails; clothing is of skin or leather but is very scanty; iron ornaments are worn in profusion; arrows are not feathered; shields of hide, spears with leather sheaths are found and also fighting bracelets. Certain small differences appear between the eastern and western portions, the dividing line being formed by the boundary between Bornu and Hausaland. Characteristic of the east are the harp and the throwing-club and throwing- knife, the last of which has penetrated into the forest area. Typical of the west are the bow and the dagger with the ring hilt. The tribes of the upper Nile are somewhat specialized, though here, too, are found the cylindrical hut, iron ornaments, fighting bracelets, &c, characteristic of the Sudanese tribes. Here the removal of the lower incisors is common, and circum- cision entirely absent. Throughout the rest of the Sudan is found Senjitic culture introduced by the Arabized Libyan. Circumcision, as is usual among Mahommedan tribes, is universal, and tooth-mutilation absent; of other characteristics, the use of the sword has pene- trated to the northern portion of the forest area. The culture prevailing in the Horn of Africa is, naturally, mainly Hamito- Semitic; here are found both cylindrical and bee-hive huts, the sword (which has been adopted by the Masai to the south), the lyre (which has found its way to some of the Nilotic tribes) and the head-rest. Circumcision is practically universal. As has been said earlier, the history of Africa reaches back but a short distance, except, of course, as far as the lower Nile valley and Roman Africa is concerned; elsewhere no records exist, save tribal traditions, and these only relate to very recent events. Even archaeology, which can often sketch the main outlines of a people's history, is here practically powerless, owing to the insufficiency of data. It is true that stone imple- ments of palaeolithic and neolithic types are found sporadically in the Nile valley, Somaliland, on the Zambezi, in Cape Colony and the northern portions of the Congo Free State, as well as in Algeria and Tunisia; but the localities are far too few and too widely separated to warrant the inference that they are to be in any way connected. Moreover, where stone implements are found they are, as a rule, very near, even actually on, the surface of the earth; nothing occurs resembling the regular stratification of Europe, and consequently no argument based on geological grounds is possible. The lower Nile valley, however, forms an exception; flint implements of a palaeolithic type have been found near Thebes, not only on the surface of the ground, which for several thousand years has been desert owing to the contraction of the river-bed, but also in stratified gravel of an older date. References to a number of papers bearing on the discussion to which theii discovery has given rise may be found in an article by Mr H. R. Hall in Man, 1905, No. 19. The Egyptian and also the Somali- land finds appear to be true palaeoliths in type and remarkably similar to those found in Europe. But evidence bearing on the Stone age in Africa, if the latter existed apart from the localities mentioned, is so slight that little can be said save that from the available evidence the palaeoliths of the Nile valley alone can with any degree of certainty be assigned to a remote period of antiquity, and that the chips scattered over Mashonaland and the regions occupied within historic times by Bushmen are the most recent; since it has been shown that the stone flakes were used by the medieval Makalanga to engrave their hard pottery and the Bushmen were still using stone implements in the 19th century. Other early remains, but of equally uncertain date, are the stone circles of Algeria, the Cross river and the Gambia. The large system of ruined forts and " cities " in Mashonaland, at Zimbabwe and elsewhere, concerning which so many ingenious theories have been woven, have been proved to date from medieval times. Thus while in Europe there is a Stone age. divided into periods according to various types of implement disposed in geological strata, and followed in orderly succession by the ages origin and of Bronze and Iron, in Africa can be found no true spread of Stone age and practically no Bronze at all. The reason tbe ra < !lal is not far to seek; Africa is a country of iron, which is s ° c found distributed widely throughout the continent in ores so rich that the metal can be extracted with very little trouble and by the simplest methods. Iron has been worked from time immemorial by the Negroid peoples, and whole tribes are found whose chief industry is the smelting and forging of the metal. Under such conditions, questions relating to the origin and spread of the racial stocks which form the population of Africa cannot be answered with any certainty; at best only a certain amount of probability can be attained. Five of these racial stocks have been mentioned: Bushman, Negro, Hamite, Semite, Libyan, the last three probably related through some common ancestor. Of these the honour of being considered the most truly African belongs to the two first. It is true that people of Negroid type are found elsewhere, princi- pally in Melanesia, but as yet their possible connexion with the African Negro is little more than theoretical, and for the present purposes it need not be considered. The origin of the Bushman is lost in obscurity, but he may be conceived as the original inhabitant of the southern portion of the continent. The original home of the Negro, at first an 328 AFRICA [ETHNOLOGY agriculturist, is most probably to be found in the neighbourhood of the great lakes, whence he penetrated along the fringe of the Sahara to the west and across the eastern highlands southward. Northerly expansion was prevented by the early occupation of the Nile valley, the only easy route to the Mediterranean, but there seems no doubt that the population of ancient Egypt contained a distinct Negroid element. The question as to the ethnic affinities of the pre-dynastic Egyptians is still unsolved; but they may be regarded as, in the main, Hamitic, though it is a question how far it is just to apply a name which implies a definite specialization in what may be comparatively modern times to a people of such antiquity. The Horn of Africa appears to have been the centre from which the Hamites spread, and the pressure they seem to have applied to the Negro tribes, themselves also in process of expan- sion, sent forth larger waves of emigrants from the latter. These emigrants, already affected by the Hamitic pastoral culture, and with a strain of Hamitic blood in their veins, passed rapidly down the open tract in the east, doubtless exterminating their predecessors, except such few as took refuge in the mountains and swamps. The advance-guard of this wave of pastoral Negroids, in fact primitive Bantu, mingled with the Bushmen and produced the Hottentots. The penetration of the forest area must certainly have taken longer and was probably accom- plished as much from the south-east, up the Zambezi valley, as from any Other quarter. It was a more peaceful process, since natural obstacles are unfavourable to rapid movements of large bodies of immigrants, though not so serious as to prevent the spread of language and culture. A modern parallel to the spread of Bantu speech is found in the rise of the Hausa language, which is gradually enlarging its sphere of influence in the western and central Sudan. Thus those qualities, physical and otherwise, in which the Bantu approach the Hamites gradually fade as we proceed westward through the Congo basin, while in the east, among the tribes to the west of Tanganyika and on the upper Zambezi, " transitional " forms of culture are found. In later times this gradual pressure from the south-east became greater, and resulted, at a comparatively recent date, in the irruption of the Fang into the Gabun. The earlier stages of the southern movement must have been accompanied by a similar movement westward between the Sahara and the forest; and, probably, at the same time, or even earlier, the Libyans crossing the desert had begun to press upon the primitive Negroes from the north. In this way were produced the Fula, who mingled further with the Negro to give birth to the Mandingo, Wolof and Tukulor. It would appear that either Libyan (Fula) or, less probably, Hamitic, blood enters into the composition of the Zandeh peoples on the Nile-Congo watershed. These Libyans or Berbers, included by G. Sergi in his " Mediter- ranean Race," were active on the north coast of Africa in very early times, and had relations with the Egyptians from a pre- historic period. For long these movements continued, always in the same direction, from north to south and from east to west; though, of course, more rapid changes took place in the open country, especially in the great eastern highway from north to south, than in the forest area. Large states arose in the western Sudan; Ghana flourished in the 7th century a.d., Melle in the nth, Songhai in the 14th, and Bornu in the 16th. Meanwhile in the east began the southerly movement of the Bechuana, which was probably spread over a considerable period. Later than they, but proceeding faster, came the Zulu-Xosa (" Kaffir ") peoples, who followed a line nearer the coast and outflanked them, surrounding them on the south. Then followed a time of great ethnical confusion in South Africa, during which tribes flourished, split up and disappeared; but ere this the culture represented by the ruins in Rhodesia had waxed and waned. It is uncertain who were the builders of the forts and " cities," but it is not improbable that they may be found to have been early Bechuana. The Zulu-Xosa, Bechuana and Herero together form a group which may conveniently be termed " Southern Bantu." Finally began a movement hitherto unparalleled in the history of African migration; certain peoples of Zulu blood began to press north, spreading destruction in their wake. Of these the principal were the Matabele and Angoni. The move- ment continued as far as the Victoria Nyanza. Here, on the border-line of Negro, Bantu and Hamite, important changes had taken place. Certain of the Negro tribes had retired to the swamps of the Nile, and had become somewhat specialized, both physically and culturally (Shilluk, Dinka, Alur, Acholi, &c). These had blended with the Hamites to produce such races as the Masai and kindred tribes. The old Kitwara empire, which comprised the plateau land between the Ruwenzori range and Kavirondo, had broken up into small states, usually governed by a Hamitic (Ba-Hima) aristocracy. The more extensive Zang (Zenj) empire, of which the name Zanzibar (Zanguebar) is a lasting memorial, extending along the sea-board from Somaliland to the Zambezi, was also extinct. The Arabs had established themselves firmly on the coast, and thence made continual slave-raids into the interior, penetrating later to the Congo. The Swahili, inhabiting the coast-line from the equator to about 16° S., are a somewhat heterogeneous mixture of Bantu with a tinge of Arab blood. In the neighbourhood of Victoria Nyanza, where Hamite, Bantu, Nilotic Negro and Pygmy are found in close contact, the ethnic relations of tribes are often puzzling, but the Bantu not under a Hamitic domination have been divided by F. Stuhlmann into the Older Bantu (Wanyamwezi, Wasukuma, Wasambara, Waseguha, Wasagara, Wasaramo, &c.) and the Bantu of Later Immigration (Wakikuyu, Wakamba, Wapokomo, Wataita, Wachaga, &c), who are more strongly Hamitized and in many cases have adopted Masai customs. These peoples, from the Victoria Nyanza to the Zambezi, may conveniently be termed the " Eastern Bantu." Turning to the Congo basin in the south, the great Luba and Lunda peoples are found stretching nearly across the continent, the latter, from at any rate the end of the 16th century until the close of the 19th century, more or less united under a single ruler, styled Muata Yanvo. These seem to have been the most recent immigrants from the south-east, and to exhibit certain affinities with the Barotse on the upper Zambezi. Among the western Baluba, or Bashilange, a remarkable politico-religious revolution took place at a comparatively recent date, initiated by a secret society termed Bena Riamba or " Sons of Hemp," and resulted in the subordination of the old fetishism to a cult of hemp, in accordance with which all hemp-smokers consider themselves brothers, and the duty of mutual hospitality, &c, is acknow- ledged. North of these, in the great bend of the Congo, are the Balolo, &c, the Balolo a nation of iron-workers; and westward, on the Kasai, the Bakuba, and a large number of tribes as yet imperfectly known. Farther west are the tribes of Angola, many of whom were included within the old " Congo empire," of which the kingdom of Loango was an offshoot. North of the latter lies the Gabun, with a large number of small tribes dominated by the Fang who are recent arrivals from the Congo. Farther to the north are the Bali and other tribes of the Cameroon, among whom many primitive Negroid elements begin to appear. Eastward are the Zandeh peoples of the Welle district (primitive Negroids with a Hamitic or, more probably, Libyan strain) , with whom the Dor tribe of Nilotes on their eastern border show certain affinities; while to the west along the coast are the Guinea Negroes of primitive type. Here, amidst great linguistic confusion, may be distinguished the tribes of Yoruba speech in the Niger delta and the east portion of the Slave Coast; those of Ewe speech, in the western portion of the latter; and those of Ga and Tshi speech, on the Gold Coast. Among the last two groups respectively may be mentioned the Dahomi and Ashanti. Similar tribes are found along the coast to the Bissagos Islands, though the introduction in Sierra Leone and Liberia of settlements of repatriated slaves from the American plantations has in those places modified the original ethnic distribution. Leaving the forest zone and entering the more open country there are, on the north from the Niger to the Nile, a number of Negroids strongly tinged with Libyan blood and professing the Mahornmedan religion. Such are the ETHNOLOGY] AFRICA 329 In Mads gascar, Mandingo, the Songhai, the Fula, Hausa, Kanuri, Bagirmi, Kanembu, and the peoples of Wadai and Darfur; the few aborigines who persist, on the southern fringe of the Chad basin, are imperfectly known. The island of Madagascar, belonging to the African continent, still remains for discussion. Here the ethnological conditions are Peculiar peculiar. Before the French occupation the dominant conditions people were the Hova, a Malayo-Indonesian people who must have come from the Malay Peninsula or the adjacent islands. The date of their immigration has been the subject of a good deal of dispute, but it may be argued that their arrival must have taken place in early times, since Malagasy speech, which is the language of the island, is principally Malayo- Polynesian in origin, and contains no traces of Sanskrit. Such traces, introduced with Hinduism, are present in all the cultivated languages of Malaysia at the present day. The Hova occupy the table-land of Imerina and form the first of the three main groups into which the population of Madagascar may be divided. They are short, of an olive-yellow complexion and have straight or faintly wavy hair. On the east coast are the Malagasy, who in physical characteristics stand halfway between the Hova and the Sakalava, the last occupying the remaining portion of the island and displaying almost pure Negroid characteristics. Though the Hova belong to a race naturally addicted to sea- faring, the contrary is the case respecting the Negroid population, and the presence of the latter in the island has been explained by the supposition that they were imported by the Hova. Other authorities assign less antiquity to the Hova immigration and believe that they found the Negroid tribes already in occupation of the island. As might be expected, the culture found in Madagascar con- tains two elements, Negroid and Malayo-Indonesian. The first of these two shows certain affinities with the culture characteristic of the western area of Africa, such as rectangular huts, clothing of bark and palm-fibre, fetishism, &c, but cattle-breeding is found as well as agriculture. However, the Negroid tribes are more and more adopting the customs and mode of life of the Hova, among whom are found pile-houses, the sarong, fadi or tabu applied to food, a non- African form of bellows, &c, all characteristic of their original home. The Hova, during the 19th century! em- braced Christianity, but retain, nevertheless, many of their old animistic beliefs; their original social organization in three classes, andriana or nobles, hova or freemen, and andevo or slaves, has been modified by the French, who have abolished kingship and slavery. An Arab infusion is also to be noticed, especially on the north-east and south-east, coasts. It is impossible to give a complete list of the tribes inhabiting Africa, owing to the fact that the country is not fully explored. Even where the names of the tribes are known their ethnic relations are still a matter of uncertainty in many localities. The following list, therefore, must be regarded as purely tenta- tive, and liable to correction in the light of fuller information: — AFRICAN TRIBAL DISTRIBUTION LIBYANS (North Africa, excluding Egypt) Berbers, including — Kabyles Mzab Shawia Tuareg LIBYO-NEGROID TRANSITIONAL Fula (West Sudan) Tibbu (Central Sudan) HA MITES (East Sudan and Horn of Africa) Beja, including — Ababda Hadendoa Bisharin Beni-Amer Hamran HA MITES— continued (East Sudan and Horn of Africa) — continued Galla _ Somali Danakil (Afar) Ba-Hima, including — Wa-Tussi Wa-Hha Wa-Rundi Wa- Ruanda HAMITO-SEMITES Fellahin (Egypt) Abyssinians (with Negroid admixture) HAMITO-NEGROID TRANSITIONAL Masai Wa-Kuafi NEGROID TRIBES West Sudan Tukulor Wolof Serer Leybu Mandingo, including- Kassonke Yallonke Soninke Bambara Vei Susu Solima Malinke Probably also — Mossi Borgu Central Sudan Songhai Hausa Bagirmi Kanembu Kanuri Tama Maba Birkit Massalit Korunga Kabbaga &c. Eastern Fur Dago Kunjara Tegele Nuba Kargo Kulfan Kolaji Tumali Zondek Tribes (Akin to Nilotics, but probably with Fula element) Azandeh (Niam Niam) Makaraka Mundu Mangbettu Ababwa Mege Abisanga Tombo MabodefP^r Momfu [element Gurma Gurunga aably wi andingar lements Dagomba Allied are — Mampursi Banziri Languassi Gonja ss" Ndris Wia-Wia &c. a. Togbo Awaka &c. NEGROES West African Tribes Tribes of Tshi and Ga Tribes of Yoruba speech, including — speech, including — Khabunk& Balanta Ashanti Yoruba Bagnori Safwi Ibadan Bagnum Denkera Ketu Felup, including — Bekwai Egba Ayamat Nkoranza Tebu Remo Jola Adansi Jigush Assin Ode Vaca Wassaw Illorin Joat Karon Ahanta Ijesa Fanti Ondo Banyum Agona Mahin Banjar Akwapim Bini Fulum Akim Kakanda Bayot Akwamu Wari &c. Kwao Ibo Bujagos Ga Efik Biafare Andoni Landuman Tribes of Ewe speech, Kwa Nalu including — Ibibio Baga Ekoi Sape Dahomi Inokun Bulam Eweawo Akunakuna Mendi Agotine Munshi Limba Krepi Ik we Gallina Avenor Timni Awuna Pessi Agbosomi Gola Aflao Kondo Ataklu Bassa Krikor Kru Geng Grebo Attakpami ■ Awekwom Aja Agni Ewemi Oshiu Appa 33° AFRICA [ETHNOLOGY NEGROES — continued Central Negroes Bolo Yako Tangala Kali Mishi Doma Mosgu, including — Mandara Margi Logon Gamergu Keribina Yedina Kuri &c. Nilotics with affinity with Zandeh tribes Dor (Bongo) NEGRO-BANTU TRANSITIONAL Bali Ba-Kossi Ba-Ngwa Ba-Nyang Ngolo Ba-Fo Ba-Kundu > Isubu Ba-Kwiri Abo Dualla Bassa Ba-Noko Ba-Puko Ba-Koko Eastern Negroes Pure Nilotics Shilluk Nuer Dinka Jur (Diur) Mittu Tibbeh Madi Lendu Alur (Lur) Acholi Lango Abaka Golo Nilotics with affinity with Masai Latuka Bari NILOTIC-BANTU TRANSITIONAL Ja-Luo PYGMY TRIBES (Central Africa) Akka Ba-Mbute Ba-Bongo Ashango &c. BANTU NEGROIDS— continued Western Western Ogowe Ashira Ishogo Ashango Bakalai Nkomi Orungu Mpongwe Oshekiani Benga Ininga Galao Apingi Okanda Osaka Aduma Mbamba Urn bete Bule Bane Yaunde Maka Bomone Kunabembe Fang (recent im- migrants from the Congo group) &c. Ba-Kongo, in- cluding — Mushi-Kongo Mussorongo Kabinda Ka-Kongo Ba-Vili Ma-Yumbe Ba-Lumbo Ba-Sundi Ba-Bwende Ba-Lali Ba-Kunya BANTU NEGROIDS Central Luba-Lunda Group Ba-Luba, including — Ba-Songe Wa-Rua Wa-Guha Katanga Ba-Shilange (with Ba-Kete ele- ment) Ba-Lunda Probably connected are — Manyema Ba-Kumu Wa-Regga Ba-Rotse, including — Ma-Mbunda Ma-Supia Ma-Shukulumbwe Ba-Tonga and probably Va-Lovale Eastern Lacuslrians Ba-Nyoro Ba-Toro Wa-Siba Wa-Sinja Wa-Kerewe Wa-Shashi Wa-Rundi Ba-Iro Ba-Ganda Ba-Soga Ba-Kavirondo, includ- ing — Awaware Awarimi Awakisii &c. Tribes of the Congo Betid Ba-Kussu Ba-Tetela Ba-Songo Mino .Ba-Kuba Ba-Lolo Ba-Kuti Ba-Mbala Ba-Huana Ba-Yaka Ba-Pindi Ba-Kwese &c. Tribes of the Congo Bank Wa-Genia Ba-Soko Ba-Poto Mobali Mogwandi _ .. , fconnected Ba-Ngalal ^^ Zan . Ba-Bangi], deh group Wa-Buma Bantu of Recent Immigration Wa-Kikuyu Wa-Kamba Wa-Pokomo Wa-Duruma Wa-Digo Wa-Giriama Wa-Taita Wa-Nyaturu Wa-Iramba Wa-Mbugwe Wa-Kaguru ... _ fpossible Wa-Gogo J Masai Wa-Chaga [element Older Bantu Wa-Nyamwezi, includ- ing— Wa-Sukuma Wa-Sumbwa Wa-Nyanyembe Wa-Tui Wa-Kimbu Wa-Kanongo Wa-Wende He Central Ba-Nunu Ba-Loi Ba-Teke Wa-Pfuru Wa-Mbundu Wa-Mfumu Ba-Nsinik Ma-Wumba Ma-Yakalla &c. TRANSITIONAL FROM CENTRAL TO SOUTHERN BANTU Amboela Ganguela Kioko Minungo Imbangala Ba-Achinji Golo Hollo &c. Mbunda peoples in- cluding — Bihe Dembo Mbaka Ngola Bondo Ba-Ngala Songo Haku Lubolo Kisama &c. Eastern Wa-Gunda Wa-Guru Wa-Galla Wa-Sambara Wa-Seguha Wa-Nguru Wa-Sagara Wa-Doe Wa-Khutu Wa-Saramo Wa-Hehe Wa-Bena Wa-Sanga Wa-Swahili (with Arab elements) Connected are — Wa-Kisi Wa-Mpoto Ba-Tonga Ba-Tumbuka Wa-Nyika Wa- Nyam wanga A-Mambwe Wa-Fipa Wa-Rungu A-Wemba A-Chewa A-Maravi Ba-Senga Ba-Bisa A-Jawa (Yaos) Wa-Mwera Wa-Gindo Ma-Konde Ma-Wia Ma-Nganja Ma-Kua SO UTHERN BANTU {.South and South-East Africa) J3 j-^2 Ba-Nyai Ma-Kalanga, including Mashoha Ba-Ronga £ffl J *C Be-Chuana, includ- ing — Ba-Tlapin Ba-Rolong Ba-Ratlou Ba-Taung Ba-Rapulana Ba-Seleka Ba-Hurutsi Ba-Tlaru Ba-Mangwato Ba-Tauana Ba-Ngwaketse Ba-Kuena &c. HAMITO-BANTU BUSHMAN TRANSITIONAL Hottentots, in-"1 eluding — I S. W. Namaqua [Africa Koranna J Ama-Zulu, including— Ama-Swazi Ama-Tonga Matabele Angoni Ma-Gwangwara Ma-Huhu Ma-Viti Ma-Situ Ma-Henge &c. Ama-Xosa, including- Ama-Gcaleka Ama-Hahabe Ama-Ngqika Ama-Tembu Ama-Pondo &c. Ova-Herero Ova-Mpo BUSHMEN TRIBES IN MADAGASCAR MALA YO-INDONESIANS Hova Betsileo (slight Bantu admixture) HOVA-BANTU TRANSITIONAL Malagasy, including — Bestimisaraka Antanosi Antambahoaka Antsihanaka Antaimoro Antanala Antaifasina Antaisara Antaisaka &c. BANTU-NEGROIDS Sakalava, including — Menabe Milaka Ronondra Mahafali &C. (T. A. J.) HISTORY] AFRICA 33 1 IV. History The origin and meaning of the name of the continent are discussed elsewhere (see Africa, Roman). The word Africa was applied originally to the country in the immediate neighbour- hood of Carthage, that part of the continent first known to the Romans, and it was subsequently extended with their increas- ing knowledge, till it came at last to include all that they knew of the continent. The Arabs still confine the name Ifrikia to the territory of Tunisia. The valley of the lower Nile was the home in remotest antiquity of a civilized race. Egyptian culture had, however, remarkably Phoenician little direct influence on the rest of the continent, a and Greek result due in large measure to the fact that Egypt is colon iza- snut g landwards by immense deserts. If ancient ""*• Egypt and Ethiopia (q.v.) be excluded, the story of Africa is largely a record of the doings of its Asiatic and European conquerors and colonizers, Abyssinia being the only state which throughout historic times has maintained its independence. The countries bordering the Mediterranean were first exploited by the Phoenicians, whose earliest settlements were made before iooo B.C. • Carthage, founded about 800 B.C., speedily grew into a city without rival in the Mediterranean, and the Phoenicians, subduing the Berber tribes, who then as now formed the bulk of the population, became masters of all the habitable region of North Africa west of the Great Syrtis, and found in commerce a source of immense prosperity. Both Egyptians and Carthaginians made attempts to reach the un- known parts of the continent by sea. Herodotus relates that an expedition under Phoenician navigators, employed by Necho, king of Egypt, c. 600 B.C., circumnavigated Africa from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean, a voyage stated to have been accom- plished in three years. Apart from the reported circumnaviga- tion of the continent, the west coast was well known to the Phoenicians as far as Cape Nun, and c. 520 B.C. Hanno, a Cartha- ginian, explored the coast as far, perhaps, as the Bight of Benin, certainly as far as Sierra Leone. A vague knowledge of the Niger regions was also possessed by the Phoenicians. Meantime the first European colonists had planted themselves in Africa. At the point where the continent approaches nearest the Greek islands, Greeks founded the city of Cyrene (c. 631 B.C.). Cyrenaica became a flourishing colony, though being hemmed in on all sides by absolute desert it had little or no influence on inner Africa. The Greeks, however, exerted a powerful influence in Egypt. To Alexander the Great the city of Alexandria owes its foundation (332 B.C.), and under the Hellenistic dynasty of the Ptolemies attempts were made to penetrate southward, and in this way was obtained some knowledge of Abyssinia. Neither Cyrenaica nor Egypt was a serious rival to the Carthaginians, but all three powers were eventually supplanted by the Romans. After centuries of rivalry for supremacy 1 the struggle was ended by the fall of Carthage in 146 B.C. Within little more than a century from that date Egypt and Cyrene had become incorporated in the Roman empire. Under Rome the settled portions of the country were very prosperous, and a Latin strain was introduced into the land. Though Fezzan was occupied by them, the Romans elsewhere found the Sahara an impassable barrier. Nubia and Abyssinia were reached, but an expedition sent by the emperor Nero to discover the source of the Nile ended in failure. The utmost extent of geographical knowledge of the continent is shown in the writings of Ptolemy (2nd century a.d.), who knew of or guessed the existence of the great lake reservoirs of the Nile and had heard of the river Niger. Still Africa for the civilized world remained simply the countries bordering the Mediterranean. The continual struggle between Rome and the Berber tribes; the introduction of Christianity and the glories and sufferings of the Egyptian and African Churches; the invasion and conquest of the African provinces 1 Commercial treaties between Carthage and Rome were made in the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. The first armed conflict between the rival powers, begun in 264 B.C., was a contest for the possession of Sicily. by the Vandals in the 5th century; the passing of the supreme power in the following century to the Byzantine empire — all these events are told fully elsewhere. In the 7 th century of the Christian era occurred an event destined to have a permanent influence on the whole continent. Invading first Egypt, an Arab host, fanatical believers NortB in the new faith of Mahommed, conquered the whole Africa country from the Red Sea to the Atlantic and carried conquered the Crescent into Spain. Throughout North Africa b Y tb J ! Christianity well-nigh disappeared, save in Egypt (where the Coptic Church was suffered to exist), and Upper Nubia and Abyssinia, which were not subdued by the Moslems. In the 8th, 9th and 10th centuries the Arabs in Africa were numerically weak; they held the countries they had conquered by the sword only, but in the nth century there was a great Arab immigration, resulting in a large absorption of Berber blood. Even before this the Berbers had very generally adopted the speech and religion of their conquerors. Arab influence and the Mahommedan religion thus became indelibly stamped on northern Africa. Together they spread southward across the Sahara. They also became firmly established along the eastern sea-board, where Arabs, Persians and Indians planted flourishing colonies, such as Mombasa, Malindi and Sofala, playing a role, maritime and commercial, analogous to that filled in earlier centuries by the Carthaginians on the northern sea-board. Of these eastern cities and states both Europe and the Arabs of North Africa were long ignorant. The first Arab invaders had recognized the authority of the caliphs of Bagdad, and the Aghlabite dynasty — founded by Aghlab, one of Haroun al Raschid's generals, at the close of the 8th century — ruled as vassals of the caliphate. However, early in the 10th century the Fatimite dynasty established itself in Egypt, where Cairo had been founded a.d. 968, and from there ruled as far west as the Atlantic. Later still arose other dynasties such as the Almoravides and Almohades. Eventually the Turks, who had conquered Constantinople in 1453, a ££f „7 the Moors bein g led bv Abd el Malek I. of the then recently established Sharifan dynasty. By that time the Spaniards had lost almost all their African possessions. The Barbary states, primarily from the example of the Moors expelled from Spain, degenerated into, mere communities of pirates, and under Turkish influence civilization and commerce declined. The story of these states from the beginning of the 16th century to the third decade of the 19th century is largely made up of piratical exploits on the one hand and of ineffectual reprisals on the other. In Algiers, Tunis and other cities were thousands of Christian slaves. But with the battle of Ceuta Africa had ceased to belong solely to the Mediterranean world. Among those who fought there was one, Prince Henry " the Navigator," son of King ofthe"* J onn !•) w h° was nred 'with the ambition to acquire Guinea for Portugal the unknown parts of Africa. Under his Coast— inspiration and direction was begun that series of Rise of voyages of exploration which resulted in the circum- trade. navigation of Africa and the establishment of Portu- guese sovereignty over large areas of the coast-lands. Cape Bojador was doubled in 1434, Cape Verde in 1445, and by 1480 the whole Guinea coast was known. In 1482 Diogo Cam or Cao discovered the mouth of the Congo, the Cape of Good Hope was doubled by Bartholomew Diaz in 1488, and in 1498 Vasco da Gama, after having rounded the Cape, sailed up the east coast, touched at Sofala and Malindi, and went thence to India. Over all the countries discovered by their navigators Portugal claimed sovereign rights, but these were not exercised in the ex- treme south of the continent. The Guinea coast, as the first dis- covered and the nearest to Europe, was first exploited. Numerous forts and trading stations were established, the earliest being Sao Jorge da Mina (Elmina), begun in 1482. The chief commodities dealt in were slaves, gold, ivory and spices. The discovery of America (1492) was followed by a great development of the slave trade, which, before the Portuguese era, had been an overland trade almost exclusively confined to Mahommedan Africa. The lucrative nature of this trade and the large quantities of alluvial gold obtained by the Portuguese drew other nations to the Guinea coast. English mariners went thitheras early as 1553, and they were followed by Spaniards, Dutch, French, Danish and other adventurers. Much of Senegambia was made known as a result of quests during the 16th century for the " hills of gold " in Bambuk and the fabled wealth of Timbuktu, but the middle Niger was not reached. The supremacy along the coast passed in the 17th century from Portugal to Holland and from Holland in the 18th and 19th centuries to France and England. The whole coast from Senegal to Lagos was dotted with forts and " factories " of rival powers, and this international patchwork persists though all the hinterland has become either French or British territory. Southward from the mouth of the Congo 1 to the inhospit- able region of Damaraland, the Portuguese, from 1491 onward, acquired influence over the Bantu-Negro inhabitants, and in the early part of the 16th century through their efforts Christianity was largely adopted in the native kingdom of Congo. An irrup- tion of cannibals from the interior later in the same century broke the power of this semi-Christian state, and Portuguese activity was transferred to a great extent farther south, Sao Paulo de Loanda being founded in 1 576. The sovereignty of Portugal over this coast region, except for the mouth of the Congo, has been once only challenged by a European power, and that was in 1640- 1648, when the Dutch held the seaports. Neglecting the comparatively poor and thinly inhabited regions of South Africa, the Portuguese no sooner discovered 1 This river was called by the Portuguese the Zaire. They appear to have made no attempt to trace its course beyond the rapids which stop navigation from the sea. than they coveted the flourishing cities held by Arabized peoples between Sofala and Cape Guardafui. By 1520 all these Moslem sultanates had been seized by Portugal, Mozambique The being chosen as the chief city of her East African Portuguese possessions. Nor was Portuguese activity confined to '» Bast thg coast-lands. The lower and middle Zambezi valley ^^jf was explored (16th and 17th centuries), and here the Portuguese found semi-civilized Bantu-Negro tribes, who had been for many years in contact with the coast Arabs. Strenuous efforts were made to obtain possession of the country (modern Rhodesia) known to them as the kingdom or empire of Monomo- tapa, where gold had been worked by the natives from about the 12th century a.d., and whence the Arabs, whom the Portuguese dispossessed, were still obtaining supplies in the 16th century. Several expeditions were despatched inland from 1569 onward and considerable quantities of gold were obtained. Portugal's hold on the interior, never very effective, weakened during the 17 th century, and in the middle of the 18th century ceased with the abandonment of the forts in the Manica district. At the period of her greatest power Portugal exercised a strong influence in Abyssinia also. In the ruler of Abyssinia (to whose dominions a Portuguese traveller had penetrated before Vasco da Gama's memorable voyage) the Portuguese imagined they had found the legendary Christian king, Prester John, and when the complete overthrow of the native dynasty and the Christian religion was imminent by the victories of Mahommedan invaders, the exploits of a band of 400 Portuguese under Christo- pher da Gama during 1 541-1543 turned the scale in favour of Abyssinia and had thus an enduring result on the future of North- East Africa. After da Gama's time Portuguese Jesuits resorted to Abyssinia. While they failed in their efforts to convert the Abyssinians to Roman Catholicism they acquired an extensive knowledge of the country. Pedro Paez in 161 5, and, ten years later, Jeronimo Lobo, both visited the sources of the Blue Nile. In 1663 the Portuguese, who had outstayed their welcome, were expelled from the Abyssinian dominions. At this time Portu- guese influence on the Zanzibar coast was waning before the power of the Arabs of Muscat, and by 1730 no point on the east coast north of Cape Delgado was held by Portugal. It has been seen that Portugal took no steps to acquire the southern part of the continent. To the Portuguese the Cape of Good Hope was simply a landmark on the road to India, and mariners of other nations who followed in ani Dutch their wake used Table Bay only as a convenient spot at Table wherein to refit on their voyage to the East. By the Bay—Cape beginning of the 17th century the bay was much re- ^ u ° n n J e ^ sorted to for this purpose, chiefly by English and Dutch vessels. In 1620, with the object of forestalling the Dutch, two officers of the East India Company, on their own initiative, took possession of Table Bay in the name of King James, fearing otherwise that English ships would be " frustrated of watering but by license." Their action was not approved in London and the proclamation they issued remained without effect. The Netherlands profited by the apathy of the English. On the advice of sailors who had been shipwrecked in Table Bay the Netherlands East India Company, in 1651, sent out a fleet of three small vessels under Jan van Riebeek which reached Table Bay on the 6th of April 1652, when, 164 years after its discovery, the first permanent white settlement was made in South Africa. The Portuguese, whose power in Africa was already waning, were not in a position to interfere with the Dutch plans, and England was content to seize the island of St Helena as her half-way house to the East. 2 In its inception the settlement at the Cape was not intended to become an African colony, but was regarded as the most westerly outpost of the Dutch East Indies. Nevertheless, despite the paucity of ports and the absence of navigable rivers, the Dutch colonists, freed from any apprehension of European trouble by the friendship between Great Britain and Holland, and leavened by Huguenot blood, gradually spread northward, 2 France acquired, as stations for her ships on the voyage to and from India, settlements in Madagascar and the neighbouring islands. The first settlement was made in 1642. HISTORY] AFRICA 333 stamping their language, law and religion indelibly upon South Africa. This process, however, was exceedingly slow. During the 18th century there is little to record in the history of Africa. The nations of Europe, engaged in the later half of the w . century in almost constant warfare, and struggling for and supremacy in America and the East, to a large extent revival of lost their interest in the continent. Only on the west '"'"?*' coast was there keen rivalry, and here the motive was the securance of trade rather than territorial acqui- sitions. In this century the slave trade reached its highest de- velopment, the trade in gold, ivory, gum and spices being small in comparison. In the interior of the continent — Portugal's energy being expended — no interest was shown, the nations with establishments on the coast " taking no further notice of the inhabitants or their land than to obtain at the easiest rate what they procure with as little trouble as possible, or to carry them off for slaves to their plantations in America " {Encyclopaedia Britan- nica, 3rded., 1797). Even the scanty knowledge acquired by the ancients and the Arabs was in the main forgotten or disbelieved. It was the period when — Geographers, in Afric maps, With savage pictures filled their gaps, And o'er unhabitable downs Placed elephants for want of towns. (Poetry, a Rhapsody. By Jonathan Swift.) The prevailing ignorance may be gauged by the statement in the third edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica that " the Gambia and Senegal rivers are only branches of the Niger." But the closing years of the 18th century, which witnessed the partial awakening of the public conscience of Europe to the iniquities of the slave trade, were also notable for the revival of interest in inner Africa. A society, the African Association, 1 was formed in London in 1788 for the exploration of the interior of the continent. The era of great discoveries had begun a little earlier in the famous journey (1770-177 2) of James Bruce through Abyssinia and Sennar, during which he determined the course of the Blue Nile. But it was through the agents of the African Association that knowledge was gained of the Niger regions. The Niger itself was first reached by Mungo Park, who travelled by way of the Gambia, in 1795. Park, on a second journey in 1805, passed Timbuktu and descended the Niger to Bussa, where he lost his life, having just failed to solve the question as to where the river reached the ocean. (This problem was ultimately solved by Richard Lander and his brother in 1830.) The first scientific explorer of South-East Africa, Dr Francisco de Lacerda, a Portuguese, also lost his life in that country. Lacerda travelled up the Zambezi to Tete, going thence towards Lake Mweru, near which he died in 1 798. The first recorded crossing of Africa was accomplished between the years 1802 and 181 1 by two half-caste Portuguese traders, Pedro Baptista and A. Jose, who passed from Angola eastward to the Zambezi. Although the Napoleonic wars distracted the attention of Europe from exploratory work in Africa, those wars nevertheless _ exercised great influence on the future of the con- ofthe tinent, both in Egypt and South Africa. The occupa- Napoleonlc tion of Egypt (1798-1803) first by France and then r'h'T k y Great Britain resulted in an effort by Turkey to seizes the re 8 am direct control over that country, 2 followed in Cape. 181 1 by the establishment under Mehemet Ali of an almost independent state, and the extension of Egyp- tian rule over the eastern Sudan (from 1820 onward). In South Africa the struggle with Napoleon caused Great Britain to take possession of the Dutch settlements at the Cape, and in 1814 Cape Colony, which had been continuously occupied by British troops since 1806, was formally ceded to the British crown. The close of the European conflicts with the battle of Waterloo was followed by vigorous efforts on the part of the British govern- ment to become better acquainted with Africa, and to substitute colonization and legitimate trade for the slave traffic, declared 1 The Association, in 1831, was merged in the Royal Geographical Society. 2 The Mamelukes, whom the Turks had overthrown in the 16th century, had regained practically independent power. illegal for British subjects in 1807 and abolished by all other European powers by 1836. To West Africa Britain devoted much attention. The slave trade abolitionists had already, in 1788, formed a, settlement at Sierra Leone, on the Guinea coast, for freed slaves, and from this establishment grew the colony of Sierra Leone, long notorious, by reason of its deadly climate, as " The White Man's Grave." 3 Farther east the establishments on the Gold Coast began to take a part in the politics of the interior, and the first British mission to Kumasi, despatched in 1817, led to the assumption of a protectorate over the maritime tribes heretofore governed by the Ashanti. An expedition sent in 1816 to explore the Congo from its mouth did not succeed in getting beyond the rapids which bar the way to the interior, but in the central Sudan much better results were obtained. In 1823 three English travellers, Walter Oudney, Dixon Denham and Hugh Clapperton, reached Lake Chad from Tripoli — the first white men to reach that lake. The partial exploration of Bornu and the Hausa states by Clapperton, which followed, revealed the existence of large and flourishing cities and a semi-civilized people in a region hitherto unknown. The discovery in 1830 of the mouth of the Niger by Clapperton's servant Lander, already mentioned, had been preceded by the journeys of Major A. G. Laing (1826) and Rene Caillie (1827) to Timbuktu, and was followed (1832-1833) by the partial ascent of the Benue affluent of the Niger by MacGregor Laird. In 1841 a disastrous attempt was made to plant a white colony on the lower Niger, an expedition (largely philanthropic and anti- slavery in its inception) which ended in utter failure. Never- theless from that time British traders remained on the lower Niger, their continued presence leading ultimately to the acquisi- tion of political rights over the delta and the Hausa states by Great Britain. 4 Another endeavour by the British government to open up commercial relations with the Niger countries resulted in the addition of a vast amount of information concerning the countries between Timbuktu and Lake Chad, owing to the labours of Heinrich Barth (1850-1855), originally a subordinate, but the only surviving member of the expedition sent out. Meantime considerable changes bad been made in other parts of the continent, the most notable being — the occupation of Algiers by France in 1830, an end being thereby put to the piratical proceedings of the Barbary states; the continued expansion southward of Egyptian authority with the consequent additions to the knowledge of the Nile; and the establishment of independent states (Orange Free State and the Transvaal) by Dutch farmers (Boers) dissatisfied with British rule in Cape Colony. Natal, so named by Vasco da Gama, had been made a British colony (1843), the attempt of the Boers to acquire it being frustrated. The city of Zanzibar, on the island of that name, founded in 1832 by Seyyid Said of Muscat, rapidly attained importance, and Arabs began to penetrate to the great lakes ol East Africa, 5 concerning which little more was known (and less, believed) than in the time of Ptolemy. Accounts of a vast inland sea, and the discovery in 1848-1849, by the missionaries Ludwig Krapf and J. Rebmann, of the snow-clad mountains of Kili- manjaro and Kenya, stimulated in Europe the desire for further knowledge. At this period, the middle of the 19th century, Protestant missions were carrying on active propaganda on the Guinea coast, in South Africa and in the Zanzibar dominions. Their work, largely beneficent, was being conducted T ^ eera in regions and among peoples little known, and in exp / orers . many instances missionaries turned explorers and became pioneers of trade and empire. One of the first to attempt to fill up the remaining blank spaces in the map was David Livings tone, who had been engaged since 1840m missionary work north of the Orange. In 1849 Livingstone crossed the Kalahari Desert from south to north and reached Lake Ngami. 3 In imitation of the British example, an American society founded in 1822 the negro colony (now republic) of Liberia. 4 The first territorial acquisition made by Great Britain in this region was in 1851, when Lagos Island was annexed. 6 As early as 1848 an Arab from Zanzibar journeying across the continent had arrived at Benguella. 334 AFRICA [HISTORY and between 185 1 and 1856 he traversed the continent from west to east, making known the great waterways of the upper Zambezi. During these journeyings Livingstone discovered, November 1855, the famous Victoria Falls, so named after the queen of England. In 1858-1864 the lower Zambezi, the Shire and Lake Nyasa were explored by Livingstone, Nyasa having been first reached by the confidential slave of Antonio da Silva Porto, a Portuguese trader established at Bihe in Angola, who crossed Africa during 1853-1856 from Benguella to the mouth of the Rovuma. While Livingstone circumnavigated Nyasa, the more northerly lake, Tanganyika, had been visited (1858) by Richard Burton and J. H. Speke, and the last named had sighted Victoria Nyanza. Returning to East Africa with J. A. Grant, Speke reached, in 1862, the river which flowed from Victoria Nyanza, and following it (in the main) down to Egypt, had the distinction of being the first man to read the riddle of the Nile. In 1864 another Nile explorer, Samuel Baker, discovered the Albert Nyanza, the chief western reservoir of the river. In 1866 Livingstone began his last great journey, in which he made known Lakes Mweru and Bangweulu and discovered the Lualaba (the upper part of the Congo), but died (1873) before he had been able to demonstrate its ultimate course, believing indeed that the Lualaba belonged to the Nile system. Livingstone's lonely death in the heart of Africa evoked a keener desire than ever to complete the work he left undone. H. M. Stanley, who had in 1 87 1 succeeded in finding and succouring Livingstone, started again for Zanzibar in 1874, and in the most memorable of all exploring expeditions in Africa circumnavigated Victoria Nyanza and Tanganyika, and, striking farther inland to the Lualaba, followed that river down to the Atlantic Ocean — reached in August 1877 — and proved it to be the Congo. Stanley had been preceded, in 1874, at Nyangwe, Livingstone's farthest point on the Lualaba, by Lovett Cameron, who was, however, unable farther to explore its course, making his way to the west coast by a route south of the Congo. While the great mystery of Central Africa was being solved explorers were also active in other parts of the continent. Southern Morocco, the Sahara and the Sudan were traversed in many directions between i860 and 1875 by Gerhard Rohlfs, Georg Schweinfurth and Gustav Nachtigal. These travellers not only added considerably to geographical knowledge, but obtained invaluable information concerning the people, languages and natural history of the countries in which they sojourned. 1 Among the discoveries of Schweinfurth was one that confirmed the Greek legends of the existence beyond Egypt of a pygmy race. But the first discoverer of the dwarf races of Central Africa was Paul du Chaillu, who found them in the Ogowe district of the west coast in 1865, five years before Schweinfurth's first meeting with the Pygmies; du Chaillu having previously, as the result of journeys in the Gabun country between 1855 and 1859, made popular in Europe the knowledge of the existence of the gorilla, perhaps the gigantic ape seen by Hanno the Cartha- ginian, and whose existence, up to the middle of the 19th century, was thought to be as legendary as that of the Pygmies of Aristotle. In South Africa the filling up of the map also proceeded apace. The finding, in 1869, of rich diamond fields in the valley of the Vaal river, near its confluence with the Orange, caused a rush of emigrants to that district, and led to conflicts between the Dutch and British authorities and the extension of British authority northward. In 1871 the ruins of the great Zimbabwe in Mashonaland, the chief fortress and distributing centre of the race which in medieval times worked the goldfields of South- East Africa, were explored by Karl Mauch. In the following year F. C. Selous began his journeys over South Central Africa, which continued for more than twenty years and extended over every part of Mashonaland and Matabeleland. (F. R. C.) V. Partition among European Powers In the last quarter of the 19th century the map of Africa was transformed. After the discovery of the Congo the story of 1 Another great traveller of this stamp was Wilhelm Junker, who spent the greaterpartof the period i875-i886inthe east centralSudan. exploration takes second place; the continent becomes the theatre of European expansion. Lines of partition, drawn often through trackless wildernesses, marked out the possessions of Germany, France, Great Britain and other powers. Railways penetrated the interior, vast areas were opened up to civilized occupation, and from ancient Egypt to the Zambezi the continent was startled into new life. Before 1875 the only powers with any considerable interest in Africa were Britain, "Portugal and France. Between 1815 and 1850, as has been shown above, the British government devoted much energy, not always informed by knowledge, 'to western and southern Africa. In both directions Great Britain had met with much discouragement; on the west coast, disease, death, decaying trade and useless conflicts with savage foes had been the normal experience; in the south recalcitrant Boers and hostile Kaffirs caused almost endless trouble. The visions once entertained of vigorous negro Communities at once civilized and Christian faded away; to the hot fit of philan- thropy succeeded the cold fit of indifference and a disinclination to bear the burden of empire. The low-water mark of British interest in South Africa was reached in 1854 when independence was forced on the Orange River Boers, while in 1865 the mind of the nation was fairly reflected by the unanimous resolution of a representative House of Commons committee: 2 "that all further extension of territory or assumption of government, or new treaty offering any protection to native tribes, would be inexpedient." For nearly twenty years the spirit of that resolu- tion paralysed British action in Africa, although many circum- stances — the absence of any serious European rival, the in- evitable border disputes with uncivilized races, and the activity of missionary and trader — conspired to make British influence dominant in large areas of the continent over which the govern- ment exercised no definite authority. The freedom with which blood and treasure were spent to enforce respect for the British flag or to succour British subjects in distress, as in the Abyssinian campaign of 1867-68 and the Ashanti war of 1873, tended further to enhance the reputation of Great Britain among African races, while, as an inevitable result of the possession of India, British officials exercised considerable power at the court of Zanzibar, which indeed owed its separate existence to a decision of Lord Canning, the governor-general of India, in 1861 recognizing the division of the Arabian and African dominions of the imam of Muscat. It has been said that Great Britain was without serious rival. On the Gold Coast she had bought the Danish forts in 1850 and acquired the Dutch, 1871-1872, in exchange for establishments in Sumatra. But Portugal still held, both in the east and west of Africa, considerable stretches of the tropical coast-lands, and it was in 1875 that she obtained, as a result of the arbitration of Marshal MacMahon, possession of the whole of Delagoa Bay, to the southern part of which England also laid claim by virtue of a treaty of cession concluded with native chiefs in 1823. The only other European power which at the period under considera- tion had considerable possessions in Africa was France. Besides Algeria, France had settlements on the Senegal, where in 1854 the appointment of General Faidherbe as governor marked the beginning of a policy of expansion; she had also various posts on the upper Guinea coast, had taken the estuary of the Gabun as a station for her navy, and had acquired (1862) Obok at the southern entrance to the Red Sea. In North Africa the Turks had (in 1835) assumed direct control of Tripoli, while Morocco had fallen into a state of decay though retaining its independence. The most remarkable change was in Egypt, where the Khedive Ismail had introduced a somewhat fantastic imitation of European civilization. In addition Ismail had conquered Darfur, annexed Harrar and the Somali ports on the Gulf of Aden, was extending his power southward to the equatorial lakes, and even contemplated reach- ing the Indian Ocean. The Suez Canal, opened in 1869, had a great influence on the future of Africa, as it again made Egypt the highway to the East, to the detriment of the Cape route. 2 Specially appointed to consider West African affairs. HISTORY] AFRICA 33.5 Any estimate of the area of African territory held by European nations in 1875 is necessarily but approximate, and varies chiefly The divi- as tne com Piler of statistics rejects or accepts the sioaoftbe vague claims of Portugal to sovereignty over the continent hinterland of her coast possessions. At that period in 1875. other European nations — with the occasional excep- tion of Great Britain — were indifferent to Portugal's preten- sions, and her estimate of her African empire as covering over 700,000 sq. m. was not challenged. 1 But the area under effective control of Portugal at that time did not exceed 40,000 sq. m. Great Britain then held some 250,000 sq. m., France about 170,000 sq. m. and Spain 1000 sq. m. The area of the independent Dutch republics (the Transvaal and Orange Free State) was some 150,000 sq. m., so that the total area of Africa ruled by Europeans did not exceed 1,271,000 sq. m.; roughly one-tenth of the continent. This estimate, as it admits the full extent of Portuguese claims and does not include Madagascar, in reality considerably overstates the case. Egypt and the Egyptian Sudan, Tunisia and Tripoli were subject in differing ways to the overlordship of the sultan of Turkey, and with these may be ranked, in the scale of organized governments, the three principal independent states, Morocco, Abyssinia and Zanzibar, as also the negro republic of Liberia. There remained, apart from the Sahara, roughly one half of Africa, lying mostly within the tropics, inhabited by a multitude of tribes and peoples living under various forms of govern- ment and subject to frequent changes in respect of political organization. In this region were the negro states of Ashanti, Dahomey and Benin on the west coast, the Mahommedan sultanates of the central Sudan, and a number of negro kingdoms in the east central and south central regions. Of these Uganda on the north-west shores of Victoria Nyanza, Cazembe and Muata Hianvo (or Yanvo) may be mentioned. The two last- named kingdoms occupied respectively the south-eastern and south-western parts of the Congo basin. In all this vast region the Negro and Negro-Bantu races predominated, for the most part untouched by Mahommedanism or Christian influences. They lacked political cohesion, and possessed neither the means nor the inclination to extend their influence beyond their own borders. The exploitation of Africa continued to be entirely the work of alien races. The causes which led to the partition of Africa may now be considered. They are to be found in the economic and political Causes state of western Europe at the time. Germany, which led strong and united as the result of the Franco-Prussian to par- War of 1870, was seeking new outlets for her energies Mioa - — new markets for her growing industries, and with the markets, colonies. Yet the idea of colonial expansion was of slow growth in Germany, and when Prince Bismarck at length acted Africa was the only field left to exploit, South America being protected from interference by the known determination of the United States to enforce the Monroe Doctrine, while Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain already held most of the other regions of the world where coloniza- tion was possible. For different reasons the war of 1870 was also the starting-point for France in the building up of a new colonial empire. In her endeavour to regain the position lost in that war France had to look beyond Europe. To the two causes mentioned must be added others. Great Britain and Portugal, when they found their interests threatened, bestirred themselves, while Italy also conceived it necessary to become an African power. Great Britain awoke to the need for action too late to secure predominance in all the regions where formerly hers was the only European influence. She had to contend not only with the economic forces which urged her rivals to action, but had also to combat the jealous opposition of almost every European nation to the further growth of British power. Italy alone acted throughout in cordial co-operation with Great Britain. It was not, however, the action of any of the great powers 1 See the tables in Behm and Wagner's Bevolkerune der Erie (Gotha, 1872). of Europe which precipitated the struggle. This was brought about by the ambitious projects of Leopold II., king of the Belgians. The discoveries of Livingstone, Stanley and others had aroused especial interest among two classes of men in western Europe, one the manufacturing and trading class, which saw in Central Africa possibilities of commercial develop- ment, the other the philanthropic and missionary class, which beheld in the newly discovered lands millions of savages to Christianize and civilize. The possibility of utilizing both these classes in the creation of a vast state, of which he should be the chief, formed itself in the mind of Leopold II. even before Stanley had navigated the Congo. The king's action was immediate; it proved successful; but no sooner was the nature of his project understood in Europe than it provoked the rivalry of France and Germany, and thus the international struggle was begun. EmtryWallMf SC At this point it is expedient, in the light of subsequent events, to set forth the designs then entertained by the European powers that participated in the struggle for Africa. Portugal was striving to retain as large a share as possible of lng ambl . her shadowy empire, and particularly to establish her tions of claims to the Zambezi region, so as to secure a belt of *^ e territory across Africa from Mozambique to Angola. European powers. Great Britain, once aroused to the imminence of danger, put forth vigorous efforts in East Africa and on the Niger, but her most ambitious dream was the establishment of an unbroken line of British possessions and spheres of influence from south to north of the continent, from Cape Colony to Egypt. Germany's ambition can be easily described. It was to secure as much as possible, so as to make up for lost opportunities. Italy coveted Tripoli, but that province could not be seized without risking war. For the rest Italy's territorial ambitions were confined to North-East Africa, where she hoped to acquire a dominating influence over Abyssinia. French ambitions, apart from Mada- gascar, were confined to. the northern and central portions of the continent. To extend her possessions on the Mediterranean littoral, and to connect them with her colonies in West Africa, the western Sudan, and on the Congo, by establishing her in- fluence over the vast intermediate regions, was France's first ambition. But the defeat of the Italians in Abyssinia and the impending downfall of the khalifa's power in the valley of the: upper Nile suggested a still more daring project to the French government — none other than the establishment of French< 336 AFRICA [HISTORY influence over a broad belt of territory stretching across the continent from west to east, from Senegal on the Atlantic coast to the Gulf of Aden. The fact that France possessed a small part of the Red Sea coast gave point to this design. But these conflicting ambitions could not all be realized, and Germany succeeded in preventing Great Britain obtaining a continuous band of British territory from south to north, while Great Britain, by excluding France from the upper Nile valley, dispelled the French dream of an empire from west to east. King Leopold's ambitions have already been indicated. The part of the continent to which from the first he directed his energies was the equatorial region. In September 1876 he took what may be described as the first definite step in the modern partition of the continent. He summoned to a conference at Brussels representatives of Great Britain, Belgium, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy and Russia, to deliberate on the best methods to be adopted for the exploration and civilization of Africa, and the opening up of the interior of the continent to commerce and industry. The conference was entirely unofficial. The delegates who attended neither repre- sented nor pledged their respective governments. Their deliberations lasted three days and resulted in the foundation of " The International African Association," • with its head- quarters at Brussels. It was further resolved to establish national committees in the various countries represented, which should collect funds and appoint delegates to the International Association. The central idea appears to have been to put the exploration and development of Africa upon an international footing. But it quickly became apparent that this was an unattainable ideal. The national committees were soon working independently of the International Association, and the Associa- tion itself passed through a succession of stages until it became purely Belgian in character, and at last developed into the Congo Free State, under the personal sovereignty of King Leopold. At first the Association devoted itself to sending expeditions to the great central lakes from the east coast; but failure, more or less complete, attended its efforts in this direction, and it was not until the return of Stanley, in January 1878, from his great journey down the Congo, that its ruling spirit, King Leopold, definitely turned his thoughts towards the Congo. In June of that year, Stanley visited the king at Brussels, and in the following November a private conference was held, and a committee was appointed for the investigation of the upper Congo. Stanley's remarkable discovery had stirred ambition in other capitals than Brussels. France had always taken a keen interest The in West Africa, and in the years 1875 to 1878 Savorgnan struggle de Brazza had carried out a successful exploration of the Ogowe river to the south of the Gabun. De Brazza determined that the Ogowe did not offer that great waterway into the interior of which he was in search, and he returned to Europe without having heard of the discoveries of Stanley farther south. Naturally, however, Stanley's dis- coveries were keenly followed in France. In Portugal, too, the discovery of the Congo, with its magnificent unbroken waterway of more than a thousand miles into the heart of the continent, served to revive the languid energies of the Portuguese, who promptly began to furbish up claims whose age was in inverse ratio to their validity. Claims, annexations and occupations were in the air, and when in January 1879 Stanley left Europe as the accredited agent of King Leopold and the Congo com- mittee, the strictest secrecy was observed as to his real aims and intentions. The expedition was, it was alleged, proceeding up the Congo to assist the Belgian expedition which had entered from the east coast, and Stanley himself went first to Zanzibar. But in August 1879 Stanley found himself again at Banana Point, at the mouth of the Congo, with, as he himself has written, " the novel mission of sowing along its banks civilized settlements to peacefully conquer and subdue it, to remould it in harmony with modern ideas into national states, within whose limits the European merchant shall go hand in hand with the dark African trader, and justice and law and order shall prevail, and murder for the Congo, and lawlessness and the cruel barter of slaves shall be overcome." The irony of human aspirations was never perhaps more plainly demonstrated than in the contrast between the ideal thus set before themselves by those who employed Stanley, and the actual results of their intervention in Africa. Stanley founded his first station at Vivi, between the mouth of the Congo and the rapids that obstruct its course where it breaks over the western edge of the central continental plateau. Above the rapids he estab- lished a station on Stanley Pool and named it Leopoldville, founding other stations on the main stream in the direction of the falls that bear his name! Meanwhile de Brazza was far from idle. He had returned to Africa at the beginning of 1880, and while the agents of King Leopold were making treaties and founding stations along the southern bank of the river, de Brazza and other French agents were equally busy on the northern bank. De Brazza was sent out to Africa by the French committee of the International African Association, which provided him with the funds for the expedition. His avowed object was to explore the region between the Gabun and Lake Chad. But his real object was to anticipate Stanley on the Congo. The international character of the association founded by King Leopold was never more than a polite fiction, and the rivalry between the French and the Belgians on the Congo was soon open, if not avowed. In October 1880 de Brazza made a solemn treaty with a chief on the north bank of the Congo, who claimed that his authority extended over a large area, including territory on the southern bank of the river. As soon as this chief had accepted French protection, de Brazza crossed over to the south of the river, and founded a station close to the present site of Leopoldville. The discovery by Stanley of the French station annoyed King Leopold's agent, and he promptly challenged the rights of the chief who purported to have placed the country under French protection, and him- self founded a Belgian station close to the site selected by de Brazza. In the result, the French station was withdrawn to the northern side of Stanley Pool, where it is now known as Brazzaville. The activity of French and Belgian agents on the Congo had not passed unnoticed in Lisbon, and the Portuguese government saw that no time was to be lost if the claims it had never ceased to put forward on the west coast were not to go by default. At varying periods during the 19th century Portugal had put forward claims to the whole of the West African coast, between 5° 12' and 8° south. North of the Congo mouth she claimed the territories of Kabinda and Molemba, alleging that they had been in her possession since 1484. Great Britain had never, however, admitted this claim, and south of the Congo had declined to recognize Portuguese possessions as extending north of Ambriz. In 1856 orders were given to British cruisers to prevent by force any attempt to extend Portuguese dominion north of that place. But the Portuguese had been persistent in urging their claims, and in 1882 negotiations were again opened with the British government for recognition of Portuguese rights over both banks of the Congo on the coast, and for some distance inland. Into the details of the negotiations, which were conducted for Great Britain by the 2nd Earl Granville, who was then secretary for foreign affairs, it is unnecessary to enter; they resulted in the signing on the 26th of February 1884 of a treaty, by which Great Britain recognized the sovereignty of the king of Portugal " over that part of the west coast of Africa, situated between 8° and 5° 12' south latitude," and inland as far as Noki, on the south bank of the Congo, below Vivi. The navigation of the Congo was to be controlled by an Anglo-Portuguese commission. The publication of this treaty evoked immediate protests, not only on the continent but in Great Britain. In face of the disapproval aroused by the treaty, Lord Granville found himself unable to ratify it. The protests had not been confined to France and the king of the Belgians. Germany had not yet acquired formal footing in Africa, but she was crouching for the spring prior to taking her part in the scramble, and Prince Bismarck had expressed, in vigorous language, the objections entertained by Germany to the Anglo-Portuguese treaty. HISTORY] AFRICA 337 South Africa. For some time before 1884 there had been growing up a general conviction that it would be desirable for the powers who were interesting themselves in Africa to come to some agreement as to " the rules of the game," and to define their respective interests so far as that was practicable. Lord Granville's ill- fated treaty brought this sentiment to a head, and it was agreed to hold an international conference on African affairs. But before discussing the Berlin conference of 1884-1885, it will be well to see what was the position, on the eve of the conference, in other parts of the African continent. In the southern section of Africa, south of the Zambezi, important events had been happening. In 1876 Great Britain had concluded an agreement with the Orange Free State for an adjustment of influence frontiers, the result of which was to leave the Kimberley consoH- diamond fields in British territory, in exchange for dated fa a payment of £90,000 to the Orange Free State. On the 1 2th of April 1877 Sir Theophilus Shepstone had issued a proclamation declaring the Transvaal — the South African Republic, as it was officially designated — to be British territory (see Transvaal). In December 1880 war broke out and lasted until March 1881, when a treaty of peace was signed. This treaty of peace was followed by a convention, signed in August of the same year, under which complete self- government was guaranteed to the inhabitants of the Transvaal, subject to the suzerainty of Great Britain, upon certain terms and conditions and subject to certain reservations and limitations. No sooner was the convention signed than it became the object of the Boers to obtain a modification of the conditions and limita- tions imposed, and in February 1884 a fresh convention was signed, amending the convention of 1881. Article IV. of the new convention provided that " The South African Republic will conclude no treaty or engagement with any state or nation other than the Orange Free State, nor with any native tribe to the eastward or westward of the Republic, until the same has been approved by Her Majesty the Queen." The precise effect of the two conventions has been the occasion for interminable discussions, but as the subject is now one of merely academic interest, it is sufficient to, say that when the Berlin conference held its first meeting in 1884 the Transvaal was practically independent, so far as its internal administration was con- cerned, while its foreign relations were subject to the control just quoted. But although the Transvaal had thus, between the years 1875 and 1884, become and ceased to be British territory, British influence in other parts of Africa south of the Zambezi had been steadily extended. To the west of the Orange Free State, Griqualand West was annexed to the Cape in 1880, while to the east the territories beyond the Kei river were included in Cape Colony between 1877 and 1884, so that in the latter year, with the exception of Pondoland, the whole of South-East Africa was in one form or another under British control. North of Natal, Zululand was not actually annexed until 1887, although since 1879, when the military power of the Zulus was broken up, British influence had been admittedly supreme. In December 18S4 St Lucia Bay — upon which Germany was casting covetous eyes — had been taken possession of in virtue of its cession to Great Britain by the Zulu king in 1843, and three years later an agreement of non-cession to foreign powers made by Great Britain with ths regent and paramount chief of Tongaland completed the chain of British possessions on the coast of South Africa, from the mouth of the Orange river on the west to Kosi Bay and the Portuguese frontier on the east. In the interior of South Africa the year 1884 witnessed the beginning of that final stage of the British advance towards the north which was to extend British influence from the Cape to the southern shores of Lake Tanganyika. The activity of the Germans on the west, and of the Boer republic on the east, had brought home to both the imperial and colonial authorities the impossibility of relying on vague traditional claims. In May 18S4 treaties were made with native chiefs by which the whole of the country north of Cape Colony, west of the Transraal, south of 22° S. and east of 20° E., was placed under British protection, though a protectorate was not formally declared until the following January. Meanwhile some very interesting events had been taking place or the west coast, north of the Orange river and south of the Portuguese province of Mossamedes. It must be sufficient here to touch very briefly on the events that preceded the foundation of the colony of German South- West Africa. For many years before 1884 German missionaries had settled among the Damaras (Herero) and Namaquas, often combining small trading opera- tions with their missionary work. From time to time trouble arose between the missionaries and the native chiefs, and appeals were made to the German government for protection. The German government in its turn begged the British ^^"^ government to say whether it assumed responsibility fleW- for the protection of Europeans in Damaraland and Namaqualand. The position of the British government was intelligible, if not very intelligent. It did not desire to see any other European power in these countries, and it did not want to assume the responsibility and incur the expense of protecting the few Europeans settled there. Sir Bartle Frere, when governor of the Cape (18 7 7-1880), had foreseen that this attitude portended trouble, and had urged that the whole of the unoccupied coast- line, up to the Portuguese frontier, should be declared under British protection. But he preached to deaf ears, and it was as something of a concession to him that in March 1878 the British flag was hoisted at Walfish Bay, and a small part of the adjacent land declared to be British. The fact appears to be that British statesmen failed to understand the change that had come over Germany. They believed that Prince Bismarck would never give his sanction to the creation of a colonial empire, and, to the German inquiries as to what rights Great Britain claimed in Damaraland and Namaqualand, procrastinating replies were sent. Meanwhile the various colonial societies established in Germany had effected a revolution in public opinion, and, more important still, they had convinced the great chancellor. Accordingly when, in November 1882, F. A. E. Liideritz, a Bremen merchant, informed the German government of his intention to establish a factory on the coast between the Orange river and the Little Fish river, and asked if he might rely on the protection of his government in case of need, he met with no discouragement from Prince Bismarck. In February 1883 the German ambassador in London informed Lord Granville of Liideritz's design, and asked " whether Her Majesty's government exercise any authority in that locality." It was intimated that if Her Majesty's government did not, the German government would extend to Luderitz's factory " the same measure of pro- tection which they give to their subjects in remote parts of the world, but without having the least design to establish any foot- ing in South Africa." An inconclusive reply was sent, and on the 9th of April Luderitz's agent landed at Angra Pequefia, and after a short delay concluded a treaty with the local chief, by which some 215 square miles around Angra Pequefia were ceded to Liideritz. In England and at the Cape irritation at the news was mingled with incredulity, and it was fully anticipated that Liideritz would be disavowed by his government. But for this belief it can scarcely be doubted that the rest of the unoccupied coast-line would have been promptly declared under British protection. Still Prince Bismarck was slow to act. In November the German ambassador again inquired if Great Britain made any claim over this coast, and Lord Granville replied that Her Majesty exercised sovereignty only over certain parts of the coast, as at Walfish Bay, and suggested that arrangements might be made by which Germany might assist in the settlement of Angra Pequefia. By this time Liideritz had extended his acquisi- tions southwards to the Orange river, which had been declared by the British government to be the northern frontier of Cape Colony. Both at the Cape and in England it was now realized that Germany had broken away from her former purely con- tinental policy, and, when too late, the Cape parliament showed great eagerness to acquire the territory which had lain so long at its very doors, to be had for the taking. It is not necessary to follow the course of the subsequent negotiations. On the 15th 338 AFRICA [HISTORY West Africa. of August 1884 an official note was addressed by the German consul at Capetown to the high commissioner, intimating that the German emperor had by proclamation taken " the territory belonging to Mr A. Luderitz on the west coast of Africa under the direct protection of His Majesty." This proclamation covered the coast-line from the north bank of the Orange river to 26° S. latitude, and 20 geographical miles inland, including " the islands belonging thereto by the law of nations." On the 8th of September 1884 the German government intimated to Her Majesty's government " that the west coast of Africa from 26 S. latitude to Cape Frio, excepting Walfish Bay, had been placed under the protection of the German emperor." Thus, before the end of the year 1884, the foundations of Germany's colonial empire had been laid in South- West Africa. In April of that year Prince Bismarck intimated to the British government, through the German charge d'affaires in London, Nachtigai's that " the imperial consul-general, Dr Nachtigal, has mission to been commissioned by my government to visit the west coast of Africa in the course of the next few months, in order to complete the information now in the posses- sion of the Foreign Office at Berlin, on the state of German com- merce on that coast. With this object Dr Nachtigal will shortly embark at Lisbon, on board the gunboat ' Mowe.' He will put himself into communication with the authorities in the British possessions on the said coast, and is authorized to conduct, on behalf of the imperial government, negotiations connected with certain questions. I venture," the official communication proceeds, " in accordance with my instructions, to beg your excellency to be so good as to cause the authorities in the British possessions in West Africa to be furnished with suitable recommendations." Although at the date of this communication it must have been apparent, from what was happening in South Africa, that Germany was prepared to enter on a policy of colonial expansion, and although the wording of the letter was studiously vague, it does not seem to have occurred to the British government that the real object of Gustav Nachtigai's journey was to make other annexations on the west coast. Yet such was indeed his mission. German traders and missionaries had been particularly active of late years on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. German factories were dotted all along the coast in districts under British'protec- tion, under French protection and under the definite protection of no European power at all. It was to these latter places that Nachtigal turned his attention. The net result of his operations was that on the 5 th of July 1884 a treaty was signed with the king of Togo, placing his country under German protection, and that just one week later a German protectorate was proclaimed over the Cameroon district. Before either of these events had occurred Great Britain had become alive to the fact that she could no longer dally with the subject, if she desired to consolidate her possessions in West Africa. The British government had again and again refused to accord native chiefs the protection they demanded. The Cameroon chiefs had several times asked for British protection, and always in vain. But at last it became apparent, even to the official mind, that rapid changes were being effected in Africa, and on the 16th of May Edward Hyde Hewett, British consul, received instructions to return to the west coast and to make arrangements for extending British protection over certain regions. He arrived too late to save either Togoland or Cameroon, in the latter case arriving five days after King Bell and the other chiefs on the river had signed treaties with Nachtigal. But the British consul was in time to secure the delta of the river Niger and the Oil Rivers District, extending from Rio del Rey to the Lagos frontier, where for a long period British traders had held almost a monopoly of the trade. Meanwhile France, too, had been busy treaty-making. While the British government still remained under the spell of the Preach and ^^ resolution of 1865, the French government was British strenuously endeavouring to extend France's influence rivalry la i n West Africa, in the countries lying behind the coast- AMca ^ ne ' -During the year 1884 no fewer than forty-two treaties were concluded with native chiefs, an even larger number having been concluded in the previous twelve months. In this fashion France was pushing on towards Timbuktu, in steady pursuance of the policy which resulted in surrounding all the old British possessions in West Africa with a continuous band of French territory. There was, however, one region on the west coast where, notwithstanding the lethargy of the British government, British interests were being vigorously pushed, protected and consolidated. . This was on the lower Niger, and the leading spirit in the enterprise was Mr Goldie Taubman (afterwards Sir George Taubman Goldie). In 1877 Sir George Goldie visited the Niger and conceived the idea of establishing a settled government in that region. Through his efforts the various trading firms en the lower Niger formed themselves in 1879 into the " United African Company," and the foundations were laid of something like settled administra- tion. An application was made to the British government for a charter in 1881, and the capital of the company increased to a million sterling. Henceforth the company was known as the " National African Company," and it was acknowledged that its object was not only to develop the trade of the lower Niger, but to extend its operations to the middle reaches of the river, and to open up direct relations with the great Fula empire of Sokoto and the smaller states associated with Sokoto under a somewhat loosely defined suzerainty. The great development of trade which followed the combination of British interests carried out under Goldie's skilful guidance did not pass unnoticed in France, and, encouraged by Gambetta, French traders made a bold bid for a position on the river. Two French companies, with ample capital, were formed, and various stations were established on the lower Niger. Goldie realized at once the seriousness of the situation, and lost no time in declaring com- mercial war on the newcomers. His bold tactics were entirely successful, and a few days before the meeting of the Berlin conference he had the satisfaction of announcing that he had bought out the whole of the French interests on the river, and that Great Britain alone possessed any interests on the lower Niger. To complete the survey of the political situation in Africa at the time the plenipotentiaries met at Berlin, it is necessary to refer briefly to the course of events in North and East jheposi- Africa since 1875. In 1881 a French army entered Hon in Tunisia, and compelled the bey to sign a treaty placing ' ru " 1 ^ ,a that country under French protection. The sultan of Turkey formally protested against this invasion of Ottoman rights, but the great powers took no action, and France was left in undisturbed possession of her newly acquired territory. In Egypt the extravagance of Ismail Pasha had led to .he establishment in 1879, in the interests of European bond- holders, of a Dual Control exercised by France and Great Britain. France had, however, in 1882 refused to take part in the suppres- sion of a revolt under Arabi Pasha, which England accomplished unaided. As a consequence the Dual Control had been abolished in January 1883, since when Great Britain, with an army quartered in the country, had assumed a predominant position in Egyptian affairs (see Egypt). In East Africa, north of the Portuguese possessions, where the sultan of Zanzibar was the most considerable native potentate, Germany was secretly preparing the foundations of her present colony of German East Africa. But no overt act had warned Europe of what was impending. The story of the foundation of German East Africa is one of the romances of the continent. Early in 1884 the Society for German Colonization was founded, with the avowed object of furthering the newly awakened colonial aspirations of the German people. 1 It was a society inspired and controlled by young men, and on the 4th of November 1884, eleven days before the conference assembled at Berlin, three young Germans arrived as deck passengers at Zanzibar. They were disguised as mechanics, but were in fact Dr Karl Peters, the president of the Colonization Society, Joachim Count Pfeil, and Dr Jiihlke, and their stock-in-trade consisted of a number 1 In 1887 this society united with the German Colonial Society, an organization founded in 1882. The united society took the title of the German Colonial Company. HISTORY] AFRICA 339 Associa- tion. of German flags and a supply of blank treaty forms. They proposed to land on the mainland opposite Zanzibar, and The to conclude treaties in the back country with native German chiefs placing their territories under German pro- nag raised tection. The enterprise was frowned upon by the '?^? st German government; but, encouraged by German residents at Zanzibar, the three young pioneers crossed to the mainland, and on the 19th of November, while the diplo- matists assembled at Berlin were solemnly discussing the rules which were to govern the game of partition, the first " treaty " was signed at Mbuzini, and the German flag raised for the first time in East Africa. Italy had also obtained a footing on the African continent before the meeting of the Berlin conference. The Rubattino Steamship Company as far back as 1870 had bought the port of Assab as a coaling station, but it was not until 1882 that it was declared an Italian colony. This was followed by the conclusion of a treaty with the sultan of Assab, chief of the Danakil, signed on the 15th of March 1883, and subsequently approved by the king of Shoa, whereby Italy obtained the cession of part of Ablis (Aussa) on the Red Sea, Italy undertaking to protect with her fleet the Danakil littoral. One other event must be recorded as happening before the meeting of the Berlin conference. The king of the Belgians had been driven to the conclusion that, if his African Recogal- > . . . , tioaoftbe enterprise was to obtain any measure of permanent inter- success, its international status must be recognized. national

was Ifift m tne British sphere, and the in west German boundary followed the circle eastwards from Centra/ the point of intersection as it neared Yola until it AMca - met the Benue river. From that point it crossed the river to the intersection of the 13th degree of longitude with the 10th degree of north latitude, and then made direct for a point on the southern shore of Lake Chad " situated 35 minutes east of the meridian of Kuka." By this agreement the British government withdrew from a considerable section of the upper waters of the Benue with which the Royal Niger Company had entered into relations. The limit of Germany's possible extension eastwards was fixed at the basin of the river Shari, and Darfur, Kordofan and the Bahr-el-Ghazal were to be excluded from her sphere of influence. The object of Great Britain in making the sacrifice she did was two-fold. By satisfying Germany's desire for a part of Lake Chad a check was put on French designs on the Benue region, while by recognizing the central Sudan (Wadai, &c.) in the German sphere, a barrier was interposed to the advance of France from the Congo to the Nile. This last object was not attained, inasmuch as Germany in coming to terms with France as to the southern and eastern limits of Cameroon abandoned her claims to the central Sudan. She had already, on the 24th of December 1885, signed a protocol with France fixing her southern frontier, where it was coterminous with the French Congo colony. But to the east German explorers were crossing the track of French explorers from the northern bank of the Ubangi, and the need for an agreement was obvious. Accordingly, on the 4th of February 1894, a protocol — which, some weeks later, was confirmed by a convention — was signed at Berlin, by which France accepted the presence of Germany on Lake Chad as a fait accompli and effected the best bargain she could by making the left bank of the Shari river, from its outlet into Lake Chad to the 10th parallel of north latitude, the eastern limit of German extension. From this point the boundary line went due west some 230 m., then turned south, and with various indentations joined the south-eastern frontier, which had been slightly extended so as to give Germany access to the Sanga river — a tributary of the Congo. Thus, early in 1894, the German Cameroon colony had reached fairly definite limits. In 1908 another convention, modifying the frontier, gave Germany a larger share of the Sanga, while France, among other advantages, gained the left bank of the Shari to io° 40' N. The German Togoland settlements occupy a narrow strip of the Guinea coast, some 35 m. only in length, wedged in between the British Gold Coast and French Dahomey. At first France was inclined to dispute Germany's claims to Little Popo and Porto Seguro; but in December 1885 the French government acknowledged the German protectorate over these places, and the boundary between French and German „ , , . ■ ,-i , t ■ , 1 Exclusion territory, which runs north from the coast to the nth f degree of latitude, was laid down by the Franco- Germany German convention of the 12th of July 1897. The %£" t0e fixing of the nth parallel as the northern boundary ' of German expansion towards the interior was not accomplished without some sacrifice of German ambitions. Having secured an opening on Lake Chad for her Cameroon colony, Germany was anxious to obtain a footing on the middle Niger for Togoland. German expeditions reached Gando, one of the tributary states of the Sokoto empire on the middle Niger, and, notwithstanding the existence of prior treaties with Great Britain, sought to con- clude agreements with the sultan of that country. But this German ambition conflicted both with the British and the French designs in West Africa, and eventually Germany had to be content with the nth parallel as her northern frontier. On the west the Togoland frontier on the coast was fixed in July 1886 by British and German commissioners at 1® 10' E. longitude, and its extension towards the interior laid down for a short distance. A curious feature in the history of its prolongation was the establishment in 1888 of a neutral zone wherein neither power was to seek to acquire protectorates nor exclusive influence. It was not until November 1899 that, as part of the Samoa settlement, this neutral zone was partitioned between the two powers and the frontier extended to the nth parallel. The story of the struggle between France and Great Britain in West Africa may roughly be divided into two sections, the first dealing with the Coast colonies, the second deal- . -. ing with the struggle for the middle Niger and Lake French Chad. As regards the Coast colonies, France was rivalry in wholly successful in her design of. isolating all Great YmL Britain's separate possessions in that region, and of securing for herself undisputed possession of the upper Niger and of the countries lying within the great bend of that river. HISTORY] AFRICA 349 When the British government awoke to the consciousness of what was at stake France had obtained too great a start. French governors of the Senegal had succeeded, before the Berlin conference, in establishing forts on the upper Niger, and the advantage thus gained was steadily pursued. Every winter season French posts were pushed farther and farther along the river, or in the vast regions watered by the southern tributaries of the Sene- gal and Niger rivers. This ceaseless activity met with its reward. Great Britain found herself compelled to acknowledge accom- plished facts and to conclude agreements with France, which left her colonies mere coast patches, with a very limited extension towards the interior. On the 10th of August 1889 an agreement was signed by which the Gambia colony and protectorate was confined to a narrow strip of territory on both banks of the river for about 200 m. from the sea. In June 1882 and in August 1889 provisional agreements were made with France fixing the western and northern limits of Sierra Leone, and commissioners were appointed to trace the line of demarcation agreed upon by the two governments. But the commissioners failed to agree, and on the 21st of January 1895 a fresh agreement was made, the boundary being subsequently traced by a mixed commission. Sierra Leone, as now definitely constituted, has a coast-line of about 180 m. and a maximum extension towards the interior of some 200 m. At the date of the Berlin conference the present colonies of Southern Nigeria and the Gold Coast constituted a single colony under the title of the Gold Coast colony, but on the 13th of January 1886 the territory comprised under that title was erected into two separate colonies — Lagos and the Gold Coast (the name of the former being changed in February 1906 to the colony of Southern Nigeria). The coast limits of the new Gold Coast colony were declared to extend from 5 W. to 2° E., but these limits were subsequently curtailed by agreements with France and Germany. The arrangements that fixed the eastern frontier of the Gold Coast colony and its hinterland have already been stated in connexion with German Togoland. On the western frontier it marches with the French colony of the Ivory Coast, and in July 1893, after an unsuccessful attempt to achieve the same end by an agreement concluded in 1889, the frontier was defined from the neighbourhood of the Tano lagoon and river of the same name, to the 9th degree of north latitude. In August 1896, following the destruction of the Ashanti power and the deportation of King Prempeh, as a result of the second Ashanti campaign, a British protectorate was declared over the whole of the Ashanti territories and a resident was installed at Kumasi. But no northern limit had been fixed by the 1893 agreement beyond the 9th parallel, and the countries to the north — Gurunsi (Grusi), Mossi and Gurma — were entered from all sides by rival British, French and German expeditions. The conflicting claims established by these rival expeditions may, however, best be considered in connexion with the struggle for supremacy on the middle Niger and in the Chad region, to which it is now necessary to turn. A few days before the meeting of the Berlin conference Sir George Goldie had succeeded in buying up all the French interests on the lower Niger. The British company's influence had at that date been extended by treaties with the native chiefs up the main Niger stream to its junction with the Benue, and some distance along this latter river. But the great Fula states of the central Sudan were still outside European influence, and this fact did not escape attention in Germany. German merchants had been settled for some years on the coast, and one of them, E. R. Flegel, had displayed great interest in, and activity on, the river. He recognized that in the densely populated states of the middle Niger, Sokoto and Gando, and in Bornu to the west of Lake Chad, there was a magnificent field for Germany's new- born eolonizing zeal. The German African Company 1 and the German Colonial Society listened eagerly to Flegel's proposals, and in April 1885 he left Berlin on a mission to the Fula states 'This association, formed in 1878 by a union of associations primarily intended for the exploration of Africa, ceased to exist in 1 891. of Sokoto and Gando. But it was impossible to keep his inten- tions entirely secret, and the (British) National African Company had no desire to see the French rivals, whom they had with so much difficulty dislodged from the river, replaced by the even more troublesome German. Accordingly Joseph Thomson, the young Scottish explorer, was sent out to the Niger, and had the satisfaction of concluding on the 1st of June 1885 a treaty with " Umoru, King of the Mussulmans of the Sudan and Sultan of Sokoto," which practically secured the whole of the trading rights and the control of the sultan's foreign relations to the British company. Thomson concluded a similar treaty with the sultan of Gando, so as to provide against the possibility of its being alleged that Gando was an independent state and not subject to the suzerainty of the sultan of Sokoto. As Thomson descended the river with his treaties, he met Flegel going up the river, with bundles of German flags and presents for the chiefs. The German government continued its efforts to secure a footing on the lower Niger until the fall of Prince Bismarck from power in March 1890, when opposition ceased, and on the failure of the half-hearted attempt made later to establish relations with Gando from Togoland, Germany dropped out of the competition for the western Sudan and left the field to France and Great Tne Nlger Britain. After its first great success the National Company African Company renewed its efforts to obtain a granted a charter from the British government, and on the 10th c er ' of July 1886 the charter was granted, and the company became " The Royal Niger Company, chartered and limited." In June of the previous year a British protectorate had been proclaimed over the whole of the coast from the Rio del Rey to the Lagos frontier, and as already stated, on the 13th of January 1886 the Lagos settlements had been separated from the Gold Coast and erected into a separate colony. It may be convenient to state here that the western boundary of Lagos with French territory (Dahomey) was determined in the Anglo-French agreement of the 10th of August 1889, " as far as the 9th degree of north latitude, where it shall stop." Thus both in the Gold Coast hinterland and in the Lagos hinterland a door was left wide open to the north of the 9th parallel. Notwithstanding her strenuous efforts, France, in her advance down the Niger from Senegal, did not succeed in reaching Sego on the upper Niger, a considerable distance above Timbuktu, until the winter of 1890-1891, and the rapid advance of British influence up the river raised serious fears lest the Royal Niger Company should reach Timbuktu before France could forestall her. It was, no doubt, this consideration that induced the French government to consent to the insertion in the agreement of the 5th of August 1890, by which Great Britain recognized France's protectorate over Madagascar, of the following article: The Government of Her Britannic Majesty recognizes the sphere of influence of France to the south of her Mediterranean possessions up to a line from Say on the Niger to Barrua on Lake Chad, drawn in such a manner as to comprise in the sphere of action of the Niger Company all that fairly belongs to the kingdom of Sokoto ; the line to be determined by the commissioners to be appointed. The commissioners never were in fact appointed, and the proper meaning to be attached to this article subsequently became a subject of bitter controversy between the two countries. An examination of the map of West Africa will show what possi- bilities of trouble were left open at the end of 1890 by the various agreements concluded up to that date. From Say on the Niger to where the Lagos frontier came to an abrupt stop in 9° N. there was no boundary line between the French and British spheres of influence. To the north of the Gold Coast and of the French Ivory Coast colony the way was equally open to Great Britain and to France, while the vagueness of the Say-Barrua line left an opening of which France was quick to avail herself. Captain P. L. Monteil, who was despatched by the French govern- ment to West' Africa in 1890, immediately after the conclusion of the August agreement, did not hesitate to pass well to the south of the Say-Barrua line, and to attempt to conclude treaties with chiefs who were, beyond all question/ within the British sphere. Still farther south, on the Benue river, the two expeditions of Lieutenant Miaon — in 1890 and 1892 — failed to do any real 35° AFRICA [HISTORY harm to British interests. In 1892 an event happened which had an important bearing on the future course of the dispute. After a troublesome war with Behanzin, king of advance to ^ e nat i ve state of Dahomey, France annexed some Timbuktu, portion of Dahomeyan territory on the coast, and declared a protectorate over the rest of the kingdom. Thus was removed the barrier which had up to that time prevented France from pushing her way Nigerwards from her possessions on the Slave Coast, as well as from the upper Niger and the Ivory Coast. Henceforth her progress from all these directions was rapid, and in particular Timbuktu was occupied in the last days of 1893. In 1894 it appears to have been suddenly realized in France that, for the development of the vast regions which she was placing under her protection in West Africa, it was extremely desirable that she should obtain free access to the navigable portions of the Niger, if not on the left bank, from which she was excluded by the Say-Barrua agreement, then on the right bank, where the frontier had still to be fixed by international agreement. In the neighbourhood of Bussa there is a long stretch of the river so impeded by rapids that navigation is practically im- possible, except in small boats and at considerable risk. Below these rapids France had no foothold on the river, both banks from Bussa to the sea being within the»British sphere. In 1890 the Royal Niger Company had concluded a treaty with the emir and chiefs of Bussa (or Borgu); but the French declared that the real paramount chief of Borgu was not the king of Bussa, but the king of Nikki, and three expeditions were despatched in hot haste to Nikki to take the king under French protection. Sir George Goldie, however, was not to be baffled. While maintaining the validity of the earlier treaty with Bussa, he despatched Captain (afterwards General Sir) F. D. Lugard to Nikki, and Lugard was successful in distancing all his French competitors by several days, reaching Nikki on the 5 th of November 1894 and concluding a treaty with the king and chiefs. The French expeditions, which were in great strength, did not hesitate on their arrival to compel the king to execute fresh treaties with France, and with these in their possession they returned to Dahomey. Shortly afterwards a fresh act of aggression was committed. On the 13th of February 1895 a French officer, Commandant Toutee, arrived on the right bank of the Niger opposite Bajibo and built a fort. His presence there was notified to the Royal Niger Company, who protested to the British government against this invasion of their territory. Lord Rosebery, who was then foreign minister, at once made inquiries in Paris, and received the assurance that Commandant Toutee was " a private traveller." Eventually Commandant Toutee was ordered to withdraw, and the fort was occupied by the Royal Niger Company's troops. Commandant Toutee subsequently published the official instructions from the French government under which he had acted. It was thought that the recognition of the British claims, involved in the withdrawal of Commandant Toutee, had marked the final abandonment by France of the attempt to establish herself on the navigable portions of the Niger below Bussa, but in 1897 the attempt was renewed in the most determined manner. In February of that year a French force suddenly occupied Bussa, and this act was quickly followed by the occupation of Gomba and Illo higher up the river. In November 1897 Nikki was occupied. The situation on the Niger had so obviously been outgrowing the capacity of a chartered company that for some time before these occurrences the assumption of responsibility for the whole of the Niger region _. by the imperial authorities had been practically de- Franco- cided on; and early in 1898 Lugard was sent out to British the Niger with a number of imperial officers to raise a '//aft?" 1 ' * oca ' f° rce * n preparation for the contemplated change. The advance of the French forces from the south and west was the signal for an advance of British troops from the Niger, from Lagos and from the Gold Coast protectorate. The situation thus created was extremely serious. The British and French flags were flying in close proximity, in some cases in the same village. Meanwhile the diplomatists were busy in London and in Paris, and in the latter capital a commission sat for many months to adjust the conflicting claims. Fortunately, by the tact and forbearance of the officers on both sides, no local incident occurred to precipitate a collision, and on the 14th of June 1898 a convention was signed by Sir Edmund Monson and M. G. Hanotaux which practically completed the partition of this part of the continent. The settlement effected was in the nature of a compromise. France withdrew from Bussa, Gomba and Illo, the frontier line west of the Niger being drawn from the 9th parallel to a point ten miles, as the crow flies, above Giri, the port of Illo. France was thus shut out from the navigable portion of the middle and lower Niger; but for purely commercial purposes Great Britain agreed to lease to France two small plots of land on the river — the one on the right bank between Leaba and the mouth of the Moshi river, the other at one of the mouths of the Niger. By accepting this line Great Britain abandoned Nikki and a great part of Borgu as well as some part of Gando to France. East of the Niger the Say-Barrua line was modified in favour of France, which gained parts of both Sokoto and Bornu where they meet the southern edge of the Sahara. In the Gold Coast hinterland the French withdrew from Wa, and Great Britain abandoned all claim to Mossi, though the capital of the latter country, together with a further extensive area in the territory assigned to both powers, was declared to be equally free, so far as trade and navigation were concerned, to the subjects and protected persons of both nationalities. The western boundary of the Gold Coast was prolonged along the Black Volta as far as latitude ir° N., and this parallel was followed with slight de- flexions to the Togoland frontier. In consequence of the acute crisis which shortly afterwards occurred between France and Great Britain on the upper Nile, the ratification of this agreement was delayed until after the conclusion of the Fashoda agreement of March 1899 already referred to. In 1900 the two patches on the Niger leased to France were selected by commissioners representing the two countries, and in the same year the Anglo- French frontier from Lagos to the west bank of the Niger was delimited. East of the Niger the frontier, even as modified in 1898, failed to satisfy the French need for a practicable route to Lake Chad, and in the convention of the 8th of April 1904, to which reference has been made under Egypt and Morocco, it was agreed, as part of the settlement of the French shore Further question in Newfoundland, to deflect the frontier line con- more to the south. The new boundary was described <* s s lons at some length, but provision was made for its modifica- tion in points of detail on the return of the commissioners engaged in surveying the frontier region. In 1906 an agreement was reached on all points, and the frontier at last definitely settled, sixteen years after the Say-Barrua line had been fixed. This revision of the Niger-Chad frontier did not, however, represent the only territorial compensation received by France in West Africa in connexion with the settlement of the Newfoundland question. By the same convention of April 1904 the British government consented to modify the frontier between Senegal and the Gambia colony " so as to give to France Yarbutenda and the lands and lar.ding-places belonging to that locality," and further agreed to cede to France the tiny group of islands off the coast of French Guinea known as the Los Islands. Meantime the conclusion of the 1898 convention had left both the British and the French governments free to devote increased attention to the subdivision and control of their West African possessions. On the 1st of January 1900 the imperial authorities assumed direct responsibility for the whole of the territories of the Royal Niger Company, which became henceforth a purely commercial undertaking. The Lagos protectorate was extended northwards; the Niger Coast protectorate, likewise with extended frontiers, became Southern Nigeria; while the greater part of the territories formerly administered by the company were constituted into the protectorate of Northern Nigeria — all three administrations being directly under the Colonial Office. In February J906 the administration of the HISTORY] AFRICA 35* Organiza- tion of the British and French pro- tectorate*. African Wanda. Southern Nigerian protectorate was placed under that of Lagos at the same time as the name of the latter was changed to the Colony of Southern Nigeria, this being a step towards the eventual amalgamation of all three dependencies under one governor or governor-general. In French West Africa changes in the internal frontiers have been numerous and important. The coast colonies have all been in- creased in size at the expense of the French Sudan, which has vanished from the maps as an administrative entity. There are carved out of the territories com- prised in what is officially known as French West Africa five colonies — Senegal, French Guinea, the Ivory Coast, Dahomey and the Upper Senegal and Niger, this last being entirely cut off from the sea — and the civil territory of Mauritania. To the col- ony of the Upper Senegal and Niger is attached the military territory of the Niger, embracing the French Sahara up to the limit of the Algerian sphere of influence. Not only are all these divisions of French West Africa connected territorially, but administra- tively they are united under a governor-general. Similarly the French Congo territories have been divided into three colonies — the Gabun, the Middle Congo and the Ubangi-Shari-Chad — all united administratively under a commissioner-general. There are, around the coast, numerous islands or groups of islands, which are regarded by geographers as outliers of the Ownership African mainland. The majority of these African of the islands 'were occupied by one or other of the European powers long before the period of continental partition. The Madeira Islands to the west of Morocco, the Bissagos Islands, off the Guinea coast, and Prince's Island and St Thomas' Island, in the Gulf of Guinea, are Portuguese posses- sions of old standing; while in the Canary Islands and Fernando Po Spain possesses remnants of her ancient colonial empire which are a more valuable asset than any she has acquired in recent times on the mainland. St Helena in the Atlantic, Mauritius and some small groups north of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean, are British possessions acquired long before the opening of the last quarter of the 19th century. Zanzibar, Pemba and some smaller islands which the sultan was allowed to retain were, as has already been stated, placed under British protection in 1890, and the island of Sokotra was placed under the " gracious favour and protection " of Great Britain on the 23rd of April 1886. France's ownership of Reunion dates back to the 17th century, but the Comoro archipelago was not placed under French protec- tion until April 1886. None of these islands, with the exception of the Zanzibar group, have, however, materially affected the partition of the continent, and they need not be enumerated in the table which follows. But the important island of Madagascar stands in a different category, both on account of its size and because it was during the period under review that it passed through the various stages which led to its becoming a French colony. The first step was the placing of the foreign relations of the island under French control, which was effected by the treaty of the 17th of December 1885, after the Franco-Malagasy war that had broken out in 1883. In 1890 Great Britain and Germany recognized a French protectorate over the island, but the Hova government declined to acquiesce in this view, and in May 1895 France sent an expedition to enforce her claims. The capital was . occupied on the 30th of September in the same year, and on the day following Queen Ranavalona signed a convention recogniz- ing the French protectorate. In January 1896 the island was declared a French possession, and on the 6th of August was declared to be a French colony. In February 1897 the last vestige of ancient rule was swept away by the deportation of the queen. Thus in its broad outlines the partition of Africa was begun and ended in the short space of a quarter of a century. There are still many finishing touches to be put to the structure. The southern frontiers of Morocco and Tripoli remain undefined, while the mathematical lines by which the spheres of influence of the powers were separated one from the other are being variously modified on the do ut des principle as they come to be surveyed and as the effective occupation of the continent pro- gresses. Much labour is necessary before the actual area of Africa and its subdivisions can be accurately determined, but in the following table the figures are at least approximately correct. Large areas of the spheres assigned to different European powers have still to be brought under European control; but this work is advancing by rapid strides. British— Sq. m. Cape Colony 276,995 Natal and Zt'luland 35,371 Basutoland 10,293 Bechuanaland Protectorate 225,000 Transvaal and Swaziland 117,732 Orange River Colony 50,392 Rhodesia 450,000 Nyasaland Protectorate 43,608 British East Africa Protectorate 240,000 Uganda Protectorate 125,000 Zanzibar Protectorate 1,020 Somaliland 68,000 Northern Nigeria 258,000 Southern Nigeria (colony and protectorate) . . 80,000 Gold Coast and hinterland 82,000 Sierre Leone (colony and protectorate) Gambia Total British Africa 34,000 4,000 2,101,411 Egypt and Libyan Desert 650,000 Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 950,000 1,600,000 945.O00 51,000 French — Algeria and Algerian Sahara Tunisia French West Africa — Senegal French Guinea Ivory Coast Dahomey . Upper Senegal and Niger, and Maur- itania (including French West African Sahara) . . . 1,581,000 1,931,000 French Congo 700,000 French Somaliland 12,000 Madagascar . , 227,950 74,000 107,000 129,000 40,000 Total French Africa 3,866,950 German — East Africa 364,000 South-West Africa . . . . . . . . 322,450 Cameroon 190,000 Togoland 33,700 Total German Africa 910,150 Italian — Eritrea 60,000 Italian Somaliland 140,000 Total Italian Africa .... 200,000 Portuguese— Guinea 14,000 West Africa 480,000 East Africa 293,500 Total Portuguese Africa Spanish — Rio de Oro . . . Muni River Settlements Total Spanish Africa 787,500 70,000 9,800 79,800 Belgian— Congo State 900,000 Turkish — Tripoli and Benghazi 400,000 Separate States — Liberia 43,000 Morocco 220,000 Abyssinia 350,000 Total Independent Africa 613,000 352 AFRICA [EXPLORATION Thus, collecting the totals, the result of the " scramble " has been to divide Africa among the powers as follows: — Sq. m. British Africa 2,101,411 Egyptian Africa 1,600,000 French Africa 3,866,950 German Africa 910,150 Italian Africa 200,000 Portuguese Africa 787,500 Spanish Africa 79, 800 Belgian Africa 900,000 Turkish Africa 400,000 Independent Africa 613,000 11,458,811 Q. S. K.) VI. Exploration and Survey since 1875 In giving the history of the partition of the continent, the later work of exploration, except where, as in the case of de Brazza's expeditions, it had direct political consequences, has of necessity not been told. The results achieved during and after the period of partition may now be indicated. Stanley's great journey down the Congo in 1875-1876 initiated a new era in African explora- tion. The numbers of travellers soon became so great that the once marvellous feat of crossing the continent from sea to sea became common. With increased knowledge and much ampler means of communication trans-African travel now presents few difficulties. While d'Anville and other cartographers of the 18th century, by omitting all that was uncertain, had left a great blank on the map, the work accomplished since 1875 has filled it with authentic topographical details. Moreover surveys of high accuracy have been made at several points. As the work of exploration and survey progressed journeys of startling novelty became impossible — save in the eastern Sahara, where the absence of water and boundless wastes of sand render exploration more difficult, perhaps, than in any other region of the globe. Within their respective spheres of influence each power undertook detailed surveys, and the most solid of the latest accessions to knowledge have resulted from the labours of hard-working colonial officials toiling individually in obscurity. Their work it is impossible here to recognize adequately; the following lines record only the more obvious achievements. The relations of the Congo basin to the neighbouring river systems was brought out by the journeys of many travellers. In 1877 an important expedition was sent out by the Portu- guese government under Serpa Pinto, Brito Capello and Roberto Ivens for the exploration of the interior of Angola. jy*"* '" The first named made his way by the head-streams of basin. the Kubango to the upper Zambezi, which he descended to the Victoria Falls, proceeding thence to Pretoria and Durban. Capello and Ivens confined their attention to the south-west Congo basin, where they disproved the existence of Lake Aquilunda, which had figured on the maps of that region since the 16th century. In a later journey (i884-i885)Capelloand Ivens crossed the continent from Mossamedes to the mouth of the Zambezi, adding considerably to the knowledge of the border- lands between the upper Congo and the upper Zambezi. More important results were obtained by the German travellers Paul Pogge and Hermann von Wissmann, who (1880-1882) passed through previously unknown regions beyond Muata Yanvo's kingdom, and reached the upper Congo at Nyangwe, whence Wissmann made his way to the east coast. In 1884-1885 a German expedition under Wissmann solved the most important geographical problem relating to the southern Congo basin by descending the Kasai, the largest southern tributary, which, con- trary to expectation, proved to unite with the Kwango and other streams before joining the main river. Further additions to the knowledge of the Congo tributaries were made at the same time by the Rev. George Grenfell, a Baptist missionary, who (accompanied in 1885 by K. von Francois) made several voyages in the steamer " Peace," especially up the great Ubangi, ultimately proved to be the lower course of the Welle, discovered in i87obySchweinfurth. In East as in West Africa operations were started by agents of the Belgian committee, but with less success than on the Congo. The first new journey of importance on this side was made (1878-1880) on behalf of the British African Ex- "^"f plo ration Committee by Joseph Thomson, who after the Africa. death of his leader, Keith Johnston, made his way from the coast to the north end of Nyasa, thence to Tanganyika, on both sides of which he broke new ground, sighting the north end of Lake Rukwa on the east. In 1882-1884 the French naval lieutenant Victor Giraud proceeded by the north of Nyasa to Lake Bangweulu, of which he made the first fairly correct map. North of the Zanzibar-Tanganyika route a large area of new ground was opened in 1 883-1 884 by Joseph Thomson, who traversed the whole length of the Masai country to Lake Baringo and Victoria Nyanza, shedding the first clear light on the great East African rift- valley and neighbouring highlands, including Mounts Kenya and Elgon. A great advance in the region between Victoria Nyanza and Abyssinia was made in 1887-1889 by the Austrians, Count Samuel Teleki and Lieut. Ludwig von Hohnel, who discovered the large Basso Norok, now known as Lake Rudolf, till then only vaguely indicated on the map as Samburu. At this time Somaliland was being opened up by English and Italian travellers. In 1883 the brothers F. L, and W. D. James penetrated from Berbera to the Webi Shebeli; in 1892 Vittorio Bottego (afterwards murdered in the Abyssinian highlands) started from Berbera and reached the upper Juba, which he explored to its source. The first person, however, to cross from the Gulf of Aden to the Indian Ocean was an American, A. Donaldson Smith, who in 1 894-1 895 explored the head- streams of the Webi Shebeli and also explored the Omo, the feeder of Lake Rudolf. In the region north-west of Victoria Nyanza the greatest additions to geographical knowledge were made by H. M. Stanley in his last expedition, undertaken for the relief of Emin Pasha. The expedition set out in 1887 by way of the Congo to carry supplies to the governor of the old Egyptian Equatorial province. The route lay up the Aruwimi, the principal tributary of the Congo from the north-east, by which the expedition made its way, encountering immense difficulties, through the great equatorial forest, the character and extent of which were thus for the first time brought to light. The return was made to the east coast, and resulted in the discovery of the great snowy range of Ruwen- zori or Runsoro, and the confirmation of the existence of a third Nile lake discharging its waters into the Albert Nyanza by the Semliki river. A further discovery was that of a large bay, hitherto unsuspected, forming the south-west corner of the Victoria Nyanza. Great activity was also displayed in completing the work of earlier explorers in North and West Africa. Morocco was in 1883-1884 the scene of important explorations by de Foucauld, a Frenchman who, disguised as a Jew, tioasln crossed and re-crossed the Atlas and supplied the North and first trustworthy information as to the orography of YfJ* many parts of the chain. In 1887-1889 Louis Gustave Binger, a French officer, made a great journey through the countries enclosed in the Niger bend, and in 1890-1892 Col. P. F. Monteil went from St Louis to Say, on the Niger, thence through Sokoto to Bornu and Lake Chad, whence he crossed the Sahara to Tripoli. Meantime explorers had been busy in the region between Lake Chad, the Gulf of Guinea and the Congo. The Sanga, one of the principal northern tributaries of the Congo, was reached from the north by Lieut. Louis Mizon, a French naval officer, who drew the first line of communication between the Benue and the Congo (1890-1892). In 1890 Paul Crampel, who in the previous year had explored north of the Ogowe, undertook a great expedition from the Ubangi to the Shari, but was attacked and killed, with several of his companions, on the borders of the Bagirmi. Several other expeditions followed, and in 1896 Emile Gentil reached the Shari, launched a steamer on its waters and pushed on to Lake Chad. Early in 1900 Lake Chad was also reached by F. Foureau, a French traveller, who had already devoted twelve years to the exploration of the EXPLORATION] AFRICA 353 torial Africa. Sahara and who on this occasion had crossed the desert from Algeria and had reached the lake via Air and Zinder. The last ten years of the 19th century also witnessed many interesting expeditions in east Central Africa. In 1891 Emin Lakes and I >as ' la > accompanied by Dr F. Stuhlmann, made his mountains way south of Victoria Nyanza to the western Nile ofEqua- lakes, visiting for the first time the southern and western shores of Albert Edward. Stuhlmann also ascended the Ruwenzori range to a height of over 13,000 ft. Inthe same year Dr O. Baumann, who had already done good work in Usambara, near the coast, started on a more extended journey through the region of steppes between Kili- manjaro and Victoria Nyanza, afterwards exploring the head- streams of the Kagera, the ultimate sources of the Nile. In the steppe region referred to he discovered two new lakes, Manyara and Eiassi, occupying parts of the East African valley system. This region was again traversed in 1893-1894 by Count von Gotzen, who continued his route westwards to Lake Kivu, north of Tanganyika, which, though heard of by Speke over thirty years before, had never yet been visited. He also reached for the first time the line of volcanic peaks north of Kivu, one of which he ascended, afterwards crossing the great equatorial forest by a new route to the Congo and the west coast. Valuable scientific work was done in 1893 by Dr J. W. Gregory, who ascended Mount Kenya to a height of 16,000 ft. In 1893^1894 Scott Elliot reached Rnwenzori by way of Uganda, returning by Tanganyika and Nyasa, and in 1896 C. W. Hobley made the circuit of the great mountain Elgon, north-east of Victoria Nyanza. In 1899 Mount Kenya was ascended to its summit by a party under H. J. Mackinder. The exploration of Mount Kilimanjaro has been the special work of Dr Hans Meyer, who first directed his attention to it in 1887. The region south of Abyssinia proper and north of Lake Rudolf, being largely the basin of the Sobat tributary of the Nile, was traversed by several explorers, among whom maybe men- tioned Capt. M. S. Wellby, who in 1898-1899 explored the chain of small lakes in south-east Abyssinia, pushed on to Lake Rudolf, and thence traversed hitherto unknown country to the lower Sobat. Donaldson Smith crossed from Berbera to the Nile by Lake Rudolf in 1899-1900, and Major H. H. Austin com- manded two survey parties between the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and Lake Rudolf during 1899-1901. Meantime in south Central Africa the Barotse country had been partly made known by the missionary F. Coillard, who settled there in 1884, while the middle and upper Zambezi basin were scientifically explored and mapped by Major A. St H. Gibbons and his assistants in 1S95-1896 and 1898-1900. In the same period the Congo- Zambezi watershed was traced by a Belgian officer, Capt. C. Lemaire, who had ascended one of the upper tributaries of the Kasai. In the early years of the 19th century the first recorded crossing of Africa took place. That crossing and all subsequent crossings had been made either from west to east or east to west. The first journey through the whole length of the continent was accomplished in the two last years of the century when a young Englishman, E. S. Grogan, starting from Cape Town reached the Mediterranean by way of the Zambezi, the central line of lakes and the Nile. Other travellers followed in Grogan's footsteps, among the first, Major Gibbons. Additions to topographical knowledge were made from about 1890 onwards by the international commissions which traced the frontiers of the protectorates of the European On several occasions the labours of the Work or inter- powers. national commissions disclosed errors of importance in the commis- maps upon which international agreements had been slonsand surveying based. Among those which yielded valuable results parties. were the Anglo-French commission which in 1903 traced the Nigerian frontier from the Niger to Lake Chad, and the Anglo-German commission which in 1903-1904 fixed the Cameroon boundary between Yola, on the Benue, and Lake Chad. These expeditions and French surveys in the same region during 190 2-1903 resulted in the discovery that Lake Chad I. 12 had greatly decreased in area since the middle of the 19th century. In 1903 a French officer, Capt. E. Lenfant, succeeded in establishing the fact of a connexion between the Niger and Chad basins. Subsequently Lenfant explored the western basin of the Shari, determining (1907) the true upper branch of that river. ...... In East Africa a German-Congolese commission surveyed (1901-1902) Lake Kivu and the volcanic region north of the lake, R. Kandt making a special study of Kivu and the Kagera sources, while the Anglo-German boundary commission of 1 902-1904 surveyed the valley of the lower Kagera, and fixed the exact position of Albert Edward Nyanza. Much new information concerning the border Jands of British East Africa and Abyssinia between Lake Rudolf and the lower Juba was obtained by the survey executed in 1902-1903 by a British officer, Captain P. Maud. While political requirements led to the exact determination of frontiers, administrative needs forced the governments concerned to take in hand the survey of the countries under their protection. Before the close of the first decade of the 20th century tolerably accurate maps had been made of the German colonies, of a considerable part of West Africa, the Algerian Sahara and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, mainly by military officers. A British naval officer, Commander B. Whitehouse, mapped the entire coastline of Victoria Nyanza. Government and railway surveys apart, the chief points of interest for explorers during 1 904-1906 were the Ruwenzori range and the connexion of the basin of Lake Chad with the Niger and Congo systems. Lieut. Boyd Alexander was the leader of a party which during the years named surveyed Lake Chad and a considerable part of eastern Nigeria, returning to England via the Shari, the Ubangi and the Nile. Two members of the party, Capt. Claud Alexander and Capt. G. B. Gosling, died during the expedition. The Ruwenzori Mountains proved a great source of attraction. Sir H. H. Johnston had in 1900 ascended beyond the snow-line to 14,800 ft.; in 1903 Dr J. J. David had reached from the west to a height he believed to exceed 16,000 ft. ; and in the same year Capt. T. T. Behrens, of the Anglo-German Uganda boundary commission, fixed the highest summit at 16,619 ft. During 1904-1906 some half-dozen expeditions were at work in the region. That of the duke of the Abruzzi was the most successful. In the summer of 1906 the duke or members of his party climbed all the highest peaks, none of which reaches 17,000 ft., and determined the main lines of the watershed. Major Powell-Cotton, a British officer who had previously done good work in Abyssinia and British East Africa, spent 1905- 1906 in a detailed examination of the Ladp enclave and the country west of Ruwenzori and Albert and Albert Edward lakes. This expedition was specially fruitful in additions to zoological knowledge. Archaeological research, stimulated by the reports of Thomas Shaw, British consular chaplain at Algiers in 1719-1731, by James Bruce's exploration; 1765-1767, of the ruins in Barbary, and by the French conquest of Egypt in 1798, has been systematically carried out in North Africa since the middle of the 19th century (see Egypt and Africa, Roman). In South Africa the first thorough examination of the ruins in Rhodesia was made in 1905, when Randall-Maclver demonstrated that the great Zimbabwe and similar buildings were of medieval or post- medieval origin. (F. R. C.) VII. Social and Economic Conditions The eagerness with which the nations of western Europe partitioned Africa between them was due, as has been seen, more to the necessities of commerce than to mere land hunger. Yet, except in the north and south temperate regions, the commercial intercourse of the continent with the rest of the world had been until the closing years of the 19th century of insignificant pro- portions. In addition to slaves, furnished by the continent from the earliest times, a certain amount of gold and ivory was ex- ported from the tropical regions, but no other product supplied the material for a flourishing trade with those parts. To their 11 354 AFRICA [ECONOMICS Asiatic and European invaders the Africans indeed owed many- creature comforts — the introduction of maize, rice, the sugar cane, the orange, the lemon and the lime, cloves, tobacco and many other vegetable products, the camel, the horse and other animals — but invaluable to Africa as were these gifts they led to little development of commerce. The continent- continued in virtual isolation from the great trade movements of the world, an isolation due not so much to its poverty in Isolation. na tural resources, as to the special circumstances which likewise caused so large a part of the continent to remain so long a terra incognita. The principal drawbacks may be summarized as: (i) the absence of means of communication with the interior; (2) the unheal thiness of the coast-lands;' (3) the small productive activity of the natives; (4) the effects of the slave trade in discouraging legitimate commerce. None of these causes is necessarily permanent, that most difficult to remove being the third; the negro races finding the means of existence easy have little incentive to toil. The first drawback has almost disappeared, and the building of railways and the placing of steamers on the rivers and lakes — a work continually progressing —renders it year by year easier for producer and consumer to come together. As to the second drawback, while the coast-lands in the tropics will always remain comparatively unhealthy, improved sanitation' and the destruction of the malarial mosquito have rendered tolerable to Europeans regions formerly notorious for their deadly climate. At various periods since the. partition of the continent began, united action has been taken by the powers of Europe in the interests of African trade. The Berlin conference of 1884-1885 decreed freedom of navigation and trade on the Congo and the Niger, and the Anglo-Portuguese treaty of 1891 secured like privileges for the Zambezi. The Berlin conference likewise enacted that over a wide area of Central Africa — the conventional basin of the Congo — there should be complete freedom of trade, a freedom which later on was held to be infringed in the Congo State and French Congo by the granting to various companies proprietary rights in the disposal of the product of the soil. More important in their effect on the economic condition of the con- tinent than the steps taken to ensure freedom of trade were the measures concerted by the powers for the suppression of the slave trade. The British government had for long borne the greater part of the burden of combating the slave trade on the east coast of Africa and in the Indian Ocean, but the changed conditions which resulted from the appearance of other European powers in Africa induced Lord Salisbury, then foreign secretary, to address, in the autumn of 1888, an invitation to the king of the Belgians to take the initiative in inviting a conference of the powers at Brussels to concert measures for " the gradual suppression of the Suppres- s l ave trade on the continent of Africa, and the im- sioaof mediate closing of all the external markets which it the slave still supplies." The conference assembled in November trade - 1889, and on the 2nd of July 1890 a general act was signed subject to the ratification of the various governments represented, ratification taking place subsequently at different dates, and in the case of France with certain reservations. The general act began with a declaration of the means which the powers were of opinion might be most effectually adopted for " putting an end to the crimes and devastations engendered by the traffic in African slaves, protecting effectively the aboriginal populations of Africa, and ensuring for that vast continent the benefits of peace and civilization." It proceeded to lay down certain rules and regulations of a practical character on the lines suggested. The act covers a wide field, and includes no fewer than a hundred separate articles. It established a zone "between the 20th parallel of north latitude, and the 22nd parallel of south latitude, and extending westward to the Atlantic and eastward to the Indian Ocean and its dependencies, comprising the islands adjacent to the coast as far as 100 nautical miles from the shore," within which the importation of firearms and ammunition was forbidden except in certain specified cases, and within which also the powers undertook either to prohibit altogether the importa- tion and manufacture of spirituous liquors, or to impose duties not below an agreed-on minimum. 1 An elaborate series of rules was framed for the prevention of the transit of slaves by sea, the conditions on which European powers were to grant to natives the right to fly the flag of the protecting power, and regulating the procedure connected with the right of search on vessels flying a foreign flag. The Brussels Act was in effect a joint declaration by the signatory powers of their joint and several responsibility towards the African native, and notwithstanding the fact that many of its articles have proved difficult, if not impossible, of enforcement, the solemn engagement taken by Europe in the face of the world has undoubtedly exercised a material influence on the action of several of the powers. Moreover, with the increase of means of communication and the extension of effective European control, slave-raiding in the interior was largely checked and inter-tribal wars prevented, the natives being thus given security in the pursuit of trade and agriculture. Other important factors in the economic as well as the social conditions of Africa are the advance in civilization made by the natives in several regions and the increase of the areas found suitable for white colonization. The advance in civilization among the natives, exemplified by the granting to them of political rights in such countries as Algeria and Cape Colony, leads directly to increased commercial activity; and commerce increases in a much greater degree when new countries— e.g. Rhodesia and British East Africa — become the homes of Euro- peans. Finally, in reviewing the chief factors which govern the commercial development of the continent, note must be taken of the sparsity of the population over the greater part of Africa, and the efforts made to supplement the insufficient and often in- effective native labour by the introduction of Asiatic labourers in various districts — of Indian coolies in Natal and elsewhere, and of Chinese for the gold mines of the Transvaal. The resources of Africa may be considered under the head of: (1) jungle products; (2) cultivated products; (3) animal pro- ducts; (4) minerals. Of the first named the most important are india-rubber and palm-oil, which in chlef , ■ 1 a r • 1 1 ~ r . 1 • • 1 economic tropical Africa supply by far the largest items in the resources. export list. The rubber-producing plants are found throughout the Whole tropical belt, and the most important are creepers of the order Apocynaceae, especially various species of Landolphia (with which genus Vakea is now united). In East Africa Landolphia kirkii (Dyer) supplies the largest amount, though various other species are known. Forms of apparently wider distribution are!,, hendelotii, which is found in the Bahr-el- Ghazal, and extends right across the continent to Senegambia; and L. (formerly Vahea) comorensis, which, including its variety L. florida, has the widest distribution of all the species, occurring in Upper and Lower Guinea, the whole of Central Africa, the east coast, the Comoro Islands and Madagascar. In parts of East Africa Clitandra orientalis is a valuable rubber vine. In Lagos and elsewhere rubber is produced by the apocynaceous tree, Funtumia elastica, and in West Africa generally by various species of Ficus, some species of which are also found in East Africa. The rubber produced is somewhat inferior to that of South America, but this is largely due to careless methods of preparation. The great destruction of vines brought about by native methods of collection much reduced the supply in some districts, and rendered it necessary to take steps to preserve and cultivate the rubber-yielding plants. This has been done in many districts with usually encouraging results. Experiments have been made in the introduction of South American rubber plants, but opinions differ as to the prospects of success, as the plants in question seem to demand very definite conditions of soil and climate. The second product, palm-oil, is derived from a much more limited area than rubber, for although the oil palm is found throughout the greater part of West Africa, from io° N. to 10° S., the great bulk of the export comes from the coast districts at the head of the Gulf of Guinea. A larger supply, 1 Further conferences respecting the liquor traffic in Africa were held in Brussels in 1899 and 1906. In both instances conventions were signed by the powers, raising the minimum duty on imported spirituous liquors. ECONOMICS] AFRICA 355 equal to any market demand, could easily be obtained. A third valuable product is the timber supplied by the forest regions, principally in West Africa. It includes African teak or oak (Oldfieldia africana), excellent for shipbuilding; the durable odum of the Gold Coast (Chlorophora excelsa) ; African mahogany (Khaya senegalensis) ; ebony (Diospyros ebenum); camwood (Baphia nitida) ; and many other ornamental and dye woods. The timber industry on the west coast was long neglected, but since 1898 there have been large exports to Europe. In parts of East Africa the Podocarpus milanjianus, a conifer, is economically important. Valuable timber grows too in South Africa, including the yellow wood {Podocarpus), stinkwood (Oco(ea), sneezewood or Cape ebony (Euclea) and ironwood. Other vegetable products of importance are: Gum arabic, obtained from various species of acacia (especially A. Senegal), the chief supplies of which are obtained from Senegambia and the steppe regions of North Africa (Kordofan, &c); gum copal, a valuable resin produced by trees of the leguminous order, the best, known as Zanzibar or Mozambique copal, coming from the East African Trachylobium hornemannianum, and also found in a fossil state under the soil; kola nuts, produced chiefly in the coast-lands of Upper Guinea by a tree of the order Sterculiaceae (Kola acuminata); archil or orchilla, a dye-yielding lichen (Rocella tinctoria and triciformis) growing on trees and rocks in East Africa, the Congo basin, &c; cork, the bark of the cork oak, which flourishes in Algeria; and alfa, a grass used in paper manu- facture (Machrochloa tenacissima), growing in great abundance on the dry steppes of Algeria, Tripoli, &c. A product to which attention has been paid in Angola is the Almeidina gum or resin, derived from the juice of Euphorbia tirucalli. The cultivated products include those of the tropical and warm temperate zones. Of the former, coffee is perhaps the most valuable indigenous plant. It grows wild in many parts, the home of one species being in Kaffa and other Galla countries south of Abyssinia, and of another in Liberia. The Abyssinian coffee is equal to the best produced in any other part of the world. Cultivation is, however, necessary to ensure the best results, and attention has been given to this in various European colonies. Plantations have been established in Angola, Nyasaland, German East Africa, Cameroon, the Congo Free State, &c. Copra, the produce of the cocoa-nut palm, is supplied chiefly by Zanzibar and neighbouring parts of the east coast. Ground- nuts, produced by the leguminous plant, Arachis hypogaea, are grown chiefly in West Africa, and the largest export is from Senegal and the Gambia; while Bambarra ground-nuts (Voand- zeia subterranea) are very generally cultivated from Guinea to Natal. Cloves are extensively grown on Zanzibar and Pemba islands, Pemba being the chief source of the world's supply of cloves. The chief drawbacks to the industry are the fluctuations of the yield of the trees, and the risk of over-production in good seasons. Cotton grows wild in many parts of tropical Africa, and is exported in small quantities in the raw state; but the main export is from Egypt, which comes third among the world's sources of supply of the article. It is also cultivated in West Africa — the industry in the Guinea coast colonies having been developed since the beginning of the 20th century — and in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, whence came the plants from which Egyptian cotton is grown. Sugar, which is the staple crop of Mauritius, and in a lesser degree of Reunion, is also produced in Natal, Egypt, and, to a certain extent, in Mozambique. Dates are grown in Tunisia and the Saharan oases, especially Tafilet; maize in Egypt, South Africa and parts of the tropical zone; wheat in Egypt, Algeria and the higher regions of Abyssinia; rice in Madagascar. Wine is largely exported from Algeria, and in a much smaller quantity from Cape Colony; fruit and vegetables from Algeria. Tobacco is widely grown on a small scale, but, except perhaps from Algeria, has not become an important article of export, though plantations have been established in various tropical colonies. The cultivation of cocoa has proved successful in the Gold Coast, Cameroon and other colonies, and in various districts the tea plant is cultivated. Indigo, though not originally an African product, has become naturalized and grows wild in many parts, while it is also culti- vated on a small scale. The main difficulty in the way of tropical cultivation is the labour question, which lias already been referred to. Of animal products one of the most important is ivory, the largest export of which is from the Congo Free State. The diminution in the number of elephants with the opening up of the remoter districts must in time cause a falling-off in this export. Beeswax is obtained from various parts of the interior of West Africa, and from Madagascar. Raw hides are exported in large quantities from South Africa, as are also the wool and hair of the merino sheep and Angora goat. Both hides and wool are also exported from Algeria and Morocco, and hides from Abyssinia and Somaliland. Ostrich feathers are produced chiefly by the ostrich farms of Cape Colony, but some are also obtained from the steppes to the north of the Central Sudan. Live stock, principally sheep, is exported from Algeria and cattle from Morocco. The exploited minerals of Africa are confined to a few districts, the resources of the continent in this respect being largely undeveloped. Since the discovery of gold in the Transvaal, particularly in the district known as the wealth. Rand (1885), the output has grown enormously, so that in 1898 the output of gold from South Africa was greater than from any other gold-field in the world. The Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902 lost the Rand the leading position, but by 1905 the output — in that year over £20,800,000 — was greater than it had ever been. The supply of gold from South Africa is roughly 25% of the world's output. The gold-yielding formations extend northwards through Rhodesia. The Gold Coast is so named from the quantity of gold obtained there, and since the close of the 19th century the industry has developed largely in the hands of Europeans. In the Galla countries gold has long been an article of native commerce. It is also found in various parts of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and along the western shore of the Red Sea. Diamonds are found in large quantities in a series of beds known as the Kimberley shales, the principal mines being at Kimberley, Cape Colony. Diamonds are also found in Orange River Colony, while one of the richest diamond mines in the world — the Premier — is situated in the Transvaal near Pretoria. Some 80% of the world's pro- duction of diamonds comes from South Africa. Copper is found in the west of Cape Colony, in German South- West Africa, and in the Katanga country in the southern Congo basin, where vast beds of copper ore exist. There are also extensive deposits of copper in the Broken Hill district of Northern Rhodesia. It also occurs in Morocco, Algeria, the Bahr-el-Ghazal, &c. Rich tin deposits have been found in the southern Congo basin and in Northern Rhodesia. Iron is found, in Morocco, Algeria (whence there is an export trade), and is widely diffused, and worked by the natives, in the tropical zone. But the deposits are generally not rich. Coal is worked, principally for home con- sumption, in Cape Colony, Natal, the Transvaal, Orange River Colony, and in Rhodesia in the neighbourhood of the Zambezi. Coal deposits also exist in the German territory north of Lake Nyasa. Phosphates are exported from Algeria and Tunisia. Of other minerals which occur, but are little worked, zinc, lead and antimony are found in Algeria, lead and manganese in Cape Colony, plumbago in Sierra Leone. The imports from foreign countries into Africa consist chiefly of manufactured goods, varying in character according to the development of the different countries in civilization. In Egypt, Algeria and South Africa they include most of the necessaries and luxuries of civilized life, manufactured cotton and woollen goods, especially the former, taking the first place, but various food stuffs, metal goods, coal and miscellaneous articles being also included. In tropical Africa, and generally where few Europeans have settled, the great bulk of the imports consists as a rule of cotton goods, articles for which there is a constant native demand. No continent has in the past been so lacking in means of 356 AFRICA [COMMUNICATIONS communication as Africa, and it was only in the last decade . m of the 19th century that decided steps were taken to meat of remedy these defects. The African rivers, with the means of exception of the middle Congo and its affluents, and communi- tne middle course of the three other chief rivers, are " on ' generally unfavourable to navigation, and throughout the tropical region almost the sole routes have been native foot- paths, admitting the passage of a single file of porters, on whose heads all goods have been carried from place to place. Certain of these native trade routes are, however, much frequented, and lead for hundreds of miles from the coast to the interior. In the desert regions of the north transport is by caravans of camels, and in the south ox-wagons, before the advent of railways, supplied the general means of locomotion. The native trade routes led generally from the centres of greatest population or production to the seaports by the nearest route, but to this rule"there was a striking exception. The dense forests of Upper Guinea and the upper Congo proved a barrier which kept the peoples of the Sudan from direct access to the sea, and from Timbuktu to Darfur the great trade routes were either west to east or south to north across the Sahara. The principal caravan routes across the desert lead from different points in Morocco and Algeria to Timbuktu; from Tripoli to Timbuktu, Kano and other great marts of the western and central Sudan; from Bengazi to Wadai; and from Assiut on the Nile through the Great Oasis and the Libyan desert to Darfur. South of the equator the principal long-established routes are those from Loanda to the Lunda and Baluba countries; from Benguella via Bihe to Urua and the upper Zambezi; from Mossamedes across the Kunene to the upper Zambezi; and from Bagamoyo, opposite Zanzibar, to Tanganyika. Many of the native routes have been superseded by the improved communications introduced by Europeans in the utilization of waterways and the construction of roads and railways. Steamers have been conveyed overland in sections and launched on the interior waterways above the obstructions to navigation. On the upper Nile and Albert Nyanza their introduction was due to Sir S. Baker and General C. G. Gordon (1871-1876) ; on the middle Congo and its affluents to Sir H. M. Stanley and the officials of the Congo Free State, as well as to the Baptist missionaries on the river; and oh Lake Nyasa to the supporters of the Scottish mission. A small vessel was launched on Victoria Nyanza in 1896 by a British mercantile firm, and a British government steamer made its first trip in November 1900. On the other great lakes and on most of the navigable rivers steamers were plying regularly before the close of the 19th century. However, the shallowness of the water in the Niger and Zambezi renders their navigation possible only to light-draught steamers. Roads suitable for wheeled traffic are few. The first attempt at road-making in Central Africa on a large scale was that of Sir T. Fowell Buxton and Mr (after- wards Sir W.) Mackinnon, who completed the first section of a track leading into the interior from Dar-es-Salaam (1879). A still more important undertaking was the " Stevenson road," begun in 1881 from the head of Lake Nyasa to the south end of Tanganyika, and constructed mainly at the expense of Mr James Stevenson, a director of the African Lakes Company — a company which helped materially in the opening up of Nyasaland. The Stevenson road forms a link in the "Lakes route" into the heart of the continent. In British East Africa a road connecting Mombasa with Victoria Nyanza was completed in 1897, but has since been in great measure superseded by the railway. Good roads have also been made in German East Africa and Cameroon and in Madagascar. Railways, the chief means of affording easy access to the interior of the continent, were for many years after their first introduction to Africa almost entirely confined to the extreme north and south (Egypt, Algeria, Cape Colony and Natal). Apart from short fines in Senegal, Angola and at Lourenco Marques, the rest of the continent was in 1890 without a railway system. In Egypt the Alexandria and Cairo railway dates from 1855, while in 1877 the lines open reached about 1100 miles, and in 1890, in addition to the lines traversing the delta, the Nile had been ascended to Assiut. In Algeria the construction of an inter-provincial railway was decreed in 1857, but was still incomplete twenty years later, when the total length of the lines open hardly exceeded 300 miles. Before 1890 an extension to Tunis had been opened, while the plateau had been crossed by the lines to Ain Sefra in the west and Biskra in the east. In Senegal the railway from Dakar to St Louis had been commenced and completed during the 'eighties, while the first section of the Senegal-Niger railway, that from Kayes to Bafulabe, was also constructed during the same decade. In Cape Colony, where in about 1880 the railways were limited to the neighbourhood of Cape Town, Port Elizabeth and East London, the next decade saw the completion of the trunk-line from Cape Town to Kimberley, with a junction at De Aar with that from Port Elizabeth. The northern frontier had, however, nowhere been crossed. In Natal, also, the main line had not advanced beyond Ladysmith. The settlement, c. 1890, of the main lines of the partition of the continent was followed by many projects for the opening up of the possessions and spheres of influence of the various powers by the building of railways; several of these schemes being carried through in a comparatively short time. The building of railways was undertaken by the governments concerned, nearly all the African lines being state-owned. In the Congo Free State a railway, which took some ten years to build, connecting the navigable waters of the lower and middle Congo, was completed in 1898, while in 1906 the middle and upper courses of the river were linked by the opening of a line past Stanley Falls. Thus the vast basin of the Congo was rendered easily accessible to commercial enterprise. In North Africa the Algerian and Tunisian railways were largely extended, and proposals were made for a great trunk-line from Tangier to Alexandria. The railway from Ain Sefra was continued south- ward towards Tuat, the project of a trans-Saharan line having occupied the attention of French engineers since 1 880. In French West Africa railway communication between the upper Senegal and the upper Niger was completed in 1904; from the Guinea coast at Konakry another line runs north-east to the upper Niger, while from Dahomey a third line goes to the Niger at Garu. In the British colonies on the same coast the building of railways was begun in 1896. A line to Kumasi was completed in 1903, and the line from Lagos to the lower Niger had reached Illorin in 1908. Thence the railway was continued to the Niger at Jebba. From Baro, a port on the lower Niger which can be reached by steamers all the year round, another railway, begun in 1907, goes via Bida, Zungeru and Zaria to Kano, a total distance of 400 miles. A line from Jebba to Zungeru affords connexion with the Lagos railway. But the greatest development of the railway systems was in the south and east of the continent. In British East Africa a survey for a railway from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza was made in 1892. The first rails were laid in 1896 and the line reached the lake in December 1901. Meanwhile, there had been a great extension of railways in South Africa. Lines from Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East London, Durban and Delagoa Bay all converged on the newly risen city of Johannesburg, the centre of the Rand gold mines. A more ambitious project was that identified with the name of Cecil Rhodes, namely, the extension northward of the railway from Kimberley with the object of effecting a continuous railway connexion from Cape Town to Cairo. The line from Kimberley reached Bulawayo in 1897. (Bulawayo is also reached from Beira on the east coast by another line, completed in 1902, which goes through Portuguese territory and Mashonaland.) The extension of the line north- ward from Bulawayo was begun in 1899, the Zambezi being bridged, immediately below the Victoria Falls, in 1905. From this point the railway goes north to the Katanga district of the Congo State. In the north of the continent a step towards the completion of the Cape to Cairo route was taken in the opening in 1899 of the railway from Wadi Haifa to Khartum. A fine of greater economic importance than the last named is the railway (completed in 1905) from Port Sudan on the Red Sea to the Nile a little south of Berber, thus placing the Anglo- BIBLIOGRAPHY] AFRICA 357 Egyptian Sudan within easy reach of the markets of the world. A west to east connexion across the continent by rail and steamer, from the molith of the Congo to Port Sudan, was arranged in 1006 when an agreement was entered into by the Congo and Sudan governments for the building of a railway from Lado, on the Nile, to the Congo frontier, there to meet a railway starting from the river Congo near Stanley Falls. A railway of consider- able importance is that from Jibuti in the Gulf of Aden to Harrar, giving access to the markets of southern Abyssinia. Besides the railways mentioned there are several others of less importance. Lines run from Loanda and other ports of Angola towards the Congo State frontier, and from Tanga and Dar-es-Salaam on the coast of German East Africa towards the great lakes. In British Central Africa a railway connects Lake Nyasa with the navigable waters of the Shire, and various lines have been built by the French in Madagascar. All the main railways in South Africa, the lines in British West Africa, in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and in Egypt south of Luxor are of 3 ft. 6 in. gauge. The main lines in Lower Egypt and in Algeria and Tunisia are of 4 ft. 8% in. gauge. Elsewhere as in French West and British East Africa the lines are of metre (3-28 ft.) gauge. The telegraphic system of Africa is on the whole older than that of the railways, the newer European possessions having in most cases been provided with telegraph lines before railway projects had been set on foot. In Algeria, Egypt and Cape Colony the systems date back to the middle of the 19th century, before the end of which the lines had in each country reached some thousands of miles. In tropical Africa the systems of French West Africa, where the line from Dakar to St Louis was begun in 1862, were the first to be fully developed, lines having been carried from different points on the coast of Senegal and Guinea towards the Niger, the main line being prolonged north- west to Timbuktu, and west and south to the coast of Dahomey. The route for a telegraph line to connect Timbuktu with Algeria was surveyed in 1905. The Congo region is furnished with several telegraphic systems, the longest going from the mouth of the river to Lake Tanganyika. From Ujiji on the east coast of that lake there is telegraphic communication via Tabora with Dar-es-Salaam and via Nyasa and Rhodesia with Cape Town. The last-named line is the longest link in the trans-continental line first suggested in 1876 by Sir (then Mr) Edwin Arnold and afterwards taken up by Cecil Rhodes. The northern link from Egypt to Khartum has been continued southward to Uganda, while another line connects Uganda with Mombasa. At the principal seaports the inland systems are connected with sub- marine cables which place Africa in telegraphic communication with the rest of the world. Numerous steamship lines run from Great Britain, Germany, France and other countries to the African seaports, the journey from any place in western Europe to any port on the African coast occupying, by the shortest route, not more than three weeks. (E. He., F. R. C.) Bibliography. — Authoritative works dealing with Africa as a whole in any of its aspects are comparatively rare. Besides such volumes the following list includes therefore books containing valuable information concerning large or typical sections of the continent : — § I. General Descriptions. — (a) Ancient and Medieval. Herodo- tus, ed. G. Rawlinson, 4 vols. 1 (1880); Ptolemy's Geographic, ed. C. Miiller, vol. i. (Paris, 1883-1901); Ibn Haukal, " Description de 1 Afnque " (transl. McG. de Slane), Nouv. Journal asiatique, 1842; Edrisi, " Geographie " (transl. Jaubert), Rec. de voyages . . . Soc. de Geogr. vol. v. (Paris, 1836); Abulfeda, Geographie (transl. Reinaud and Guyard, Paris, 1848-1883) ; M. A. P. d'Avezac, Description de lAfrique ancienne (Paris, 1845); L. de Marmol, Description general de Africa (Granada, 1573) ; L. Sanuto, Geografia dell' Africa (Venice, 1588); F. Pigafetta, A Report of the Kingdom of Congo, &c. (1597); Leo Africanus, The History and Description of Africa (transl. J. Pory, ed. R. Brown), 3 vols. (1896); O. Dapper, Naukeurige beschrijvinge der afrikaensche gewesten, &c. (Amsterdam, 1668) (also English version by Ogilvy, 1670, and French version, Amsterdam, 1686); B. Tellez, " Travels of the Jesuits in Ethiopia," A New Collection of Voyages, vol. vii. (17 10) ; G. A. Cav azzi da Montecuccolo, Istorica 1 Where no place of publication is given, London is to be under- stood. Descrittione de tre Regni Congo, Matamba, et Angola (Milan, 1690) (account of the labours of the Capuchin missionaries and their observations on the country and people) ; J. Barbot, " Description of the Coasts of North and South Guinea and of Ethiopia Inferior," Churchill's Voyages, vol. v. (1707); W. Bosman, A New . . . Description of the Coasts of Guinea, &c, 2nd ed. (1721); J. B. Labat, Nouvelle relation del'Afrique occidentals, 5 vols. (Paris, 1728); Idem,' Relation historique de l'£thiopie occidentale, 5 vols. (Paris, 1732). (b) Modern. B. d'Anville, Memoire cone, les rivieres de I'interieur de I'Afrique (Paris, n.d.) ; M. Vollkommer, Die Quellen B. d'Anville' s fur seine kritische Karte von Afrika (Munich, 1904) ; C. Ritter, Die Erdkunde, i. Theil, 1. Buch, " Afrika " (Berlin, 1822); J. M'Qiieen, Geographical and Commercial View of Northern and Central Africa (Edinburgh, 1821) ; Idem, Geographical Survey of Africa (1840) ; W- D. Cooley, Inner Africa laid open (1852); E. Reclus, Nouvelle geo- graphie universale, vols, x.-xiii. (1885-1888); A. H. Keane, Africa (in Stanford's Compendium), 2 vols., 2nd ed. (1904-1907) ; F. Hahn and I W. Sievers, Afrika, 2. Aufl. (Leipzig, 1901); M. Fallex and A. Mairey, L'Afrique au debut du XX' siecle (Paris, 1906) ; Sir C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of the British Colonies, volsJ iii. and iv. (Oxford, 1894, 1904); F. D. and A. J. Herbertson, Descriptive Geographies from Original Sources: Africa (1902) ; British Africa {The British Empire Series, vol. ii., 1899); Journal of the African Society; Comite de I'Afrique francaise, Bulletin, Paris; Mitteilungentfder afrikan. Gesellschaft in Deutschland (Berlin, 1 879-1 889); Mittei- lungen . . . aus den deutschen Schutzegebieten (Berlin) ; H. Schirmer, Le Sahara (Paris, 1893) ; Mary H. Kingsley, West African Studies, 2nd ed. (1901); J. Bryce, Impressions of South Africa (1897); Sir Harry Johnston, The Uganda Protectorate, 2 vols. (1902) (vol. ii. is devoted to anthropology) ; E. D. Morel, Affairs of West Africa (1902). § II. Geography {Physical), Geology, Climate, Flora and Fauna. — (For Descriptive Geogr. see § I.)— G. Giirich, " Uberblick iiber den geolog. Bau des afr. Kontinents," Peterm. Mitt., 1887; A. Knox, Notes on the Geology of the Continent of Africa (1906) (includes a bibliography) ; L. von Hohnel, A. Rosiwal, F. Toula and E. Suess, Beitrage zur geologischen Kenntniss des ostlichen Afrika (Vienna, 1891) ; E. Stromer, Die Geologie der deutschen Schutzgebieten in Afrika (Munich, 1896); J. Chavanne, Afrika im Lichte unserer Tage: Bodengestalt, &c. (Vienna, 1881); F. Heidrich, " Die mittlere Hohe Afrikas," Peterm. Mitt., 1888; J. W. Gregory, The Great Rift- Valley (1896); H. G. Lyons, The Physiography of the River Nile and its Basin (Cairo, 1906) ; S. Passarage, Die Kalahari: Versuch einer physischgeogr. Darstellung . . . des sildafr. Beckens (Berlin. 1904) ; Idem, " Inselberglandschaften im tropischen Afrika," Naturw. Wochenschrift, 1904. 654-665; J. E. S. Moore, The Tanganyihc Problem (1903) ; W. H. Hudleston, " On the Origin of the Marine (Halolimnic) Fauna of Lake Tanganyika," Journ. of Trans. Victoria Inst., 1904, 300-351 (discusses the whole question of the geological history of equatorial Africa); E. Stromer, " 1st der Tanganyika eir, Relikten-See?" Peterm. Mitt., 1901, 275-278; E. Kohlschutter " Die . . . Arbeiten der Pendelexpedition ... in Deutsch-Ost- Afrika,' Verh. Deuts. Geographentages Breslau, 1901, 133-153; J. Cornet "La geologie du bassin du Congo," Bull. Soc. Beige geol., 1898 E. G. Ravenstein, "The Climatology of Africa " (ten reports)! Reports Brit. Association, 1892-1901; Idem, " Climatologica Observations ... I. Tropical Africa " (1904) ; H. G. Lyons, " Oi: the Relations between Variations of Atmospheric Pressure . . . anc 1 the Nile Flood," Proc. Roy. Soc, Ser. A, vol. lxxvi., 1905; P. Reichard, " Zur Frage der Austrocknung Afrikas," Geogr. Zeitschrift, 1895; J. Hoffmann, "Die tiefsten Temperaturen auf den Hoch- landern," &c, Peterm. Mitt., 1905; G. Fraunberger, " Studien iiber die jahrlichen Niederschlagsmengen des afrik. Kontinents," Peterm. Mitt., 1906; D. Oliver and Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, Flora 0] Tropical Africa, 10 vols. (1888-1906); K. Oschatz, Anordnung der Vegetation in Afrika (Erlangen, 1900) ; A. Engler, Hochgebirgs- flora des tropischen Afrika (Berlin, 1892); Idem, Die Pfllanzenwelt Ostafrikas und der Nachbargebiete, 3 vols. (Berlin, 1895) ; Idem, Beitrage zur Flora von Afrika (Engler's Botan. Jahrbucher, 14 vols. &c.) ; W. P. Hiern, Catalogue of the African Plants collected by Dr Friedrich Welwitschin 1853-1861, 2 vols. (1896-1901) ; R. Schlechter, Westafrikanische Kautschuk- Expedition (Berlin, 1900) ; H. Baum' Kunene-Sambesi-Expedition (Berlin, 1903) (largely concerned with botany) ; W. L. Sclater, " Geography of Mammals, No. iv. The Ethiopian Region," Geog. Journal, March 1896; H. A. Bryden and others, Great and Small Game of Africa (1899); F. C. Selous, African Nature Notes and Reminiscences (1908) ; E. N. Buxton, Two African Trips: with Notes and Suggestions on Big-Game Preservation in Africa (1902) (contains photographs of living animals); G. Schillings, With Flash-light and Rifle in Equatorial East Africa (1906) : Idem, In Wildest Africa (1907) (striking collection of photographs of living wild animals); Exploration scientifique de I'Algerie: Histoire naturelle, 14 vols, and 4 atlases, Paris (1 846-1 850); Annates du Musee du Congo: Botanique, Zoologie (Brussels, 1898, &c). The latest results of geographical research and a bibliography of current literature are given in the Geographical Journal, published monthly by the Royal Geographical Society. § III. Ethnology. — H. Hartmann, Die Volker Afrikas (Leipzig, 1879); B. Ankermann, ". Kulturkreise in Afrika, Zeit. f. Eth., vol. xxxvii. p. 54 ; Idem, " Uber den gegenwartigen Stand der Ethno- graphie der Sudhalfte Afrikas," Arch.f. Anth. n.f. iv. p. 24;G.Ser. i. 358 AFRICA, ROMAN Antropologw. delta stirpe camitica (Turin, 1897); J- Deniker, " Dis- tribution geogr. et caracteres physiques des Pygmees africains," La Geographic Paris, vol. viii. pp. 213-220; G. W. Stow and G. M. Theal, The Native Races of South Africa (1905) ; K. Barthel, Vblker- bewegungen auf der Sudhalfte des afrik. Kontinents (Leipzig, 1893); A. B. Ellis, The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast (1887) ; Idem, The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast (1890); Idem, The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast (1894); H. Ling Roth, Great Benin, Us Customs, &c. (Halifax, 1903); H. Frobenius, Die Ileiden-Neger des agyptischen .Sudan (Berlin, 1893) ; Herbert Spencer and D. Duncan, Descriptive Sociology, vol. iv. African Races (1875); A. de Preville, Les Societes africaines (Paris, 1894); D. Macdonald, Africana; or, the Heart of Heathen Africa, 2 vols. (1882); L. Fro- benius, Der Ursprung der afrikanischen Kulturen (Der Ursprung der Kuitur, Band i.) (Berlin, 1898) ; Idem, " Die Masken und Geheim- bunde Afrikas," Abhandl. Kaiserl. Leopoldin.-Carolin. Deuts. Akad. Naturforscher, 1899, 1-278; G. Schweinfurth, Aries africanae: Illustrations and Descriptions of . . . industrial Arts, &c. (in German and English) (Leipzig, 1875) ; F. Ratzel, Die afrikanischen Bbgen . . . eine anthrop.-geographische Studie (Leipzig, 1891); K. Weule, Der afrikanische Pfeil (Leipzig, 1899); H. Frobenius, Afrikanische Bautypen (Dauchau bei Munchen, 1894); H. Schurtz, Die afrikan. Gewerbe (Leipzig, 1900) ; E. W. Blyden, Christianity, Islam and the Negro Race (1887); James Stewart, Dawn in the Dark Continent, or Africa and its Missions (Edinburgh and London, 1903); W. H. J. Bleek, Comparative Grammar of South African Languages, 2 parts (1862-1869) ; Idem, Vocabularies of the Districts of Lourenzo Marques, fife, cfc. (1900) ; R. N. Cust, Sketch of the Modern Languages of Africa, 2 vols. (1883) ; F. W. Kolbe, A Language Study based on Bantu (1888) ; J. T. Last, Polyglotta Africana orientalis (1885) ; J. Torrend, Comparative Granimar of the South African Bantu Languages (1891) ; S. \V. Koelle, Polyglotta Africana (1854); C. Velten, Schilderungen der Suaheli von Expeditionen v. Wissmanns, &c, &c. (1901) (narra- tives taken down from the mouths of natives); A. Vierkandt, lotksgedichte im westlichen Central- Afrika (Leipzig, 1895). For latest information the following periodicals should be consulted: — Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland; Man (same publishers) ; Zeitschrift f. Ethnologie; Archiv f. Anthropologie; L'Anthropologie. § IV. Archaeology and Art. — Publications of the Egyptian Ex- ploration Fund; A. Mariette-Bey, The Monuments of Upper Egypt (1890); H. Brugsch, Die Agyptologie (Leipzig, 1891); G. Maspero, V Archeologie egyptienne (Paris, 1890?); R. Lepsius, Denkmaler aus Agypten und Athiopien . . ., 6 vols. (Berlin, 1849-1859); G. A. Hoskins, Travels in Ethiopia . . . illustrating the Antiquities of the Ancient Kingdom of Meroe (1835); Records of the Past: being English Translations of . . . Egyptian Monuments, vols. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12(1873-1881); Ditto, new series, 6 vols. (1890-1892); D. Randall- Maclver and A. Wilkin, Libyan Notes (1901) (archaeology and ethnology of North Africa); G. Boissier, L'Afrique romaine: Pro- menades archeologiques en Algerie et en Tunisie, 2nd ed. (Paris, 1 901) ; D. Randall-Maclver, Mediaeval Rhodesia (1906) ; Prisse d'Avennes, Histoire de I'art egyptien d'apres les monuments, &c. with atlas (Paris, 1879); G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, History of Art in Ancient Egypt, 2 vols. (1883); H. Wallis, Egyptian Ceramic Art (1900); C. H. Read and O. M. Dalton, Antiquities from the City of Benin and from other parts of West Africa (1899). § V. Travel and Exploration. — Dean W. Vincent, The Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients, vol. 2, The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1807) ; G. E. de Azurara, Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea (Eng. trans., 2 vols., 1896, 1899); R - H. Major, Life of Prince Henry the Navigator (1868) ; E. G. Ravenstein, " The Voyages of Diogo Cao and Barth. Diaz," Geogr. Journ., Dec. 1900; O. Hartig, " Altere Entdeckungsgeschichte und Kartographie Afrikas," Mitt. Geogr. Gesells. Wien, 1905; J. Leyden and H. Murray, Historical Account of Discoveries, &c, 2 vols., 2nd ed. (1818); T. E. Bowditch, Account of the Discoveries of the Portuguese in the Interior of Angola and Mozambique (1824); P. Paulitschke, Die geogr. Forschung des afrikan. Continents (Vienna, 1880); A. Supan, " Ein Jahrhundert der Afrika-Forschung," Peterm. Mitt., 1888; R. Brown, The Story of Africa and its Explorers, 4 vols. (1892-1895); Sir Harry Johnston, The Nile Quest (1903) ; James Bruce, Travels to discover the Source of the Nile in 1768-1773, 5 vols., Edinburgh (1790); Proceedings of the Association for . . . Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa, 1790- 1810; Mungo Park, Travels into the Interior Districts of Africa ('799) ;. Idem, Journal of a Mission, &c. (1815) ; Capt. J. K. Tuckey, Narrative of an Expedition to explore the River Zaire or Congo in 1816 (1818); D. Denham and H. Clapperton, Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in N. and Cent. Africa (1826) ; R. Caillie, Journal d'un voyage d Temboctu et d, Jenne, 3 vols., Paris (1830); D. Livingstone, Missionary Travels . . . in South Africa (1857); The Last Journals of David. Livingstone in Central Africa, ed. H. Waller (1874); H. Barth, Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa, 5 vols. (1857); J- L. Krapf, Travels, Researches, &c, in Eastern Africa (i860) ; Sir R. F. Burton, The Lake Regions of Central Africa, 2 vols. (i860); J. H. Speke, Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile (1863); Sir S. W. Baker, The Albert Nyanza, 2 vols. (1866); G. Schweinfurth, The Heart of Africa, 2 vols. (1873); V. L. Cameron, Across Africa, 2 vols. (1877); T. Baines, The Gold Regions of South- Eastern Africa (1877) ; Sir H. M. Stanley, Through the Dark Continent, 2 vols. (1878) ; Idem, In Darkest Africa, 2, vols. (1890) ; G. Nachtjgal, Sahara und Sudan, 3 vols. (Berlin, 1 879-1 889); P. S. de Brazza, Les Voyages de . . . (1875-1882), Paris, 1884; J- Thomson, Through Masai Land (1885); H. von Wissmann, Unter Deutscher Flagge quer durch Afrika, &c. (Berlin, 1889); Idem, My Second Journey through Equatorial Africa (1891); W. Junker, Travels in Africa 1875-1886, 3 vols. (1890-1892); L. G, Binger, Du Niger an. Golfe de Guinee, &c. (Paris, 1892); O. Baumann, Durch Masaiiand zur Nilquelle (Berlin, 1894) ; R. Kandt, Caput Nili (Berlin, 1904) ; C. A. von Gotzen, Durch Afrika von Ost nach West (Berlin, 1896) ; L. Vanu- telli and C. Citerni, Seconda spedizione Bdttego: LOmo (Milan, 1899) ; F. Foureau, D 'Alger au Congo parte Tchad (Paris, 1902); C. Lemaire,' Mission scientifique du Ka-Tanga: Journal de route, I vol., Resultals des observations, 16 parts (Brussels, 1902); A. St. H. Gibbons, Africa from South to North through Marotseland, 2 vols. (1904) ; E. Lenfant, La Grande Route du Tchad (Paris, 1905) ; Boyd Alexander, From the Niger to the Nile, 2 vols.. (1907). § VI. Historical and Political. — H. Schurtz, Africa(World's History, vol. 3, part 3) (1903) ; Sir H. H. Johnston, History of the Colonization of Africa by Alien Races (Cambridge, 1899) (reprint with additional chapter "Latest Developments," 1905); A. H. L. Heeren, Reflec- tions on the Politics, Intercourse and Trade of the Ancient Nations of Africa, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1832); G. Rawlinson, History of Ancient Egypt (1881) ; A. Graham, Roman Africa (1902) ; J. de Barros, Asia: Ira Decada, Lisbon (1552 and 1777-1778); J. Strandes, Die Pdrtu- giesenzeitvon . . . Ostafrika (Berlin, 1899) ; R. Schiick, Brandenburg- Preussens Kolonial-Politik . . . 1641-1721, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1889); G. M'Call Theal, History and Ethnography of Africa south of the Zambesi . . . to 1705, 3 vols. (1908- ), and History of South Africa since September 179$ (to 1872) 5 vols. (1908); Idem, Records of South-Eastern Africa, 9 vols., 1898-1903; Lady Lugard, A Tropical Dependency: Outline of the History of the Western Sudan, &c. (1905) • ? ir c. E TV^ e . rts fef' T Jt e Ma P °f A f rica b y Treaty, 3 vols. (3rd ed., 1909) ; J. b. Keltie, The Partition of Africa, 2nd ed. (1895) ; F. Van Ortroy, Conventions international ' definissant les limites . . . en Afrique (Brussels, 1898); General Act of the Conference of Berlin, 1885; The Surveys and Explorations of British Africa (Colonial Reports, No. 500) (1906), and annual reports thereafter; Sir F. D. Lugard! The Rise of our East African Empire, 2 vols. (1893); E. Petit, -Les colonies francaises, 2 vols. (Paris, 1902-1904); E. Rouard de Card. Les Traites de protector at conclus par la France en Afrique, 1870-189=; (Paris, 1897); A. J. de Araujo, Colonies portuguaises a" Afrique (Lisbon, 1900) ; B.Trognitz, " Ne'ue Arealbestimmung des Continents Afrika," Petermanns Mitt., 1893', 220-221; A. Supan, "Die Be- velkerung der Erde," xii., Peterm. Milt. Erganzungsh. 146 (Gotha, 1904) (deals with areas as well as population). § VII. Commerce and Economics.— -A. Silva White, The Develop- ment of Africa, 2nd ed. (1892); K. Dove, " Grundziige einer Wirt- schaftsgeographie Afrikas, Geographische Zeitschrift, 1905, 1-18; E. Hahn, ' Die Stellung Afrikas in der Geschichte des Welthandels," Verhandl. 11. Deutsch. Geographentags zu Bremen (Berlin, 1896); L. de Launay, Les Richesses minerales de I Afrique (Paris, 1903) ; K. Futterer, Afrika in seiner Bedeutung fur die Goldproduktion (Berlin, 1894); P. Reichard, "Das afrikan. Elfenbein und sein Handel," Deutsche geogr. Blatter (Bremen, 1889); Sir A. Moloney, Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa (1887); Dewevre, "Les Caoutchoucs africains," Ann. Soc. Set. Bruxelles, 1895; Sir T. F. Buxton, The African Slave Trade and its Remedy (1840); C. M. A. Lavigerie, L'Esclavage africain (Paris, 1888); E. de Renty, Les Chemins de fer coloniaux en Afrique, 3 vols. (Paris', 1 903-1 905); H. Meyer, Die Eisenbahnen im tropischen Afrika (Leipzig, 1902); G. Grenfell, " The Upper Congo as a Waterway," Geogr. Journ., Nov. 1902; A. St. H. Gibbons, " The Nile and Zambezi Systems as Waterways," Journ. R. Colon. Inst., 1901 ; K. Lent, " Verkehrs- mittel in Ostafrika," Deutsches Kolonialblatt, 1 894; " Trade of the United Kingdom with the African Continent in 1 898-1902," Board of T. Journ., 1903; Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Annual Series; Colonial Reports; T. H. Parke, Guide to Health in Africa (1893); R. W. Felkin, Geographical Distribution of Tropical Diseases in Africa (1895). The following bibliographies may also be consulted: J. Gay, Bibliographic des ouvrages relatifs a I' Afrique, &c. (San Remo, 1875); P. Paulitschke, Die Afrika-Literatur von 1500 bis 1750 (Vienne, 1882); Catalogue of the Colonial . Office Library, vol. 3, Africa (specially for government publications). (E. He.) AFRICA, ROMAN. The Romans gave the name of Africa to that part of the world which the Greeks called Libya (Ai^uij). It comprised the whole of the portion of the African continent known to the ancients, except Egypt and Ethiopia. But besides this general sense, which occurs in Pliny (iii. 3), Pomponius Mela (i. 8) and other authors, the official and administrative language used the word Africa in .a narrower sense, which is noticed below. The term was certainly borrowed by the Romans from the language of the natives'. In Latin literature it was employed for the first time by the poet Ennius, who wrote in the interval between the First and Second Punic Wars {Ann. vi.; Sat. iii.). By him the term was confined to the territory of AFRICA, ROMAN 359 Carthage and the regions composing the eastern group of the Atlas. Among the numerous conjectures which have been made as to the etymology of the term Africa (' ApiKr]) may be quoted that which derives it from the Semitic radical "hb (" separate "), Africa being considered, in this connexion, as a Phoenician settlement " separated " from the mother country, Asiatic Phoenicia. It has also been held that the word Africa comes from friqi, farikia (the country of fruit). The best hypothesis in the writer's opinion is that maintained by Charles Tissot, who sees in the word " Africa " the name of the great Berber tribe, the Aourigha (whose name would have been pronounced Afarika), the modern Aouraghen, now driven back into the Sahara, but in ancient times the principal indigenous element of the African empire of Carthage (Tissot, Geogr. comp. i. 389). Thus Africa was originally, in the eyes of the Romans and Carthaginians alike, the country inhabited by the great tribe of Berbers or Numidians called Afarik. Cyrenaica, on the east, attached to Egypt, was then excluded from it, and, similarly, Mauretania, on the west. At the time of the Third Punic War the Africa of the Cartha- ginians was but a fragment of their ancient native empire. It comprised the territory bounded by a vague line running from the mouth of the Tusca (Wad el Kebir), opposite the island of Tabraca (Tabarca), as far as the town of Thenae (Tina), at the mouth of the Gulf of Gabes. The rest of Africa had passed into the hands of the kings of Numidia, who were allies of the Romans. After the capture of Carthage by Scipio (146 B.C.) this territory was erected into a Roman province, and a trench, the fossa, regia, was dug to mark the boundary of the Roman province of Africa and the dominions of the Numidian princes. There have been discovered (1907) the remains of this ditch protected by a low wall or a stone dyke; some of the boundary stones which marked its course, and inscriptions mentioning it, have also been found. From Testur on the Mejerda the fossa regia can be followed by these indications for several miles along the Jebel esh-Sheid. The ditch ran northward to Tabarca and southward to Tina. The importance of the discoveries lies in the fact that the ditch which in later times divided the provinces of Africa vetus and Africa nova was at the time of the Third Punic War the boun- dary of Carthaginian territory (R. Cagnat, " Le fosse des fron- tieres romaines " in Melanges Boissier, 1905, p. 227; L. Poinssot in Comptes rendus de I' Acad, des Inscript. et Belles Lettres, 1907, p. 466; Classical Review, 1907, December, p. 255). The govern- ment of the Roman province thus delimited was entrusted to a praetor or propraetor, of whom several are now known, e.g. P. Sextilius, propraetor Africae, according to coins of Hadrumetum of the year 94 B.C. The towns which had fought on the side of the Romans during the Third Punic War were declared civitates liberae, and became exceedingly prosperous. They were Utica (Bu Shatir), Hadrumetum (Susa), Thapsus (Dimas), Leptis Minor (Lemta), Achulla (Badria), Uzalis (about n m. from Utica) and Theudalis. Those towns, however, which had remained faithful to Carthage were destroyed, like Carthage itself. After the Jugurthine war in 106, the whole of the regio Tripoli- tana, comprising Leptis Magna (Lebda), Oea (Tripoli), Sabrata, and the other towns on the littoral of the two Syrtes, appears to have been annexed to the Roman province in a more or less regular manner (Tissot ii. 21). The battle of Thapsus in 46 made the Romans definitely masters of Numidia, and the spheres of administration were clearly marked out. Numidia was con- verted into a new province called " Africa Nova," and of this province the historian Sallust was appointed proconsul and hv vested with the imperium. From that time the old province of Africa was known as " Africa Vetus " or " Africa Propria." This state of affairs, however, lasted but a short time. In 31 B.C. Octavius gave up Numidia, or Africa Nova, to King Juba II. Five years later Augustus gave Mauretania and some Gaetulian districts to Juba, and received in exchange Numidia, which thus reverted to direct Roman control. Numidia, how- ever, no longer formed a distinct government, but was attached to the old province of Africa. From 25 B.C. the Roman province of Africa comprised the whole of the region between the mouth of the Ampsaga (Wad Rummel, Wad el Kebir) on the west, and the two tumuli called the altars of the Philaeni, the immutable boundary between Tripolitana and Cyrenaica, on the east (Tissot ii. 261). In the partition of the government of the provinces of the Roman empire between the senate and the emperor, Africa fell to the senate, and was henceforth ad- ministered by a proconsul. Subordinate to him were the legati pro consule, who were placed at the head of districts called dioceses. At first there were only three dioceses: Cartha- giniensis, Hipponiensis (headquarters Hippo Diarrhytus, now Bizerta), and Numidica (headquarters Cirta, now Constantine). At a later date the diocesis Hadrumetina was formed, and perhaps at some date unknown the diocesis Tripolitana. The province of Africa was the only senatorial province whose governor had originally been invested with military powers. The proconsul of Africa, in fact, had command of the legio III. Augusta and the auxiliary corps. But in a.d. 37 Caligula de- prived the proconsul of his military powers and gave them to the imperial legate (legatus Augusti pro praetore provinciae Africae), who was nominated directly by the emperor, and whose special duty it was to guard the frontier zone (Tacitus, Hist. iv. 48; Dio Cass. lix. 20). The headquarters of the imperial legate were originally at Cirta and afterwards at Lambaesa (Lambessa). The military posts were drawn up in echelon along the frontier of the desert, especially along the southern slopes of the Aures, as far as Ad Majores (Besseriani), and on the Tripoli tan frontier as far as Cydamus (Ghadames), forming an immense arc extend- ing from Cyrenaica to Mauretania. A network of military routes, constructed and kept in repair by the soldiers, led from Lambaesa in all directions, and stretched along the frontier as far as Leptis Magna, passing Theveste (Tebessa), Thenae and Tacape (Gabes). The powers of the proconsul, however, extended scarcely beyond the ancient Africa Vetus and the towns on the littoral. Towards 194 Septimius Severus completed the reform of Caligula by detaching from the province of Africa the greater partof Numidia to constitute a special province governed by a procurator, sub- ordinate to the imperial legate and resident at Cirta (Tissot ii. 34). This province was called Numidia Cirtensis, as opposed to Numidia Inferior or proconsular Numidia. In Diocletian's great reform of the administrative system of the empire, the whole of Roman Africa, with the exception of Mauretania Tingitana (which was attached to the province of Spain), constituted a single diocese subdivided into six provinces: Zeugi tana (Carthage), Byzacium (Hadrumetum, now Susa), Numidia Cirtensis (Cirta, Constantine), Tripolitana (Tripolis), Mauretania Sitifensis (Sitifis, Setif), and Mauretania Caesariensis (Caesarea, now Cherchel). These provinces were administered, according to circumstances, by a praeses of sena- torial rank, a legatus pro praetore, or a vir clarissimus consularis. Some changes were eventually necessitated by the wars with the Moors and the Vandals. By a treaty concluded in 476, the emperor Zeno recognized Genseric as master of all Africa. Re- conquered by Belisarius in 534, Africa formed, under the name of praefectura Africae, one of the great administrative districts of the Byzantine empire. It was subdivided into six provinces, which were placed under the authority of the praetorian prefect of Africa. These provinces were Zeugitana (the former Pro- consularis), Carthage, Byzacium, Tripolitana, Numidia and Mauretania. The civil government was carried on by consulares or praesides, while the military government was in the hands of four duces militum, who made strenuous efforts to drive out the barbarians. The country was studded thickly with burgi(small forts) and clausurae (long walls) , the ruins of which still subsist. In 647 the Arabs penetrated into Ifrikia, which was destined to fall for ever out of the grasp of the Romans. In 697 Carthage was taken. The bulk of the population of Roman Africa was invariably composed of three chief elements: the indigenous Berber tribes, the ancient Carthaginians of Phoenician origin and the Roman colonists. The Berber tribes, whose racial unity is attested by their common spoken language and by the comparatively numerous Berber inscriptions that have come down to us, bore 3 6 ° AFRICA, ROMAN in ancient times the generic names of Numidians, Gaetulians and Moors or Maurusiani. Herodotus mentions a great number of these tribes. During the Roman period, according to Pliny, there were settlements of 26 indigenous tribes extending from the Ampsaga as far as Cyrenaica. The much more detailed list of Ptolemy enumerates 39 indigenous tribes in the province of Africa and 25 in Mauretania Caesariensis. Ammianus Marcel- linus, Procopius and Flavius Cresconius Corippus give still further names. Besides the Afri (Aourigha) of the territory of Carthage, the principal tribes that took part in the wars against the Romans were the Lotophagi, the Garamantes, the Maces, the Nasamones in the regions of the S.E., the Misulani or Musulamii (whence the name Mussulman) , the Massyli and the Massaesyli in the E., who were neighbours of the Moors. The non-nomads of these Libyan tribes dwelt in huts made of stakes supporting plaited mats of rush or asphodel. These dwellings, which were called mapalia, are the modern gourbis. African epigraphy has revealed the names of some of their deities: deus invictus Aulisva; the god Motmanius, associated with Mercury; the god Lilleus; Baldir Augustus; Kautus paler; the goddess Gilva, identified with Tellus, and Ifru Augustus (Tissot i. 486). The Johannis of Corippus mentions three native divinities: Sinifere, Mastiman and Gurzil. There were also local divinities in all the principal districts. The rock bas-reliefs and other monuments showing native divinities^.re rare, and give only very summary representa- tions. Dolmens, however, occur in great numbers in Tunisia and the province of Constantine. Tumuli, too, are found through- out northern Africa, thejmost celebrated being that near Cherchel, the Kubr-er-Rumia (" tomb of the Christian lady "), which was regarded by Pomponius Mela as the royal burying-place of the kings of Numidia. During the Roman period the ancient Carthaginians of Phoe- nician origin and the bastard population termed by ancient authors Libyo-Phoenicians, like the modern Maltese, invariably formed the predominant population of the towns on the littoral, and retained the Punic language until the 6th century of the Christian era. The municipal magistrates took the title of suffetes in place of that of duumvirs, and in certain towns the Christian bishops were obliged to know the lingua Punica, since it was the only language that the people understood. Neverthe- less, the Roman functionaries, the army and the colonists from Italy soon brought the Latin element into Africa, where it flourished with such vigour that, in the 3rd century, Carthage became the centre of a Romano-African civilization of extra- ordinary literary brilliancy, which numbered among its leaders such men as Apuleius, Tertullian, Arnobius, Cyprian, Augustine and many others. Carthage regained its rank of capital of Africa under Augustus, when thousands of Roman colonists flocked to the town. Utica became a Roman colony under Hadrian, and the civitates liberae, municipia, castella, pagi and tunes were peopled with Latins. The towns of the ancient province of Africa which received coloniae were very numerous: Abitensis (civitas Avittensis Bibba) , Bisica Lucana (Tastour), Byzacium, Capsa (Gafsa), Carthage, Cuina, Curubis (Kurba), Hadrumetum (Susa), Hippo Diarrhytus or Zarytus (Bizerta), Leptis Magna (Lebda), Maxula (Ghades, Rades or Gades) , Neapolis (Nabel, Nebeul) , Oea (Tripoli) , Sab rata (Zoara), colonia Scillitana (Ghasrin), Sufes (Sbiba), Tacape (Gabes) , Thaenae or Thenae (Tina) , Thelepte ( Medinet Kedima) , Thugga (Dugga), Thuburbo maius (Kasbat), Thysdrus (El Jem), Uthina (Wadna) and Vallis (Median). Of the municipia may be mentioned Gigthis or Gigthi (Bu Grara), Thibussicensium Bure (Tebursuk), Zita and the turris Tamalleni (Telmin). The province of Numidia was at first colonized principally by the military settlements of the Romans. Cirta (Constantine) and Bulla Regia (Hammam Darraj), its chief towns, received coloniae of soldiers and veterans, as well as Theveste (Tebessa) and Thamugas (Timgad). The fine ruins which have been discovered at the last-mentioned place have earned for it the surname of the African Pompeii (see below). Archaeology. — Roman Africa has been the subject of innumer- able historical and archaeological researches, especially since the conquest of Algeria and Tunisia by the French. The country is covered with Roman and Byzantine remains. Each of these ruins has been visited by archaeologists who have copied in- scriptions, described the temples, triumphal arches, porticos, mausoleums and the other monuments which are still standing, collected statues or other antiquities; and in many cases they have actually excavated. The results of all these labours have been published, from about 1850 onwards, annually, and, indeed, almost from day to day, in various scientific periodicals. Among the principal of these are: — Memoires de la SpciStS archiologique de Constantine, Bulletin de la SociUS giographique et arcMologique d'Oran, Revue africaine of Algiers, to which we should add the Revue archeologique of Paris, the Archives des missions scien- tifiques and the Bulletin arcMologique du Comite" des travaux historiques and the Milanges of the French School at Rome. In all the towns of Algeria and Tunisia museums have been founded for storing the antiquities of the region; the most important of these are the museums of St Louis, Carthage and the palace of Bardo (musee Alaoui) near Tunis, those of Susa, Constantine, Lambessa, Timgad, Tebessa, Philippeville, Cherchel and Oran. Under the title of MusSes et collections arcMologiques de I' Algerie et de la Tunisie, the Ministry of Public Instruction publishes from time to time illustrated descriptions of all these archaeological treasures. In this collection have already appeared descriptions of the museums of Algiers by G. Doublet; of Constantine by G. Doublet and P. Gauckler; of Oran by R. de La Blanchere; of Cherchel by P. Gauckler; of Lambessa by R. Cagnat; of Philippeville by S. Gsell and Bertrand; of the Bardo by R. de La Blanchere and P. Gauckler; of Carthage by R. P. Delattre; of Tebessa by S. Gsell; of Susa by P. Gauckler; of Timgad by R. Cagnat and A. Ballu. The archaeological exploration of Algeria has kept pace with the expansion of French dominion. From 1846 to 1854 Delamarre published his Exploration archeologique de V Algerie, in collabora- tion with the French officers. In 1850 Leon Renier was officially instructed to collect all the inscriptions in Algeria which should be found by the military expeditionary columns. This scholar examined first the ruins of Lambessa, an account of which he published in 1854 in his Melanges d'ipigraphie; subsequently he made his important collection of Inscriptions romaines de l' Algirie (1855-1858) which formed the groundwork of the volume of the Corpus Inscr. Lot. of the Academy of Berlin, devoted to Roman Africa. A little later General Faidherbe published his Collection complete des inscriptions numidiques (1870). Apart from the province of Constantine, Algeria is less rich in Roman remains than Tunisia; mention must, however, be made of the excava- tions of Victor Waille at Cherchel, where were found fine statues in the Greek style of the time of King Juba II. ; of P. Gavault at Tigzirt (Rusuccuru), and finally of those of Stephane Gsell at Tipasa (basilica of St Salsa) and throughout the district of Setif and at Khamissa (Thuburticum Numidarum). In the depart- ment of Constantine, which is peculiarly rich in Roman remains, Tebessa has been most carefully explored by M. Heron de Villefosse. who has laid bare a beautiful temple of Jupiter, a triumphal arch of Caracalla, a Byzantine basilica and the gate of the Byzantine general Solomon. But all these ruins fade into insignificance in comparison with the majestic grandeur of those of Timgad which are almost entirely laid bare; they are de- scribed in Timgad, une cite africaine sous V empire romain, by R. Cagnat, G. Boeswillwald and A. Ballu. In Tunisia, Carthage early became the object of archaeo- logical investigation. Major Humbert was sent there by Napoleon in 1808 and his notes are still preserved in the museum of Leiden. Chateaubriand visited and described the ruins; the Dane Falbe, the Englishman Nathan Davis, Beule, P. de Sainte-Marie and others also have carried out researches; for more than twenty years Pere Delattre has explored the ruins of Carthage (q.v.) with extraordinary success. For the rest of Tunisia, the first explorer interested in archaeology was Victor Gu6rin in i860; his results are contained in his remarkable Voyage archiologique dans la R&gence de Tunis (1862, 2 vols.). A. Daux, in the years preceding 1869, explored the sites of the AFRICAN LILY— AFRIDI 361 ancient harbours of Utica, Hadrumetum, Thapsus (Dimas) . But it was the occupation of Tunisia by the French in 1881 which really gave the, impetus to modern investigations in this district of ruined cities. They were put on a solid foundation by the publication of the Geographie comparee of Charles Tissot (1884). Trained scholars were sent there annually by the French govern- ment: Cagnat, Saladin, Poinssot, La Blanchere, S. Reinach, E. Babelon, Carton, Audollent, Steph. Gsell, J. Toutain, Espe- randieu, Gauckler, Merlin, Homo and many others, to say nothing of German scholars, such as Willmans and Schulten, and especially of a great number of enthusiastic officers of the army of occupation, who explored all the ancient sites, and in many cases excavated with great success (for their results see the works quoted above). It would be impossible to enumerate here all the monographs describing, for example, the ruins of Carthage, those of the temple of the waters at Mount Zaghuan, the amphitheatre of El Jem (Thysdrus), the temple of Saturn, the royal tomb and the theatre of Dugga (Thugga), the bridge of Chemtu (Simitthu), the ruins and cemeteries of Tebursuk and Medeina (Althiburus) , the rich villa of the Laberii at Wadna {Uthina), the sanctuary of Saturn Balcara- nensis on the hill called Bu-Kornain, the ruins of the district of Enfida (Aphrodisium, Uppenna, Segermes), those of Leptis minor (Lemta), of Thenae (near Sfax), those of the island of Meninx (Jerba), of the peninsula of Zarzis, of Mactar, Sbeitla (Sufetula), Gigthis (Bu-Grara), Gafsa (Capsa), Kef (Sicca Veneria), Bulla Regia, &c. From this accumulation of results most valuable evidence as to the history and more especially the internal administration of Africa under the Romans has been derived. In particular we know how rural life was there developed, and with what care the water necessary for the growing of cereals was everywhere provided. Sculpture throughout the district is very provincial and of minor importance; the only exceptions are certain statues found at Carthage and Cherchel, the capital of the Mauretanian kings. Authorities. — Among general works on the subject may be mentioned: Morcelli, Africa Christiana (1816); Gustave Boissiere, L'Algerie romaine (2nd ed., 1883) ; E. Mercier, Histoire de I'Afrique septentrionale (1888) ; Charles Tissot, Geographie comparee de la province romaine d'Afrique (1884-1888), with atlas; Vivien de Saint- Martin, LeNord de I Afrique dans Vantiquite grecque et romaine (1883) ; Gaston Boissier, LAfrique romaine (1895); CI. Pallu de Lessert, Fastes des provinces africaines {Proconsulate, Numidie, Mauretanie) sous la domination romaine (1896-1901); R. Cagnat, L'Armee romaine d'Afrique (1892) ; A. Daux, Les Emporia pheniciens dais h Zeugis el le Byzacium (1869) ; Ludwig Muller, Numismaticue de I'ancienne Afrique (1860-1862; Supplement, 1874); Ch. Diehl, V Afrique byzantine (1896); Stephane Gsell, Recherches arckeo- logiques en Afrique (1893) ; Paul Monceaux, Histoire litteraire de I'Afrique chretienne (1901-1905) ; J. Toutain, Les Cites romaines de la Tunisie (1895); Adas archeologique de la Tunisie, published by the Ministry of Public Instruction (1895 foil.); Atlas archeologique de I'Algerie, published by Stephane Gsell (1900 foil.); Toulotte, GSographie de I'Afrique chretienne (1 892-1 894) ; Corpus inscriptionum latinarum, vol. viii. and Supplement (1881). Cf. also articles Carthage,Numidia, &c, JuGURTHA,and articles relating to Roman History. (E. B.*) AFRICAN LILY (Agapanthus umbellatus), a member of the natural order Liliaceae, a native of the Cape of Good Hope, whence it was introduced at the close of the 17th century. It is a handsome greenhouse plant, which is hardy in the south of England and Ireland if protected from severe frosts. It has a short stem bearing a tuft of long, narrow, arching leaves, 5 to 2 ft. long, and a central flower-stalk, 2 to 3 ft. high, ending in an umbel of bright blue, funnel-shaped flowers. The plants are easy to cultivate, and are generally grown in large pots or tubs which can be protected from frost in winter. During the summer they require plenty of water, and are very effective on the margins of lakes or running streams, where they thrive admirably. They increase by offsets, or may be propagated by dividing the root-stock in early spring or autumn. A number of forms are known in cultivation; such are albidus, with white flowers, aureus, with leaves striped with yellow, and variegatus, with leaves almost entirely white with a few green bands. There are also double-flowered and larger and smaller flowered forms. AFRICANUS, SEXTUS JULIUS, a Christian traveUer and historian of the 3rd century, was probably born in Libya, and may have served under Septimius Severus against the Osrhoenians in a.d. 195. Little is known of his personal history, except that he lived at Emmaus, and that he went on an embassy to the emperor Heliogabalus 1 to ask for the restoration of the town, which had fallen into ruins. His mission succeeded, and Emmaus was henceforward known as Nicopolis. Dionysius bar-Salibi makes him a bishop, but probably he was not even a presbyter. He wrote a history oitheyfOild{Xpovoypa(j>iaL, in five books)from the creation to the year a.d. 221, a period, according to his computation, of 5723 years. He calculated the period between the creation and the birth of Christ as 5499 years, and ante-dated the latter event by three years. This method of reckoning became known as the Alexandrian era, and was adopted by almost all the eastern churches. The history, which had an apologetic aim, is no longer extant, but copious extracts from it are to be found in the Chronicon of Eusebius, who used it ex- tensively in compiling the early episcopal lists. There are also fragments in Syncellus, Cedrenus and the Paschale Chronicon. Eusebius {Hist. Ecc. i. 7, cf. vi. 31) gives some extracts from his letter to one Aristides, reconciling the apparent discrepancy between Matthew and Luke in the genealogy of Christ by a reference to the Jewish law, which compelled a man to marry the widow of his deceased brother, if the latter died without issue. His terse and pertinent letter to Origen, impugning the authority of the apocryphal book of Susanna, and Origen's wordy and uncritical answer, are both extant. The ascription to Africanus of an eacyclopaedic work entitled Ketrroi (em- broidered girdles), treating of agriculture, natural history, military science, &c, has been needlessly disputed on account of its secular and often credulous character. Neander suggests that it was written by Africanus before he had devoted himself to religious subjects. For a new fragment of this work see Oxyrhynchus Papyri (Grenfell and Hunt), iii. 36 ff. Authorities. — Edition in M. J. Routh, Rel. Sac. ii. 219-509; translation in Ante-Nicene Fathers (S. D. F. Salmond) vi. 125-140. See H. Gelzer, Sex. Jul. Africanus und die byzant. Chronographie, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1 880-1 885); G. Kriiger, Early Christian Literature, 248-253; A. Harnack, Altchristl. Litt. Gesch. i. 507, ii. 70. AFRIDI, a Pathan tribe inhabiting the mountains on the Peshawar border of the North-West Frontier province of India. The Afridis are the most powerful and independent tribe on the border, and the largest with the exception of the Waziris. Their special country is the lower and easternmost spurs of the Safed Koh range, to the west and south of the Peshawar district, in- cluding the Bazar and Bara valleys. On their east they are bounded by British districts, on the north by the Mohmands, on the west by the Shinwaris and on the south by the Orakzai and Bangash tribes. Their origin is obscure, but they are said to have Israelitish blood in their veins, and they have a decidedly Semitic cast of features. They are possibly the Aparytai of Herodotus, the names and positions being identical. If this theory is correct, they were then a powerful people, and held a large tract of country, but have been gradually driven back by the encroachments of other tribes. The tribe is divided into the following eight clans: — Kuki Khel, Malikdin Khel, Kambar Khel, Kamar Khel, Zakka Khel (the most numerous and the most turbulent), Sipah, Aka Khel and Adam Khel. The first seven clans live in the vicinity of the Khyber Pass, and migrate to Tirah in the summer months. The Adam Khel (5900 fighting men) live round the Kohat Pass, and are more settled and less migratory in their habits. In appearance the Afridi is a fine, tall, athletic highlander with a long, gaunt face, high nose and cheek-bones, and a fair complexion. On his own hillside he is one of the finest skirmishers in the world, and in the Indian army makes a first-rate soldier, but he is apt to be home-sick when removed from the air of his native mountains. In character the Afridi has obtained an evil name for ferocity, craft and treachery, but Colonel Sir Robert Warburton, who lived eighteen years in charge of the Khyber Pass and knew the Afridi better than any other Englishman, says: — " The Afridi lad from his 1 So Eusebius, Syncellus says Alexander Severus, 362 AFTERGLOW— AGA KHAN I. earliest childhood is taught by the circumstances of his existence and life to distrust all mankind, and very often his near relations, heirs to his small plot of land by right of inheritance, are his deadliest enemies. Distrust of all mankind, and readiness to strike the first blow for the safety of his own life, have therefore become the maxims of the Afridi. If you can overcome this mistrust, and be kind in words to him, he will repay you by a great devotion, and he will put up with any treatment you like to give him except abuse." In short the Afridi has the vices and virtues of all Pathans in an enhanced degree. The fighting strength of the Afridis is said to be 27,000, but this estimate is excessive, judged by the number and size of their villages. They derive their importance from their geographical position, which gives them command of the Khyber and Kohat roads, and the history of the British connexion with them has been almost entirely with reference to these two passes. There have been several British expeditions against the separate clans: — (1) Expedition against the Kohat Pass Afridis under Sir Colin Campbell in 1850. The British connexion with the Adam Khel Afridis commenced immediately after the annexation of the Peshawar and Kohat districts. Following the example of all previous rulers of the country, the British agreed to pay the tribe a subsidy to protect the pass. But in 1850 a thousand Afridis attacked a body of sappers engaged in making the road, killing twelve and wounding six. It was supposed that they disliked the making of a road which would lay open their fast- nesses to regular troops. An expedition of 3200 British troops was despatched, which traversed the country and punished them. (2) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis of the Bori villages in 1853. When the Afridis of the Kohat Pass misbehaved in 1850, the Jowaki Afridis offered the use of their route instead; but they turned out worse than the others, and in 1853 a force of 1700 British traversed their country and destroyed their stronghold at Bori. The Jowaki Afridis are a clan of the Adam Khel, who inhabit the country lying between the Kohat Pass and the river Indus. (3) Expedition against the Aka Khel Afridis under Colonel Craigie in 1855. In 1854 the Aka Khels, not finding themselves admitted to a share of the allowances of the Kohat Pass, com- menced a series of raids on the Peshawar border and attacked a British camp. An expedition of 1500 troops entered the country and inflicted severe punishment on the tribe, who made their submission and paid a fine. (4) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis under Colonel Mocatta in 1877. In that year the government proposed to reduce the Jowaki allowance for guarding the Kohat Pass, and the tribesmen resented this by cutting the telegraph wire and. raiding into British territory. A force of 1500 troops penetrated their country in three columns, and did considerable damage by way of punishment. (5) Expedition against the Jowaki Afridis under Brigadier- General Keyes in 1877-78. The punishment inflicted by the previous expedition did not prove sufficiently severe, the attitude of the Jowakis continued the same and their raids into British territory went on. A much stronger force, therefore, of 7400 British troops, divided into three columns, destroyed their principal villages and occupied their country for some time, until the tribe submitted and accepted government terms. The Kohat Pass was afterwards practically undisturbed. (6) Expedition against the Zakka Khel Afridis of the Bazar Valley under Brigadier- General Tytler in 1878. At the time of the British advance into Afghanistan, during the second Afghan War, the Zakka Khel opposed the British advance and attacked their outposts. A force of 2500 British troops traversed their country, and the tribesmen made their submission. (7) Expedition against the Zakka Khel Afridis of the Bazar Valley under Lieutenant-General Maude in 1879. After the previous expedition the Afridis of the Khyber Pass continued to give trouble during the progress of the second Afghan War, so another force of 3750 British troops traversed their country, and after suffering some loss the tribesmen made their submission. After this both the Khyber and Kohat Passes were put on a stable footing, and no further trouble of any consequence occurred in either down to the time of the frontier risings of 1897, when the Afridis attacked the Khyber Pass, which was defended by Afridi levies. (8) For the Tirah Campaign of 1897 see Tirah Campaign. (9) In the February of 1908 the restlessness of the Zakka Khel again made a British expedition necessary, under Sir James Willcocks; but the campaign was speedily ended, though in the following April he had again to proceed against the Mohmands, the situation being complicated by an incursion from Afghanistan. See also Paget and Mason's Frontier Expeditions (1884) ; War- burton's Eighteen Y.ears in the Khyber (1900). (C. L.) , r AFTERGLOW, a broad high arch of whitish or rosy light appearing occasionally in the sky above the highest clouds in the hour of deepening twilight, or reflected from the high snow- fields in mountain regions long after sunset. The phenomenon is due to very fine particles of dust suspended in the high regions of the atmosphere that produce a scattering effect upon the component parts of white light. After the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883, a remarkable series of red sunsets appeared all over the world. These were due to an enormous amount of exceedingly fine dust blown to a great height by that terrific explosion, and then universally diffused by the high atmospheric currents. AFZELIUS, ADAM (1750-1837), Swedish botanist, was born at Larf, Vestergotland, in 1750. He was appointed teacher of oriental languages at Upsala in 1777, and in 1785 demonstrator of botany. From 1792 he spent some years on the west coast of Africa, and in 1 797-1 798 acted as secretary of the Swedish embassy in London. Returning to Sweden, he founded the Linnaean institute at Upsala in 1802, and in 181 2 became professor of materia medica at the university. He died at Upsala in 1837. In addition to various botanical writings, he published the autobiography of Linnaeus in 1823. His brother, Johan Afzelius (i753-i837),known as Arvtdson, was professor of chemistry at Upsala; and another brother, Per af (1 760-1843), who became professor of medicine at Upsala in 1801, was distinguished as a medical teacher and practitioner. AFZELIUS, ARVID AUGUST (1785-1871), Swedish pastor, poet, historian and mythologist, was born on the 8th of October 1785. From 1828 till his death on the 25th of September 1871 he was parish priest of Enkoping. He is mainly known as a collaborator with the learned historian, Erik Gustaf Geijer, in the great collection of Swedish folk-songs, Svenske folkirsor jran forntiden, 3 vols. (Stockholm, 1814-1816). He published also translations of the Samunder Edda and Herwara-Saga, and a history of Sweden to Charles XII. (of which a German transla- tion was published in 1842), as well as original poems. AGA, or Agha, a word, said to be of Tatar origin, signifying a dignitary or lord. Among the Turks it is applied to the chief of the janissaries, to the commanders of the artillery, cavalry and infantry, and to the eunuchs in charge of the seraglio. It is also employed generally as a term of respect in addressing wealthy men of leisure, landowners, &c. AGAIAMBO, or Agaumbu, a race of dwarf marsh-dwellers in British New Guinea, now almost extinct. In his annual report for 1904 the acting administrator of British New Guinea stated that on a visit he paid to their district he saw six males and four females. The Agaiambo five in huts erected on piles in the lakes and marshes. Dwarfish in stature but broadly built, they are remarkable for the shortness of their legs. They live almost entirely in their " dug-outs " or canoes, or actually wading in the water. Their food consists of sago, the roots of the water- lily and fish. The Agaiambo are believed to have been formerly numerous, but within the last few years have suffered from the raids of their cannibalistic Papuan neighbours. In features, colour and hair they closely resemble the true Papuans. AGA KHAN I., His Highness the (1800-1881), the title accorded by general consent to Hasan Ali Shah (born in Persia, 1800), when, in early life, he first settled in Bombay under the protection of the British government. He was believed to have descended in direct line from Ali by his wife Fatima, the daughter AGALMATOLITE— AGAMEMNON 363 •of the Prophet Mahomet. Ali's son, Hosain, having married a daughter of one of the rulers of Persia before the time of Mahomet, the Aga Khan traced his descent from the royal house of Persia from the most remote, almost prehistoric, times. His ancestors had also ruled in Egypt as caliphs of the Beni- Fatimites for a number of years, at a period coeval with the Crusades. Before the Aga Khan emigrated from Persia, he was appointed by the emperor Fateh Ali Shah to be governor-general of the extensive and important province of Kerman. His rule was noted for firmness, moderation and high political sagacity, and he succeeded for a long time in retaining the friendship and confidence of his master the shah, although his career was beset with political intrigues and jealousy on the part of rival and court favourites, and with internal turbulence. At last, however, the fate usual to statesmen in oriental countries overtook him, and he incurred the mortal displeasure of Fateh Ali Shah. He fled from Persia and sought protection in British territory, preferring to settle down eventually in India, making Bombay his headquarters. At that period the first Afghan War was at its height, and in crossing over from Persia through Afghanistan the Aga Khan found opportunities of rendering valuable services to the British army, and thus cast in his lot for ever with the British. A few years later he rendered similar conspicuous services in the course of the Sind campaign, when his help was • utilized by Napier in the process of subduing the frontier tribes, a large number of whom acknowledged the Aga's authority as their spiritual head. Napier held his Moslem ally in great esteem, and entertained a very high opinion of his political acumen and chivalry as a leader and soldier. The Aga Khan reciprocated the British commander's confidence and friendship by giving Tepeated proofs of his devotion and attachment to the British government, and when he finally settled down in India, his position as the leader of the large Ismailiah section of Mahommedan British subjects was recognized by the govern- ment, and the title of His Highness was conferred on him, with a large pension. From that time until his death in 1881 the Aga Khan, while leading the life of a peaceful and peacemaking citizen, under the protection of British rule, continued to dis- charge his sacerdotal functions, not only among his followers in India, but towards the more numerous communities which acknowledged his religious sway in distant countries, such as Afghanistan, Khorasan, Persia, Arabia, Central Asia, and even distant Syria and Morocco. He remained throughout unflinch- ingly loyal to the British Raj, and by his vast and unquestioned influence among the frontier tribes on the northern borders of India he exercised a control over their unruly passions in times of trouble, which proved of invaluable service in the several expeditions led by British arms on the north-west frontier of India. He was also the means of checking the fanaticism of the more turbulent Mahommedans in British India, which in times of internal troubles and misunderstandings finds vent in the shape of religious or political riots. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Aga Khan II. This prince continued the traditions and work of his father in a manner that won the approbation of the local government, and earned for him the distinction of a knighthood of the Order of the Indian Empire and a seat in the legislative council of Bombay. Aga Khan III. (Sultan Mahommed Shah), only son of the foregoing, succeeded him on his death in 1885, and became the head of the family and its devotees. He was born in 1877, and, under the care of his mother, a daughter of the ruling house of Persia, was given not only that religious and oriental education which his position as the religious leader of the Ismailiahs made indispensable, but a sound European training, a boon denied to his father and grandfather. This blending of the two systems of education produced the happy result of fitting this Moslem chief in an eminent degree both for the sacerdotal functions which appertain to his spiritual position, and for those social duties of a great and enlightened leader which he was called upon to dis- charge by virtue of that position. He travelled in distant parts of the world to receive the homage of his followers, and with the pbject either of settling differences or of advancing their welfare by pecuniary help and personal advice and guidance. The dis- tinction of a knight commander of the Indian Empire was con- ferred upon him by Queen Victoria in 1897, and he received like recognition for his public services from the German emperor, the sultan of Turkey, the shah of Persia and other potentates. See Naoroji M. Dumasia, A Brief History of the Aga Khan (1903). (M. M. Bh.) AGALMATOLITE (from Gr. &ya\/ia, statue, and Xt0os, stone), a soft species of mineral, also called pagodite, used by the Chinese for carving, especially into grotesque figures (whence called " figure-stone "). AGAMKDES, in Greek legend, son of Erginus, king of Orcho- menus in Boeotia. He is always associated with his brother Trophonius as a wonderful architect, the constructor of under- ground shrines and grottos for the reception of hidden treasure. When building a treasure-house for Hyrieus, the brothers fixed one of the stones in the wall so that they could remove it whenever they pleased, and from time to time carried off some of the treasure. Hyrieus thereupon set a trap in which Agamedes was caught; Trophonius, to prevent discovery, cut off his brother's head and fled with it. He was pursued by Hyrieus, and swal- lowed up by the earth in the grove of Lebadeia. On this spot was the oracle of Trophonius in an underground cave; those who wished to consult it first offered the sacrifice of a ram and called upon the name of Agamedes. A similar story is told of Rhampsinitus by Herodotus (ii. 121). According to Pindar (apud Plutarch), the brothers built the temple of Apollo at Delphi; when they asked for a reward, the god promised them one in seven days; on the seventh day they died. Pausanias ix. 37; Plutarch, Consolatio ad Apollonium, 14; Cicero, Tusc. Disp. i. 47. AGAMEMNON, one of the most distinguished of the Greek heroes, was the son of Atreus (king of Mycenae) and Aerope, grandson of Pelops, great-grandson of Tantalus and brother of Menelaus. Another account makes him the son of Pleisthenes (the son or father of Atreus), who is said to have been Aerope's first husband. Atreus was murdered by Aegisthus (q.v.), who took possession of the throne of Mycenae and ruled jointly with his father Thyestes. During this period Agamemnon and Menelaus took refuge with Tyndareus, king of Sparta, whose daughters Clytaemnestra (more correctly Clytaemestra) and Helen they respectively married. By Clytaemnestra, Agamemnon had three daughters, Iphigeneia (Iphianassa), Electra (Laodice), Chrysothemis, and a son, Orestes. Menelaus succeededTyndareus, and Agamemnon, with his brother's assistance, droveout Aegisthus and Thyestes, and recovered his father's kingdom. He extended his dominion by conquest and became the most powerful prince in Greece. When Paris (Alexander), son of Priam, had carried off his brother's wife, he went round to the princes of the country and called upon them to unite in a war of revenge against the Trojans. He himself furnished 100 ships, and was chosen commander-in- chief of the combined forces. The fleet, numbering 1200 ships, assembled at the port of Aulis in Boeotia. But Agamemnon had offended the goddess Artemis by slaying a hind sacred to her, and boasting himself a better hunter. The army was visited by a plague, and the fleet was prevented from sailing by the total absence of wind. Calchas announced that the wrath of the goddess could only be appeased by the sacrifice of Iphigeneia (q.v.). The fleet then set sail. Little is heard of Agamemnon until his quarrel with Achilles (q.v.). After the capture of Troy, Cassandra, the daughter of Priam, fell to his lot in the distribution of the prizes of war. On his return, after a stormy voyage, he landed in Argolis. His kinsman, Aegisthus, who in the interval had seduced his wife Clytaemnestra, invited him to a banquet at which he was treacherously slain, Cassandra also being put to death by Clytaemnestra. According to the account given by Pindar and the tragedians, Agamemnon was slain by his wife alone in a bath, a piece of cloth or a net having first been thrown over him to prevent resistance. Her wrath at the sacrifice of Iphigeneia, and her jealousy of Cassandra, are said to have been the motives of her Crime, The murder of Agamemnon was avenged by his son Orestes (q.v.). Although not the equal of 364 AGAPE Achilles in bravery, Agamemnon is a dignified representative of kingly authority. As commander-in-chief, he summons the princes to the council and leads the army in battle. He takes the field himself, and performs many heroic deeds until he is wounded and forced to withdraw to his tent. His chief fault is his over- weening haughtiness, due to an over-exalted opinion of his position, which leads him to insult Chryses and Achilles, thereby bringing great disaster upon the Greeks. But his family had been marked out for misfortune from the outset. His kingly office had come to him from Pelops through the blood-stained hands of Atreus and Thyestes, and had brought with it a certain fatality which explained the hostile destiny which pursued him. The fortunes of Agamemnon have formed the subject of numerous tragedies, ancient and modern, the most famous being the Oresteia of Aeschylus. In the legends of Peloponnesus, Agamem- non was regarded as the highest type of a powerful monarch, and in Sparta he was worshipped under the title of Zeus Agamemnon. His tomb was pointed out among the ruins of Mycenae and at Amyclae. In works of art there is considerable resemblance between the representations of Zeus, king of the gods, and Agamemnon, king of men. He is generally characterized by the sceptre and diadem, the usual attributes of kings. See articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencydopadie and Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie. : , AGAPE (Gr. 070x77, " Love "), the early Christian love- feast. The word seems to be used in this sense in the epistle of Jude 12: " These are they who are hidden rocks in your love- feasts when they banquet with you." But this is not certain, for in 2 Pet. ii. 13 the verse is cited, but reading axdrais (" deceits ") for 070x01$, and the oldest MSS. hesitate. The history of the agape coincides, until the end of the 2nd century, with that of the eucharist (q.v.), and it is doubtful whether the following detailed account of the agape given in Tertullian's Apology (c. 39) is to be regarded as exclusive of an accompanying eucharist: " It is the banquet (triclinium) alone of the Christians that is criticised. Our supper (coena) shows its character by its name. It is called by a word which in Greek signifies love {i.e. agape) . Whatever it costs, it is anyhow a clear gain that it is incurred on the score of piety, seeing that we succour the poorest by such entertainments (refrigerio) . We do not lie down at table until prayer has been offered to God, as it were a first taste. We eat only to appease our hunger, we drink only so much as it is good for temperate persons to do. If we satisfy our appetites, we do so without forgetting that throughout the night we must say our prayers to God. If we converse, it is with the knowledge that the Lord is listening. After washing our hands and lighting the lamps, each is invited to sing a hymn before all to God, either taken from holy writ or of his own composition. So we prove him, and see how well he has drunk. Prayer ends, as it began, the banquet; and we break up not in bands of brigands, nor in groups of vagabonds, nor do we burst out into debauchery. . . . This meeting of Christians we admit deserves to be made illicit, if it resembles illicit acts; it deserves to be condemned, if any complain of it on the same score on which complaints are levelled at factious meetings. But to do harm to whom do we ever thus come together ? " The evidence of Tertullian is good for Africa. But in Egypt about the same time (180-210), Clement of Alexandria in his Pedagogus (ii. 1) condemns the " little suppers which were called, not without presumption, agape." This word, he complains, should denote the heavenly food, the reasonable feast alone, and the Lord never used it of mere junketings. Clement wished the name to be reserved for the eucharist, because the love-feasts of the church had degenerated, as Tertullian too discovered, as soon as he turned Montanist. For in his tract on fasting (ch. xvii.) he complains that the young men misbehaved with the sisters after the agape. Among the spurious works of Athanasius is printed a tract entitled About Virginity, ch. xiii. of which directs how the sisters after the synaxis of the ninth hour (3 p.m.) are to dine: " When you sit down at a table and come to break bread, seal it thrice with the sign of the cross and thus give thanks : ' We thank thee, our Father, for thy holy resurrection; for through Jesus thy Servant thou hast shewn it unto us. And as this bread on this table was scattered, but has been brought together and become one, so may thy church be brought together into thy kingdom. For thine is the power and the glory, for ever and ever, Amen.' This prayer as you break the bread, and are about to eat, you must say. And when you lay it on the table and desire to eat it, repeat the ' Gur Father ' entire. But after dinner (or breakfast), and when we rise from table, we use the prayer given above, viz. ' Blessed be God, who hath pity and nourisheth us from our infancy, who giveth food to all flesh. Fill pur hearts with joy and gladness, that ever having of all things a sufficiency, we may superabound in all good works, in Christ Jesus our Lord, &c.' " The writer then enjoins that, " if two or three other virgins are present, they also shall give thanks over the bread set out, and join in the prayers. But if a catechumen be found at the table, she shall not be suffered to join with the full believers in their prayers, nor shall the latter sit with her to eat the morsel " (^oj/i6c, used specially of the sanctified bread). " Nor shall they sit with frivolous and joking women, if they can help it, for they are sanctified to God, and their food and drink have been hallowed by the prayers and holy words used over them. ... If a rich woman sits down with them at table, and they see a poor woman, they shall invite her also to eat with them, and not put her to shame because of the rich one." The last words echo 1 Cor. x., and the prayer is nearly the same as that which the teaching of the Apostles assigns for the eucharistic rite. Here, then, we have pictured as late as the 4th century a Lord's supper, which like the one described in 1 Cor. x. is agape and eucharist in one, and it is held in a private house and not in church, and the celebrants are holy women! The historian Socrates {Hist. Eccl. v. 22) testifies to the survival in Egypt of such Lord's suppers as were love-feasts and eueharists in one. Around Alexandria and in the Thebaid, he says, they hold services on the sabbath, and unlike other Christians partake of the mysteries (i.e. sacrament): For after holding good cheer and filling themselves with meats of all kinds, they at eventide make the offering (xpew^opo) and partake of it. So Basil of Cappadocia (Epistle 93), about the year 350; records that in Egypt the laity, as a rule, celebrated the communion in their own houses, and partook of the sacrament by themselves whenever they chose. In the old Egyptian church order, known as the Canons of Hippolytus, there are numerous directions for the service of the agape, held on Sundays, ' saints' days or at commemorations of the dead. The 74th canon of the council of Trullo (a.d. 692) forbade the holding of symposia known as agapes in church. In his 54th homily (torn. v. p. 365) Chrysos- tom describes how after the eucharistic synaxis was over, the faithful remained in church, while the rich' brought out meats and drink from their houses, and invited the poor, and furnished " common tables, common banquets, common symposia in the church itself." The council of Gangra (a.d. 355) anathematized the over-ascetic people who despised " the agapes based on faith." Only a few years later, however, the council of Laodicea forbade the holding of agapes in churches. The 42nd canon of the council of Carthage under Aurelius likewise forbade them, but these were only local councils. In the age of Chrysostom and Augustine the agape was frequent. In the east Syrian, the Armenian and the Georgian churches, respectively Nestorian, Monophysite and Greek Orthodox in their tenets, the agape was from the first a survival, under Christian and Jewish forms, of the old sacrificial systems of a pre-Christian age. Sheep, rams, bullocks, fowls are given sacrificial salt to lick, and then sacrificed by the priest and deacon, who has the levitical portions of the victim as his per- quisite. In Armenia the Greek word agape has been used ever since the 4th century to indicate these sacrificial meals, which either began or ended with a • eucharistic celebration. The earlier usage of the Armenians is expressed in the two following rules recorded against them by a renegade Armenian prelate named Isaac, who in the 8th century went over to the Byzantine AGAPEMONITES 3 6 5 church: "Christ did not hand down to us the teaching to celebrate the mystery of the offering of the bread in church, but in an ordinary house, and sitting at a common table. So then let them not sacrifice the offering of bread in churches. It was after supper, when his disciples were thoroughly sated, that Christ gave them of his own body to eat. Therefore let them first eat meats and be sated, and then let them partake of the mysteries." These old canons are adduced by way of ridiculing the Armenians, yet they reflect old usage. They are given in the Historia M onothelitarum of Combefisius, col. 317. Older MSS. of the Greek Euchologion contain numerous prayers to be offered over animals sacrificed; and in the form of agape such sacrifices were common in Italy and Gaul on the natalis dies of a saint, and Paulinus' of Nola, the friend of Augustine, in his Latin poems, describes them (c. 400) in detail. Gregory the Great sent to Mellitus, bishop of London, a written rite of sacrificing bulls for use in the English church of the early 7th century. In Augustine's work against Faustus the Manichean (xx. 4); the latter taxes the Catholics with having turned the sacrifices of the heathen into agapis, their idols into martyrs, whom they worship with similar rites. " You appease," he says, " the shades of the dead with wines and banquets, you celebrate the feast-days of the heathen along with them ... in their -way of living you have certainly changed nothing." This was true enough, but there is truth also in the remark of Prof. Sanday (" Eucha- rist " in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible) that Providence even in its revolutions is conservative. The world could only be christianized on condition that old holy days and customs were continued. The early Christian agape admitted of adaptation to the older funeral and sacrificial feasts, and was so adapted. The association in the synoptics of the earliest eucharist with the paschal sacrifice provided a model, and long after the eucharist was separated with the agape on other days of the year, we still find celebrated on the evening of Maundy Thursday the sacrifice of the paschal lamb, immediately followed by an eucharist. The 41st canon of the council of Carthage enacted that the sacraments of the altar should be received fasting, except on the anniversary of the Lord's supper. It is clear that at an earlier date the agapS preceded the eucharist. Pagan Analogues. — In ancient states common meals called sussitia {avaoiria) were instituted, particularly in the Doric states, e.g. in Lacaedemon and in Crete. Plato advocated them, and perhaps the later Jews imitated the Spartan community. Trade and other gilds in antiquity held subscription suppers or ipavoi, similar to those of the early Corinthian church, usually to support the needs of the poorer members. These hetairiae or clubs were forbidden (except in cities formally allied to Rome) by Trajan and other emperors, as being likely to be centres of disaffection; and on this ground Pliny forbade the agape of the Bithynian churches, Christianity not being a lawful religion licensed for such gatherings. The custom which most resembles the eucharist and agape was that known as charistia described by Valerius Maximus ii. 1. 8. It was a solemn feast attended only by members of one clan, at which those who had quarrelled were at the sacrament of the table (apud sacra mensae) reconciled. It was held on the 20th of February. Ovid in his Fasti, ii. 617, alludes to it — Proximo cognati dixere charistia cari, Et venit ad socios turba propinqua deos. Authorities. — " The Canons of Hippolytus," in Duchesne's Origines du culte Chretien (Paris, 1898)^ A. Allen, Christian Insti- tutions (London, 1898); P. Batiffol, Etudes d'histoire (Paris, 1902 and 1905) ; F. X. Funk, " L'Agape," in the Revue de I'histoire ecclesi- astique (Louvain, Jan. 1903) ; Ad. Harnack, " Brod und Wasser " (Texte und Untersuch. vii. 2, Leipzig, 1891); J. F. Keating, The Agape and the Eucharist (London, 1901); F. X. Kraus, arts. " Agapen " and " Mahle " in the Realencykhp. d. christl. Altertiimer ; P. Ladeuze, " L'Eucharistie et les repas communs " in the Revue de F orient Chretien, No. 3, 1902; Sir W. M. Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire (London, 1894); A. Spitta, Zur Geschichte und Litteratur (Gottingen, 1893) ; E. von der Goltz, Das Gebet in dltesten Christianheit (Leipzig, I 901); F. E. Warren, The Liturgy and Ritual of the Antenicene Church (London, 1897) ; T. 2ahn, art. " Agapen " in Hauck's Realencyklop.; F. C. Conybeare, Rituale Armenorum (Oxford, 1905; it contains the oldest Latin and Greek forms), The Key of Truth (Oxford, 1898), and art. on "The Survival of Animal Sacrifices " in the American Journal of Theology (Chicago, Jan. 1903) ; F. X. Funk, Didascalia et Constitutiones Apostolorum (Paderborn, 1906) ; V. Ermohi, L'Agape (Paris, 1904) ; G. Horner, The Statutes of the Apostles, translated from Ethiopic and Arabic MSS. (London, 1904) ; Thefr. Drescher, Diss, de vet. Chrisiianorum Agapis (Giesse, 1824); L. A. Muratori, Anecdota Graeca, " De agapis sublatis " (Patavii, 1709); I. A. Fabricius, Bibliogr. Ant. p. 587; Muenter, Primord. Eccl. Afr. p. in ; Walafrid Strabo, De Rebus Eccles. capita 18, 19; Gregory of Tours, De miraculis S. Juliani, xxxi. ; Paulini Nolani Carmen xii. in S. Felicem. (F. C. C.) AGAPEMONITES, or Community of the Son of Man. This sect, based upon the theories of various German religious mystics, and having for its primary object the spiritualization of the matrimonial state, was founded in 1846 by the Rev. Henry James Prince, a clergyman of the Church of England (181 1-1899). He studied medicine, obtained his qualifications in 1832 and was appointed medical officer to the General Hospital in Bath, his native city. Compelled by ill-health to abandon his profession, he entered himself in 1837 as a student at St. David's Theo- logical College, Lampeter, where he gathered about him a band of earnest religious enthusiasts, known as the Lampeter Brethren, and was eventually ordained to the curacy of Charlinch in Somerset, where he had sole charge in the illness and absence of the rector, the Rev. Samuel Starkey. By that time he had contracted his first " spiritual marriage," and had persuaded hirnself that he had been absorbed into the personality of God and had become a visible embodiment of the Holy Spirit. During his illness Mr. Starkey read one of his curate's sermons, and was not only " cured " forthwith, but embraced his strange doctrines, and together they procured many conversions in the countryside and the neighbouring towns. In the end the rector was deprived of his living and Prince's licence withdrawn, and together with a few disciples they started the Charlinch Free Church, which had a very brief existence. Prince shortly afterwards became curate of Stoke in Suffolk, where, however, the character of his revivalist zeal caused his departure at the end of twelve months. It was now decided that Prince, Starkey (whose sister Prince had married as his second wife) and the Rev. Lewis Prince should leave the Church of England and preach their own gospel; Prince opened Adullam Chapel, Brighton, and Starkey established himself at Weymouth. The chief success lay in the latter town, and thither Prince soon migrated. A number of followers, estimated by Prince at 500, but by his critics at one-fifth of the number, were got together, and it was given out by " Beloved " or " The Lamb " — -the names by which the Agapemonites designated their leader — that his disciples must divest themselves of their possessions and throw them into the common stock. This was done, even by the poor or ill- furnished, all of whom looked forward to the speedy end of the present dispensation, and were content, for the short remainder of this world, to live in common, and, while not repudiating earthly ties, to treat them as purely spiritual. With the money thus obtained the house at Spaxton, which was to become the " Abode of Love," was enlarged and furnished luxuriously, and three sisters, who contributed £6000 each, were immediately married to three of Prince's nearest disciples. Despite the purely spiritual ideas which underlay the Agapemonite view of marriage, a son was born to one of these couples, and when the father endeavoured to carry it away an action was brought which resulted in the affirmation of the mother's right to its custody. The circumstance in which a fourth sister who joined the community was abducted by her brothers led to an inquiry in lunacy and to her final settlement at Spaxton. A few years after the establishment of the " Abode of Love," a peculiarly gross scandal, in which Prince and one of his female followers were involved, led to the secession of some of his most faithful friends, who were unable any longer to endure what they regarded as the amazing mixture of blasphemy and immorality offered for their acceptance. The most prominent of those who remained received such titles as the " Anointed Ones," the " Angel of the Last Trumpet," the " Seven Witnesses " and so forth. In 1862 " Brother Prince " sent " to the kings and people of the earth " letters " making known to all men that flesh is saved 3 66 AGAPETAE— AGASSIZ from death." At that period the Agapemonites counted their adherents at 600, and it was no doubt a grievous shock to them when their deathless founder died on the 8th of March 1899, four years after he had opened a branch church at Clapton, London, which is said to have cost £20,000. This church, decorated with elaborate symbolism, was styled the " Ark of the Covenant," and in it the elect were to await the coming of the Lord. On the death of " Brother " Prince, the Rev. T. H. Smyth- Pigott, pastor of the " Ark," became the acknowledged head of the sect. He was born in 1852, of an old Somersetshire county family, and, after a varied career as university man, sailor before the mast, soldier, coffee-planter, curate in the Church of England and evangelist in the Salvation Army, was converted about 1897 to the views of Prince. For five years after this he was not heard of outside his own sect. On the 7 th of September 1902, however, the congregation, assembled at the Ark of the Covenant for service, found ihe communion table replaced by a chair. In this Pigott presently seated himself and proclaimed himself as the Messiah with the words, " God is no longer there," pointing upwards, " but here," pointing to himself. This aston- ishing announcement was followed by an excellent sermon on Christian love. Pigott's claim was at once admitted by the members of his sect, including even his own wife, as the ful- filment of the^promise of Christ to appear in due time in the "Ark." By the outside world the affair was greeted with mingled ridicule and indignation, and the new Messiah had to be pro- tected by the police from the violence of an angry mob. After providing " copy " for the newspapers for a few days, however, the whole thing was forgotten. Pigott retired to the head- quarters of the sect, the " Abode of Love " in Somerset, and all efforts to interview him or to obtain details of the life of the community were abortive. At last, in August 1905, the long and mysterious silence was broken by the announcement that a son had been born to Pigott by his " spiritual wife," Miss Ruth Preece, an inmate of the Agapemone. This event by no means disconcerted the believers, who saw in it only another manifesta- tion of Pigott's divinity, and proclaimed it as " an earnest of the total redemption of man." The child was registered as " Glory," and, at the christening service in the chapel of the Abode, hymns were sung in its honour as it lay in a jewelled cradle in the chancel. Another child by Miss Preece, christened " Power," was born on the 20th of August 1908. The publicity given to this event renewed the scandal, and in November an attempt to " tar and feather " Mr Pigott resulted in two men being sent to prison. Later in the month proceedings were instituted against him by the bishop of Bath and Wells under the Clergy Discipline Act. One outcome of the disclosures connected with the Agapemone deserves passing mention, as throwing some light on the origin of the wealth of the community. Mr Charles Stokes Read, a resident at the Agapemone and director of the V. V. Bread Company, was requested by his fellow-directors to resign, on the ground that his connexion with the sect was damaging the business of the company. He denied this to be the case and refused to resign, pleading religious liberty and the large interests of Agapemonites in the coricern. On the 13th of September 1905, a meeting of the shareholders of the company was held, and Read " asked them to believe that it was not in the interests of the company, but because he knew that the Lord Jesus Christ had come again and was now dwelling at the Agapemone, that he was thus cast out by his colleagues." The motion calling on him to resign was carried on a poll being taken by 46,770 votes to 2 953- (See The Times, 14th of September 1905.) AGAPETAE, a class of " virgins " who, in the church of the early middle ages, lived with professedly celibate monks to whom they were said to be united by spiritual love. The practice was suppressed by the Lateran Council of 1139. AGAPETUS, the name of two popes; — Agapetxji I., pope from 535 to 536. He was an enlightened pontiff and collaborated with Cassiodorus in founding at Rome a library of ecclesiastical authors. King Theodahad sent him on an embassy to Constantinople, where he died, after having deposed.;f the Franciscans and of Spain, the chief supporters of the Immaculate Conception. An account of Maria de Agreda will be found in the Tracts of Michael Geddes (London, 1706), vol. iii., written by a competent critic and Anglican divine of the 18th century who detested " enthusiasm." (D. H.) AGRICOLA, CHRISTOPH LUDWIG (1667-1719), German landscape painter, was born and died at Regensburg (Ratisbon). He spent a great part of his life in travel, visiting England, Holland and France, and residing for a considerable period at Naples. His numerous landscapes, chiefly cabinet pictures, are remarkable for fidelity to nature, and especially for their skilful representation of varied phases of climate. In composition his style shows the influence of Caspar Poussin, while in light and colour he imitates Claude Lorraine. His pictures are to be found in Dresden, Brunswick, Vienna, Florence, Naples and- many other towns of both Germany and Italy. AGRICOLA (the Latinized form of the name Bauer), GEORG (1490-1 555), German scholar and man of science, known as " the father of mineralogy," was born at Glauchau in Saxony on the 24th of March 1490. Gifted with a precocious intellect, he early threw himself into the pursuit of the " new learning," with such effect that at the age of twenty he was appointed Rector extra- ordinarily of Greek at the so-called Great School of Zwickau, and made his appearance as a writer on philology. After two years he gave up his appointment in order to pursue his studies at Leipzig, where, as rector, he received the powerful support of the pro- fessor of classics, Peter Mosellanus (1493-1524), a celebrated humanist of the time, with whom he had already been in corre- spondence. Here he also devoted himself to the study of medicine, physics and chemistry. After the death of Mosellanus he went for a short time to Italy, where he took his doctor's degree. On his return he settled as practising physician in the Joachimstal, a centre of mining and smelting works, his object being partly " to fill in the gaps in the art of healing," partly to test what had been written about mineralogy by careful observation of ores and the methods of their treatment. His thorough grounding in philology and philosophy had accustomed him to systematic thinking, and this enabled him to construct out of his studies and observations of minerals a logical system which he began to publish in 1528. Bermannus, she de re metallica dialogus, the first attempt to reduce to scientific order the knowledge won by practical work, brought Agricola into notice. In 1 530 Prince Maurice of Saxony appointed him historiographer with an annual allowance, and he migrated to Chemnitz, the centre of the mining industry, in order to widen the range of his observations. The citizens showed their appreciation of his learning by appointing him town physician and electing him burgomaster. His popularity was, however, short-lived. Chemnitz was a violent centre of the Protestant movement, while Agricola never wavered in his allegiance to the old religion; and he was forced to resign his office. He now lived apart from the contentious movements of the time, devoting himself wholly to learning. His chief interest was still in mineralogy; but he occupied himself also with medical, mathematical, theological and historical subjects, his chief historical work being the Dominatores Saxonici a prima origine ad hanc aetatem, published at Freiberg. In 1544 he published the De ortu et causis subterraneorum, in which he laid the first foundations of a physical geology, and criticized the theories of the ancients. In 1545 followed the De natura eorum quae effluunt e terra; in 1546 the De veteribus et novis metallis, a comprehensive account of the discovery and occurrence of minerals; in 1548 the De animantibus subterraneis; and in the two following years a number of smaller works on the metals. His most famous work, the De re metallica, libri xii., was pub- lished in 1556, though apparently finished several years before, since the dedication to the elector and his brother is dated 1550. It is a complete and systematic treatise on mining and metallurgy, illustrated with many fine and interesting woodcuts and contain- ing, in an appendix, the German equivalents for the technical terms used in the Latin text. It long remained a standard work, and marks its author as one of the most accomplished chemists of his time. Believing the black rock of the Schlossberg at Stolpen to be the same as Pliny's basalt, he applied this name to it, and thus originated a petrological term which has been per- manently incorporated in the vocabulary of science. In spite of the early proof that Agricola had given of the tolerance of his own religious attitude, he was not suffered to end his days in peace. He remained to the end a staunch Catholic, though all Chemnitz had gone over to the Lutheran creed; and it is said that his life was ended by a fit of apoplexy brought on by a heated discussion with a Protestant diyine. He died at Chemnitz on the 21st of November 1555, and so violent was the theological feeling against him, that he was not suffered to rest in the town to which he had added lustre. Amidst hostile demon- strations he was carried to Zeitz, seven miles from Chemnitz, and there buried. See article by Gumbel in Allgem. Deutsche Biog. (1875) ; F. L. Becher, Georg Agricola und Werner (Freiberg, 1819); F. A. Schmidt, Georg Agricola's Bermannus mit Einleitung (Freiberg, 1806); Poggendorff, Biographisches Handworterbuch; Agricola s works passim. AGRICOLA, GNAEUS JULIUS (a.d. 37-93), Roman states- man and general, father-in-law of the historian Tacitus, was born on the 13th of June a.d. 37 (according to others, 39) at Forum Julii (Frejus) in Gallia Narbonensis. His father, Julius Graecinus, having been put to death by Caligula, Agricola was brought up by his mother Julia Procilla. After studying philo- sophy at Massilia, he entered the army and served (59) under Suetonius Paulinus in Britain. In 61 he returned to Rome, where he married Domitia Decidiana, a Roman lady of dis- tinction. In 63 he was quaestor in Asia, in 65 tribune, in 68 praetor, and when Vespasian was proclaimed emperor, he immediately declared himself his supporter. In 70 he was appointed to the command of the 20th legion in Britain, then stationed at Deva (Chester). On his return to Rome at the end of three years he was made censor, raised to the rank of patrician, and appointed governor of Aquitania (74-78) . Appointed consul suffectus in the following year, he was admitted into the college of pontiffs and made governor of Britain. In the same year he betrothed his daughter to Tacitus. Although the legation of Britain lasted as a rule only three years, Agricola held the post for at least seven and succeeded in reconciling the inhabitants to Roman rule and inducing them to adopt the customs and civil- ization of their conquerors. His military achievements were equally brilliant. After conquering the Ordovices in North Wales and the island of Mona (Anglesey), during the next two years he carried his victorious arms to the Taiis (Tay; others read Tanaus, perhaps the north Tyne), and in his fourth cam- paign fortified the country between Clota and Bodotria (the firths of Clyde and Forth) as a protection against the attacks of AGRICOLA— AGRICULTURAL GANGS 38? the Caledonians. Having explored the coasts of Fife and Forfar, he gained a decisive victory over the Caledonians under Galgacus at the Graupian hill (see Britain, Roman). His successes, however, had aroused the envy and suspicion of Domitian. He was recalled to Rome, 'where he lived a life of studied retirement, to avoid the possibility of giving offence to the tyrant. He died in 93, poisoned, it was rumoured, by the emperor's orders. The Life of Agricola by his son-in-law Tacitus is practically a panegyric or funeral oration. See Urlichs, De Vita et Honoribus Agricolae (1868); Dio Cassius xxxix. 50, lxvi. 20; Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire (Eng. trans., 1886), i. 183-184, 194. AGRICOLA, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1720-1774), German musician, was born at Dobitschen in Saxe-Altenburg, on the 4th of January 1720. While a student of law at Leipzig he studied music under Johann Sebastian Bach. In 1741 he went to Berlin, where he studied musical composition. He was soon generally recognized as one of the most skilful organists of his time; and in 1751, as the result of a comic opera, 77 Filosofo convinto in amore, performed at Potsdam, he was made court composer to Frederick the Great. He died in Berlin on the 1st of December 1774. In 1759, on the death of Karl Heinrich Graun, he was appointed conductor of the royal orchestra. Besides several operas of merit, he composed instrumental pieces and church music. His reputation chiefly rests, however, on his theoretical v and critical writings on musical subjects. He wrote under the pseudonym of Flavio Anicio Olibrio. AGRICOLA (originally Schneider, then Schnitter), JOHANNES (1494-1566), German Protestant reformer, was born on the 20th of April 1494, at Eisleben, whence he is sometimes called Magister Islebius. He studied at Wittenberg, where he soon gained the friendship of Luther. In 1519 he accompanied Luther to the great assembly of German divines at Leipzig, and acted as recording secretary. After teaching for some time in Wittenberg, he went to Frankfort in 1525 to establish the re- formed mode of worship. He had resided there only a month when he was called to Eisleben, where he remained till 1526 as teacher in the school of St Andrew, and preacher in the Nicolai church. In 1536 he was recalled to teach in Wittenberg, and was welcomed by Luther. Almost immediately, however, a controversy, which had been begun ten years before and been temporarily silenced, broke out more violently than ever. Agricola was the first to teach the views which Luther was the first to stigmatize by the now well-known name Antinomian (q.v.), maintaining that while the unregenerate were still under the Mosaic law, Christians were entirely free from it, being under the gospel alone. In consequence of the bitter controversy with Luther that resulted, Agricola in 1540 left Wittenberg secretly for Berlin, where he published a letter addressed to the elector of Saxony, which was generally interpreted as a recantation of his obnoxious views. Luther, however, seems not to have so accepted it, and Agricola remained at Berlin. The elector Joachim II. of Brandenburg, having taken him into his favour, appointed him court preacher and general superintendent. He held both offices until his death in 1566, and his career in Brandenburg was one of great activity and influence. Along with Julius von Pflug, bishop of Naumburg-Zeitz, and Michael Helding, titular bishop of Sidon, he prepared the Augsburg Interim of 1548. He endeavoured in vain to appease the Adi- aphoristic controversy (see Adiaphorists). He died during an epidemic of plague on the 22nd of September 1566. Agricola wrote a number of theological works which are now of little interest. He was the first to make a collection of German proverbs which he illustrated with a commentary. The most complete edition, which contains seven hundred and fifty pro- verbs, is that published at Wittenberg in 1592; a modern one is that of Latendorf, 1862. See Cordes, Joh. Agricola's Schriften mbglichst verzeichnet (Altona, 1817); Life by G. Kawerau (1881), who also wrote the notice in Hauck-Herzog, Realencyk. fur prot. TheoL, where other literature is cited. AGRICOLA, MARTIN (c. 1500-1556), German musician, was born about 1500 in Lower Silesia. His German name was Sohr or Sore. From 1524 till his death he lived at Magdeburg, where he occupied the post of teacher or cantor in the Protestant school. The senator and music-printer Rhau, of Wittenberg, was a close friend of Agricola, whose theoretical works, providing valuable material concerning the change from the old to the new system of notation, he published. Agricola was also the first to harmonize in four parts Luther's chorale, Em' feste Burg. Four other Agricolas 1 are known as composers between the end of the 15 th century and the middle of the 17 th. In the 18th century we find Burney, in the course of his tour in Germany (1772), much impressed by Johann Friedrich Agricola (1720-1774), court composer and director of the royal chapel to Frederick the Great. This Agricola was a pupil of Bach, and a fine organist and clever writer on music, especially on operatic style, the problems of which were beginning to be raised by French writers^atvd composers in preparation for the work of Gluck. AGRICOLA, RODOLPHUS (properly Roelof Huysmann) (1443-1485), Dutch scholar, was born at Baflo, near, Groningen, in 1443. He was educated at Louvain, where he graduated as master of arts. After residing for some time in Paris, he went in 1476 to Ferrara in Italy, and attended the lectures of the celebrated Theodorus Gaza (1400-1478) on the Greek language. Having visited Pavia and Rome, he returned to his native country about 1479, and was soon afterwards appointed syndic of Groningen. In 1482, on the invitation of Johann von Dalberg, bishop of Worms (1445-1503), whose friendship he ha^ gained in Italy, he accepted a professorship at Heidelberg, and for three years delivered lectures there and at Worms on the litera- ture of Greece and Rome. By his personal influence much more than by his writings he did much for the promotion of learning in Germany; and Erasmus and other critics of the generation immediately succeeding his own are full of his praises. In his opposition to the scholastic philosophy he in some degree antici- pated the great intellectual revolution in which many of his pupils were conspicuous actors. He died at Heidelberg on the 28th of October 1485. His principal work is De inventione dialectica, libri Hi., in which he attempts to change the scholastic philosophy of the day. . See T. F. Tresling, Vita et Merita Rudolphi Agricolae (Groningen, 1830); v. Bezold, R. Agricola (Miinchen, 1884); and Ihm, Der Humanist R. Agricola, sein Leben und seine Schriften (Paderb., 1893). AGRICULTURAL GANGS, groups of women, girls and boys organized by an independent gang-master, under whose super- vision they execute agricultural piece-work for farmers in certain parts of England. They are sometimes called " public gangs " to distinguish them from " private gangs " consisting of workers engaged by the farmer himself, and undertaking work solely for him, under his own supervision or under that of one of his men. The system was for long prevalent in the counties of Cambridge- shire, Huntingdonshire, Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire, Norfolk and Suffolk, and is still to be found in a much modified form in the fen district. The practice dates from the latter years of the reign of George III., when the low-lying, marshy lands surround- ing the basin of the Wash were being rapidly drained and con- verted into rich alluvial districts. The unreformed condition of the poor-law, under which the support of the poor fell upon each individual parish, instead of a union of parishes, made landlords reluctant to erect cottages on the reclaimed land for the benefit of their tenants. Labour had to be obtained for the cultivation of these new lands, and that of women, girls and boys, being cheaper than the labour of men, was consequently very largely employed. The tendency to moral and physical ruin which resulted from this nomadic life was so great that an inquiry into the condition of agricultural child-labour was included in the reference to the commission on child-labour appointed in 1862, and the results were so startling that the Agricultural Gangs Act was passed in 1867, forbidding the employment of any child under eight years old, and of any female under a male gang- master unless a female licensed to act as gang-mistress were also 1 Alexander, died 1506; Johann, flor. 1600; Wolfgang Christoph, flor. 1630; and George Ludwig, 1643-1676. 3 88 AGRICULTURE [ANCIENT SYSTEMS present. Gang-masters must be licensed by two justices, and may not hold a liquor license. The distance to be traversed on foot is fixed by the justices, and the licenses must be renewed every six months. Later legislation made more stringent the regulations under which children are employed in agricultural gangs. By the Elementary Education Act 1876, repealing and re-enacting the principal provisions of the Agricultural (Children) Act 1873, no child shall be employed under the age of eleven years, and none between eleven years and thirteen years before the child has obtained a certificate of having reached the standard of education fixed by a by-law in force in the district. AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ager, field, and colere, to cultivate), the science, art and industry of utilizing the soil so as to produce the means of human subsistence, embracing in its widest sense the rearing of live-stock as well as the raising of crops. The history of agriculture is the history of man in his most primitive, and most permanent aspect. Hence the nations of antiquity ascribed to it a divine origin; Brahma in Hindustan, Isis in Egypt, Demeter in Greece, and Ceres in Italy, were its founders. The simplest form of agriculture is that in which crops are raised from one patch of ground till it is exhausted, when it is allowed to go wild and abandoned for another. This " extensive " husbandry is found in combination with a nomadic or semi- nomadic and pastoral organization, such as that of the German tribes described by Caesar and Tacitus (see especially Germania, 26). The discovery of the uses of the bare fallow and of manure, by making it possible to raise crops from the same area for an indefinite period, marks a stage of progress. This " intensive " culture in a more or less developed form was practised by the great nations of antiquity, and little decided advance was made till after the middle ages. The introduction of new plants, which made it possible to dispense with the bare fallow, and still later the application to husbandry of scientific discoveries as to soils, plant constituents and manures, brought about a revolution in farming. But the progress of husbandry, evidenced by the production of larger and better crops with more certainty, is due to that rationalizing of agricultural practices which is the work of modern times. What before was done in the light of experience is nowadays done in the light of knowledge. Even the earliest forms of intensive cultivation demand the practice of the fundamental processes of husbandry — ploughing, manur- ing, sowing, weeding, reaping. It is the improvements in methods, implements and materials, brought about by the application of science, that distinguish the husbandry of the 20th century from that of medieval and ancient times. Ancient Husbandry. — The monumental records of Egypt are the source of the earliest information on farming. The Egypt g_,- t of the Pharaohs was a country of great estates farmed either by tenants or by slaves or labourers under the superintendence of stewards. It owed its fertility to the Nile, which, inundating the land near its banks, was distributed by means of canals over more distant portions of its valley. The autumnal subsidence of the river was followed by shallow ploughing performed by oxen yoked to clumsy wooden ploughs, the clods being afterwards levelled with wooden hoes by hand. Next came the sowing, the seed being pressed into the soil by the feet of sheep which were driven over the fields. At harvest the corn was cut high on the stalk with short sickles and put up in sheaves, after which it was carried to the threshing-floor and there trodden out by the hoofs of oxen. Winnowing was done by women, who tossed the grain into the air with small wooden boards, the chaff being blown away by the winds. Wheat and barley were the chief crops, and another plant, perhaps identical with the durra, i.e. millet, of modern Egypt, was also cultivated. The latter, when ripe, was pulled up by the roots, and the grain was separated by means of an implement re- sembling a comb. To these crops may be added peas, beans and many herbs and esculent roots. Oxen were much prized, and breeding was carried on with a careful eye to selection. Immense numbers of ducks and geese were reared. Diodorus Siculus, writing of later times, says that cattle were sent during a portion of each year to the marshy pastures of the delta, where they roamed under the care of herdsmen. They were fed with hay during the annual inundation, and at other times tethered in meadows of green clover. The flocks were shorn twice annually (a practice common to several Asiatic countries), and the ewes yeaned twice a year. (See also Egypt.) The agriculture of the region bordering the Tigris and Euphrates, like that of Egypt, depended largely on irrigation, and traces of ancient canals are still to be seen in Babylonia. But beyond the fact that both Babylonia and Assyria were large producers of cereals, little is known of their husbandry. The nomads of the patriarchal ages, whilst mainly dependent upon their flocks and herds, practised also agriculture proper. The tracts over which they roamed were in ordinary „.. .. . circumstances common to all shepherds alike. During accounts the summer they frequented the mountainous districts, among and retired to the valleys to winter. Vast flocks of the sheep and of goat constituted their wealth, although they also possessed oxen. When the last were abundant, it seems to be an indication that tillage was practised. Job, besides immense possessions in flocks and herds, had 500 yoke of oxen, which he employed in ploughing, and a " very great husbandry." Isaac, too, conjoined tillage with pastoral husbandry, and that with success, for " he sowed in the land Gerar, and reaped an hundred-fold " — a return which, it would appear, in some favoured regions, occasionally rewarded the labour of the husbandman. In the parable of the sower, Jesus Christ mentions an increase of thirty, sixty and an hundred fold. Along with the Babylonians, Egyptians and Romans, the Israelites are classed as one of the great agricultural nations of antiquity. The Mosaic Institute contained an agrarian law, based upon an equal division of the soil amongst the adult males, a census of whom was taken just before their entrance into Canaan. Provision was thus made for 600,000 yeomen, assigning (according to different calculations) from sixteen to twenty -five acres of land to each. This land, held in direct tenure from Jehovah, their sovereign, was in theory inalienable. The accumulation of debt upon it was prevented by the prohibition of interest, the release of debts every seventh year, and the reversion of the land to the proprietor, or his heirs, at each return of the year of jubilee. The owners of these small farms cultivated them with much care, and rendered them highly productive. They were favoured with a soil extremely fertile, and one which their skill and diligence kept in good condition. The stones were carefully cleared from the fields, which were also watered from canals and conduits, communicating with the brooks and streams with which the country " was well watered everywhere," and enriched by the application of manures. The seventh year's fallow prevented the exhaustion of the soil, which was further enriched by the burning of the weeds and spontaneous growth of the Sabbatical year. The crops chiefly cultivated were wheat, millet, barley, beans and lentils; to which it is supposed, on grounds not improbable, may be added rice and cotton. The chief implements were a wooden plough of simple and light construction, a hoe or mattock, and a light harrow. The ox and the ass were used for labour. The word " oxen," which occurs in our version of the Scriptures, as well as in the Septua- gint and Vulgate, denotes the species, rather than the sex. As the Hebrews did not mutilate any of their animals, bulls were in common use. The quantity of land ploughed by a yoke of oxen in one day was called a yoke or acre. Towards the end of October, with which month the rainy season begins, seed- time commenced, and of course does so still. The seedtime, begun in October, extends, for wheat and some other white crops, through November and December; and barley continues to be sown until about the middle of February. The seed appears to have been sometimes ploughed in, and at other times to have been covered by harrowing. The cold winds which prevail in January and February frequently injured the crops in the more exposed and higher districts. The rainy season extends from October to April, during which time refreshing showers fall, chiefly during the night, and generally at intervals of a few days. The harvest was earjier or later as ANCIENT SYSTEMS] AGRICULTURE 389 Greece. the rains towards the end of the season were more or less copious. It, however, generally began in April, and continued through May for the different crops in succession. In the south, and in the plains, the harvest, as might be expected, commenced some weeks earlier than in the northern and mountainous districts. The slopes of the hills were carefully terraced and irrigated wherever practicable, and on these slopes the vine and olive were cultivated with great success. At the same time the hill districts and neighbouring deserts afforded pasturage for numerous flocks and herds, and thus admitted of the benefits of a mixed husbandry. Not by a figure of speech but literally, every Israelite sat under the shadow of his own vine and fig-tree; whilst the country as a whole is described (2 Kings xviii. 32) as " a land of corn and wine, a land of bread and vineyards, a land of oil olive and of honey." The earliest known forms of intensive husbandry were based chiefly upon the proximity of rivers and irrigation. The agri- culture of classical ages was slightly more developed in so far as the husbandman of Greece and Rome was less able to leave to nature the fertilization of the soil. Greece being a mountainous land was favourable to the culture of the vine rather than to that of cereals. Scanty information on its agri- culture is to be derived from the Works and Days of Hesiod (about the 8th century B.C.), the Oeconomicus of Xenophon (4th century B.C.), the History of Plants and the Origin of Plants of Theo- phrastus (4th century B.C.). The latter is the first writer on botany, and his works also contain interesting remarks on manures, the mixing of soils and other agricultural topics (see also Geoponici). Greek husbandry had no salient character- istics. The summer fallow with repeated ploughing was its basis. The young crop was hoed, reaping was performed with a sickle, and a high stubble left on the ground as manure. The methods of threshing and winnowing were the same as those in use in ancient Egypt. Wheat, barley and spelt were the leading crops. Meadows were pastured rather than mown. Attica was famous for its olives and figs, but general agriculture excelled in Pelo- ponnesus, where, by means of irrigation and drainage, all the available land was utilized. In the early days of the Roman republic land in Italy was held largely by small proprietors, and agriculture was highly esteemed Rome an( ^ c l asse d with war as an occupation becoming a free man. The story of Cincinnatus, twice summoned from the plough to the highest offices in the state, illustrates the status of the Roman husbandman. The later tendency was towards the absorption of smaller holdings into large estates. As wealth increased the peasant-farmer gave way before the large land- owner, who cultivated his property by means of slave-labour, superintended by slave-bailiffs. The low price of grain, which was imported in huge quantities from Sicily and other Roman provinces, operated to crush the small holder, at the same time as it made arable farming unremunerative. Sheep-raising, involving larger holdings, less supervision and less labour, was preferred by the capitalist land-holder to the cultivation of the wheat, spelt, vines or olives which were the chief crops of the country. Lupine, beans, peas and vetches were grown for fodder, and meadows, often artificially watered, supplied hay. Swine and poultry were used for food to a greater extent than oxen, which were bred chiefly for ploughing. The following epitome of Virgil's advice to the husbandman in the first book of the Georgics suggests the outline of Roman husbandry: " First learn the peculiarities of your soil and climate. Plough the fallow in early spring, and plough frequently— twice in winter, twice in summer unless your land is poor, when a light ploughing in September will do. Either let the land lie fallow every other year or else let spelt follow pulse, vetches or lupine. Repetition of one crop exhausts the ground; rotation will lighten the strain, only the exhausted soil must be copiously dressed with manure or ashes. It often does good to burn the stubble on the ground. Harrow down the clods, level the ridges by cross ploughing, work the land thoroughly. Irrigation benefits a sandy soil, draining a marshy soil. It is well to feed down a luxuriant crop when the plants are level with the ridge tops. Geese and Cranes, chicory, mildew, thistles, cleavers, caltrops, darnel and shade are farmer's enemies. Scare off the birds, harrow up the weeds, cut down all that shades the crop. Ploughs, waggons, threshing-sledges, harrows, baskets, hurdles, winnowing-fans are the farmer's implements. The plough consists of several parts made of seasoned wood. The threshing-floor must be smooth and rammed hard to leave no crevices for weeds and small animals to get through. Some steep seed in soda and oil lees to get a larger produce. Careful annual selection by hand of the best seed is the only way to prevent degeneration. , It is best to mow stubble and hay at night when they are moist." In addition to the use of several kinds of animal and other manures,, green crops were sometimes ploughed in by the Romans. The shrewdness which, more than inventiveness, characterized their husbandry comes out well in the following quotation from the 1 8th book of the Natural History of Pliny: — " Cato would have this point especially to be considered, that the soil of a farm be good and fertile; also, that near it there be plenty of labourers and that it be not far from a large town; moreover, that it have sufficient means for transporting its produce, either by water or land. Also that the house be well built, and the land about it as well managed. They are in error who hold the opinion that the negligence and bad husbandry of the former owner is good for his successor. Now, I say there is nothing more dangerous and disadvantageous to the buyer than land so left waste and out of heart; and therefore Cato counsels well to purchase land of one who has managed it well, and not rashly to despise and make light of the skill and knowledge of another." Roman writers on agriculture (see Geoponici) are mpre numerous than those of Greece. The earliest important treatises are the De re Rustica of Cato (234-149 B.C.) and the Rerum Rusticarum Libri of Varro. More famous than either are the Georgics oi Virgil, published about 30 B.C., and treating of tillage, horticulture, cattle-breeding and bee-keeping. The works of Columella (1st century a.d.) and of Palladius (4th century a.d.) are exhaustive treatises, and the Natural History of the elder Pliny (a.d. 23-70) contains considerable information on hus- bandry. Under the later empire agriculture sank into a condition of neglect, in which it remained throughout the Dark Ages. In Spain its revival was due to the Saracens, and by them, and their successors the Moors, agriculture was carried to a high pitch of excellence. The work on agriculture 1 of Ibn-al-Awam, who lived in the 12th century a.d., treats of the varieties of soils, manuring, irrigation, ploughing, sowing, harvesting, stock, horticulture, arboriculture and plant diseases, and is a lasting record of their skill and industry. The subsequent history of agriculture is treated in the following pages primarily from the British standpoint. Doubtless Flanders may claim to be the pioneer of " high farming " in medieval times, other countries following her lead in many respects. It is not, however, necessary to deal with the agricultural evolution of continental Europe, the gradual progress of agriculture as a whole being well enough typified in the story of its development in England, which indeed has led the way in modern times. After sections on the history and chief modern features of British agriculture, a separate account is given of the general features of American agriculture. History of English Agriculture The " combined " or " common-field " system of husbandry practised by the village community or township (see Village Communities) may be taken as the starting-point of English agriculture, in which, till the end of the 18th century, it is a dominant influence. The territory of the " township " consisted of arable land, meadow, pasture and waste. The arable land was divided into two or, more usually, three fields, which were cut up into strips bounded by balks and allotted to the villagers in such a way that one holding might include several discon- nected strips in each field — a measure designed to prevent the whole of the best land falling to one man. The fields were fenced in from seed-time to harvest, after which the fences were taken 1 Translation by Clement-Mullet (Paris, 1864). 39° AGRICULTURE [BRITISH down and the cattle turned in to feed on the stubble. Accord- ing to early methods of cropping, which were destined to prevail for centuries, wheat, the chief article of food, was sown in one autumn, reaped the next August; the following spring, oats or barley were sown, and the year following the harvest was a period of fallow. This procedure was followed on each of the three fields so that in every year one of them was fallow. In addition to the cereals, beans, peas and vetches were grown to some extent. The meadow-land was also divided into strips from which the various holders drew their supply of hay. The pasture-land was common to all, though the number of beasts which one man might turn into it was sometimes limited. Rough grazing could also be had on the outlying waste lands. In the absence of artificial grasses and roots, hay was very valuable; it constituted almost the only winter food for live stock, which were consequently in poor condition in spring. Under the manorial system, the rise of which preceded the Norman Conquest, communal methods of husbandry remained, but the position of the cultivator was radically altered. " Villeins," instead of free-holders, formed the most numerous class of the population. They were bound to the soil and occu- pied holdings of scattered strips (amounting usually to a virgate or 30 acres) in return for a payment partly in labour and partly in kind. A portion of the manor, generally about a third, con- stituted the lord's demesne, which, though sometimes separate, usually consisted of strips intermingled with those of his villeins. It thus formed part of the common farm and was cultivated by the villeins and their oxen under the superintendence of a bailiff. Below the villeins in the social scale came the cottiers possessing smaller holdings, sometimes only a garden, and no oxen. Free tenants and, after the Norman Conquest, slaves formed small proportions of the population. During the middle ages cattle and sheep were the chief farm animals, but the inter- mixture of stock consequent on the common-field system was a barrier to improvement in the breed and conduced to the propagation of disease. Oxen, usually yoked in teams of eight, were used for ploughing. Sheep were small and their fleeces light, nevertheless, owing to the meagreness of the yields of cereals 1 and the demand for wool for export, sheep-farming was looked to, as early as the 12th century, as the chief source of profit. Pigs and poultry were universally kept. The treatise on husbandry of Walter of Henley, dating from the early 13th century, is very valuable as describing the management of the demesne under the two- or three-field system. The following are typical passages: — " April is a good season for fallowing, if the earth breaks up behind the plough ; for second fallowing after St John's Day when the dust rises behind the plough; for seed-ploughing when the earth is well settled and not too cracked ; however, the busy man cannot be always waiting on the seasons." " At sowing do not plough large furrows, but little and well laid together, that the seed may fall evenly." " Know that an acre sown with wheat takes three ploughings, except lands that are sown each year, and that each ploughing costs 6d. more or less and the harrowing id. It is well to sow at least two bushels to the acre." " Change your seed every year at Michaelmas, for the seed grown on other land will bring you more than that grown on your own." " Neither sell your stubble nor move it from the ground unless you need it for thatching. Have manure put up in heaps and mixed with earth." " Ridge marshy ground so as to let the water run off." During the 13th century there arose a tendency to commute labour-rents for money payments. This change led to the gradual disappearance of tenants in villeinage — the villeins and cottiers — and the rise on the one hand of the small independent farmer, on the other of the hired labourer. The plague of 1348 marks an epoch in English agriculture. The diminution of the population by one-half led to a scarcity of labour and an increase of wages which deprived the landowner of his narrow margin of profit. To meet this situation, the Statute of Labourers (1351) enacted that no man should refuse to work at the same rate of wages as prevailed before the plague. In addition the 1 Walter of Henley mentions six bushels per acre as a satisfactory crop. landowners attempted to revive the disappearing system of labour-rents. The bitter feelings engendered between em- ployer and employed culminated in the peasants' revolt of 1381. Meanwhile large numbers of landowners were forced to adopt one of two alternatives. In some cases they ceased to farm their own land and let it out on lease often together with the stock upon it; or else they abandoned arable culture, laid down their demesnes to pasture, enclosed the waste lands and devoted them- selves to sheep-farming. In the latter course they were en- couraged by the high prices of wool during the 14th century, and by Edward III.'s policy of fostering both the export of wool and the home manufacture of woollen goods. The 15th century, barren of progress in methods of husbandry, was in its early years moderately prosperous. Later on the increasing abandon- ment of arable husbandry for sheep-farming brought about a less demand for labour, and rural depopulation was accelerated as the peasant was deprived of his grazing-ground by the en- closure of more and more of the waste land. 2 From the beginning of the reign of Henry VII. to the end of Elizabeth's, a number of statutes were made for the encourage- ment of tillage, though probably to little purpose. Aer]cut . " Where in some towns," says the statute 4th tun under Henry VII. (1488), " two hundred persons were occu- the Tudors pied and lived of their lawful labours, now there are *" d occupied two or three herdsmen, and the residue fall into idleness"; therefore it is ordained that houses which within three years have been let for farms, with twenty acres of land lying in tillage or husbandry, shall be upheld, under the penalty of half the profits, to be forfeited to the king or the lord of the fee. Almost half a century afterwards the practice had become still more alarming; and in 1534 a new act was tried, apparently with as little success. " Some have 24,000 sheep, some 20,000 sheep, some 10,000, some 6000, some 4000, and some more and some less "; and yet it is alleged the price of wool had nearly doubled, " sheep being come to a few persons' hands." A penalty was therefore imposed on all who kept above 2000 sheep; and no person was to take in farm more than two tenements of husbandry. By the 39th Elizabeth (1597) arable land made pasture since the 1st Elizabeth shall be again converted into tillage, and what is arable shall not be converted into pasture. The literature of agriculture, in abeyance since the treatise of Walter of Henley, makes another beginning in the 16th century. The best of the early works is the Book of Husbandry (1st ed. 1523), commonly ascribed to Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, a judge of the Common Pleas in the reign of Henry VIII., but more probably written by his elder brother John. This was followed by the Book of Surveying and Improvements (1523), by the same author, In the former treatise we have a clear and minute description of the rural practices of that period, and from the latter may be learned a good deal of the economy of the feudal system in its decline. The Book of Husbandry begins with a description of the plough and other implements, after which about a third part of it is occupied with the several operations as they succeed one another throughout the year. Among other passages in this part of the work, the following deserve notice: — "Somme (ploughs) wyll tournthe sheld bredith at every landsende, and plowe all one way "; the same kind of plough that is now found so useful on hilly grounds. Of wheel-ploughs he observes, that " they be good on even grounde that lyeth lyghte "; and on such lands they are still most commonly employed. Cart-wheels were sometimes bound with iron, of which he greatly approves. On the much agitated question about the employment of horses or oxen in labour, the most important arguments are distinctly stated. " In some places," he says, "a horse plough is better," and in others an oxen plough, to which, upon the whole, he gives the pre- ference. Beans and peas seem to have been common crops. He mentions the different kinds of wheat, barley and oats; and after describing the method of harrowing " all maner of cornnes," we find the roller employed. "They used to role their barley grounde 1 This process of enclosure must be distinguished from that of enclosing the arable common fields which, though advocated by Fitzherbert in a passage quoted below proceeded slowly till the 1 8th century. BRITISH] AGRICULTURE 39* after a showr of rayne, to make the grounde even to mowe." Under the article " To falowe," he observes, " the greater clottes (clods) the better wheate, for the clottes kepe the wheat warme all wynter ; and at March they will melte and breake and fal in manye small peces, the whiche is a new dongynge and refreshynge of the corne." This is agreeable to the present practice, founded on the very same reasons. "In May, the shepe folde is to be set out " ; but Fitzherbert does not much approve of folding, and points out its disadvantages in a very judicious manner. " In the latter end of May and the begynnynge of June, is tyme to wede the corne " ; and then we have an accurate description of the different weeds, and the instruments and mode of weeding. Next comes a second ploughing of the fallow ; and afterwards, in the latter end of June, the mowing of the meadows begins. Of this operation, and of the forks and rakes and the hay- making there is a very good account. The corn harvest naturally follows: rye and wheat were usually shorn, and barley and oats cut with the scythe. The writer does not approve of the common practice of cutting wheat high and then mowing the stubbles. " In Somersetshire," he says, " they do shere theyr wheat very lowe; and the wheate strawe that they purpose to make thacke of, they do not threshe it, but cut off the ears, and bynd it in sheves, and call it rede, and therewith they thacke theyr houses." He recommends the practice of setting up corn in shocks, with two sheaves to cover eight, instead of ten sheaves as at present — probably owing to the straw being then shorter. The corn was commonly housed; but if there be a want of room, he advises that the ricks be built on a scaffold and not upon the ground. The fallow received a third ploughing in September, and was sown about Michaelmas. " Wheat is moost commonlye sowne under the forowe, that is to say, cast it uppon the falowe, and then plowe it under "; and this branch of his subject is concluded with directions about threshing, winnowing and other kinds of barn-work/ Fitzherbert next proceeds to live stock. " An housbande," he says, " can not well thryue by his corne without he have other cattell, nor by his cattcll without corne. And bycause that shepe, in myne opynyon, is the mooste profytablest cattell that any man can haue, therefore I pourpose to speake fyrst of shepe." His remarks on this subject are so accurate that one might imagine they came from a storemaster of the present day. In some places at present "they neuerseuertheir lambesfrom their dammes " ; " and the poore of the peeke (high) countreye, and such other places, where, as they vse to mylke theyr ewes, they vse to wayne theyr lambes at 12 weekes olde, and to mylke their ewes fiue or syxe weekes " ; but that, he observes, " is greate hurte to the ewes, and wyll cause them that they wyll not take the ramme at the tyme of the yere for pouertye, but goo barreyne." " In June is tyme to shere shepe ; and ere they be shorne, they must be verye well washen, the which shall be to the owner greate profyte in the sale of his wool, and also to the clothe-maker." His remarks on horses, cattle, &c, are not less interesting; and there is a very good account of the diseases of each species, and some just observations on the advantage of mixing different kinds on the same pasture. Swine and bees conclude this branch of the work. The author then points out the great advantages of enclosure; recommends " quycksettynge, dychynge and hedgeyng "; and gives particular directions about settes, and the method of training a hedge, as well as concerning the planting and management of trees. Fitz- herbert throws some light on the position of women in the agri- culture of his day. "It is a wyues occupation," he says, " to wynowe all maner of cornes, to make malte, to washe and wrynge, to make heye, shere corne, and, in time of nede, to helpe her husbande to fyll the mucke wayne or dounge carte, dryue the ploughe, to loode heye, corne and suche other; and to go or ride to the market to sel butter, chese, mylke, egges, chekyns, capons, hennes, pygges, gese, and all maner of cornes." The Book of Surveying adds considerably to our knowledge of the rural economy of that age. " Four maner of commens " are described; several kinds of mills for corn and other purposes, and also " quernes that goo with hand"; different orders of tenants, down to the " boundmen," who " in some places con- tynue as yet "; " and many tymes, by colour thereof, there be many freemen taken as boundmen, and their lands and goods is taken from them." Lime and marl are mentioned as common manures, and the former was sometimes spread on the surface to destroy heath. Both draining and irrigation are noticed, though the latter but slightly. And the work concludes with an inquiry " how to make a township that is worth XX. marke a yere, worth XX. li. a year," advocating the transition from communal or open field to individual or enclosure farming. "It is undoubted, that to every townshyppe that standeth in tyllage in the playne countrey, there be errable landes to plowe and sowe, and leyse to tye or tedder theyr horses and mares upon, and common pasture to kepe and pasture their catell, beestes and shepe upon; and also they have medowe grounde to get theyr hey upon. Than to let it De known how many acres of errable lande euery man hath in tyllage, and of the same acres in euery felde to chaunge with his neyghbours, and to. leve them toguyther, and to make hym one seuerall close in euery felde for his errable lands; and his leyse .in euery felde to leve them togyther in one felde, and to makeone seuerall close for them all. And also another seuerall close for his portion of his common pasture, and also his porcion of his medowe in a seuerall close by itselfe, and al kept in seureall both in wynter and somer; and euery cottage shall haue his portion assigned hym accordynge to his rent, and than shall nat the ryche man ouerpresse the poore man with his cattell; and euery man may eate his oun close at his pleasure. And vndoubted, that hay and strawe that will find one beest in the house wyll finde two beestes in the close, and better they shall lyke. For those beestis in the house have short heare and thynne, and towards March they will pylle and be bare; and therefore they may nat abyde in the fylde before the heerdmen in wintertyme for colde. And those that lyein a close undera hedge haue longe heare and thyck, and they will neuer pylle nor be bare; and by this reason the husbande maye kepe twyse so many catell as he did before. " This is the cause of this approwment. Nowe euery husbande hath sixe seuerall closes, whereof iii. be for corne, the fourthe for his leyse, the fyfte for his commen pastures, and the sixte for his haye; and in wynter time there is but one occupied with corne, and than hath the husbande other fyue to occupy tyll lente come, and that he hath his falowe felde, his ley felde, and his pasture felde al sommer. And when he hath mowen his medowe, then he hath his medowe grounde, soo that if he hath any weyke catell that wold be amended, or dyvers maner of catell, he may put them in any close he wyll, the which is a great advantage; and if all shulde lye commen, than wolde the edyche of the corne feldes and the aftermath of all the medowes be eaten in X. or XII. dayes. And the rych men that hath moche catell wold have the advantage, and the poore man can have no help nor relefe in wynter when he hath moste nede ; and if an acre of lande be worthe sixe pens, or it be enclosed, it will be worth VIII. pens, when it is enclosed by reason of the compostying and dongyng of the catell that shall go and lye upon it both day and nighte; and if any of his thre closes that he hath for his corne be worne or ware bare, than he may breke and plowe up his close that he hadde for his layse, or the close that he hadde for his Commen pasture, or bothe, and sowe them with corne, and let the other lye for a time, and so shall he have always reist grounde, the which will bear moche corne with lytel donge; and also he shall have a great profyte of the wod in the hedges whan it is growen; and not only these profytes and advantages beforesaid, but he shall save moche more than al these, for by reason of these closes he shall save meate, drinke and wages of a shepherde, the wages of the heerdmen, and the wages of the swine herde, the which may fortune to be as charge- able as all his nolle rente; and also his corne shall be better saved from eatinge or destroying with catel. For dout ye nat but heerde- men with their catell, shepeherdes with their shepe, and tieng of horses and mares, destroyeth moch corne, the which the hedges wold save. Paraduenture some men would say that this shuld be against the common weale, bicause the shepeherdes, heerdmen and swyne-herdes shuld than be put out of wages. To that it may be answered, though these occupations be not used, there be as many newe occupations that were not used before; as getting of quicke settes, diching, hedging and plashing, the which the same men may use and occupye." The next author who writes professedly on agriculture is Thomas Tusser, whose Five Hundred Points of Husbandry, published in 1562, enjoyed such lasting repute that in 1723 Lord Molesworth recommended that it should be taught in schools. In it the book of husbandry consists of 118 pages, and then follows the Points of Housewifrie, occupying 42 pages more. It is written in verse. Amidst much that is valueless there are some useful notices concerning the state of agriculture at the time in different parts of England. Hops, which had been intro- duced in the early part of the 16th century, and on the culture of which a treatise was published in 1574 by Reginald Scott, are mentioned as a well-known crop. Buckwheat was sown after barley. Hemp and flax are mentioned as common crops. En- closures must have been numerous in some counties; and there is a very good comparison between " champion (open fields) country and several," which Blith afterwards transcribed into his Improver Improved. Carrots, cabbages, turnips and rape, not yet cultivated in the fields, are mentioned among the herbs and roots for the kitchen. There is nothing to be found in Tusser about serfs or bondmen, as in Fitzherbert's works. In 1577 appeared the Foure Bookes of Husbandry, translated, with augmentation, from the work of Conrad Heresbach. Much stress is laid on the value of manure, and mention is made of clover. Fitzherbert, in deploring the gradual discontinuance of the practice of marling land, had alluded to the grievance familiar 392 AGRICULTURE [BRITISH in modern times of tenants " who, if they should marl and make their holdings much better, fear lest they should be put out, or make a great fine or else pay more rent." This subject is treated at length in Sir John Norden's Surveyor's Dialogue (ist ed. 1607), the next agricultural work demanding notice. The author, writing from the landowner's point of view, ascribes the rise in rents and the rise in the price of corn 1 to the " emulation " of tenants in competing for holdings, a practice implying that the agriculture of the period was prosperous. Norden's work contains many judicious observations on the " different natures of grounds, how they may be employed, how they may be bettered, reformed and amended." The famous meadows near Salisbury are mentioned, where, when cattle have fed their fill, hogs, it is said, " are made fat with the remnant — namely, with the knots and sappe of the grasse." " Clouer grasse, or the grasse honey suckle " (white clover), is directed to be sown with other hay seeds. " Carrot rootes " were then raised in several parts of England, and sometimes by farmers. London street and stable dung was carried to a distance by water, and appears from later writers to have been got for the trouble of removing. Leases of 21 years are recommended for persons of small capital as better than employing it in purchasing land. The works of Gervase Markham, Leonard Mascall, Gabriel Plattes and other authors of the first half of the 1 7th century may be passed over, the best part jof them being preserved by Blith and Hartlib, who are referred to below. Sir Richard Weston's Discourse on the Husbandry of Brabant and Flanders was published by Hartlib in 1645, and its title indicates the source to which England owed much of its sub- sequent agricultural advancement. Weston was ambassador from England to the elector palatine in 1619, and had the merit of being the first who introduced the great clover, as it was then called, into English agriculture, about 1652, and probably turnips also. Clover thrives best, he says, when you sow it on the barrenest ground, such as the worst heath ground in England. The ground is to be pared and burnt, and unslacked lime must be added to the ashes. It is next to be well ploughed and harrowed; and about 10 lb of clover seed must be sown on an acre in April or the end of March. If you intend to preserve seed, then the second crop must be let stand till it come to a full and dead ripeness, and you shall have at the least five bushels per acre. Being once sown, it will last five years; the land, when ploughed, will yield, three or four years together, rich crops of wheat, and after that a crop of oats, with which clover seed is to be sown again. It is in itself an excellent manure, Sir Richard adds; and so it should be, to enable land to bear this treatment. Before 1655 the culture of clover, exactly according to the present method, seems to have been well known in England, and it had also made its way to Ireland. A great many works on agriculture appeared during the time of the Commonwealth, of which Walter Blith's Improver Improved and Samuel Hartlib's Legacie are the most valuable. The first edition of the former was published in 1649, an< i 0I the latter in 1651; and both of them were enlarged in subsequent editions. In the first edition of the Improver Improved no mention is made of clover, nor in the second of turnips, but in the third, clover is treated of at some length, and turnips are recom- mended as an excellent cattle crop, the culture of which should be extended from the kitchen garden to the field. Sir Richard Weston must have cultivated turnips before this; for Blith says that Sir Richard affirmed to himself that he fed his swine with them. They were first given boiled, but afterwards the swine came to eat them raw, and would run after the carts, and pull them forth as they gathered them — an expression which conveys an idea of their being cultivated in the fields. Blith's book is the first systematic work in which there are some traces of alternate husbandry or the practice of interposing clover and turnip between culmiferous crops. He is a great enemy to commons and common fields, and to retaining land in 1 During the 16th century wheat had risen in price, and between 1606 and 161 8 never fell below 30s. a quarter. At the same time wages remained low. old pasture, unless it be of the best quality. His description of the different kinds of ploughs is interesting; and he justly recommends such as were drawn by two horses (some even by one horse) in preference to the weighty and clumsy machines which required four or more horses or oxen. The following passage indicates the contemporary theory of manuring: — " In thy tillage are these special opportunities to improve it, either by liming, marling, sanding, earthing, mudding, snayl-codding, mucking, chalking, pidgeons-dung, hens-dung, hogs-dung or by any other means as some by rags, some by coarse wool, by pitch marks, and tarry stuff, any oyly stuff, salt and many things more, yea indeed any thing almost that hath any liquid- ness, foulness, saltness or good moysture in it, is very naturall inrichment to almost any sort of land." Blith speaks of an instrument which ploughed, sowed and harrowed at the same time; and the setting of corn was then a subject of much dis- cussion. Blith was a zealous advocate of drainage and holds that drains to be efficient must be laid 3 or 4 ft. deep. The drainage of the Great Level of the Fens was prosecuted during the 17th century, but lack of engineering skill and the opposition of the fen-men hindered the reclamation of a now fertile region. Hartlib's Legacie contains, among some very judicious direc- tions, a great deal of rash speculation. Several of the deficiencies which the writer complains of in English agriculture must be placed to the account of climate, and never have been or can be supplied. Some of his recommendations are quite unsuitable to the state of the country, and display more of general knowledge and good intention than of either the theory or practice of agriculture. Among the subjects deserving notice may be mentioned the practice of steeping and liming seed corn as a preventive of smut; changing every year the species of grain, and bringing seed corn from a distance; ploughing down green crops as manure; and feeding horses with broken oats and chaff. This writer seems to differ a good deal from Blith about the advantage of interchanging tillage and pasture. " It were no losse to this island," he says, " if that we should not plough at all, if so be that we could certainly have corn at a reasonable rate, and likewise vent for all our manufactures of wool " ; and one reason for this is, that pasture employs more hands than tillage, instead of depopulating the country, as was commonly imagined. The grout, which he mentions as " coming over to us in Holland ships," about which he desires information, was probably the same as shelled barley; and mills for manufac- turing it were introduced into Scotland from Holland towards the beginning of the 18th century. Among the other writers previous to the Revolution mention must be made of John Ray the botanist and of John Evelyn, both men of great talent and research, whose works are still in high estimation. The first half of the 17th century was a period of agricultural activity, partly due, no doubt, to the increase of enclosed farms. Marling and liming are again practised, new agricultural imple- ments and manures introduced, and the new crops more widely used. But the Civil War and the subsequent political disturb- ances intervened to prevent the continuance of this progress, and the agriculture of the end of the century seems to have relapsed into stagnation. Of the state of agriculture in Scotland in the 1 6 th and the greater part of the 17th century very little is known; no professed treatise on the subject appeared till after the Revolution. Scottish The south-eastern counties were the earliest improved, agri- and yet in 1660 their condition seems to have been very culture oi wretched. Ray, who made a tour along the eastern c J' Btury coast in that year, says, " We observed little or no fallow ground in Scotland; some ley ground we saw, which they manured with sea wreck. The men seemed to be very lazy, and may be frequently observed to plough in their cloaks. It is the fashion of them to wear cloaks when they go abroad, but especi- ally on Sundays. They have neither good bread, cheese nor drink. They cannot make them, nor will they learn. Their butter is very indifferent, and one would wonder how they could BRITISH] AGRICULTURE 393 1688 to 1760. contrive to make it so bad. They use much pottage made of coal-wort, which they call kail, sometimes broth of decorticated barley. The ordinary country-houses are pitiful cots, built of stone and covered with turfs, having in them but one room, many of them no chimneys, the windows very small holes and not glazed. The ground in the valleys and plains bear very good corn, but especially bears barley or bigge, and oats, but rarely wheat and rye." It is probable that no great change had taken place in Scotland from the end of the 15th century, except that tenants gradually became possessed of a little stock of their own, instead of having their farm stocked by the landlord. " The minority of James V., the reign of Mary Stuart, the infancy of her son, and the civil wars of her grandson Charles I., were all periods of lasting waste. The very laws which were made during successive reigns for protecting the tillers of the soil from spoil are the best proofs of the deplor- able state of the husbandman." 1 In the 17th century those laws were made which paved the way for an improved system of agriculture in Scotland. By a statute of 1633 landholders were enabled to have their tithes valued, and to buy them either at nine or six years' purchase, according to the nature of the property. The statute of 1685, conferring on landlords a power to entail their estates, was indeed of a very different tendency in regard to its effects on agriculture. But the two Acts in 1695, for the division of commons and separation of intermixed properties, facilitated improvements. From the Revolution to the accession of George III. the progress of agriculture was by no means so considerable as might Progress ^ e imagined from the great exportation of corn. It ofagricul- is probable that very little improvement had taken turetrom place, either in the cultivation of the soil or in the management of live stock, from the Restoration down to the middle of the 18th century. Clover and turnips were confined to a few districts, and at the latter period were scarcely cultivated at all by common farmers in the northern part of the island. Of the writers of this period, therefore, it is necessary to notice only such as describe some improvement in the modes of culture, or some extension of the practices that were formerly little known. In John Houghton's Collections on Husbandry and Trade, a periodical work begun in 1681', there is one of the earliest notices of turnips being eaten by sheep: — " Some in Essex have their fallow after turnips, which feed their sheep in winter, by which means the turnips are scooped, and so made capable to hold dews and rain water, which, by corrupting, imbibes the nitre of the air, and when the shell breaks it runs about and fertilizes. By feeding the sheep, the land is dunged as if it had been folded; and those turnips, though few or none be carried off for human use, are a very excellent improvement, nay, some reckon it so, though they only plough the turnips in without feeding." This was written in February 1694. Ten years before, John Worlidge, one of his correspondents, and the author of the Sy sterna A griculturae (1669) , observes, " Sheep fatten very well on turnips, which prove an excellent nourishment for them in hard winters when fodder is scarce; for they will not only eat the greens, but feed on the roots in the ground, and scoop them hollow even to the very skin. Ten acres (he adds) sown with clover, turnips, &c, will feed as many sheep as one hundred acres thereof would before have done." The next writer of note is John Mortimer, whose Whole Art of Husbandry, a regular, systematic work of considerable merit, was published in 1707. From the third edition of Hartlib's Legacie we learn that clover was cut green and given to cattle; and it appears that this practice of soiling, as it is now called, had become very common about the beginning of the 18th century, wherever clover was cultivated. Rye-grass was now sown along with it. Turnips were hand-hoed and extensively employed in feeding sheep and cattle. The first considerable improvement in the practice of that period was introduced by Jethro Tull, a gentleman of Berkshire, who about the year 1701 invented the drill, and whose Horse- 1 Chalmers' Caledonia, vol. ii. p. 732. hoeing Husbandry, published in 1731, exhibits the first decided step in advance upon the principles and practices of his pre- decessors. Not contented with a careful attention to details, Tull set himself* with admirable skill and perseverance, to investigate the growth of plants, and thus to arrive at a know- ledge of the principles by which the cultivation of field-crops should be regulated. Having arrived at the conclusion that the food of plants consists of minute particles of earth taken up by their rootlets, it followed that the more thoroughly the soil in which they grew was disintegrated, the more abundant would be the " pasture " (as he called it) to which their fibres would have access. He was thus led to adopt that system of sowing his crops in rows or drills, so wide apart as to admit of tillage of the intervals, both by ploughing and hoeing, being continued until they had well-nigh arrived at maturity. Such reliance did he place in the pulverization of the soil that he grew as many as thirteen crops of wheat on the same field without manure. As the distance between his rows appeared much greater than was necessary for the range of the roots of the plants, he begins by showing that these roots extend much farther than is com- monly believed, and then proceeds to inquire into the nature of their food. After examining several hypotheses, he decides this to be fine particles of earth. The chief and almost the only use of dung, he thinks, is to divide the earth, to dissolve " this terrestrial matter, which affords nutriment to the mouths of vegetable roots"; and this can be done more completely by tillage. It is therefore necessary not only to pulverize the soil by repeated ploughings before it be seeded, but, as it becomes gradually more and more compressed afterwards, recourse must be had to tillage while the plants are growing; and this is hoeing, which also destroys the weeds that would deprive the plants of their nourishment. The leading features of Tull's husbandry are his practice of laying the land into narrow ridges of 5 or 6 ft., and upon the middle of «hese drilling one, two, or three rows, distant from cne another about 7 in. when there were three, and 10 in. when only two. The distance of the plants on one ridge from those on the contiguous one he called an interval; the distance between the rows on the same ridge, a space or partition; the former was stirred repeatedly by the horse-hoe, the latter by the hand-hoe. " Hoeing," he says, " may be divided into deep, which is our horse-hoeing; and shallow, which is the English hand-hoeing; and also the sh of barley and 312 lb of oats, representing 60 lb, soft and 39 ft) per bushel respectively. After 1883 the annual average price of English wheat was never so high as 40s. per quarter, and only twice after BRITISH] AGRICULTURE 399 1892 did it exceed 30s. In one of these exceptional years, 1898, the average rose to 34s., but this was due entirely to a couple of months of inflated prices in the early half of the year, when the outbreak of war between Spain and the United States of America coincided with a huge speculative deal in the latter country. The Table II. — Gazette Annual Average Prices per Imperial Quarter of British Cereals in England and Wales, 1875-1905. Year. Wheat. Barley. Oats. s. d. s. d. s. d. 1875 45 2 38 5 28 8 1876 46 2 35 2 26 3 1877 56 9 39 8 25 11 1878 46 5 40 2 24 4 1879 43 10 34 21 9 1880 44 4 33 1 23 1 1881 45 4 3i 11 21 9 1882 45 1 31 2 21 10 1883 41 7 31 10 21 5 1884 35 8 30 8 20 3 1885 32 10 30 1 20 7 1886 31 26 7 19 1887 32 6 25 4 16 3 1888 31 IO 27 10 16 9 1889 29 9 25 10 17 9 1890 3i 11 28 8 18 7. 1891 37 28 2 26 1892 30 3 26 2 •19 10 1893 26 4 25 7 18 9 1894 22 10 24 6 17 1 1895 23 1 21 II 14 6 1896 26 2 22 II 14 9 1897 30 2 23 6 16 11 1898 34 27 2 18 5 1899 25 8 25 7 17 1900 26 II 24 11 17 7 1901 26 9 25 2 18 5 1902 28 1 25 8 20 2 1903 26 9 22 8 17 2 1904 28 4 22 4 16 4 1905 29 8 24 4 17 4 weekly avetage prices of English wheat in 1898 fluctuated between 48s. id. and 25s. sd. per quarter, the former being the highest weekly average since 1882. The minimum annual average was 22s. iod. in 1894, in the autumn of which year the weekly average sank to 17s. 6d. per quarter, the lowest on record. Wheat was so great a glut in the market that various methods were devised for feeding it to stock, a purpose for which it is not specially suited; in thus utilizing the grain, however, a smaller loss was often incurred than in sending it to market. In 1894 the monthly average price for October, the chief month for wheat-sowing in England, was only 17s. 8d. per quarter, and farmers naturally shrank from seeding the land freely with a crop which could not be grown except at a heavy loss. The result was that in the following year the wheat crop of the United Kingdom was harvested upon the smallest area on record — less than 15 million acres. In only one year, 1878, did the annual average price of English barley touch 40s. per quarter; it never reached 30s. after 1885, whilst in 1895 it fell to so low a level as 21s. nd. The same story of declining prices applies to oats. An average of 20s. per quarter was touched in 189 1 and 1902, but with those excep- tions this useful feeding grain did not reach that figure after 1885. In 1895 the average price of 480 lb of wheat, at 23s. id., was identical with that of 312 lb of oats in 1880, and it was less in the preceding year. The declining prices that have operated against the growers of wheat should be studied in conjunction with Table III., which shows, at intervals of five years, the imports of Table III. — Imports into the United Kingdom of Wheat Grain, and of Wheat Meal and Flour — Cwt. Year. Wheat Grain. Meal and Flour. Total. 1875 51.876,517 6,136,083 58,012,600 1880 55,261,924 10,558,312 65,820,236 1885 61 ,498,864 15.832,843 77.33i.707 1890 60,474,180 15.773.336 76,247,516 1895 81,749,955 18,368,410 100,118,365 1900 68,669,490 2i,548;i3i 90,217,621 1905 97,622,752 n.954.763 I09.577.5i5 wheat grain and of wheat meal and flour into the United King- dom. The import of the manufactured product from 1875 to 1900 increased -at a much greater ratio than that of the raw grain, for whilst in 1875 the former represented less than one-ninth of the total, by 1900 the proportion had risen to nearly one-fourth. The offal, which is quite as valuable as the flour itself, was thus retained abroad instead of being utilized for stock-feeding purposes in the United Kingdom. In the five subsequent years the proportion was fundamentally altered, so that with a greatly increased importation of grain, that of meal and flour was in the proportion of about one-ninth. The highest and lowest areas of wheat, barley and oats in the United Kingdom during the period 1875-1905 were the following:— Wheat . 3,514,088 acres in 1875; 1,407,618 acres in 1904. Barley . 2,931,809 „ ,,1879:1,872,305 „ ,,1905. Oats . 4,527,899 „ „ 189513,998,200 „ ,,1879. These show differences amounting to 2,106,470 acres for wheat, 1,659,504 acres for barley, and 529,699 acres for Oats. The acreage of wheat, therefore, fluctuated the most, and that of oats the least. Going back to 1869, it is found that the extent of wheat in that year was 3,981,989 acres or very little short of four million acres. The acreage of rye grown in the United Kingdom as a grain crop is small, the respective maximum and minimum areas during the period 1875-1905 having been 102,676 acres in 1894 and 47,937 acres in 1880. Rye is perhaps more largely grown as a green crop to be fed off by sheep, or cut green for soiling, in the spring months. Of corn crops other than cereals, beans and peas are both less cultivated than formerly. In the period 1875-1905 the area of beans in the United Kingdom fluctuated between 574,414 acres in 1875 and 230,429 acres in 1897, and that of peas between 318,410 acres in 1875 and 155,668 acres in 1901. The area of peas (175,624 acres in 1905) shrank by nearly one-half, and that of beans (256,383 acres in 1905) by more than one-half. Taking cereals and pulse corn together, the aggregate areas of wheat, barley, oats, rye, beans and peas in the United Kingdom varied as follows over the six quinquennial intervals embraced in the period 1875-1905: — ■ Year. Acres. Year. Acres. 1875 • 1880 1885 . • n,399,030 10,672,086 10,014,625 1890 1895 • 1900 1905 . • 9,574.249 . 8,865,338 8,707,602 • 8,333,770 Disregarding minor fluctuations, there was thus a loss of corn land over the 30 years of 3,065,260 acres, or 27%. The area, withdrawn from corn-growing is not to be found under the head of what are termed " green crops." In 1905 the total area of these crops in the United Kingdom was 4,144,374 acres, made up thus: — Crop. Acres. Potatoes 1,236,768 Turnips and swedes 1,879,384 Mangel 477,54° Cabbage, kohl-rabi and rape .... 225,315 Vetches or tares . . . . . . . 139,285 Other green crops . . . . - . . . 186,082 The extreme aggregate areas of these crops during the thirty years were 5,057,029 acres in 1875 and 4,109,394 acres in 1904. At five-year intervals the areas were: — Year. Acres. Year. Acres. 1875 1880 1885 • 5,057,029 • 4.746,293 • 4.765,195 1890 1895 1900 I9°5 • 4.534.145 • 4.399.949 • 4.301.774 • 4.144.374 These crops, therefore, which, except potatoes, are used mainly for stock-feeding, have like the corn crops been grown on gradually diminishing areas. The land that has been lost to the plough is found to be still further augmented when an inquiry is instituted into the area devoted to clover, sainfoin and grasses under rotation. The areas of five-year intervals are given in Table IV. Under the old Norfolk or four-course rotation (roots, barley, clover, wheat) land thus seeded with clover or grass seeds was intended to be 4-oo AGRICULTURE [BRITISH ploughed up at the end of a year. Labour difficulties, low prices of produce, bad seasons and similar causes provided in- ducements for leaving the land in grass for two years, or over three years or more, before breaking it up for wheat. In many cases it would be decided to let such land remain under grass indefinitely, and thus it would no longer be enumerated in the Agricultural Returns as temporary grass land, but would pass into the category of permanent grass land, or what is often spoken of as " permanent pasture." Whilst much grass land has been laid down with the intention from the outset that it should be permanent, at the same time some considerable areas have through stress of circumstances been allowed to drift from the temporary or rotation grass area to the permanent list, and have thus still further diminished the area formerly under the dominion of the plough. The column relating to permanent grass in Table IV. shows clearly enough how the British Isles became Table IV. — Areas of Grass Land (excluding Heath and Mountain Land) in the United Kingdom — Acres. Permanent Year. Temporary (i.e. (i.e. not broken up Total. under rotation) . in rotation). 1875 6,337.953 23,772,602 . 30.no,555 1880 6,389,232 24,717,092 31,106,324 1885 6,738,206 25,616,071 32,354.277 1890 6,097,210 27,115,425 33,212,635 1895 6 J ,o6i,i39 27,831,117 33,892,256 1900 6,025,025 28,266,712 34,291,737 1905 5.779.323 28,865,373 34,644,696 more pastoral, while the figures already given demonstrate the extent to which they became less arable. In the period 1875- 1905 the extreme areas returned as " permanent pasture " — a term which, it should be clearly understood, does not include heath or mountain land, of which there are in Great Britain alone about 13 million acres used for grazing — were 23,772,602 acres in 1875, and 28,865,373 acres in 1905. Comparing 1905 with 1875 the increase in permanent grass land amounted to over five million acres, or about 21 %. On account of the greater humidity and mildness of its climate, Ireland is more essentially a pastoral country than^Sreat Britain. The distribution between the two islands of such important crops of arable land as cereals and potatoes is indicated in Table V. The figures are those for 1905, but, though the absolute acreages Table V.— Areas of Cereal and Potato Crops in Great Britain and Ireland in 1905. Great Britain Ireland Total . Wheat. Barley. Acres. 1.796,993 37.860 Acres. 1,713,664 154,645 1,834,853 1,868,309 Great Britain Ireland Total Oats. Potatoes. 3.051,376 1,066,806 608,473 6i6,755 4,118,182 1,225,228 vary somewhat from year to year, there is not much variation in the proportions. The comparative insignificance of Ireland in the case of the wheat and barley crops, represented by 2 and 8% respectively, receives some compensation when oats and potatoes are considered, about one-fourth of the area of the former and more than half that of the latter being claimed by Ireland. It is noteworthy, however, that Ireland year by year places less reliance upon the potato crop. In 1888 the area of potatoes in Ireland was 804,566 acres, but it continuously con- tracted each year, until in 1905 it was only 616,755 acres, or 187,811 acres less than 17 years previously. A similar comparison for the several sections of Great Britain, as set forth in Table VI., shows that to England belong about 95 % of the wheat area, over 80 % of the barley area, over 60 % of the oats area, and over 70 % of the potato area, and these proportions do not vary much from year to year. The figures for cereals are important, as they indicate that it is the farmers of England who are the chief sufferers through the diminishing prices of corn; and particularly is this true of East Anglia, where corn-growing is more largely pursued than in any other part of the Table VI.— Areas of Cereal and Potato Crops in England, Wales and Scotland, and in Great Britain, in 1905. England Wales Scotland Wheat. Barley. Acres. 1,704,281 44,073 48,641 Acres. 1,410,287 91.243 212,134 Great Britain 1.796,995 1,713,664 England Wales Scotland Oats. Potatoes. 1,880,475 207,929 962,972 434.773 29,435 144.265 Great Britain 3.051,376 608,473 country. Scotland possesses nearly one-third of the area of oats and nearly one-fourth of that of potatoes. Beans are almost entirely confined to England, and this is even more the case with peas. The mangel crop also is mainly English, the summer in most parts of Scotland being neither long enough nor warm enough to bring it to maturity. The Produce of British Crops. Whilst the returns relating to the acreage of crops and the number of live stock in Great Britain have been officially collected in each year since 1866, the annual official estimates of the produce of the crops in the several sections 1 of the kingdom do not extend back beyond 1885. The practice is for the Board of Agriculture to appoint local estimators, who report in the autumn as to the total production of the crops in the localities respectively assigned to them. By dividing the total production, say of wheat, in each county by the number of acres of wheat as returned by the occupiers on June 4, the estimated average yield per acre is obtained. It is important to notice that the figures relating to total production and yield per acre are only estimates, and it is not claimed for them that they are anything more. The fact that much of the wheat to which the figures apply is still in the stack after the publication of the figures shows that the latter are essentially estimates. The total produce of any crop in a given year must depend mainly upon the acreage grown, whilst the average yield per acre will be determined chiefly by the character of the season. In Table VII. are shown, in thousands Table VII.' — Estimated Annual Total Produce of Corn Crops in the United Kingdom, 1890-1905 — Thousands of Bushels. Year. Wheat. Barley. Oats. Beans. Peas. 1890 75.994 80,794 171.295 11,860 6313 1891 74.743 79,555 166,472 10,694 5777 1892 60,775 76,939 168,181 7,054 5028 1893 50,913 65,746 168,588 4,863 4756: 1894 60,704 78,601 190,863 7,198 6229 1895 38,285 75,028 174476 5,626 4732 1896 58,247 77,825 162,860 6,491 4979 1897 56,296 72,613 163,556 6,650 5250 1898 74.885 74,731 172,578 7,267 4858 1899 67,261 74,532 166,140 7,566 4431 1906 54.322 68,546 165,137 7,469 4072 1901 53.928 67.643 161,175 6,154 4017 1902 58,278 74,439 184,184 7,704 5106 1903 48,819 65,310 172,941 7.535 4812 1904 37.920 62,453 176,755 5.901 4446 1905 60,333 65,004 166.286 8,262 4446 of bushels, the estimated produce of the corn crops of the United Kingdom in the years 1890-1905. The largest area of whe&t in the period was that of 1890, and the smallest was that bf 1904; the same two years are seen to have been respectively those of highest and lowest total produce. It is noteworthy that in 1895 the country produced about half as much wheat BRITISH] AGRICULTURE 401 as in any one of the years 1800, 1801 and 1898. The produce of barley, like that of oats, is less irregular than that of wheat, the extremes for barley being 80,794,000 bushels (1890) and 62,453,000 bushels (1904), and those for oats 190,863,000 bushels (1894) and 161,175,000 bushels (1001). Similar details for potatoes, roots and hay, brought together in Table VIII., show that the Table VIII. — Estimated Annual Total Produce of Potatoes, Roots and Hay in the United Kingdom, 1890-71905 — Thousands of Tons. Year. Potatoes. Turnips. Mangels. Hay. 1890 4622 32,002 6709 14,466 1891 6090 29,742 7558 12,671 1892 5634 3L4I9 7428 n,567 1893 6541 31,110 5225 9,082 1894 4662 30,678 73io 15,699 1895 7065 29,221 6376 12,238 1896 6263 28,037 5875 11,416 1897 4107 29,785 7379 14,043 1898 6225 26,499 7228 15,916 1899 5837 20,370 7604 12,898 1900 4577 28,387 9650 13.742 1901 7043 25,298 9224 11,358 1902 5920 29,116 10,809 15,246 1903 5277 23,523 8212 H,955 1904 6230 28,033 8813 • 14,860 1905 7186 26,563 9493 13,554 production of potatoes varies much from year to year. The imports of potatoes into the United Kingdom vary, to some extent inversely; thus, the low production in 1897 was accom- panied by an increase of imports from 3,921,205 cwt. in 1897 to 6,751,728 cwt. in 1898. No very/great reliance can be placed upon the figures relating to turnips (which include swedes), as these are mostly fed to sheep on the ground, so that the estimates as to yield are necessarily vague. Mangels are probably more closely estimated, as these valuable roots are carted and stored for subsequent use for feeding stock. Under hay are included the produce of clover, sainfoin and rotation grasses, and also that of permanent meadow. The extent to which the annual production of the leading fodder crop may vary is shown in the table by the two consecutive years 1893 and 1894; from only nine million tons in the former year the production rose to up- wards of fifteen million tons in the latter, an increase of over 70%. Turning to the average yialds per acre, as ascertained by dividing the number of acres into the total produce, the results of a decade are collected in Table IX. The effects of a prolonged Table IX.* — Estimated Annual Average Yield per Acre of Crops in drought, as distinguished from spring and summer drought, are shown in the very low yield of turnips in 1899. Mangels are sown earlier and have a longer period of growth than turnips; if they become well established in the summer they are less sus- ceptible to autumn drought. The hay made from clover, sain- foin and grasses under rotation generally gives a bigger average yield than that from permanent grass land. The mean values at the foot of the table — they are not, strictly speaking, exact averages — indicate the average yields per acre in the United Kingdom to be about 31 bushels of wheat, 33 bushels of barley, 40 bushels of oats, 28 bushels of beans, 26 bushels of peas, 4! tons of potatoes, 131 tons of turnips and swedes, 185 tons of mangels, 32 cwt. of hay from temporary grass, and 29 cwt. of hay from permanent grass. Although enormous single crops of mangels Table X. — Decennial Average Yields in Great Britain of Wheat, Barley and Oats — Bushels per acre. 10- Year Periods. Wheat. Barley. » Oats. 1885-1894 29-32 33-02 38-21 1 886-1895 28-81 32-68 38-23 1887-1896 29-49 32-82 38-13 1 888-1 897 29-19 32-97 38-51 1889-1898 29-86 33-26 38-86 1890T1899 30-15 33-50 38-81 1891-1900 29-92 33-13 38-46 1 892- 1 90 1 29-88 32-80 38-26 1893-1902 30-53 32-83 38-64 1894-1903 3o-95 33-i6 39-05 1895-1904 30-56 32-82 38-81 1 896- 1 905 31-21 33-04 38-92 are spmetimes grown, amounting occasionally to 100 tons per acre, the general average yield of i8j tons is about 5 tons more than that of turnips and swedes. Again, although from the richest old permanent meadow-lands very heavy crops of hay are taken season after season, the general average yield of permanent grass is about 3 cwt. of hay per acre less than that from clover, sainfoin and grasses under rotation. The general average yields of the corn crops are not fairly comparable one with the other, because they are given by measure and not by weight, whereas the weight per bushel varies considerably. For purposes of comparison it would be much better if the yields of corn crops were estimated in cwt. per acre. This, indeed, is the practice in Ireland, and in order to incorporate the Irish figures with those for Great Britain so as to obtain average values for the United Kingdom, the Irish yields are calculated into bushels at United Kingdom, 1 895-1904. Year. Wheat. Barley. Oats. Beans. Peas. Pota- toes. Turnips and Swedes. Mangels. Hay. Rota- tion. Perman- ent. Bush. Bush. Bush. Bush. Bush. Tons. Tons. Tons. Cwt. Cwt. 1895 26-33 32-09 38-67 22:98 22-62 5-64 I3-" 16-44 29-08 25-21 1896 33-63 34-16 37-97 25-69 25-34 4-93 , 12-79 14-99 27-95 24-14 1897 29-07 32-91 38-84 28-91 27-55 3-47 13-90 18-03 32-53 30-71 1898 34-75 36-24 42-27 3I-I3 27-60 5-23 12-74 17-71 36-49 34-27 1899 32-76 34-64 40-57 30-19 27-22 4-82 9-97 17-41 31-04 29-11 1900 28-61 3I-67 39-97 28-18 25-89 3-77 14-29 19-97 32-42 30-9.8 1901 30-93 31-70 39-35 24-29 25-97 5-81 12-95 19-37 28-98 23-85 1902 3291 35-83 44-5o 31-49 28-51. 4-92 15-35 20-85 35-29 32-57 1903 30-15 32-38 40-81 31-27 26-56 4-45 12-44 17-19 33-07 31-27 1904 26-97 31-25 40-80 23-23 25-75 5-24 14-83 18-57 33-43 31-04 Mean, 10 years 30-85 33-28 40-35 27-68 26-24 4-84 13-21 18-18 32-06 29-32 1905 32-88 34-79 40-38 32-33 25-71 5-86 14-19 19-91 32-24 28-37 spring and summer drought, like that of 1893, are exemplified in the circumstance that four corn crops and the two hay crops all registered very low average yields that year, viz. wheat 26-08 bushels, barley 29-30 bushels, oats 38-14 bushels, beans 19-61 bushels, rotation hay 23-55 cwt., permanent hay 20-41 cwt. On the other hand, the season of 1898 was exceptionally favour- able to cereals and to hay. The effects of a prolonged autumn the rate of 60 lb to the bushel of wheat, of beans and of peas, 50 lb to the bushel of barley and 39 lb to the bushel of oats. The figure denoting the general average yield per acre of any class of crop needs re- adjustment after every succes- sive harvest. If a decennial period be taken, then — for the purpose of the new calculation — the earliest year is omitted and the latest year added, the number of years continuing at ten. Adopting this course in the case of the cereal crops of Great Britain the decennial averages recorded in Table X. are obtained, the period 1885- 1894 being the earliest decade for which the official figures are available. It thus appears that the average yield of wheat in Great Britain, as calcu- lated upon the crops harvested during the ten years (1896- 1905), exceeded 31 bushels to the acre, whereas, for the ten years ended 1895, it fell below 29 bushels. A large expansion in the acreage of the wheat crop would probably be at- tended by a decline in the average yield per acre, for when a 4-02 AGRICULTURE [BRITISH crop is shrinking in area the tendency is to withdraw from it first the land least suited to its growth. The general average for the United Kingdom might then recede to rather less than 28 bushels of 60 lb per bushel, which was for a long time the accepted average — unless, of course, improved methods of cultivating and manuring the soil were to increase its general wheat-yielding capacity. 1 Crops and Cropping. The greater freedom of cropping and the less close adherence to the formal system of rotation of crops, which characterize the early years of the 20th century, rest upon a scientific basis. Experimental inquiry has done much to enlighten the farmer as to the requirements of plant-life, and to enable him to see how best to meet these requirements in the case of field crops. He cannot afford to ignore the results that have been gradually accumulated — the truths that have been slowly established — at the agricultural experiment stations in various parts of the world. Of these stations^the greatest, and the oldest now existing, is that at Rothamsted, Harpenden, Herts, England, which was founded in 1843 by Sir John Bennet Lawes (q.v.). The results of more than half a century of sustained experimental inquiry were communicated to the world by Lawes and his collaborator, Sir J. H. Gilbert, in about 130 separate papers or'reports, many of which were published, from 1847 onwards, in the Journal of the Royal Agricultpral Society of England? In the case of plants the method of procedure was to grow some of the most important crops of rotation, each separately year after year, for many years in succession on the same land, (a) without manure, (6) with farmyard manure and (c) with a great variety of chemical manures; the same description of manure being, as a rule, applied year after year on the same plot. Experi- ments on an actual course of rotation, without manure, and with different manures, have also been made. Wheat, barley, oats, beans, clover and other leguminous plants, turnips, sugar beet, mangels, potatoes and grass crops have thus been experimented upon. Incidentally there have been extensive sampling and analysing of soils, investigations into rainfall and the composition of drainage waters, inquiries into the amount of water transpired by plants^and experiments on the assimilation of free nitrogen. Cereals. — Amongst the field experiments there is, perhaps, not one of more universal interest than that in which wheat was grown for fifty-seven years in succession, (a) without manure, (6) with farmyard manure and (c) with various artificial manures. The results show that, unlike leguminous crops such as beans or clover, wheat may be successfully grown for many years in suc- cession on ordinary arable land, provided suitable manures be applied and the land be kept clean. Even without manure the average produce over forty-six years, 1852-1897, was nearly thirteen bushels per acre, or about the average yield per acre of 1 The higher yield of wheat in the later years of the 19th century appears to be largely attributable to better grain-growing seasons. The yields in the experimental wheat-field at Rothamsted — where there is no change either of land or of treatment — indicate this. The following figures show the average yields per acre of theselected plots at Rothamsted over six 8-yearly periods from 1852 to 1899, and afford evidence that the higher yield of later years is due to the seasons : — Bushels (of 60 lb) Average of — per acre. 8 years 1 852-1 859 28f 8 „ 1860-1867 28I 8 „ 1868-1875 27$ 8 „ 1876-1883 25i 8 „ 1884-1891 29I 8 „ 1892-1899 30 32 „ 1852-1883 27I 16 „ 1884-1899 . . . . . .30 48 „ 1852-1899 28^ The average of the first thirty-two years was thus 27I bushels per acre, of the last sixteen years 30 bushels, and of the whole forty-eight years 28} bushels. 1 See J. B. Lawes and J. H. Gilbert, Rothamsted Memoirs on Agricultural Chemistry and Physiology, 7 vols. (1893-1899); A. D. Hall, Book of the Rothamsted Experiments (1905). the wheat lands of the whole world. Mineral manures alone give very little increase, nitrogenous manures alone considerably more than mineral manures alone, but the mixture of the two con- siderably more than either separately. In one case, indeed, the average produce by mixed minerals and nitrogenous manure was more than that by the annual application of farmyard manure; and in seven out of the ten cases in which such mixtures were used the average yield per acre was from over two to over eight bushels more than the average yield of the United Kingdom (assuming this to be about twenty-eight bushels of 60 lb per bushel) under ordinary rotation. It is estimated that the reduction in yield of the unmanured plot over the forty years, 1852-1891, after the growth of the crops without manure during the eight preceding years, was, provided it had been uniform throughout, equivalent to a decline of one-sixth of a bushel from year to year due to exhaustion — that is, irrespectively of fluctua- tions due to season. It is related that a visitor from the United States, talking to Sir John Lawes, said, " Americans have learnt more from this field than from any other agricultural experiment in the world." Experiments upon the growth of barley for fifty years in succession on rather heavy ordinary arable soil resulted in show- ing that the produce by mineral manures alone is larger than that without manure; that nitrogenous manures alone give more produce than mineral manures alone; and that mixtures of mineral and nitrogenous manure give much more than, either used alone — generally twice, or more than twice, as much as mineral manures alone. Of mineral constituents, whether used alone or in mixture with nitrogenous manures, phosphates are much more effective than mixtures of salts of potash, soda and magnesia. The average results show that, under all conditions of manuring — excepting with farmyard manure— the produce was less over the later than over the earlier periods of the experi- ments, an effect partly due to the seasons. But the average produce over forty years of continuous growth of barley was, in all cases where nitrogenous and mineral manures (containing phosphates) were used together, much higher than the average produce of the crop grown in ordinary rotation in the United Kingdom, and very much higher than the average in most other countries when so grown. The requirements of barley within the soil, and its susceptibility to the external influences of season,, are very similar to those of its near ally, wheat. Nevertheless there are distinctions of result dependent on differences in the habits of the two plants, and in the conditions of their cultivation accord- ingly. In the British Isles wheat is, as a rule, sown in the autumn on a heavier soil, and has four or five months in which to- dis- tribute its roots, and so it gets possession of a wide range of soil and subsoil before barley is sown in the spring. Barley, on the other hand, is sown in a lighter surface soil, and, with its short period for root-development, relies in a much greater degree on the stores of plant-food within the surface soil. Accordingly it is more susceptible to exhaustion of surface soil as to its nitro- genous, and especially as to its mineral supplies; and in the common practice of agriculture it is found to be more benefited by direct mineral manures, especially phosphatic manures, than is wheat when sown under equal soil conditions. The exhaustion of the soil induced by both barley and wheat is, however, char- acteristically that of available nitrogen; and when, under the ordinary conditions of manuring and cropping, artificial manure is still required, nitrogenous manures are, as a rule, necessary for both crops, and, for the spring-sown barley, superphosphate also. Although barley is appropriately grown on lighter soils than wheat, good crops, of fair quality, may be grown on the heavier soils after another grain crop by the aid of artificial manures, provided that the land is sufficiently clean. Experiments similar to the foregoing were carried on for many years in succession at Rothamsted upon oats, and gave results which were in general accordance with those on the other cereal crops. Additional significance to the value of the above experiments on wheat and barley is afforded by the fact that the same series, with but slight modifications, has also been carried out since 1876 at the Woburn (Bedfordshire) experimental farm of the BRITISH) AGRICULTURE 403 Royal Agricultural Society of England, the soil here being of light sandy character, and thus very different from the heavy soil of Rothamsted. The results for the thirty years, 1877-1906, are in their general features entirely confirmatory of those obtained at Rothamsted. Root-Crops. — Experiments upon root-crops — chiefly white turnips, Swedish turnips (swedes) and mangels— have resulted in the establishment of the following conclusions. Both the quantity and the quality of the produce, and consequently its feeding value, must depend greatly upon the selection of the best description of roots to be grown, and on the character and the amount of the manures, and especially on the amount of nitrogenous manure employed. At the same time, no hard- and-fast rules can be laid down concerning these points. Inde- pendently of the necessary consideration of the general economy of the farm, the choice must be influenced partly by the character of the soil, but very much more by that of the climate. Judgment founded on knowledge and aided by careful observation; both in the field and in the feeding-shed, must be relied upon as the guide of the practical farmer. Over and above the great advan^ tage arising from the opportunity which the growth of root-crops affords for the cleaning of the land, the benefits of growing the root-crop in rotation are due (1) to the large amount of manure applied for its growth, (2) to the large residue of the manure left in the soil for future crops, (3) to the large amount of matter at once returned as manure again in the leaves, (4) to the large amount of food produced, and (5) to the small proportion of the most important manurial constituents of the roots which is retained by store or fattening animals consuming them, the rest returning as manure again; though, when the roots are consumed for the production of milk, a much larger proportion of the con- stituents is lost to the manure. Leguminous Crops and the Acquisition of Nitrogen. — The fact that the growth of a leguminous crop, such as red clover, leaves the soil in a higher condition for the subsequent growth of a grain crop — that, indeed, the growth of such a leguminous crop is to a great extent equivalent to • the application of a nitrogenous manure for the cereal crop — was in effect known ages ago. Nevertheless it was not till near the approach of the closing decade of the 19th century that the explanation of this long- established point of agricultural practice was forthcoming. It was in the year 1886 that Hellriegel and Wilfarth first published in Germany the results of investigations in which they demon- strated that, through the agency of micro-organisms dwelling in nodular outgrowths on the roots of ordinary leguminous plants, the latter are enabled to assimilate the free nitrogen of the air. The existence of the root nodules had long been recog- nized, but hitherto no adequate explanation had been afforded as to their function. Since Hellriegel's striking discovery farm crops have been conveniently classified as nitrogen-accumulating and nitrogen- consuming. To the former belong the ordinary leguminous crops — the clovers, beans, peas, vetches or tares, sainfoin, lucerne, for example — which obtain their nitrogen from the air, and are independent of the application of nitrogenous manures, whilst in their roots they accumulate a store of nitrogen which will ultimately become available for future crops of other kinds. It is, in fact, fully established that these leguminous crops acquire a considerable amount of nitrogen by the fixation of the free nitrogen of the atmosphere under the influence of the symbiotic growth of their root-nodule-microbes and the higher plant. The cereal crops (wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize) ; the cruciferous crops (turnips, cabbage, kale, rape, mustard); the solanaceous crops (potatoes); the chenopodiaceous crops (mangels, sugar-beets), and other non-leguminous crops have, so far as is known, no such power, and are therefore more or less benefited by the direct application of nitrogenous manures. The field experiments on leguminous plants at Rothamsted have shown that land which is, so to speak, exhausted so far as the growth of one leguminous crop is concerned, may still grow very luxuriant crops of another plant of the same natural order, but of different habits of growth, and especially of different character and range of roots. This result is doubtless largely dependent on the existence, the distribution and the condition of the appropriate microbes for the due infection of the different descriptions of plant, for the micro-organism that dwells sym- bio tically with one species is not identical with that whicb similarly dwells with another. It seems certain that success h? any system involving a more extended growth of leguminous crops in rotations must be dependent on a considerable variation in the description grown. Other essential conditions of success will commonly include the liberal application of potash and phosphatic manures, and sometimes chalking or liming for the leguminous crop. As to how long the^ leguminous crop should occupy the land, the extent to which it should be consumed on the land, or the manure from its consumption be returned, and under what conditions the whole or part of it should be ploughed in — these are points which must be decided as they arise in practice. It seems obvious that the lighter and poorer soils would benefit more than the heavier or richer soils by the extended growth of leguminous crops. Remarkable as Hellriegel's discovery was, it merely furnished the explanation of a fact which had been empirically established by the husbandman long before, and had received most intelligent application when the old four-course (or Norfolk) rotation was devised. But it gave some impetus to the practice of green manuring with leguminous crops, which are equally capable with such a crop as mustard of enriching the soil in humus, whilst in addition they bring into the soil from the atmosphere a quantity of nitrogen available for the use of subsequent crops of any kind. In Canada and the United States this rational employment of a leguminous crop for ploughing in green is largely resorted to for the amelioration of worn-out wheat lands and other soils, the condition of which has been lowered to an unremunerative level by the repeated growth year after year of a cereal crop. The well-known paper of Lawes, Gilbert and Pugh (1861), " On the Sources of the Nitrogen of Vegetation^ with special reference to the Question whether Plants assimilate free or uncombined Nitrogen," answered the question referred to in the negative. The attitude taken up later on with regard to this problem is set forth in the following words, which are quoted from the Memoranda of the Rothamsted Experiments, 1900 (p. 7):— > " Experiments were commenced in 1857, and conducted for several years in succession, to determine whether plants assimilate free or uncombined nitrogen, and also various collateral points. Plants of the : gramineous, the leguminous and of other families were operated upon. The late Dr Pugh took a prominent part in this inquiry. The conclusion arrivedat wasthatouragriculturalplarits do not themselves directly assimilate the free nitrogen of the air by their leaves. " In recent years, however, the question has assumed quite a new aspect. It now is — whether the free nitrogen of the atmosphere is brought into combination under the influence of micro-organisms, or other low forms, either within the soil or in symbiosis with a higher plant, thus serving indirectly as a source of nitrogen to plants of a higher order., Considering that the results of Hellriegel and Wilfarth on this point were, if confirmed, of great significance and importance, it was decided to make experiments at Rothamsted on somewhat similar lines. Accordingly, a preliminary series was undertaken in 1888; more extended series were conducted in 1889 and in 1890; and the investigation was continued up to the. com- mencement of the year 1895. Further experiments relating to certain aspects of the subject were begun in 1898. The results have shown that, when a soil growing leguminous plants is infected with appropriate organisms, there is a development Of the so-called leguminous nodules on the roots of the plants, and, coincidently, increased growth and gain of nitrogen." The conclusions of Hellriegel and Wilfarth have thus been confirmed by the later experiences of : Rothamsted, and since that time efforts have been directed energetically to the practical application of the discovery. This has taken the form of in- oculating the soil with the particular organism required by the particular kind of leguminous crop. To this end the endeavour has been made to produce preparations which shall contain in portable form the organisms required by the several plants, and though, as yet, it can hardly be claimed that they have been generally successful, the work done justifies hopes 404 AGRICULTURE (BRITISH that the problem will eventually be solved in a practical direction. Grass. — Another field experiment of singular interest is that relating to the mixed herbage of permanent meadow, for which seven acres of old grass land were set apart in Rothamsted Park in 1856. Of the twenty plots into which this land is divided, two were left without manure from the outset, two received ordinary farmyard manure for a series of years, whilst the remainder each received a different description of artificial or chemical manure, the same being, except in special cases, applied year after year on the same plot. During the growing season the field affords striking evidence of the influence of different manurial dressings. So much, indeed, does the character of the herbage vary from plot to plot that the effect may fairly be described as kaleidoscopic. Repeated analyses have shown how greatly both the botanical constitution and the chemical composition of the mixed herbage vary according to the descrip- tion of manure applied. They have further shown how dominant is the influence of season. Such, moreover, is the effect of different manures that the gross produce of the mixed herbage is totally different on the respective plots according to the manure employed, both as to the proportion of the various species composing it and as to their condition of development and maturity. The Rotation of Crops. The growth, year after year, on the same soil of one kind of plant unfits it for bearing further crops of the kind which has exhausted it, and renders themjless vigorous and more liable to disease. The farmer therefore arranges his cropping in such a way that roots, or leguminous crops, succeed the cereal crops. It is not only the conditions of growth, but the uses to which the different crops are put, that have to be considered in the case of rotation. Thus the cereal crops, when grown in rotation, yield more produce for sale in the season of growth than when grown continuously. Moreover, the crops alternated with the cereals accumulate very much more of mineral constituents and of nitrogen in their produce than do the cereals themselves. By far the greater proportion of those constituents remains in circulation in the manure of the farm, whilst the remainder yields highly valuable products for sale in the forms of meat and milk. For this reason these crops are known as " restora- tive," cereals the produce of which is sold off the farm being classed as " exhaustive." With a variety of crops, again, the mechanical operations of the farm, involving horse and hand labour, are better distributed over the year, and are therefore more economically performed. The opportunities which rotation cropping affords for the cleaning of the land from weeds is another distinct element of advantage. Although many different rotations of crops are practised, they may for the most part be considered as little more than local adaptations of the system of alternating root-crops and leguminous crops with cereal crops, as exemplified in the old four-course rotation— roots, barley, clover, wheat. Under this system the clover is ploughed up in the autumn, the nitrogen stored up in its roots being left in the soil for the nourishment of the cereal crop. The following summer the wheat crop is harvested, and an opportunity is afforded for extirpating weeds which in the three previous years have re- ceived little check. Or, where the climate is warm and the soil light, a " catch-crop," i.e. rye, vetches, winter-oats or some other rapidly-growing crop may be sown in autumn and fed off or otherwise disposed of prior to the root-sowing. On heavy soils, however, the farmer cannot afford to curtail the time necessary for thorough cultivation of the land. The cleaning process is carried on through the next summer by means of successive hoeings of the spring-sown root-crop. As turnips or swedes may occupy the ground till after Christmas little time is left for the preparation of a seed-bed for barley, but as the latter is a shallow-rooted crop only surface-stirring is required. Clover is sown at the same time or shortly after the cere^aj a,nd thus occupies the land for two years. The rotations extending to five, six; seven or more years are, in most cases, only adaptations of the principle to variations of soil, altitude, aspect, climate, markets and other local conditions. They are effected chiefly by some alteration in the description of the root-crop, and perhaps by the introduction of the potato crop; by growing a different cereal, or it may be more than one cereal consecutively; by the growth of some other leguminous crop than clover, since " clover-sickness " may result if that crop is grown at too short intervals, or the intermixture of grass seeds with the clover, and perhaps by the extension by one or more years of the period allotted to this member of the rotation. Whatever the specific rotation, there may in practice be devia- tions from the plan of retaining on the farm the whole of the root-crops, the straw of the grain crops and the leguminous fodder crops (clover, vetches, sainfoin, &c.) for the production of meat or milk, and, coincidently, for that of manure to be returned to the land. It is equally true that, when under the influence of special local or other demand — proximity to towns, easy railway or other communication, for example — the products which would otherwise be retained on the farm are exported from it, the import of town or other manures is generally an essential condition of such practice. This system of free sale, indeed, frequently involves full compensation by purchased manures of some kind. Such deviations from the practice of merely selling grain and meat off the farm have much extended in recent years, and will probably continue to do so under the altered conditions of British agriculture, determined by very large imports of grain, increasing imports of meat and of other products of stock-feeding, and very large imports of cattle-food and other agricultural produce. More attention is thus being devoted to dairy produce, not only on grass farms, but on those that are mainly arable. The benefits that accrue from the practice of rotation are well illustrated in the results obtained from the investigations at Rothamsted into the simple four-course system, which may fairly be regarded as a self-supporting system. Reference may first be made to the important mineral constituents of different crops of the four-course rotation. Of phosphoric acid, the cereal crops take up as much as, or more than, any other crops of the rotation, excepting clover; and the greater portion thus taken up is lost to the farm in the saleable product — the grain. The remainder, that in the straw, as well as that in the roots and the leguminous crops, is supposed to be retained on the farm, except- ing the small amount exported in meat and milk. Of potash, each of the rotation crops takes up very much more, than of phosphoric acid. But much less potash than phosphoric acid is exported in the cereal grains, much more being retained in the straw, whilst the other products of the rotation— the root and leguminous crops — which are also supposed to be retained on the farm, contain very much more potash than the cereals, and comparatively little of it is exported in meat and milk. Thus the whole of the crops of rotation take up very much more of potash than of phosphoric acid, whilst probably even less of it is ultimately lost to the land. Of lime, very little is taken up by the cereal crops, and by the root-crops much less than of potash; more by the leguminous than by the other crops, and, by the clover especially, sometimes much more than by all the other crops of the rotation put together. Very little of the lime of the crops, however, goes off in the saleable products of the farm in the case of the self-supporting rotation under considera- tion. Although, therefore, different, and sometimes very large, amounts of these typical mineral constituents are taken up by the various crops of rotation, there is no material export of any in the saleable products, excepting of phosphoric acid and of potash; and, so far at least as phosphoric acid is concerned, experience has shown that it may be advantageously supplied in purchased manures. Of nitrogen, the cereal crops take up and retain much less than any of the crops alternated with them, notwithstanding the circumstance that the cereals are very characteristically benefited by nitrogenous manures. The root-crops, indeed, may contain two or more times as much nitrogen as either pf the cereals,, BRITISH] AGRICULTURE 405 and the leguminous crops, especially the clover, much more than the root-crops. The greater part of the nitrogen of the cereals is, however, sold off the farm; but perhaps not more than 10 or 15 % of that of either the root-crop or the clover (or other forage leguminous crop) is sold off in animal increase or in milk. Most of the nitrogen in the straw of the cereals, and a very- large proportion of that of the much more highly nitrogen- yielding crops, returns to the land as manure, for the benefit of future cereals and other crops. As to the source of the nitrogen of the root-crops — the so-called " restorative crops " — these are as dependent as any crop that is grown on available nitrogen within the soil, which is generally supplied by the direct appli- cation of nitrogenous manures, natural or artificial. Under such conditions of supply, however, the root-crops, gross feeders as they are, and distributing a very large extent of fibrous feeding root within the soil, avail themselves of a much larger quantity of the nitrogen supplied than the cereal crops would do in similar circumstances. This result is partly due to their period of accumulation and growth extending even months after the period of collection by the ripening cereals has terminated, and at the season when nitrification within the soil is most active, and the accumulation of nitrates in it is the greatest. When a full supply of both mineral constituents and nitrogen is at command* these root-crops assimilate a very large amount of Table X . — The Weight and Average Composition of Ordinary Crops , in lb. per Acre Crop. Weight of Crop. Total Pure Ash. Nitro- gen. Sul- phur. Potash. Soda. Lime. Mag- nesia. Phos- phoric Acid. Chlor- ine. Silica. At Harvest. Dry. Wheat, grain, 30 bushels ,, straw Total crop 1,800 3,158 1530 2653 30 142 34 16 2-7 5-i 9-3 19-5 o-6 2-0 1-0 8-2 3-6 3-5 14-2 69 0-1 2-4 o-6 96-3 4,958 4! 83 172 50 7-8 28-8 2-6 9-2 7-1 2I-I 2-5 96-9 ( Barley, grain, 40 bushels „ straw Total crop 2,080 2,447 1747 2080 46 in 35 2-9 3-2 9-8 25-9 I-I 3-9 1-2 8-o 4-0 29 16-0 4-7 05 3-6 n-8 56-8 4,527 3827 157 49 6-1 357 5-° 9-2 6-9 20-7 4-1 68-6 Oats, grain, 45 bushels ,, straw Total crop 1,890 3,835 1625 2353 51. 140 34 18 3-2 4-8 9-1 37-0 o-8 4-6 1-8 9-8 3-6 5-1 13-0 6-4 0-5 6-1 19.9 65-4 4,725 3978 191 52 8-0 46-1 5-4 n-6 8-7 19-4 6-6 85-3 Maize, grain, 30 bushels ,, stalks, &c. Total crop 1,680 2,208 1500 1877 22 99 28 15 1-8 6-5 29-8 0-2 o-5 3-4 IO-O 8-0 0-2 0-5 3,888 3377 121 43 36-3 i-8-o — Meadow hay, i| ton . 3,36o 2822 203 49 5-7 50-9 9-2 32-1 14-4 123 14-6 56-9 Red Clover hay, 2 tons 4,480 3763 258 98 9.4 83-4 5-i 90-1 28-2 24-9 9-8 7-0 Beans, grain, 30 bushels ,, straw Total crop 1,920 2,240 1613 1848 58 99 78 29 4.4 4.9 24-3 42-8 o-6 1-7- 2-9 26-3 4-2 57 22-8 6-3 i-i 4-3 0-4 6-9 4,160 346i 157 107 9-3 6 7 -I 2-3 29-2 9-9 29-1 5-4 7-3 Turnips, root, 17 tons leaf . Total crop 38,080 11,424 3126 1531 218 146 61 49 15-2 5-7 108-6 40-2 17-0 7-5 25-5 48-5 5-7 3-8 22-4 10-7 10-9 1 1 -2 2-6 5-1 49,504 4657 364 no 20-9 148-8 24-5 74-0 9-5 33-i 22-1 7-7 Swedes, root, 14 tons „ leaf Total crop 31,360 4,704 3349 706 163 75 70 28 14-6 3-2 63-3 16-4 22-8 92 19-7 22-7 6-8 2-4 16-9 4-8 6-8 8-3 3-1 3-6 36,064 4055 238 98 17-8* 79-7 32-0 42-4 9-2 21-7 I5-I 6-7 Mangels, root, 22 tons leaf . Total crop 49,280 18,233 59H 1654 426 254 98 51 4.9 91 222-8 77-9 69-4 49-3 15-9 27-0 18-3 24-2 36-4 16-5 42-5 40-6 8-7 9-2 67,513 7568 680 149 14-0 300-7 118-7 42-9 42-5 52-9 8 3 "i 179 Potatoes, tubers, 6 tons 13,440 336o 127 46 27 76-5 3-8 3-4 6-3 21-5 4.4 2-6 *Calculated from a single analysis only. carbon from the atmosphere, and produce, besides nitrogenous food materials, a very large amount of the carbohydrate sugar, as respiratory and fat-forming food for the live stock of the farm. The still more highly nitrogenous leguminous crops, although not characteristically benefited by nitrogenous manures, never- theless contribute much more nitrogen to the total produce of the rotation than any of the other crops comprised in it. It is the leguminous fodder crops — especially clover, which has a much more extended period of growth, and much wider range of collection within the soil and subsoil, than any of the other crops of the rotation — that yield in their produce the largest amount of nitrogen per acre. Much of this is doubtless taken up as nitrate, yet the direct application of nitrate of soda has comparatively little beneficial influence on their growth. The nitric acid is most likely taken up chiefly as nitrate of lime, but probably as nitrate of potash also, arid it is significant that the high nitrogen-yielding clover takes up, or at least retains, very little soda. Table XL, from War- ington's Chemistry of the Farm, 19th edition (Vinton and Co.), will serve to illustrate the subjects that have been discussed in this section. For further information on the routine and details of farming, reference may be made to the articles under the headings of the various crops and implements. British Live Stock. The numbers of live stock in the United Kingdom are shown at five-yearly intervals in Table XII. Under horses are em- braced only unbroken horses and horses used solely for agri- culture (including mares kept for breeding). The highest and lowest annual totals for the United Kingdom in the period 1875- 1905 were the following* 4-o6 AGRICULTURE [BRITISH Highest. Lowest. Difference. Horses . Cattle . . Sheep . Pigs. . . 2,116,800 in 1905 n r 674,oi9 ,, 1905 33,642,808 ,, 1892 4,362,040 ,, 1890 1,819,687 in 1875 9-73L537 „ 1877 27,448,220 ,, 1882 2,863,488 „ 1880 295,113 1,942,482 6,194-588 1,498,552 After 1892 cattle, which in that year numbered 11,519,417, and sheep declined continuously for three years to the totals of 1895, the diminution being mainly the result of the memorable drought of 1893. Sheep, which numbered 32,571,018 in 1878, declined continuously to 27,448,220 in 1882 — a loss of over five million head in five years. This was chiefly attributable to the ravages of the liver fluke which began in the disastrously wet season of 1879. Pigs, being prolific breeders, fluctuate more widely in numbers than cattle or sheep, for the difference of 1,498,552 in their case represents one-third of the highest total, whereas the difference is less than one-seventh for horses, less than one-sixth for cattle, and less than one-fifth for sheep. The Table XII. — Numbers of Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Pigs in the United Kingdom. j Year. Horses. Cattle. Sheep. Pigs. ' J875 1,819,687 10.162,787 33,491,948 3.495.167 1880 1,929,680 9-871,153 30,239,620 2,863,488 1885 1,909,200 10,868,760 30,086,200 3,686,628 1890 1-1964,911 10,789,858 31,667,195 4,362,040 1895 2,112,207 10,753.314 29,774,853 4,238,870 j 1900 2,000,402 11,454,902 31,054,547 3,663,669 J 905 2,116,806 11,674,019 29,076,777 3,601,659 relative proportions — as distinguished from the actual numbers — in which stock are distributed over the several sections of the United Kingdom do not vary greatly from year to year. Table XIII., in which the totals for the United Kingdom include those for the Channel Islands and Isle of Man, illustrates the prepon- derance of the sheep-breeding industry in the drier climate of ■ Great Britain, and of the cattle-breeding industry in the more humid atmosphere of Ireland. In Great Britain in 1905, for • every head of cattle there were about four head of sheep, whereas in Ireland the cattle outnumbered the sheep. Again,' whilst ■ Great Britain possessed Only half as many cattle more than Table XIII. — Numbers of Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Pigs in the United Kingdom in 1905. 1905. Horses. Cattle. Sheep. Pigs. England . Wales Scotland . 1,204,124 161,923 206,386 5,020,936 738,789 1,227,295 14,698,018 3,534,967 7,024,211 2,083,226 211,479 130,214 Great Britain . 1,572,433 6,987,020 25,257,196 2,424,919 Ireland 534,875 4,645,215 3.749,352 1,164,316 United / Kingdom 1 ) 2,116,800 11,674,019 29,076,777 3,601,659 Ireland, she possessed six times as many sheep. The cattle population of England alone slightly exceeded that of Ireland, but cattle are more at home on the broad plains of England than amongst the hills and mountains of Wales and Scotland, which are suitable for sheep. Hence, whilst in England sheep were not three times as numerous as cattle, in Wales they were nearly five times, and in Scotland nearly six times as many. Great Britain had twice as many pigs as Ireland, but the swine industry is mainly English and Irish, and England possessed more than six times as many pigs as Wales and Scotland together, the number in the last-named country being particularly small, 'One English county alone, Suffolk, maintained more pigs than ,the whole of Scotland. British Imports of Live A nimals and Meat. The stock-breeders and graziers of the United Kingdom have, '

, seeing that the sounds of 8 and 4> outside Aeolic (a dialect which is not here in question) are never confused. On the other hand, if we remember the large number of symbols belonging to the pre- historic script, it will seern at least as easy to believe that the persons who, by adding new letters to the Phoenician alphabet, attempted to bring the symbols more into accordance with the sounds of the Greek language, may have borrowed from this older script. It is now generally admitted that the improvements of the alphabet were made by traders in the interests of commerce, and that these improvements began from the great Greek emporia of Asia Minor, above all from Miletus. Symbols exactly like , x, and

T)5bv, was also vertical is rendered probable by the phrase 6 KaruOtv vdfios in Demosthenes' speech Against Aristocrates, § 28, for which Harpocration is unable to supply a satisfactory explanation. The differentiation of the Roman alphabet from the Greek is brought about (a) by utilizing the digamma for the unvoiced labio- dental spirant F; (b) by dropping out the aspirates 0, , Differea- x (V^ m the Chalcidian alphabet, whence the Roman is tuition of derived) from the alphabet proper and employing them fmm'areek ° n ' y as numera ' s > s (O) being gradually modified till it alphabet. was identified with C as though the initial of centum, 100. Similarly© became in time identified with M as though the initial of mille, 1000, and the side strokes of x m the above form were flattened out till it became J., and ultimately L, 50. (e) After 350 n.C, at latest, there was in Latin no sound corresponding to Z, which was therefore dropped. In the Chalcidian alphabet the symbol for x was placed after the symbols common to all Greek alphabets, a position which X retains in the Latin (and also in the Faliscan) alphabet. K in time passed out of use except as an abbreviation, its place being taken by C, which, as we have seen, U in the earliest inscription still g. Three points here require ex- planation: (1) Why K fell into disuse; (2) why C took the place of K ; (3) why the new symbol G was put in the place of the lost Z. It is clear that C must have become an equivalent of K before the latter fell out of use. There is some evidence which seems to point to a pronunciation of the voiced mutes which, like the South German pronunciation of g, d, b, but slightly differentiated them from the unvoiced mutes, so that confusion might easily arise. The Etruscans, who were separated from the Romans only by the Tiber, gradually lost the voiced mutes. But another cause was perhaps more potent. C and IC, as k was frequently written, would easily be con- fused in writing, and Professor Hempl {Transactions of the American Philological Association for 1899, pp. 24 ff .) shows that the Chalcidian form of f — I developed into shapes which might have partaken of the confusion. Owing to this confusion, the new symbol G, differ- entiated from C, took the place of the useless I. In abbreviations, however, C remained as before in the value of G, as in the names Gaius and Gnaeus. Y and Z were added in the last century of the republic for use 'in transliterating Greek words containing v and f. 1 The dialect which was most closely akin to Latin was Faliscan. The men of Falerii, however, regularly took the side of the Etrus- cans in wars with Rome, and it is clear that the civilization of the old Falerii, destroyed for its rebellion in 241 B.C., was Etruscan and not Roman in character. Peculiar to this alphabet is the form for/ — IV Much more important than the scanty remains of Faliscan is the Oscan alphabet. The history of this alphabet is different from that of Rome. It is certain from the symbols which they develop or drop that the people of Campania and Samnium borrowed their alphabet from the Etruscans, who held dominion in Campania from the 8th to the 5th century B.C. Previous to the Punic wars Campania had reached a higher stage of civilization than Rome. Unfortunately, the remains of that civilization arc very scanty, and our knowledge of the official alphabet outside Capua, and at a later period Pompeii, is practically confined to two important inscriptions, the tabula Agnonensis, now in the British Museum, and the Cippus Abellanus, which is now kept in the Episcopal Seminary at Nola. Of Etruscan origin also is the Umbrian alphabet, represented first and foremost in the bronze tablets from Gubbio (the ancient Iguvium). The Etruscan alphabet, like the Latin, was of Chalcidian origin. That it was borrowed at an early date is shown by the fact that most of its numerous inscriptions run from right to left, though some are written 0ovar poriS6y. That it took over the whole Chalcidian alphabet is rendered probable by the survival in Umbrian and Oscan, its daughter alphabets, of forms which are not found in Etruscan itself. This mysterious language, despite the existence of more than 6000 inscriptions, and the publication in 1892 of a book written in the language and handed down to us by the accident of its use to pack an Egyptian mummy, remains as obscure as ever, but apparently it underwent very great phonetic changes at an early period, so that the voiced mutes B, D, G disappeared. Of the existence of the vowel O there is no evidence. If it ever existed in Etruscan, it had been lost before the Oscans and Umbrians borrowed their alphabets. On the other hand, both of their alphabets preserve B and Umbrian G in the form >. Etruscan also retained this symbol in the form 3, and utilized it exactly as Latin did to replace ^J. Oscan, in order to represent D, introduced later a form 9, thus creating confusion between the symbols for d and for r. This form was adopted for d because Q had already been borrowed from Etruscan as the symbol for r, although S is also found on Etruscan inscriptions. For the Greek digamma Etruscan used both ^ and '*, but the former only was borrowed by the other languages. Etruscan, like Latin, used 0*-^ (from right to left) to represent the sound of Latin F, but, unlike Latin, adopted Q not <1 as the single symbol. This form it then wrote as two lozenges g, whence developed a later sign, 8. which is used also in Umbrian and Oscan. As the old digamma was kept, this new sign was placed after those borrowed from the Chalcidian'alphabet. Similarly it used ^f" an d I for the Chalcidian f ; Umbrian borrowed the first, Oscan the second form. The form for h was still closed □, which Etruscan passed on to Oscan, while Umbrian modified it to ©. The form for m has five strokes ; from a later form p]/j the Oscan form was borrowed. Of the two sibilants, M and ^ or S, Oscan adopted only ^, Umbrian both M and the rounded form S. 9 is found on Etruscan inscriptions, but not in the alphabet series preserved; neither Umbrian nor Oscan has this form. T appears in Etruscan as y, •/■, and X; of these Umbrian borrows the first two, while Oscan has a form T like Latin. Etruscan took over the three Greek aspirates, 0, , x, in their Chalcidian forms; survives in Umbrian as O. the others naturally disappear. Both Umbrian and Oscan devised two new symbols. Umbrian 1 Gardthausen, " Ursprung und Entwickelung der griechisch- lateinischen Schrift " (Germanisch-romanische Monatsschrift,i. (1909), PP- 337 ff-) argues for a " proto-Tyrrhenian " alphabet from which Etruscan, Umbrian and Oscan descended as one group, and Faliscan and Latin as the other. Evidence in favour of such a position for the Latin alphabet is not forthcoming. 728 ALPHABET took over from Etruscan perhaps the sign q, but gave it the new- value of a spirant which developed out of an earlier d-sound, but which is written in the Latin alphabet with rs. The second Umbrian symbol was rj, which was the representative of an i-sound developed by palatalizing an earlier k. In Oscan, which had an o-sound, but no symbol for it, a new sign was invented by placing a dot between the legs of the symbol for u — V- This, however, is found only in the best-written documents, and on some materials the dot cannot be distinguished. The symbol I- was invented for the open ii-sound and close e-sound. 1 At a much later epoch it was introduced into the Latin alphabet by the emperor Claudius to represent y, and the sound which was written as i or u in maximus, maxumus, &c. Besides the Italic alphabets already mentioned, which are all derived from the alphabet of the Chalcidian Greek colonists in Italy, there were at least four other alphabets in use in different Darts of Italy: (i) the Messapian of the south-east part of the penin- sula, in which the inscriptions of the Illyrian dialect in use there were written, an alphabet which, according to Pauli {AM-italische Forschungen, iii. chap, ii.) was borrowed from the Locrian alphabet ; (2) the Sabellic alphabet, derived from that of Corinth and Corcyra, and found in a few inscriptions of eastern-central Italy; (3) the alphabet of the Veneti of north-east Italy derived from the Elean; (4) the alphabet of Sondrio (between Lakes Como and Garda), which Pauli, on the insufficient ground that it possesses no symbols corresponding to <#> and x, derives from a source at the same stage of development as the oldest alphabets of Thera, Melos and Crete. From the fact that upon the Galassi vase (unearthed at Cervetri, but probably a-product of Caere), which is now in the Gregorian Museum of the Vatican, a syllabary is found along with one of the most archaic Greek alphabets, and that a similar combination was found upon the wall of a tomb at Colle, near Siena, it has been argued that syllabic preceded alphabetic writing in Italy. But a syllabary where each syllable is made by the combinations of a symbol for a consonant with that for a vowel can furnish no proof of the existence of a syllabary in the strict sense, where each symbol represents a syllable; it is rather evidence against the existence of such writing. , The syllabary upon the Galassi vase indicates in all probability that the vase, which resembles an ink-bottle, be- longed to a child, for whose edification the syllables pa, pi, pe, pu and the rest Were intended. The evidence adduced from the Latin grammarians, and from abbreviations on Latin inscriptions like tubs for lubens, is not sufficient to establish the theory. It has been argued that the runes of the Teutonic peoples have been derived from a form of the Etruscan alphabet, in- scriptions in which are spread over a great part of runes. northern Italy, but of which the most characteristic are found in the neighbourhood of Lugano, and in Tirol near Innsbruck, Botzen and Trent. The Danish scholar L. F. A. Wimmer, in his great work Die Runenschrijt (Berlin, 1887), contends that the resemblance, though striking, is superficial. Wimmer's own view is that the runes were developed from the Latin alphabet in use at the end of the 2nd century a.d. Wimmer supports his thesis with great learning and ingenuity, and when allowance is made for the fact that a script to be written upon wood, as the runes were, of necessity avoids horizontal lines which run along the fibres of the wood, and would therefore be indistinct, most of the runic signs thus receive a plausible explanation. The strongest argument for the derivation from the Latin alphabet is undoubtedly the value of /attaching to r* "> for, as we have seen, the Greek value of this symbol is w, and its value as/ arises only by abbreviation from FH. On the other hand, several of Wimmer's equations are undoubtedly forced. Even if we grant that the Latin symbols were inverted or set at an angle (a proceeding which is paralleled by the treatment of the Phoenician signs in Greek hands), so that 1*1 represents Latin V, M Latin E, N Latin V, and {> Latin D; while the symbol for the voiced spirant 3 is f> doubled, ^<], [X] , it is diffi- cult to believe that the symbol for the spirant g, viz. X, repre- sents a Latin K (which was of rare occurrence), or again s fs, X a Latin N,orthatthesymbolfor»g, ^, represents < = c doubled. Moreover, the date of the borrowing seems too late. The runes are found in all Teutonic countries, and the Romans were inclose contact with the Germans on the Rhine before the beginning 1 For further details of these alphabets, see Conway, The Italic Dialects, ii. pp. 458 ff. The recent discovery by Keil and Premerstein (Denkschriften der Wiener Akademie, liii., 1908) of Lydian inscriptions containing the symbol a suggests that the old derivation of the Etruscans from Lydia may be true and that they brought this symbol with them (see article on F). But the inscriptions are not yet deciphered, so that conclusive proof is still wanting. of the Christian era. We hear of correspondence between the Romans and German chieftains in the early days of the empire. It is strange, therefore, if the Roman alphabet, which formed the model for the runes, was that of two whole centuries later, and even then the formal alphabet of inscriptions. By that time the Teutons were likely to have more convenient materials than wood whereon to write, so that the adaptation of the forms would not have been necessary. That the Germans were familiar with some sort of marks on wood at a much earlier period is shown by Tacitus's Germania, chap. x. There we are told that for pur- poses of divination certain signs were scratched on slips of wood from a fruit-bearing tree (including, no doubt, the beech; cp. book, German Buck, and Buchstabe, a letter of the alphabet); the slips were thrown down promiscuously on a white cloth, whence the expert picked them up at random and by them interpreted fate. In these slips we have the origin of the Norse kefli, the Scots kaivel, which were and are still used as lots. The fisher- men of north-east Scotland, when they return after a successful haul, divide the spoil into as many shares as there are men in the boat, with one share more for the boat. Each man then pro- cures a piece of wood or stone, on which he puts a private mark. These lots are put in a heap, and an outsider is called in who throws one lot or kaivel upon each heap of fish. Each fisherman then finds his kaivel, and the heap on which it lies is his. This system of " casting kaivels," as it is called, is certainly of great antiquity. But its existence will not help to prove an early knowledge of reading or writing, for in order that everything may be fair, it is clear that the umpire should not be able to identify the lot as belonging to a particular individual. It has, however, been contended that a system of primitive runes existed whence some at least of the later runes were borrowed, and the ownership marks of the Lapps, who have no knowledge of reading and writing, have been regarded as borrowed from these early Teutonic runes. 2 Be this as it may, the resemblances between the runic and the Mediterranean alphabets are too great to admit of denial that it is from a Greek alphabet, whether directly or indirectly, that the runes are derived. That Wimmer postdates the introduction of the runic alphabet seems clear from the archaic forms and method of writing. It is very unlikely that a people borrowing an alphabet which was uniformly written from left to right should have used it in order to write from right to left, or f$ov* ailSjsi'Fi.'WI Inscription on Buddha Vase, perhaps 4th century B.C. ALPHABET 729 In one of the earliest runic records which we possess, the pendant found at Vadstena in Sweden in 1774. and dating from about Ogam A D - 6°° ( see Plate). tne signs are divided up into three writing. series of eight (the twenty fourth, ^<|, being omitted for want of room). Upon the basis of this division a system of cryptography (in the sense that the symbols are unintel- ligible without knowledge of the runic alphabet) was developed, wherein the series and the position within the series of the letter indicated, were each represented by straight strokes, the strokes for the series being shorter than those for the runes, or the series being represented by strokes to the left, the runes by strokes to the right, of a medial line. 1 From this system probably developed the ogam writing employed among the Celtic peoples of Britain and Ireland. The ogam inscriptions in Wales are frequently accom- panied by Latin legends, and they date probably as far back as the 5th and 6th centuries A D. Hence the connexion between Celt and Teuton as regards writing must go back to a period preceding the Viking inroads of the 8th century. Taylor, however, conjectures (The Alphabet, ii. p 227) that the ogams originated in Pembroke, " where there was a very ancient Teutonic settlement, possibly of Jutes, who, as is indicated by the evidence of runic inscriptions found in Kent, seem to have been the only Teutonic people of southern Britain who were acquainted with the Gothic Futhoro." However this may be, the ogam alphabet shows some knowledge of phonetics and some attempt to classify the sounds accordingly. The symbols are as follows 2 : — much discussion authorities on Slavonic seem generally agreed that it was the Glagolitic (the name is derived from the Old Bulgarian, i.e old ecclesiastical Slavonic glagolu, " word "). According to Professor Leskien (Grammatik der altbulgarischen (altkirchenslavi- schen) Sprache, Heidelberg, 1909, p. xxi.), Cyril had probably made a prolonged and careful study of Slavonic before proceeding on his missionary journey, and probably in the first instance with a view to preaching the Gospel to the Slavs of Macedonia and Bulgaria, who were much nearer his own home, Thessalonica, than were those of Moravia. The Glagolitic was founded upon the ordinary Greek minuscule writing of the period, as was shown by Dr Isaac Taylor, 8 though the writing of the letters separately without abbreviations and an obvious attempt at artistic effect has gradually differentiated it from Greek writing. This alphabet, which is much more difficult to read than the bolder Cyrillic founded on the Greek uncial, sur- vived for ordinaiy purposes in Croatia and in the islands of the Quarnero till the 17th century. The Servians and Russians ap- parently always used the Cyrillic, and its advantages gradually ousted the Glagolitic elsewhere, though the service book in the old ecclesiastical language which is used by the Roman Catholic Croats is in Glagolitic. 4 While the Carian and Lycian were probably independent of the Greek in origin, so, too, at the opposite end of the Mediterranean was the Iberian. On the other hand, the Phrygian was Phrygian very closely akin to the Greek in alphabet as well as in linguistic character. The Greek alphabet, with which it was most d I I Symbols of Ogam Alphabet. I I 7 I I I 1 I m g ng fifz) T a 6 u 1 11 111 mi 1 11 11 1 11 111 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 11 in 1111 imi 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 -1 1 1 1 1 1 1 The form of the ogam alphabet made it easy to carve hastily; hence in the old sagas, when a hero is killed we find the common formula, '' His grave was dug and his stone was raised, and his name was written in ogam." According to Sophus Miiller {Nordische Altertumskunde , ii. p. 264), it was from Britain that the use of runes upon gravestones was derived, a use which, to judge from the number of bilingual inscriptions in Britain, the Celts derived from the Romans. The special forms of the alphabet — the Cyrillic and the Glagolitic — which have been adopted by certain of the Slavonic peoples are both sprung directly frrm the Greek alphabet of the ninth century a.d , with the considerable additions rendered necessary by the much greater variety of sounds in Slavonic as compared with Greek. Apart from other evidence, the use of B with the value of v, of H as well as I with the value of I, of * with the value of/, and X with that of the Scotch ch, would be proof that the alphabet was not borrowed till long after the Greek classical period, for not till later did /3, . x become spirants and ij become identified with 1. The confusion of /3 with v necessitated the invention of a new symbol g in the Cyrillic, C in the Glagolitic for b, while new symbols were also required for the sounds or combinations of sounds z (zh), dz, st (shl), c (ts) I (ch in church), i (sh), ii, %, y (u without protrusion of the lips), e (a close long e sound), for the combination of 0, a and e with consonantal I (English y) and for the nasalized vowels e, a (nasalized in pronunciation) and the combinations je and ja (English ye, yq). In all these matters Glagolitic differs very little from Cyrillic; it has only one symbol for ja (ya) and e because both in this dialect were pronounced the same. It has also only one symbol for e and je (ye) for the phonetic reason that je always appears in the old ecclesiastical Slavonic, for which the alphabets were fashioned, at the beginning of words and after vowels : cp. the English use of the symbol u in unspoken and uniform. Glagolitic has a symbol for the palatalized g (3), but it is used only in the transcription of Greek words, y having become y early between vowels in the popular dialects. Such an elaborate alphabet could hardly have been invented except by a scholar, and tradition, probably rightly, has attached the credit for its invention to Cyril (originally Constantine), who along with his brother Methodius proceeded in a.d. 863 to Moravia from Constantinople, for the purpose of converting the Slavonic inhabitants to Christianity. The only question which concerns us here is which of the two alphabets was the earlier in use, and after 1 A species of cryptography exactly like this, based upon the " abjad '' order of the Arabic letters, is still in use among the Eastern Persians (E G. Browne, A Year amongst the Persians, p. 391 f.). 2 Cf. Rh£s, Outlines of Manx Phonology, p. 73 (Publications of the Manx Society, vol. xxxiii.) ; Rhys and Brynmor Jones, The Welsh People, pp 3, 502. An interpretation of the oldest ogam inscrip- tions is given by Whitley Stokes in Bezzenberger's Beitrdge, xi (1886), p 143 ff Besides the collections of ogams by Brash (1879) and Ferguson (1887), a new collection by Mr R. A. S. Macalister is in course of publication (Studies in Irish Epigraphy, 1897, 1902, 1907). Professor Rhys, who at one time considered runes and ogam to be connected, now thinks that ogam was the invention of a grammarian in South Wales who was familiar with Latin letters. closely connected, was the Western, for the evidence is strongly ia favour of the form ^ having the value of x, not or the Phoenician \KI and jj for the Phoenician W . turned through an angle of 90 . So also if Kaf corresponds to the Babylonian Kappu, "hollow-hand," the Sabaean form y~[ which Hommel 5 interprets as the outline of the hand with the fingers turned in and the thumb raised is a better pictograph than the various mean- ingless forms of & ( 2s|, &c). The rock inscriptions in the wild district of Safah near Damascus which have been collected by Halevy are also written in an Arabic dialect, but, owing chiefly to their careless execution, they are to a large extent unintelligible. The character appears to be akin to the Sabaean. It has been suggested that they were the work of Arabs who had wandered thus far from the south. There still remain for discussion the alphabets of the Indo-European peoples of Persia and India from which the other alphabets of the Farther East are descended. When Darius in 516 B.C. caused the great Behistun inscription to be engraved, it was Persia. the cuneiform writing, already long in use for the languages of Mesopotamia, that was adopted for this purpose. We have seen that at Babylon itself the Aramaic language and character were well known. It is probable therefore, a priori, that from the Aramaic alphabet the later writing of Persia should be developed. The con- clusion is confirmed by the coins, the only records with Iranian script which go back so far; but the special form of Aramaic from which the Iranian alphabet is derived must at present be left undecided. The later developments of the Iranian alphabet are the Pahlavi and the Zend, in which the MSS. of the Avesta are written. Of these manuscripts none is older than the 13th century a.d. The Pahlavi is properly the alphabet of the Sassanid kings who ruled in Persia from a.d. 226 till the Arab conquest in the 7th century a.d. Under the Sassanids the old Persian worship, which had fallen with the Achaemenid dynasty in Alexander's time, and 2 Muller, Epigraphische Denkmdler aus Arabien (Vienna, 1889). 3 Epigraphische Denkmdler aus Abessinien (Vienna, 1894). Prae- torius (Z.D.M.G. Iviii. p. 724) holds that the oldest Sabaean inscrip- tions may date from about 700 B.C., that the Lihyan inscriptions are at earliest of the Hellenistic period and the Safa inscriptions still later. 4 Praetorius {Z.D.M.G. Iviii. p. 461 f.) attempts to trace the de- velopment of the Sabaean form from the Phoenician. 6 Hommel, Siid-arabische Chrestomathie (Munich, 1893), p. 5. ALPHABET 73 1 had been neglected by the subsequent Arsacid line, was revived and the remains of its liturgical literature collected. The name is, however, also applied to the alphabet on the coins of the Parthian or Arsacid dynasty, which in its beginnings was clearly under Greek influence; while later, when a knowledge of Greek had disappeared, the attempts to imitate the old legends are as grotesque as those in western Europe to copy the inscriptions on Roman coins. The relationship between the Pahlavi and the Aramaic is clearest in the records written in the " Chaldaeo-Pahlavi " characters; the a conclusion which is not invalidated by the fact that some im- portant modifications are found beyond this area, nor by Dr Stein's discovery of a great mass of documents in this alphabet at Khotan in Turkestan, for, according to tradition, the ancient inhabitants of Khotan were emigrants banished in the time of King Acoka from the area to which Btihler assigns this alphabet (see Stein's Preliminary Report, 1901, p. 51). Rapson 2 has pointed out that both Kharosthi and Brahmi letters are found upon Persian silver sigloi, which were coined in the Punjab and belong to the period Table I. A BRAHMI WROSTHl 7 OLDEST &TMOPIC 1 SABAAN Himyariha NASHKI . y (ARABIC) u 7FM/I . 500 SC umxfiRU 800 BC UOABITE 1 Stone 4 B 00 °? n n JO 3> 9 $ G /I

i H* A <\^ E Llr ? Y Y J> y -A 7S ^ A F(wi / ^ l ^. T X H LL n *M TYX iz< .Hh B-tf T-H A m e # I vLO, 7> T P ? !<& ^^ <\\ =|,=V K t + 7 •nfe f\ u U M N Xv> ?7 7/ 77 S a d4 11 *7 r Axe 4> t &B \ R \ ) <7 L j ;^ 11 1 />/> n. X Biihler A fter^Eu Hn$ CREEK OLDtSTUTM f ^ V t BE \y h 00 w It 4 A 1 r A A ^£ 1* B e @ >l ic VI M V| |V O ? q PR T YK > Value/(. 4.i- species are in cultivation, and these have such different mountain f. it, «. , . region, or chmatal requirements, that they do not afford a satis- region of factory criterion. A more natural limit is afforded by deciduous ^he p resence f t ne c hief deciduous trees — oak, beech, ash and sycamore. These do not reach exactly to the same elevation, nor are they often found growing together; but their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a change in the wild herbaceous vegetation. This limit usually lies about 4000 ft. above the sea on the north side of the Alps, but on the southern slopes it often rises to 5000 ft., sometimes even to 5 500 ft. It must not be supposed that this region is always marked by the presence of the characteristic trees. The interference of man has in many districts almost extirpated them, and, excepting the beech forests of the Austrian Alps, a considerable wood of deciduous trees is scarcely anywhere to be found. In many districts where such woods once existed, their place has been occupied by the Scottish pine and spruce, which suffer less from the ravages of goats, the worst enemies of tree vegetation. The mean annual temperature of this region differs little from that of the British Islands; but the climatal conditions are widely different. Here snow usually lies for several months, till it gives place to a spring and summer considerably warmer than the average of British seasons. The Subalpine is the region which mainly determines the manner of life of the population of the Alps. On a rough estimate subaMne we ma ^ rec kon that, of the space lying between the region, or summits of the Alps and the low country on either region of side, one-quarter is available for cultivation, of which coniferous a bout one-half may be vineyards and corn-fields, while the remainder produces forage and grass. About another quarter is utterly barren, consisting of snow-fields, glaciers, bare rock, lakes and the beds of streams. There remains about one-half, which is divided between forest and pasture, and it is the produce of this half which mainly supports the relatively large population. For a quarter of the year the flocks and herds are fed on the upper pastures; but the true limit of the wealth of a district is the number of animals that can be supported during the long winter, and while one part of the population is engaged in tending the beasts and in making cheese and butter, the remainder is busy cutting hay and storing up winter food for the cattle. The larger villages are mostly in the mountain region, but in many parts of the Alps the villages stand in the subalpine region at heights varying from 4000 ft., to 5500 ft. above the sea, more rarely extending to about 6000 ft. The most characteristic feature of this region is the prevalence of coniferous trees, which, where they have not been artificially kept down, form vast forests that cover a large part of the surface. These play a most important part in the natural economy of the country. They protect the valleys from destructive avalanches, and, retaining the superficial soil by their roots, they mitigate the destructive effects of heavy rains. In valleys where they have been rashly cut away, and the waters pour down the slopes unchecked, every tiny rivulet becomes a raging torrent, that carries off the grassy slopes and devastates the floor of the valley, covering the soil with gravel and debris. ' In the pine forests of the Alps the prevailing species are the common spruce and the silver fir; on siliceous soil the larch flourishes, and surpasses every other European species in height. The Scottish pine is chiefly found at a lower level and rarely forms forests. The Siberian fir is found scattered at intervals throughout the Alps but is not common. The mughus, creeping pine, or Krummkolz of the Germans, is common in the Eastern Alps, and sometimes forms on the higher mountains a distinct zone above the level of its congeners. In the Northern Alps the pine forests rarely surpass the limit of 6000 ft. above the sea, but on the south side they commonly attain 7000 ft., while the larch, Siberian fir and mughus often extend above that elevation. Throughout the Teutonic region of the Alps the word Alp is used specifically for the upper pastures where cattle are fed in summer, but this region is held to include the whole • space between the uppermost limit of trees and the first region. appearance of permanent masses of snow. It is here that the characteristic vegetation of the Alps is developed in its full beauty and variety. Shrubs are not wanting. Three species of rhododendron vie with each other in the brilliancy of their masses of red or pink flowers; the common juniper rises higher still, along with three species of bilberry; and several dwarf willows attain nearly to the utmost limit of vegetation. The upper limit of this region coincides with the so-called limit of perpetual snow. On the higher parts of lofty mountains more snow falls in each year than is melted on the spot. A portion of this is carried away by the wind before it is consolidated; a larger . portion accumulates in hollows and depressions of the region. surface, and is gradually converted into glacier-ice, which descends by a slow secular motion into the deeper valleys; where it goes to swell perennial streams. As on a mountain the snow does not lie in beds of uniform thickness, and some parts are more exposed to the sun and warm winds than others, we commonly find beds of snow alternating with exposed slopes covered with brilliant vegetation; and to the observer near at hand there is no appearance in the least corresponding to the term limit of perpetual snow, though the case is otherwise when a high mountain-chain is viewed from a distance. Similar con^ ditions are repeated at many different points, so that the level at which large snow-beds show themselves along its flanks is approximately horizontal. But this holds good only so far as the conditions are similar. On the opposite sides of the same chain the exposure to the sun or to warm winds may cause a wide difference in the level of permanent snow; but in some cases the increased fall of snow on the side exposed to moist winds may more than compensate the increased influence of the sun's rays. Still, even with these reservations, the so-called line of perpetual snow is not fixed. The occurrence of favourable meteorological conditions during several successive seasons may and does increase the extent of the sncw-fields, and lower the limit of seemingly permanent snow; While an opposite state of things may cause the limit to rise higher on the flanks of the mountains. Hence all attempts to fix accurately the level of perpetual snow in the Alps are fallacious, and can at the best; approach only to local accuracy for a particular district. In some parts of the Alps the limit may be set at about 8000 ft. above the sea, while in others it cannot be placed much below 9500 ft.; MAIN CHAIN] ALPS 739 As very little snow can rest on rocks that lie at an angle exceeding 60°, and this is soon removed by the wind, some steep masses of rock remain bare even near the summits of the highest peaks, but as almost every spot offering the least hold for vegetation is covered with snow, few flowering plants are seen above 11,000 ft. There is reason to think, however, that it is the want of soil rather than climatal conditions that checks the upward extension of the alpine flora. Increased direct effect of solar radiation compensates for the cold of the nights, and in the few spots where plants have been found in flower up to a height of 12,000 ft., nothing has indicated that the processes of vegetation were arrested by the severe cold which they must sometimes endure. The climate of the glacial region has often been compared to that of the polar regions, but they are widely different. Here, intense solar radiation by day, which raises the surface when dry to a temperature approaching 8o° F., alternates with severe frost by night. There, a sun which never sets sends feeble rays that maintain a low equable temperature, rarely rising more than a few degrees above the freezing-point. Hence the upper region of the Alps sustains a far more varied and brilliant vegetation. 4. Main Chain. — In the case of every mountain system geographers are disposed to regard, as a general rule, the water- shed (or boundary dividing the waters flowing towards opposite slopes of the range) as marking the main chain, and this usage is justified in that the highest peaks often rise on or very near the watershed. Yet, as a matter of fact, several important mountain groups are situated on one or other side of the watershed of the Alps, and form almost independent ranges, being only connected with the main chain by a kind of peninsula: such are the Dauphine Alps, the Eastern and Western Graians, the entire Bernese Oberland, the Todi, Albula and Silvretta groups, the Ortler and Adamello ranges, and the Dolomites of south Tirol, not to speak of the lower Alps of the Vorarlberg, Bavaria and Salzburg. Of course each of these semi-detached ranges has a watershed of its own, like the lateral ridges that branch off from the main watershed. Thus there are lofty ranges parallel to that which forms the main watershed. The Alps, therefore, are not Emeiy Walker tc. composed of a single range (as shown on the old maps) but of a great " divide," flanked on either side by other important ranges, which, however, do not comprise such lofty peaks as the main watershed. In the following remarks we propose to follow the main watershed from one end of the Alps to the other. Starting from the Col d' Altare or di Cadibona (west of Savona), the main chain extends first south-west, then north-west to the Col de Tenda, though nowhere rising much beyond the zone of coniferous trees. Beyond the Col de Tenda the direction is first roughly west, then north-west to the Rocher des Trois Evfiques (9390 ft.), just south of the Mont Enchastraye (9695 ft.), several peaks of about 10,000 ft/ rising on the watershed, though the highest of all, the Punta dell' Argentera (10,794 ft-) stands a little way to its north. From the Rocher des Trois Eveques the watershed runs due north for a long distance, though of the two loftiest peaks of this region one, the Aiguille de Chambeyron (11,155 ft.), is J ust to the west, and the other, the Monte Viso (12,609 ft), is just to the east of the watershed. From the head of the Val Pellice the main chain runs north-west, and diminishes much in average height till it reaches the Mont Thabor (10,440 ft.), which forms the apex of a salient angle which the main chain here presents towards the west. Hence the main watershed extends eastwards, culminating in the Aiguille de Scolette (11,500 ft.), but makes a great curve to the north-west and back to the south-east before rising in the Rochemelon (11,605 ft-)> which may be considered as a re-entering angle in the great rampart by which Italy is guarded from its neighbours. Thence the direction taken is north as far as the eastern summit (11,693 ft.) of the Levanna, the watershed rising in a series of snowy peaks, though the loftiest point of the region, the Pointe de Charbonel (12,336 ft.), stands a little to the west. Once more the chain bends to the north-west, rising in several lofty peaks (the highest is the Aiguille de la Grande Sassiere, 12,323 ft.), before attaining the considerable depression of the Little St Bernard Pass. Thence for a short way the direction is north to the Col de la Seigne, and then north-east along the crest of the Mont Blanc chain, which culminates in the peak of Mont Blanc (15,782 ft.), the loftiest in the Alps. A number of high peaks crown our 740 ALPS [MAIN CHAIN watershed before it attains the Mont Dolent (12,543 ft.). Thence after a short dip to the south-east, our chain takes near the Great St Bernard Pass the generally eastern direction that it maintains till it reaches Monte Rosa,whence it bends northwards, making one small dip to the east as far as the Simplon Pass. It is in the portion of the watershed between the Great St Bernard and the Simplon that the main chain maintains a greater average height than in any other part. But, though it rises in a number of lofty peaks, such as the Mont Velan (1 2,3 53 ft.) , the Matterhorn (14,782 ft.), the Lyskamm (14,889 ft.), the Nord End of Monte Rosa (15,132 ft.), and the Weissmies (13,226 ft.), yet many of the highest points of the region, such as the Grand Combin ( 14, 1 64 f t.) , the Dent Blanche (14,318 ft.), the Weisshorn (14,804 ft.), the true summit or Dufourspitze (15,217 ft.) of Monte Rosa itself, and the Dom (14,942 ft.), all rise on its northern slope and not on the main watershed. On the other hand the chain between the Great St Bernard and the Simplon sinks at barely half a dozen points below a level of 10,000 ft. The Simplon Pass corresponds to what may be called a dislocation of the main chain. Thence to the St Gotthard the divide runs north-east, all the higher summits (including the Monte Leone, 11,684 ft., and the Pizzo Rotondo, 10,489 ft.) rising on it, a curious contrast to the long stretch just described. From the St Gotthard to the Maloja the watershed between the basins of the Rhine and Po runs in an easterly direction as a whole, though making two great dips towards the south, first to near the Vogelberg (10,565 ft.) and again to near the Pizzo Gallegione (10,201 ft.), so that it presents a broken and irregular appearance. But all the loftiest peaks rise on it: Scopi (10,499 ft.), Piz Medel (10,509 ft.), the Rhein- waldhorn (11,149 ft.), the Tambohorn (10,749 ft.) and Piz Timun (10,502 ft.). From the Maloja Pass the main watershed dips to the south- east for a short distance, and then runs eastwards and nearly over the highest summit of the Bernina group, the Piz Bernina (13,304 ft.), to the Bernina Pass. Thence to the Reschen Scheideck Pass the main chain is ill-defined, though on it rises the Corno di Campo (10,844 ft.), beyond which it runs slightly north-east past the sources of the Adda and the Fraele Pass, sinks to form the depression of the Ofen Pass, soon bends north and rises once more in the Piz Sesvenna (10,568 ft.). The break in the continuity of the Alpine chain marked by the deep valley, the Vintschgau, of the upper Adige (Etsch) is one of the most remarkable features in the orography of the Alps. The little Reschen lake which forms the chief source of the Adige is only 13 ft. below the Reschen Scheideck Pass (4902 ft.), and by it is but 5 m. from the Inn valley. Eastward of this pass, the main chain runs north-east to the Brenner Pass along the snowy crest of the Oetzthal and Stubai Alps, the loftiest point on it being the Weisskugel (1 2,291 ft., Oetzthal) , for the highest summits both of the Oetzthal and of the Stubai districts, the Wildspitze (12,382 ft.) and the Zuckerhutl (11,520 ft.) stand a little to the north. The Brenner (4495 ft.) is almost the lowest of all the great carriage-road passes across the main chain, and has always been the chief means of communication between Germany and Italy. For some way beyond it the watershed runs eastwards over the highest crest of the Zillerthal Alps, which attains 11,559 ft. in the Hochfeiler. But, a little farther, at the Dreiherrenspitze (11,500 ft.) we have to choose between following the watershed south- wards, or keeping due east along the highest crest of the Greater Tauern Alps, (a) The latter course is adopted by many geographers and has much in its favour. The eastward direc- tion is maintained and the watershed (though not the chief Alpine watershed) continues through the Greater Tauern Alps, culminating in the Gross Venediger (12,008 ft.), for the Gross Glockner (12,461 ft.) rises to the south. Our chain bends north- east near the Radstadter Tauern Pass, and preserves that direction through the Lesser Tauern Alps to the Semmering Pass. (b) On the other hand, if from the Dreiherrenspitze we cleave to the true main watershed of the Alpine chain, we find that it dips south, passes over the Hochgall (11,287 ft.), the culminating point of the Rieserferner group, and then sinks to the Toblach Pass, but at a point a little east of the great Dolomite peak of the Drei Zinnen it bends east again, and rises in the Monte Coglians (9128 ft., the monarch of the Carnic Alps). Soon after our watershed makes a last bend to the south-east and culminates in the Terglou (9400 ft.), the highest point of the Julie Alps, though the Grintovc (8429 ft., the culminating point of the Karawankas Alps) stands more to the east. Finally our water- shed turns south and ends near the great limestone plateau of the Birnbaumerwald, between Laibach and Gorz. As might be expected, the main chain boasts of more glaciers and eternal snow than the independent or external ranges. Yet it is a curious fact that the three longest glaciers in the Alps (the Great Aletsch, i6§ m., and the Unteraar and the Fiescher, each 10 m.) are all in the Bernese Oberland. In the main chain the two longest are both g\ m., the Mer de Glace at Chamonix and the Gorner at Zermatt. In the Eastern Alps the longest glacier is the Pasterze (rather over 6j m.), which is not near the true main watershed, though it, clings to the slope of the Greater Tauern range, east of the Dreiherrenspitze. But the next two longest glaciers in the Eastern Alps (the Hintereis, 6j m., and the Gepatsch, 6 m.) are both in the Oetzthal Alps, and so close to the true main watershed. The so-called alpine lakes arc the sheets of water found at the foot of the Alps, on either slope, just where the rivers that form them issue into the plains. There are, however, alpine lakes higher up (e.g. the lake of Thu'n, and those in the Upper Engadine, in the heart of the mountains, though these are naturally smaller in extent, while the true lakes of the High Alps are represented by the glacier lakes of the Marjelensee (near the Great Aletsch glacier) and those on the northern slope of the Col de Fenetre, between Aosta and the Val de Bagnes. The most singular, and probably the loftiest, lake in the Alps is the ever-frozen tarn that forms the summit of the Roccia Viva (11,976 ft.) in the Eastern Graians. Among the great alpine rivers we may distinguish two classes: those which spring directly from glaciers and those which rise in lakes, these being fed by eternal snows or glaciers. In the former class are the Isere, the Rhone, the Aar, the Ticino, the Tosa, the Hinter (or main) Rhine and the Linth; while in the latter class we have the Durance, the Po, the Reuss, the Vorder and middle branches of the Rhine, the Inn, the Adda, the Oglio and the Adige. The Piave and the Drave seem to be outside either class. 5. Principal Passes. — Though the Alps form a barrier they have never formed an impassable barrier, since, from the earliest days onwards, they have been traversed first, perhaps, for purposes of war or commerce, and later by pilgrims, students and tourists. The spots at which they were crossed are called passes (this word is sometimes though rarely applied to gorges only), and are the points at which the great chain sinks to form depressions, up to which deep-cut valleys lead from the plains. Hence the oldest name for such passes is Mont (still retained in cases of the Mont Cenis and the Monte Moro) , for it was many ages before this term was especially applied to the peaks of the Alps, which with a few very rare exceptions (e.g. the Monte Viso was known to the Romans as Vesulus) were long simply dis- regarded. The native inhabitants of the Alps were naturally the first to use the alpine passes. But to the outer world these passes first became known when the Romans traversed them in order to conquer the world beyond. In the one case we have no direct knowledge (though the Romans probably selected the passes pointed out to them by the natives as the easiest), while in the other we hear almost exclusively of the passes across the main chain or the principal passes of the Alps. For obvious reasons the Romans, having once found an easy direct pass across the main chain, did not trouble to seek for harder and more devious routes. Hence the passes that can be shown U> have been certainly known to them are comparatively few in number: they are, in topographical order from west to east, the Col de l'Argentiere, the Mont Genevre, the two St Bernards, the Spliigen, the Septimer, the Brenner, the Radstadter Tauern, the Solkscharte, the Plocken and the Pontebba (or Saifnitz). Of these the Mont Genevre and the Brenner were the most frequented, while it will be noticed that in the Central Alps only DIVISIONS] ALPS 741 two passes (the Spliigen and the Septimer) were certainly known to the Romans. In fact the central portion of the Alps was by far the least Romanised and least known till the early middle ages. Thus the Simplon is first certainly mentioned in 1235, the St Gotthard (without name) in 1236, the Lukmanier in 965, the San Bernardino in 941; of course they may have been known before, but authentic history is silent as regards them till the dates specified. Even the Mont Cenis (from the 15th to the 19th century the favourite pass for travellers going from France to Italy) is first heard of in 756 only. In the 13th century many hitherto unknown passes came into prominence, even some of the easy glacier passes. It should always be borne in mind that in the Western and Central Alps there is but one ridge to cross, to which access is gained by a deep-cut valley, though often it would be shorter to cross a second pass in order to gain the plains, e.g. the Mont Genevre, that is most directly reached by the Col du Lautaret; and the Simplon, which is best gained by one of the lower passes over the western portion of the Bernese Oberland chain. On the other hand, in the Eastern Alps, it is generally necessary to cross three distinct ridges between the northern and southern plains, the central ridge being the highest and most difficult. Thus the passes which crossed a single ridge, and did not involve too great a detour through a long valley of approach, became the most important and the most popular, e.g. the Mont Cenis, the Great St Bernard, the St Gotthard, the Septimer and the Brenner. As time went on the travellers (with whatever object) who used the great alpine passes could not put up any longer with the bad old mule paths. A few passes (e.g. the Semmering, the Brenner, the Tenda and the Arlberg) can boast of carriage roads constructed before 1800, while those over the Umbrail and the Great St Bernard were not completed till the early years of the 20th century. Most of the carriage roads across the great alpine passes were thus constructed in the 19th century (particularly its first half), largely owing to the impetus given by Napoleon. As late as 1905, the highest pass over the main chain that had a carriage road was the Great St Bernard (81 n ft.), but three still higher passes over side ridges have roads — the Stelvio (9055 ft.), the Col du Galibier (8721 ft.), in the Dauphine Alps, and the Umbrail Pass (8242 ft.). Still more recently the main alpine chain has been subjected to the further indignity of having railway lines carried over it or through it — the Brenner and the Pontebba lines being cases of the former, and the Col de Tenda, the Mont Cenis (though the tunnel is really 17 m. to the west), the Simplon and the St Gotthard, not to speak of the side passes of the Arlberg, Albula and Pyhrn of the latter. There are also schemes (more or less advanced) for piercing the Spliigen and the Hohe Tauern, both on the main ridge, and the Lotschen Pass, on one of the external ranges. The numerous mountain railways, chiefly in Switzerland, up various peaks (e.g. the Rigi and Pilatus) and over various side passes (e.g. the Briinig and the Little Scheidegg) do not concern us here. 6. Divisions. — The Alps, within the limits indicated under (2) above, form a great range, consisting of a main chain, with ramifications, and of several parallel minor chains. They thus form a single connected whole as contrasted with the plains at their base, and nature has made no breaks therein, save at the spots where they sink to comparatively low depressions or passes. But for the sake of practical convenience it has long been usual to select certain of the best marked of these passes to serve as limits within the range, whether to distinguish several great divisions from each other, or to further break up each of these great divisions into smaller groups. As these divisions, great or small, are so to speak artificial, several systems have been proposed according to which the Alps may be divided. We give below that which seems to us to be the most satisfactory (based very largely on personal acquaintance with most parts of the range), considering, as in the case of the limits of the chain, only its topographical aspect, as it exists at the present day, while leaving it to geo- logists, botanists and zoologists to elaborate special divisions as required by these various sciences. Our selected divisions relate only to the High Alps between the Col de Tenda and the route over the Radstadter Tauern, while in each of the 18 sub- divisions the less elevated outlying peaks are regarded as append- ages of the higher group within the topographical limits of which they rise. No attempt, of course, has been made to give a com- plete catalogue of the peaks and passes of the Alps, while in the case of the peaks the culminating point of a lower half- detached group has been included rather than the loftier spurs of the higher and main group; in the case of the passes, the villages or valleys they connect have been indicated, and also the general character of the route over each pass. As regards the main divisions, three are generally distinguished; the Western Alps (chiefly French and Italian, with a small bit of the Swiss Valais) being held to extend from the Col de Tenda to the Simplon Pass, the Central Alps (all but wholly Swiss and Italian) thence to the Reschen Scheideck Pass, and the Eastern Alps (wholly Austrian and Italian, save the small Bavarian bit at the north-west angle) thence to the Radstadter Tauern route, with a bend outwards towards the south-east, as explained under (2) in order to include the higher summits of the South- Eastern Alps. Strictly speaking, we should follow the Reschen Scheideck route down the Adige valley, but as this would include in the Central Alps the Ortler and some other of the highest Tirolese summits, it is best (remembering the artificial character of the division) to draw a line from Mais southwards either over the Umbrail Pass (the old historical pass) or the Stelvio (well- known only since the carriage road was built over it in the first quarter of the 19th century) to the head of the Valtellina, and then over the Aprica Pass (as the Bergamasque Alps properly belong to the Central Alps) to the Oglio valley or the Val Camonica, and down that valley to the Lake of Iseo and Brescid. Assuming these three main divisions, we must now consider in detail the 18 sub-divisions which we distinguish; the first 5 forming the Western Alps, the next 7 the Central Alps, and the rest the Eastern Alps, the heights throughout being, of course, given in English feet and representing the latest measurements. I. Western Alps 1. Maritime Alps (from the Col de Tenda to the Col de 1' Argen- tine). Chief Peaks of the Maritime Alps. Punta deir Argentera . 10,794 Mont Tinibras . . . 9,948 Cima dei Gelas Monte Matto Mont Pelat Mont Clapier 10,286 Mont Enchastraye . 10,128 Monte Bego 10,017 Mont Monnier . 9,994 Rocca dell' Abisso . Chief Passes of the Maritime Alps. Passo del Pagarin (Vesubie Valley to Valdieri), snow . Col di Fremamorta (Tinee Valley to the Baths of Valdieri), bridle path . . . . . . . Bassa di Druos (same to same), bridle path Passo di Collalunga (Tinee Valley to Vinadio), bridle path. Coll dell' Agnel (Tenda to Valdieri), foot path . . . Col della Ciriegia (St Martin Vesubie to the Baths of Valdieri) , bridle path ........ Col des Granges Communes (St Etienne de Tinee to Barce- lonnette), bridle path . . . Col de Pourriac (Tinee Valley to Argentera), foot path Col della Finestre (St Martin de Vesubie to Valdieri), bridle path . . . . . . Col di Guercia (Tinee Valley to Vinadio), foot path . Col della Lombarda (same to same), bridle path . . Col de la Cayolle (Var Valley to Barcelonnette), carriage road . . . . . . Col di Santa Anna (Tinee Valley to Vinadio), bridle path Col del Sabbione (Tenda to Valdieri), bridle path Col d Alios or de Valgelaye (Verdon Valley to Barcelonnette), carriage road ........ Col de lArgentiere (Barcelonnette to Cuneo), carriage road , Col de Tenda (Tenda to Cuneo), carriage road, railway beneath ......... 2. Cottian Alps (from the Col de TArgentiere to the Mont and westwards to the Col du Galibier). 9.695 9,426 9.246 9.039 9,236 8,688 8,629 8,531 8,426 8,370 8,242 8,222 8,107 8,042 7.858 7.717 7.605 7,428 7.382 6.545 6,145 Cenis Monte Viso Viso di Vallante . . . 12,048 Aiguille de Scolette . . 11,500 Aiguille de Chambeyron . It, 155 Grand Rubren . 11,142 Brec de Chambeyron 11,116 Rognosa d'Etache . . 11,106 Chief Peaks of the Cottian Alps. . 12,609 Dents dAmbin Mont dAmbin Pointe de la Font Sancte Punta Ferrant . Visolotto .... Rochebrune .... Punta Sommeiller . 11,096 11,080 11,057 11,037 11,001 10,906 10,896 7 + 2 ALPS [PEAKS AND PASSES Brie Froid .... 10,860 Tlte des Toillies 10,430 Grand Glayza 10,781 Monte Granero 10,401 Rognosa di Sestrieres 10,758 Mont Chaberton 10,286 Panestrel 10,673 Te"te de Moyse . 10,204 Roche du Grand Galibier 10,637 Monte Meidassa 10,187 Peou Roc 10,601 Pelvo d'Elva 10,053 Pic du Pelvat 10,558 Mont Politri . . 10,009 Pointe Haute de Marv . io,539 Mont Albergian 9.974 Pic du Thabor 10,516 Brie Bouchet 9,853 Mont Thabor 10,440 Punta Cournour 9,410 Pointe des Cerces io,434 Chief Passes in the Cottian Alps. Col Sommeiller (Bardonneche to Bramans), snow Col de la Traversette (Crissolo to Abries), mainly bridle path beneath pass tunnel made in 1478-1480 Col d'Ambin (Exilles to Bramans), snow .... Col de St Veran (Val Varaita to the Queyras Valley), foot path ......... Col d'Etache (Bardonneche to Bramans), bridle path Col dell' Agnello (Val Varaita to the Queyras Valley), bridle path ......... Col Girardin (Ubaye Valley to the Queyras Valley), bridle path ......... Col de Sautron (Val Maira to Barcelonnette), bridle path . Col de Longet (Ubaye Valley to Val Varaita), bridle path . Col de Mary or de Maurin (Ubaye Valley to Val Maira) , bridle path ......... Col d'Abries or de Prali (Perosa to Abries), bridle path Col de la Roue (Bardonneche to Modane), bridle path Col de Frejus (same to same), carriage road, beneath which is the so-called Mont Cenis railway tunnel. Col de Clapier (Bramans to Susa), bridle path . Col d'Izouard (Briancon to the Queyras Valley), carriage road ......... Col de la Croix (Torre Pe'.licc to Abries), bridle path Petit Mont Cenis (Bramans to the Mont Cenis Plateau), bridle path ......... Col de Vars (Ubaye Valley to the Queyras Valley), carriage road ......... Mont Cenis (Lanslebourg to Susa), carriage road Col de Sestrieres (Pignerol to Cesanne), carriage road Mont Genevre (Briancon to Cesanne), carriage road . Col des Echelles de Planpinet (Briancon to Bardonneche), partly carriage road 3. Dauphine Alps (from the Col du Galibier southwards). Chief Peaks of the Dauphins Alps Pointe des Ecrins . . 13,462 Pic Felix Neff Meije 13,081 Ailefroide 12,989 Mont Pelvoux . . . 12,973 Pic Sans Norn . . . 12,845 Pic Gaspard .... 12,730 Pic Coolidge .... 12,323 Grande Ruine . . . 12,317 Rateau 12,317 Montagne des Agneaux . 12,008 Les Bans 1 1,979 Sommet des Rouies . .11 ,923 Aiguille du Plat . . . 11,818 Pic d' Ola n n, 735 Pic Bonvoisin . Aiguilles d'Arves (highest point) Grandes Rousses . Roche de la Muzelle 11,680 Vieux Chaillol . Tlte de Vautisse Grand Pinier Pic de Parieres . Mourre Froid Belledonne (highest) Rocher Blanc (Sept Laux) Taillefer .... Pic du Frene T6te de l'Obiou . Grand Ferrand . Pic de Bure (Aurouse) Grand Veymont Mont Aiguille . Chamechaude . Dent de Crolles . Grand Som . Mont Granier . Dent du Chat . . 11,529 ",395 n,349 Sirac 11,280 Chief Passes of the Dauphine' Alps. Col de la Lauze (St Christophe to La Grave), snow . Col des Avalanches (La Berarde to Vallouise), snow . Col de la Casse Deserte (La Berarde to La Grave), snow Col Emile Pic (La Grave to Vallouise), snow . Col des Ecrins (La Berarde to Vallouise), snow Col du Glacier Blanc (La Grave to Vallouise), snow . Col du Sele (La Berarde to Vallouise), snow Breche de la Meije (La Berarde to la Grave), snow . Col de la Temple (La Berarde to Vallouise), snow Col des Aiguilles d'Arves (Valloire to St Jean d'Arves), snow 10,335 Col du Says (La Berarde to the Val Gaudemar), snow Col du Clot des Ca vales (La Berarde to La Grave), snow Col du Loup du Valgaudemar (Vallouise to the Val Gaude mar), snow ....... Col Lombard (La Grave to St Jean d'Arves), snow Breche des Grandes Rousses (Allemont to Clavans), snow Col du Sellar (Vallouise to the Val Gaudemar), snow Col de la Muande (St Christophe to the Val Gaudemar) snow ........ Col des Quirlies (St Jean d'Arves to Clavans), snow . io,57i 10,378 io,375 10,237 10,007 9,830 9,78i 9,6i7 9,387 9,219 9,164 9,059 8,898 7,697 6,880 6,847 6,779 6,670 6,358 4,593 11,625 11,520 11,516 1 1 ,490 11,205 10,854 10,834 10,827 10,772 10,289 10,263 10,210 10,171 10,171 10,063 10,037 9,679 Col du Goleon (La Grave to Valloire), foot path Pas de la Cavale (Vallouise to Champoleon), carriage road . Col d'Orcieres (Dormillouse to Orcieres), bridle path. Col de l'lnfernet (La Grave to St Jean d'Arves), foot path Col du Galibier (Lautaret Hospice to St Michel de Maurienne), carriage road . . . . ... Breche de Valsencstre (Bourg d'Oisans to Valsenestre), foot path . . . . . . . . Col de Vallonpierre (Val Gaudemar to Champoleon), foot path ......... Col de Val Estrete (same to same), foot path . Col de Vaurze (Val Gaudemar to Val Jouffrey), foot path . Col de Martignare (La Grave to St Jean d'Arves), foot path Col des Tourettes (Orcieres to Chateauroux), bridle path . Col de la Muzelle (St Christophe to Valsenestre), foot path Col de l'Eychauda (Vallouise to Monestier), bridle path Col d'Arsine (La Grave to Monestier), bridle path Col des Pres Nouveaux (Le Frcney to St Jean d'Arves), bridle path ........ Col des Sept Laux (Allevard to Bourg d'Oisans), bridle path Col du Lautaret (Briancon to Bourg d'Oisans), carriage road ......... Col dc la Croix de Fer (Bourg d'Oisans to St Jean d'Arves), carriage road ........ Col du Glandon (Bourg d'Oisans to La Chambre), carriage road ......... Col de l'Alpe de Venose (Venose to Le Freney), bridle path Col d'Ornon (Bourg d'Oisans to La Mure), carriage road . Col Bayard (La Mure to Gap), carriage road Col de la Croix Haute (Grenoble to Veynes and Gap), rail- way line over . . . . . . . 4. Graian Alps (from the Mont Cenis to the Little St Bernard Pass). These are usually divided into three groups, the Central (the watershed between the two passes named), the Western or French, and the Eastern or Italian; in the following lists the initials " C," " W," and " E " show to which group each peak and pass belongs. Chief Peaks of the Graian Alps 9,449 8,990 8,859 8,826 8,721 8,642 8,642 8,596 8,596 8,596 8,531 8,53i 8,465 8,202 7,970 7,874 7,523 7,166 6,765 6,401 5,446 4,462 4,088 3,829 Grand Paradis (E) Grivola (E) Grande Casse (W) Mont Pourri (W) Mont Herbetet (E) Pointe de Charbonel (C) Aiguille de la Grande Sassiere (C) Dent Parrachee (W) Tour du Grand St Pierre .(E). ..... Uja di Ciamarella (C) Cima di Charforon (E) Grande Motte (W) . Albaron (C) . . . Roccia Viva (E) . Levanna (C) . Bessanese (C) . Punta di Gaij (E) Dome de l'Arpont (W) Pointe de Ronce (C) . Bee de l'lnvergnan (C) Tsanteleina (C) . Dome de ChasseforSt (W) Croce Rossa (C) . Aiguille de Peclet (W) Mont Emilius (E) . Punta d'Arnas (C) Aiguille de Polset (W) Rochemelon (C) . Mont Chalanson(C) . Tersiva (E) Grande Traversiere (C) Tete du Rutor (C) . 13,324 Grande Aiguille Rousse 13,022 (C) 11,424 12,668 Granta Parey (C) . . 11,395 12,428 Roc du Mulinet (C) . 11,382 12,396 Aiguille Pers (C) . . 11,323 12,336 Pointe de la Sana (W) 11,319 Cima dell' Auille (C) . 11,306 12,323 Pointe de l'Echelle (W) 11,260 12,179 Punta Foura (E) . . 11,188 Pointe des Sengies (E) 11,182 Pointe de la Gliere (W) 11,109 Pointe de la Galise (C) 10,975 Pointe de la Traversiere (C) 10,962 Pointe de Mean Martin (W) 10,949 Punta Lavina (E) . . 10,854 Ormelune (C) . . . 10,771 Roche Chevriere (W) . 10,768 Signal du Mont Iseran(C) 10,634 Pointe de la Rechasse (W) 10,575 12,113 12,061 12,025 12,018 12,015 11,976 ii,943 11,917 11,887 11,874 11,871 11,838 11,831 11,802 11,703 11,700 11,677 11,615 11,608 11,605 11,582 11,526 11,467 n,438 Chief Passes of the Graian Alps, Grande Rousse (Rhemes Valley to Grand Assaly (C) Roisebanque (£) Becca di Nona (E) . Torre d'Ovarda (C) Pointe du Pousset (E) D6me de Val d'Isere (C) Uja di Mondrone (C) . Bellagarda (C) . Monte Marzp (E) . . Petit Mont Blanc de Pralognan (W) . Mont Jouvet (W) . . Monte Civrari (C) . the Val ley to Moutiers Tarentaise), snow Col de la Grisanche), snow (C) Col de Gebroulaz (Arc Val (W) Col de Monei (Cogne to Locana), snow (E) Col du Grand Paradis (Ceresole to the Val Savaranche), snow (E) ........ Col du Charforon (same to same), snow (E) Col de Teleccio (Cogne to Locana), snow (E) . Col de Lauzon (Cogne to the Val Savaranche) , bridle path (E) Col du Bouquetin (Bonneval to Val d'Isere), snow (C) Col de St Grat (Val Grisanche to La Thiiille), snow (C) Col de 1'Herbetet (Cogne to the Val Savaranche), snow (E) Col du Collerin (Bessans to Balme), snow (C) . Col du Grand Etret (Ceresole to the Val Savaranche), snow (E) 10,414 10,381 10,309 10,089 9,994 9,95i 9,725 9,643 9,° 2 3 8,409 7,553 11,483 11,385 11,247 10,988 10,929 10,913 10,831 10,827 10,827 10,686 10,506 10,361 PEAKS AND PASSES] ALPS 743 Col de Bassac (Rhemes Valley to the Val Grisanche) , snow(C) Col du Carro (Bonneval to Ceresole), snow (C) Col d'Arbole (Comboe to Brissogne), snow (E) Col dela Goletta(Va ld'Isere to the Rhemes Valley) , snow (C) Col de Rhemes (same to same), snow (C) Col de la Grande Casse (Pralognan to the Premou Glen), snow (\V) ........ Col de Sea (Bonneval to Forno Alpi Graie), snow (C) . Col de l'Autaret (Bessans to Usseglio), foot path (C) . Col de Girard (Bonneval to Forno Alpi Graie), snow (C) . Col Rosset (Val Savaranche to the Rhemes Valley), bridle path (C) ........ Col d'Arnas (Bessans to Balme), snow (C) Col de la Galise (Ceresole to Val d'Isere), snow (C) . Col de Sort (Val Savaranche to the Rhemes Valley), partly bridle path (C) ....... Quecees de Tignes (Val d'Isere to Termignon), snow (W) . Col della Nouva (Cogne to Pont Canavese), partly bridle path (E) Col de Garin (Aosta to Cogne), foot path (E) . Collarin d'Arnas (Balme to Usseglio), snow (C) Finestra del Torrent (Rhemes Valley to the Val Grisanche), foot path (C) Fenetre de Champorcher (Cogne to Champorcher), bridle path (E) . . . Col de Vaudet (Isere Valley to the Val Grisanche), foot path (C) Col de Bardoney (Cogne to Pont Canavese), snow (E) Col de Chaviere (Modane to Pralognan), foot path (W) Col de la Leisse (Tignes to Termignon), snow (W) Col du Mont Iseran (Bonneval to Val d'Isere), bridle path (C). Ghicet di Sea (Balme to Forno Alpi Graie), foot path (C) . Col de la Sachette (Tignes to Bourg St Maurice), foot path (W) . . ... Col du Palet (Tignes to Moutiers Tarentaise or Bourg St Maurice), bridle path (W) ..... Col du Mont (Ste Foy to the Val Grisanche), bridle path (C) Col de la Croix de Nivolet (Ceresole to the Val Savaranche), bridle path (E) . . ..... Col della Crocetta (Ceresole to Forno Alpi Graie), bridle path (C) Col de la Platiere (St Jean de Maurienne to Moutiers Taren- taise), partly bridle path (W) ..... Col de la Vanoise (Pralognan to Termignon), bridle path (W) Col des Encombres (St Michel de Maurienne to MoQtiers Tarentaise), bridle path (W) ..... Little St Bernard (Aosta to Moutiers Tarentaise), carriage road (C) ........ Col de la Madeleine (La Chambre to Moutiers Tarentaise), bridle path (W) 5. Pennine Alps (from the Little St Bernard to the Simplon Pass). This range contains all the highest peaks in the Alps, save the Finsteraarhorn (14,026) in the Bernese Oberland. 10,345 10,302 10,292 10,237 10,174 10,171 10,115 10,073 9.987 9,922 9,889 9.836 9.735 9,646 9.623 9,4" 9.351 9.341 9.3i 1 9.305 9.295 9,206 9,121 9.085 8.973 8.954 8,721 8,681 8,665 8,649 8,531 8,291 7,668 7.179 6,509 Chief Peaks Mont Blanc ■ 15, Monte Rosa (Dufour- spitze) 15, Nord End (Monte Rosa) 15, Dom (Mischabelhorner) 14, Lyskamm 14, Weisshorn .... 14, Matterhorn .... 14, Taschhorn 14, Mont Maudit ... 14. Dent Blanche . .14 D6me du Goflter . 14 Grand Combin . . .14. Castor 1.3 Zinal Rothhorn ... 13 Alphubel . . . . 13 Grandes Jorasses . . 13 Rimpfischhorn -13 Strahlhorn .... 13 Dent d'Herens . .13 Zermatt Breithorn . . 13 Aiguille Verte . 13 Ober Gabelhorn . 13 Aiguille de Bionnassay 13 Allalinhorn .... 13 Weissmies .... 13 Aiguille du Geant . 13 Laquinhorn .... 13 Rossbodenhorn -13 Grand Cornier . 13. Aiguille de TrelatSte . 12 Aiguille d'Argentiere 12 Ruinette 12 Aiguille de Triolat . .12 of the Pennine Alps. 782 Mont Blanc de Seilon Aiguille du Midi 217 Tour Noir 132 Aiguille des Glaciers 942 Mont Dolent 889 Aiguille du Chardonnet 804 Cima di Jazzi 782 Balfrin .... 758 Pigne d'Arolla . ,669 Mont Velan ,318 Aiguille du Dru ,210 Tete Blanche 164 L'Evgque 879 Mont Pleureur . ,856 D6medeMiage. 803 Lo Besso ,797 Aiguille de la Za 790 Mont Collon 751 Diablons 715 Aiguille de Tour ,685 Mont Gele . . . 541 Bee de Luseney 364 Aiguille de Grepon . 341 Chateau des Dames ,236 Aiguille des Charmoz 226 Aiguille du Tacul . ,170 Grand Tournalin ,140 Pointe de Rosa Blanche 128 Mont Avril . . 022 Grande Rochere ,832 Corno Bianco ,819 Grauhaupt . ,727 Pointe d'Orny . ,757 Dent du Midi . 12,700 12,609 12,586 12,579 12.543 12,540 12,527 12,474 12,471 12,353 12,320 12,304 12,264 12,159 12,100 12,058 12,051 11,956 11,828 11,615 H.539 11,503 11,489 u,447 11,293 11,280 11,086 10,985 10,962 10,913 10,893 10,876 10,742 10,696 Mont Favre .... 10,693 Sasseneire .... 10,693 Grand Golliaz . . . 10,630 Tour Sallieres . . . 10,588 Pizzo Bianco .... 10,552 Latelhorn 10,525 Schwarzhorn (Augstbord) 10,512 Gornergrat .... 10,289 Pointe de Lechaud . . 10,260 Buet 10,201 Mont Ruan .... 10,099 Mont Neri . 10,073 Bella Tola .... 9,935 Pointe de Tanneverge . 9,784 Belvedere (Aigs. Rouges) 9,731 Tagliaferro .... Riffelhorn .... Pointe Percee du Reposoir Crammont . Pointe des Fours Pointe du Colloney Catogne i Monte Bo . . Mont Joly . . Brevent . Pointe de Salles Aiguille de Varens Mont Chetif . . M61e .... Saleve (highest point) Chief Passes of the Pennine Alps. Sesiaioch (Zermatt to Alagna), snow Col de la Brenva (Courmayeur to Chamonix), snow Domjoch (Randa to Saas), snow . Lysjoch (Zermatt to Gressoney), snow Mischabeljoch (Zermatt to Saas), snow . Alphubel Pass (same to same), snow Acller Pass (same to. same), snow Morning Pass (Zermatt to Zinal), snow Schwarzthor (Zermatt to Ayas), snow Col de Triolet (Chamonix to Courmayeur) , snow Ried Pass (St Niklaus to Saas), snow New Weissthor (Zermatt to Macugnaga), snow Allalin Pass (Zermatt to Saas), snow Col de Valpelline (Zermatt to Aosta), snow Biesjoch (Randa to Turtmann), snow Triftjoch (Zermatt to Zinal), snow . Col d'Argentiere (Chamonix to Orsieres), snow Col du Sonadon (Bourg St Pierre to the Val de Bagnes) snow ....... Col de Talefre (Chamonix to Courmayeur), snow Col d'Herens (Zermatt to Evolena), snow Col Durand (Zermatt to Zinal), snow Col des Maisons Blanches (Bourg St Pierre to the Val de Bagnes), snow ..... Col de Bertol (Arolla to the Col d'Herens), snow Col de Miage (Contamines to Courmayeur), snow Col du Geant (Chamonix to Courmayeur), snow Col du Mont Rouge (Val de Bagnes to the Val d'Heremence) snow ....... Col du Chardonnet (Chamonix to Orsieres), snow Col de St Theodule (Zermatt to Chatillon), snow Col du Tour (Chamonix to Orsieres), snow FenStredeSaleinaz (Saleinaz Glacier to Trient Glacier), snow Col de Tracuit (Zinal to Turtmann), snow Zwischbergen Pass (Saas to Gondo), snow Col d'Oren (Val de Bagnes to the Valpelline), snow Col de Seilon (Val de Bagnes to the Val d'Heremence), snow Col du Cret (Val de Bagnes to the Val d'Heremence), snow Col de Valcournera (Val Tournanche to the Valpelline), snow ........ Col de Collon (Arolla to Aosta), snow Col de Valsorey (Bourg St Pierre to Aosta), snow Col de Chermontane (Val de Bagnes to Arolla), snow Cimes Blanches (Val Tournanche to Ayas), bridle path Col de Torrent (Evolena to the Val de Torrent), bridle path Augstbord Pass (St Niklaus to Turtmann), bridle path Col de Crete Seche (Val de Bagnes to the Valpelline), snow Col de Breuil (Bourg St Maurice to La Thuille), snow Col d'Olen (Alagna to Gressoney), bridle path . Monte Moro (Saas to Macugnaga), partly bridle path Pas de Chevres (Arolla to the Val d'Heremence), foot path Antrona Pass (Saas to Antrona), partly bridle path . Col de Sorebois (Zinal to the Val de Torrent), bridle path Col de Vessona (Valpelline to the St Barthelemy Glen), foot path ........ Col de FenStre (Val de Bagnes to Aosta), bridle path Z'Meiden Pass (Zinal to Turtmann), bridle path Turlo Pass (Alagna to Macugnaga), foot path . Col de Fenetre (Great St Bernard to the Swiss Val Ferret) bridle path . . Bettafurka (Ayas to Gressoney), bridle path Col du Mont Tondu (Contamines to Courmayeur), snow Col Serena (Great St Bernard to Courmayeur). foot path Col Ferret (Courmayeur to Orsieres), carriage road i progress ....... Col de la Seigne (Chapieux to Courmayeur) bridle path Col de Susanfe (Champery to Salvan), foot path Col du Bonhornme (Contamines to Chapieux), bridle path Col de Valdobbia (Gressoney to the Val Sesia), bridle path Great St Bernard (Martigny to Aosta), carriage road Col de Sagerou (Sixt to Champery), foot path . Col de Moud (Alagna to Rima and Varallo), bridle path Col d'Anterne (Sixt to Servos), bridle path 744 ALPS Col d'Egua (Rima to the Val Anzasca), bridle path . . 7,336 Col de Balme (Chamonix to the Trient Valley), bridle path . 7,221 Simplon Pass (Brieg to Domo d'Ossola), carriage road over, railway tunnel beneath ...... 6,592 Col de Checouri (Courmayeur to the Lac de Combal), bridle path . . 6,431 Baranca Pass (Varallo to the Val Anzasca), bridle path . 5,971 Col de Voza (Chamonix to Contamines), bridle path . . 5,496 Col de la Forclaz (Chamonix to St Gervais), bridle path 5,105 Col de la Forclaz (Trient Valley to Martigny), carriage road 4,987 II. Central Alps 6. Bernese Oberland (from the Lake of Geneva to the Furka, the Reuss Valley and the Lake of Lucerne). This general name seems best to describe the range in question, though, of course, portions of it are in Cantons other than that of Berne, viz. Vaud, Fribourg, the Valais, Lucerne, Uri and Unterwalden. fi Chief Peaks of the Bernese Oberland. 14,026 Wellhorn. 13,721 Finsteraarhorn Aletschhorn ungfrau "onch Gross Schreckhorn Gross Fiescherhorn Eiger .... Bietschhorn Gross Wannehorn Gross Nesthorn Lauterbrunnen Breithorn Balmhorn 12,176 Wetterhorn (Mittelhorn) 12,166 Wetterhorn (Hasli Jung- frau) Wetterhorn (Rosenhorn ) Bliimlisalphorn Gross Doldenhorn Altels .... Dammastock . Galenstock Sustenhorn Gspaltenhorn . Fleckistock Gross Hiihnerstock Ewigschneehorn . Ritzlihorn Wildhorn . Wildstrubel . . Diablerets Titlis .... Gross Spannort . 13,669 13,468 13,386 13.285 13,042 12,970 12,812 12,533 12,399 12,149 12,110 12,044 11,966 n,930 11,920 1 1 ,802 1 1,523 11,293 11,214 10,985 10,929 10,768 10,709 10,673 10,650 10,627 Mettenberg . Loffelhorn Grand Muveran Gross Wendenstock Sparrhorn . ... Torrenthorn Grande Dent de Morcles Schilthorn Eggishorn Uri Rothstock Schwarzhorn(Grindelwald)9,6i3 Gross Siedelhorn Albristhorn . Rothihorn Faulhorn Gummfluh . Sulegg .... Vanil Noir . Niesen .... Brienzer Rothhorn . Tour d'Ai Hohgant Stockhorn Kaiseregg Pilatus (Tomlishorn) Chamossaire . Gemmenalphorn Rochers de Naye Moleson .... Dent de Jaman Napf 10,516 Chief Passes of the Bernese Oberland. Lauithor (Lauterbrunnen to the Eggishorn), snow Monchjoch (Grindelwald to the Eggishorn), snow Jungfraujoch (Wengern Alp to the Eggishorn) , snow . Strahlegg Pass (Grindelwald to the Grimsel), snow . Grunhornlticke (Great Aletsch Glacier to the Fiescher Glacier), snow ...... Oberaarjoch (Grimsel to the Eggishorn), snow . Gauli Pass (Grimsel to Meiringen), snow . Petersgrat (Lauterbrunnen to the Lotschenthal), snow Lotschenliicke (Lotschenthal to the Eggishorn), snow Lauteraarsattel (Grindelwald to the Grimsel), snow . Beichgrat (Lotschenthal to the Bel Alp), snow . Lammernjoch (Lenk to the Gemmi), snow Triftlimmi (Rhone Glacier to the Gadmen Valley), snow Sustenlimmi (Stein Alp to Goeschenen), snow . Gamchiliicke (Kien Valley to Lauterbrunnen), snow Tschingel Pass (Lauterbrunnen to Kandersteg), snow Hohthiirli Pass (Kandersteg to the Kien Valley), foot path Lotschen Pass (Kandersteg to the Lotschenthal), snow Sefinenfurka(Lauterbrunnen to the Kien Valley), foot path VVendenjoch (Engelberg to the Gadmen Valley), snow Furtwangsattel(Guttannen to the Gadmen Valley), foot path ........ Furka Pass (Rhone Glacier to Andermatt), carriage road Rawil Pass (Sion to Lenk), bridle path Gemmi Pass (Kandersteg to Leukerbad), bridle path Surenen Pass (Engelberg to Altdorf), foot path Susten Pass (Meiringen to Wassen), partly carriage road Sanetsch Pass (Sion to Saanen), bridle path Joch Pass (Meiringen to Engelberg), bridle path Grimsel Pass (Meiringen to the Rhone Glacier), carriage road 7,100 Kleine Scheidegg (Grindelwald to Lauterbrunnen), railway over ......... Col de Cheville (Sion to Bex), bridle path Grosse Scheidegg (Grindelwald to Meiringen), bridle path Col de Jaman (Montreux to Montbovon), mule path over, railway tunnel beneath ...... 4,974 Briinig Pass (Meiringen to Lucerne), railway over . . 3,396 10,486 10,194 10,165 10,043 9,987 9,928 9,853 9,777 9,754 9,626 9,620 9,452 9,069 9,052 8,803 8,074 7,9H 7,858 7-763 7,714 7,658 7,225 7,192 7,182 6,995 6,943 6,772 6,710 6,582 6,165 4,629 12,140 11,680 n,385 io,995 10,844 10,607 10,519 10,516 10,512 io,355 10,289 10,276 10,200 10,181 9,295 9,265 8,882 8,842 8,583 8,544 8,393 7,992 7.924 7,641 7,563 7,422 7,331 7,267 6,772 6,723 6,434 [PEAKS AND PASSES 7. Lepontine Alps (from the Simplon to the Spliigen and south of the Furka and Oberalp Passes). The eastern portion of this range, from the St Gotthard Pass to the Spliigen, is sometimes named the Adula Alps. Chief Peaks of the Lepontine Alps. Monte Leone Rheinwaldhorn Giiferhorn Blindenhorn . Basodino . Tambohorn Helsenhorn Wasenhorn Ofenhorn . Cherbadung . Piz Medel Scopi Pizzo Rotondo Pizzo dei Piani Piz Terri . Piz Aul Pizzo di Pesciora Wyttenwasserstock Campo Tencia Leckihorn Bruschghorn . Alperschellihorn . 11,684 Piz Bias 11,149 Monte Giove 11,132 Pizzo Centrale . 11,103 Pizzas d'Annarosa 10,749 Piz Beverin . 10,749 Weisshorn (Spliigen) 10,742 Pizzo Lucendro 10,680 Piz Tomiil . 10,637 P' z Cavel 10,542 Barenhorn . 10,509 Six Madun (Badus) 10,499 Piz Muraun 10,489 Zervreilerhorn . 10,361 Monte Cistella . 10,338 Piz Lukmanier . 10,250 Monte Prosa 10,247 Pizzo Columbe . 10,119 Monte Camoghe 10,089 Pi z Mundaun . 10,069 Monte Generoso 10,020 Monte San Salvatore 9,991 9,918 9,876 9,853 9,850 9,843 9,817 9,708 9,676 9,659 9,620 9,619 9,512 9,508 9,353 9,"5 8,983 8,363 7,303 6,775 5,591 3,004 Chief Passes of the Lepontine Alps. Zapport Pass (Hinterrhein to Malvaglia and Biasca), snow. 10,105 Giiferlucke (Kanal Glen to the Lenta Glen), snow . . 9,777 Lentaliicke (Hinterrhein to Vals Platz), snow . . . 9,692 Hohsand Pass (Binn to Tosa Falls), snow . . . 9,603 Lecki Pass (Wyttenwasser Glen to the Mutten Glen), snow 9,554 Passo Rotondo (Airolo to Oberwald), snow . 9,449 Kaltwasser Pass (Simplon Hospice to Veglia Alp), snow . 9,351 Scaradra Pass (Vals Platz to Olivone), foot path . . 9,088 Sattelteliicke (Vals Platz to Vrin), foot path . . . 9,082 Ritter Pass (Binn to Veglia Alp), snow .... 8,832 Cavanna Pass (Realp to the Val Bedretto), snow . . 8,566 Scatta Minoja (Devero to the Val Formazza), bridle path . 8,521 Bocca di Cadlimo (Airolo to the Lukmanier Pass), foot path 8,340 Valserberg (Hinterrhein to Vals Platz), bridle: path . . 8,225 Safierberg (Spliigen to Safien Platz), bridle path . . 8,170 Geisspfad Pass (Binn to Devero), foot path . . . 8,120 Gries Pass (Ulrichen to Tosa Falls), bridle path . . 8,098 Passo di Naret (Fusio to Airolo), bridle path . . . 8,015 Nufenen Pass (Ulrichen to Airolo), bridle path . . 8,006 Diesrut Pass (Vrin to the Somvix Glen), bad bridle path . 7,953 Albrun Pass (Binn to Devero and Baceno), bridle path . 7,907 Greina Pass (Olivone to the Somvix Glen), bridle path . 7,743 San Giacomo Pass (Airolo to Tosa Falls), bridle path . 7,573 Passo di Buffalora(Val Mesocco to the Val Calanca),foot path 7,431 Passo dell' Uomo (Airolo to the Lukmanier Pass) .bridle path 7,258 Spliigen Pass (Thusis to Chiavenna), carriage road . . 6,946 St Gotthard Pass (Andermatt to Airolo), carriage road over, railway tunnel beneath ...... 6,936 San Bernardino Pass (Thusis to Bellinzona), carriage road 6,769 Lukmanier Pass (Disentis to Olivone), carriage road . . 6,289 8. The Range of the Todi (from the Oberalp Pass to the Klausen Pass). Todi . . Bifertenstock . Piz Urlaun Oberalpstock . Gross Scheerhorn Claridenstock Diissistock Ringelspitz Brigclserhorner (highest) Grosse Windgalle Hausstock Gross Ruchen. Chief Peaks of the Range of the Todi. 11,887 PizSegnes . 11,241 Piz Giuf . 11,060 Crispalt . 10,926 Bristenstock 10,814 Selbsanft. 10,729 Vorab 10,703 Tschingelhorner (Elm) 10,667 P' z Sol (Grauehorner) 10,663 Calanda 10,473 Karpfstock . 10,342 Mageren 10,289 Murtschenstock. Chief Passes of the Range of the Todi. Clariden Pass (Amsteg to Linththal), snow Planura Pass (same to same), snow Kammlilucke or Scheerjoch (Maderanerthal to Unter- schachen), snow ..... Sardona Pass (Flims to Ragaz), snow Sand Alp Pass (Disentis to Linththal), snow Brunni Pass (Disentis to Amsteg), snow . Segues Pass (Elm to Flims), foot path Kisten Pass (Linththal to llanz), bad bridle path Panixer Pass (Elm to llanz), bad bridle path . Kriizli Pass (Amsteg to Sedrun), foot path Foo or Ramin Pass (Elm to Weisstannen), bridle path Oberalp Pass (Andermatt to Disentis), carriage road Klausen Pass (Altdorf to Linththal), carriage road 10,178 10,165 10,105 10,086 9,938 9,925 9,351 9,348 9,213 9,177 8,294 8,012 9-741 9,646 9,344 9,318 9,I2f 8,977 8,613 8,203 7,897 7,7io 7,290 6,719 6,404 PEAKS AND PASSES] ALPS 745 9. The Alps of North-Eastern Switzerland (north of the Klausen Pass). Chief Peaks of the North-Eastern Swiss Alps. Glarnisch (highest) . 9.580 Gross Mythen . Boser Faulen .... 9,200 Santis 8,216 Altmann 7,999 Faulfirst 7,925 Alvier ...... 7,753 Kurfiirsten (highest) . 7,576 Speer 6,411 Rigikulm Hoher Kasten . Rossberg .... Zugerberg (Hochwacht) Albis Hochwacht Uetliberg .... 6,240 5,906 5,899 5,194 3,255 2,887 2,864. Chief Passes of the North-Eastern Swiss Alps. Ruosalperkulm (Schachen Valley to the Muota Valley), foot path .......... 7,126 Karren Alp Pass (Muota Valley to Linththal), foot path . 6,877 Kinzigkulm Pass (Schachen Valley to the Muota Valley), foot path ........ 6,811 Saasberg Pass (Einsiedeln to Glarus), foot path . . . 6,227 Kamor Pass (Appenzell to Riiti), bridle path . . 5,512 Saxerliicke (Appenzell to Sax), foot path . . . .5,417 Schwein Alp Pass (Waggithal to the Klon Glen), bridlepath. 5,158 Pragel Pass (Muotathal to Glarus), carriage road in progress 5,099 Hacken Pass (Schwyz to Einsiedeln), foot path . . 4,649 Holzegg Pass (same to same), bridle path . . . 4,616 Ibergeregg Pass (Schwyz to Iberg and Einsiedeln), carriage road 4,613 Krazeren Pass (Nesslau to Urnasch), bridle path 3,993 10. Bernina Alps (from the Maloja to the Reschen Scheideck and the Stelvio, south and east of the Val Bregaglia and of the Engadine and north of the Valtellina). Chief Peaks Piz Bernina .... 13 Piz Zupo 13 Monte di Scerscen 13 Piz Roseg 12 Piz Palii 12 Crast' Agiizza .12 Piz Morteratsch . . .12 Monte della Disgrazia 12 Pizzo di Verona . .11 Cima di Piazzi .11 Cima di Castello . . .II, Cima Viola II, Pizzo Cengalo . n, Cima di Rosso . . n, Pizzo Scalino .... 10, Pizzo Badile .... 10, Corno di Campo . . .10, Pizzo di Dosde . 10, Cima di Saoseo . . io, 0/ the Bernina Alps. 304 Piz Languard 131 Piz Sesvenna 116 Piz Pisoc. 934 Piz Murtarol 835 Piz Quatervals 704 Pizzo della Margna 317 Cima di Redasco 067 Piz Lischanna 359 Pizzo di Sena 283 Piz Casana . 155 Monte Foscagno 103 Pizzo del Teo 070 Pizzo del Ferro 060 Piz Umbrail 903 Zwei Schwestern ,863 Monte Braulio 844 Monte Spluga 762 Monte Massuccio 752 Mont la Schera Chief Passes of the Bernina Alps. Fuorcla Bellavista (Pontresina to Chiesa, in Val Malenco), snow ........ Fuorcla Crast' Agiizza (same to same), snow Fuorcla Tschierva (same to same), snow . Fuorcla Sella (same to same), snow Passo di Bondo (Bondo to the Baths of Masino), snow Passo di Castello (Maloja to Morbegno), snow . Passo Tremoggia (Sils to Chiesa), snow Passo di Mello (Chiareggio to Val Masino), snow Diavolezza Pass(Bernina road to the Morteratsch Glen) , snow Passo di Dosde (Val Grosina to Val Viola Bormina), foot path ........ Passo di Sacco (Bernina road to Grosio), foot path Passo di Zocca (Vicosoprano to Val Masino), snow Casana Pass (Scanfs to Livigno), bridle path Muretto Pass (Maloja to Chiesa), partly snow . Umbrail Pass or Wormserjoch (Miinster Valley to the Stelvio road), carriage road .... Passo di Val Viola (Bernina road to Bormio), bridle path Giufplan Pass (Ofen road to Fraele), bridle path Bernina Pass (Pontresina to Tirano), carriage road Forcola di Livigno (Bernina Pass to Livigno), small carriage road ....... Cruschetta Pass (Schuls by Scarl to Taufers), bridle path Passo di Verva (Bormio to Grosio), foot path . Sursass or Schlinig Pass (Remus to Mais) foot path . Foscagno Pass (Bormio to Trepalle), bridle path Alpisella Pass (Livigno to Fraele), bridle path . Scarl Pass (Scarl to Santa Maria Miinster), carriage road Dossradond Pass (Santa Maria Miinster to Fraele), bridle path ........ Passo Dhcira (Livigno to Trepalle) bridle path . Ofen Pass (Zernez to Mais), carriage road Fraele Pass (Bormio to the Ofen road), partly bridle path Scale di Fraele (Bormio to Fraele), bridle path. Maloja Pass (St Moritz to Chiavenna), carriage road 10,716 10,568 10,427 10,424 10,358 io,355 10,299 10,204 10,099 10,079 10,010 10,007 10,007 9,955 9,784 9,777 9,321 9,239 8,494 12,087 11,805 n,572 10,840 10,227 10,171 9,912 9,8i3 9,767 9,351 9,026 9 000 8,832 8,389 8,242 7,976 7,723 7,645 7,638 7 599 7,592 7,540 7,517 7,497 7,386 7,349 7,248 7,071 6,398 6,372 5,935 11. Albula Range (from the Spliigen Pass to the Fliiela Pass, north and west of the Val Bregaglia and of the Engadine). Piz Kesch Piz dellas Calderas Piz Platta Piz Julier Piz d'Err Piz d'Aela Cima da Flex Piz Uertsch Piz Forbisch . Piz Ot . . . Gross Piz Vadret Piz Timun or Emet Tinzenhorn Piz Michel . . Chief Peaks of 11,228 11,132 11,109 11,106 11,093 io,959 10,785 io,739 10,689 10,667 10,584 10,502 10,430 10,378 the Albula Range. Pizzo Stella . Fliiela Schwarzhorn Pizzo della Duana Pizzo Gallegione Gletscherhorn . Cima di Lago . Hoch Ducan Piz Grisch . Averser Weissberg Surettahorn . Arosa Rothhorn Piz Curver . Pizzo Lunghino Statzerhorn . Chief Passes of the Albula Range. Fuorcla Calderas (Molins to Severs), snow Fuorcla d'Eschia (Madulein to Bergiin), snow . Passo della Duana (Avers Valley to the Val Bregaglia), snow Sertig Pass (Davos to Scanfs), foot path .... Forcella di Prassignola (Avers Valley to Soglio), old paved cattle path Tinzenthor (Bergiin to Savognino), foot path Forcella di Lago or Madris Pass (Avers Valley to Chia- venna), footpath ........ Forcellina (Avers Valley to the Septimer Pass), foot path . Ducan Pass (Davos to Bergiin), foot path Passo di Lei (Avers Valley to Chiavenna), foot path . Forcella di Lunghino (Maloja to the Septimer Pass), foot path . . . . . . . Scaletta Pass (Davos to Scanfs), -bridle path Suvretta Pass (St Moritz to Bevers), bridlepath. Fuorcla d'Alp Fontauna (Bergiin to Scanfs), foot path . Stallerberg (Avers Valley to Bivio-Stalla), foot path . Grialetsch Pass (Davos to Siis), foot path. Fliiela Pass (Davos to Siis), carriage road. Strela Pass (Davos to' Langwies) , bridle path . ... Albula Pass (Bergiin to Ponte), carriage road over, rail- way tunnel beneath . . . . . . Septimer Pass (Bivio-Stalla to Casaccia), bridle path. Julier Pass (Thusis to Silvaplana), carriage road Passo di Madesimo or d'Emet (Avers Valley to Madesimo), foot path ........ 12. Silvretta and Rhatikon Ranges (from the Fliiela Pass Reschen Scheideck and the Arlberg Pass). Chief Peaks of the Silvretta and Rhatikon Ranges. io,375 io,335 10,279 10,201 10,191 10,112 10,060 10,000 9,987 9,971 9,794 9,76i 9,121 8,450 10,270 9,869 9,187 9,062 8,924 8,918 8,793 8,770 8,763 8,724 8,645 8,593 8,590 8,580 8,478 8,353 7,838 7,799 7,595 7,582 7,504 7,48i to the Vesulspitze Fliiela Weisshorn Piz Minschun Patteriol Piz Faschalba Hexenkopf . Gemsbleiskopf Pischahorn . Scesaplana . Rothbleiskopf Hohes Rad . Schiltfluh . Plattenpspitze Madrishorn . Drusenfluh . Sulzfluh . Zimbaspitze Naafkopf Falknis . Piz Linard .... 11,201 Fluchthorn .... 11,165 Gross Piz Buin . . 10,880 Verstanklahorn . . . 10,831 Muttler , 10,821 Piz Fliana .... 10,775 Stammerspitze . . . 10,689 Silvrettahorn .... 10,657 Augstenberg .... 16,611 Plattenhorn . . . . 1.0,568 Dreilanderspitze . . . 10,539 Piz Tasna 10,443 Kuchenspitze .... 10,405 Hoher Riffler .... 10,368 Piz Mondin .... 10,325 Kiichelspitze .... 10,315 Gross Seehorn . . . 10,247 Vesilspitze. . . . . 10,220 Gross Litzner .... 10,207 Chief Passes of the Silvretta and Rhatikon Ranges. Jamjoch (Guarda to Galtiir), snow .... Fuorcla del Confin (Silvretta Pass to the Vermunt Glacier) snow ...... Buinliicke (Guarda to Patenen), snow Silvretta Pass (Klosters to Lavin), snow . Zahnlucke (Jam Glen to the Fimber Glen), Verstanklathor (Klosters to Lavin), snow Fuorcla d'Urezzas (Ardez to Galtiir), snow Fuorcla Tasna (Ardez to Ischgl), snow Fuorcla Maisas (Remus to the Samnaun Glen), snow Vermunt or Fermunt Pass (Guarda to Patenen), snow Futschol Pass (Ardez to Galtiir), foot path Fuorcla Zadfell or Vernela Pass (Klosters to Lavin), snow Cuolm d Alp bella or Vignitz Pass (Samnaun Glen to Kappl) foot path ....... Schafbiicheljoch (Mathon to St Anton), foot path Fimber Pass (Remus to Ischgl), bridle path Scheien Pass (Klosters to the See Glen), foot path Vereina Pass or Pass da Val Torta (Klosters to Lavin), foot path ......... 10,145 10,132 10,079 10,037 10,010 9,968 9,899 9.784 9,741 9,6ao 9,554 9,482 9,449 9,285 9,282 9,252 8,678 8,445 8,419 10,112 10,033 10,020 9,886 9,712 9,682 9,564 9,374 9,357 9,193 9,098 9,033 8,852 8,685 8,570 8,557 8,540 74-6 ALPS [PEAKS AND PASSES Zebles Pass (Ischgl to the Samnaun Glen), bridle path Garnerajoch (Klosters to Gaschurn), foot path Fless Pass (Klosters to Siis), foot path .... St Antonien or Gargellenjoch (St Antonien to St Gallen-. kirch), foot path ....... Drusenthor (Schiers to Schruns), foot path Verrajochl (Liinersee to the Schweizerthor), foot path Ofen Pass (Schweizerthor to Schruns), foot path Cavelljoch (Bludenz and the Liinersee to Seewis), foot path Gruben Pass (St Antonien to Schruns), foot path Schlappinerjoch (Klosters to St Gallenkirch), bridle path . Schweizerthor (Schiers to Schruns), foot path . Bielerhohe (Patenen to Galtiir), bridle path Zeinisjoch (Patenen to Galtiir), bridle path Arlberg Pass (Landeck to Bludenz), carriage road over, railway tunnel beneath ...... 8,350 8,153 8,045 7.792 7,710 7,648 7.523 7.343 7,333 7,218 7,057 6,631 6,076 5,912 III. Eastern Alps 13. The Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg and Salzburg (north of the Arlberg Pass, Innsbruck, the Pinzgau, and the Enns valley). Chief Peaks of the Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg and Salzburg. 9,968 Watzmann .... 8,901 Parseierspitze Dachstein .... 9,83° Zugspitze 9,738 Hochkonig .... 9,639 Valluga 9,223 Rockspitze .... 9,059 E. Hohe Griesspitze . . 9,°5 2 Stanskogel .... 9,052 Birkkarspitze (Karwendel) 9,042 gebirge) .... Chief Passes of the Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg and Salzburg. Gentschel Pass (Oberstdorf to Schrocken), bridle path Schrofen Pass (Oberstdorf to Warth), foot path Gerlos Pass (Zell to Mittersill), bridle path Pass Thurn (Kitzbuhel to Mittersill), carriage road . Fern Pass (Reutte to Nassereit), carriage road Scharnitz or Seefeld Pass (Partenkirchen to Zirl), carriage road ......... Hirschbiihel Pass (Berchtesgaden to Saalfelden), carriage road ......... Hochfilzen Pass (Saalfelden to Kitzbuhel), railway over Pyhrn Pass (Linz to Liezen), carriage road over, railway tunnel beneath ....... Wagreinstattel (Radstadt to St Johann in Pongau), carriage road . . • • • . ._ 14. Central Tirol Alps (from the Brenner Pass to the Radstadter Tauern Pass, north of the Drave Valley and south of the Pinzgau and the Enns Valley). This division takes in the Zillerthal and Tauern Ranges. Chief Peaks of the. Central Tirol Alps, Rothewandspitze . . 8,878 Gross Krottenkopf(Allgau)8,7l8 Selbhorn .... 8,711 HohesLicht . . . 8,701 Madelegabel. . . . 8,681 Hochvogel .... 8,511 Elmauer Haltsspitze (Kaiser- ... 7,691 6,480 5,538 4,876 4,i83 4,026 3,874 3,858 3,173 3,100 2,743 Ruthnerhorn (Rieser- ferner) .... 11,024 Hochalmspitze . . . 11,008 Reichenspitze (Z) . . 10,844 Gross Rotherknopf (Schober) . . . 10,814 Gross Morchner (Z) . . 10,785 Hochnarr (Goldberg) . 10,689 Ankogel 10,673 Hochschober ... Kitzsteinhorn Sonnblick .... Zsigmondyspitze Reckner (Tuxergebirge) Gross Glockner . . 12,461 Gross Venediger . 12,008 Gross VViesbachhorn . 11,713 Hochfeiler (Zillerthal) . U,559 Dreiherrenspitze . . il,5°° Mcisele (Z) .... 11,438 Olperer (Z) .... 11,418 Johannisberg .... 11,375 Hochgall (Rieserferner) . 11,287 Thurnerkamp (Z) . . 11,228 Gross Loffler (Z) . . . 11,096 Fussstein (Z) . . . . 11,090 Schwarzenstein (Z) . . 11,057 Gross Geiger . .11,041 Chief Passes of the Central Tirol Alps. Mitterbachjoch (Breitlahner to Taufers), snow (Z) . Trippachsattel (Floiten Valley to Taufers), snow (Z). Riffelthor (Kaprun to Heiligenblut), snow Bockkarscharte (Ferleiten to Heiligenblut), snow Sonnblickscharte (Rauris to Heiligenblut), snow Alpeinerscharte (Breitlahner to St Jodok am Brenner), foot path (Z) Vordcr Umbalthorl (Pragraten to Kasern), snow Ober Sulzbachthorl (Pragraten to Wald), snow Keilbachjoch (Mayrhofen to Steinhaus), foot path (Z) Unter Sulzbachthorl (Wald to Gschloss), snow Schwarzkopfscharte (Bramberg to Gschloss), snow . Pragraterthorl (Pragraten to the Defereggen Glen), foot path Glodisthorl (Lienz to Kals), snow .... Antholzerscharte (Rein Valley to the Antholz Valley) snow (Z) ....... Krimmlerthorl (Krimml Glen to the Obersulzbach Glen) snow ....... Goldzechscharte (Heiligenblut to Rauris), snow Kalserthorl (Kals to Lienz), snow . 10,663 10,512 10,196 10,122 9,485 10,270 10,020 10,010 9,994 9,774 9,712 9,607 9,600 9,410 9,400 9,351 9,338 9,292 9,252 9,233 9,220 9,197 Ober Tramerscharte (Rauris to Dollach), snow Kleine Elendscharte (Gastein to Gmiind), snow Kleine Zirknitzscharte (Dollach to Fragant or Rauris), snow Dossener or Mallnitzerscharte (Mallnitz to Gmiind), snow Grosse Elendscharte (Mallnitz to the Upper Malta Glen), snow ......... Unter Pfandlscharte (Ferleiten to Heiligenblut), snow Heiliggeistjochl (Mayrhofen to Kasern), foot path (Z) Bergerthorl (Kals to Heiligenblut), foot path . Kaprunerthorl (upper Kaprun Glen to the upper Stubach Glen), snow ........ Krimmler Tauern (Krimml to Kasern), foot path Virgner or Defereggerthorl (Defereggen Glen to Virgen and Pragraten), foot path . • . Backlenke or Trojerjoch (Pragraten to the Defereggen Glen), foot path . . . . . . Hochthor or Heiligenbluter Tauern (Heiligenblut to Rauris), foot path ........ Horndljochl (Mayrhofen to Steinhaus), foot path (Z) Velber Tauern (Windisch Matrei to Mittersill), bridle path . Kaiser Tauern (Kals to Uttendorf), foot path Hohe or Korn Tauern (Mallnitz to Gastein), bridle path over, railway tunnel beneath ...... Niedere or Mallnitzer Tauern (Mallnitz to Gastein), bridle path . . . . . . . . Fuscherthorl (Ferleiten to the Seidlwinkel Glen), foot path Lappacherjoch (Lappach to the Ahrn Valley), foot path (Z) . Tuxerjoch or Schmirnjoch (Mayrhofen to St Jodok am Brenner), foot path (Z) . . . . . . Klammljoch (Taufers to the Defereggen Valley), bridle path Arlscharte (St Johann in Pongau to Gmiind), foot path Pfitscherjoch (Mayrhofen to Sterzing), foot path (Z) . Kals Matreierthorl (Kals to Windisch Matrei), bridle path Die Stanz (Gastein to Rauris), foot path . . Stallersattel (Defereggen Glen to the Antholz Glen), bridle path (R) Radstadter Tauern (Radstadt to Mautendorf), carriage road Chief Peaks of the Order Konigsspitze . . . . Monte Cevedale . Wildspitze (Oetzthal) . Weisskugel . . . . Monte Zebru . . . Palon della Mare Punta San Matteo . Thurwieserspitze Hintere Schwarze Similaun Pizzo Tresero . . . . Gross Ramolkogel Vertainspitze . . . . Hochvernagtspitze Ortler, Oetzthal and Stubai Ranges. 12,802 Zuckerhu'tl (Stubai) 12,655 Schalfkogel . 12,382 Schrankogel 12,382 Hochwildspitze . 12,291 Sonklarspitze 12,254 Tuckettspitze 12,156 Wilder Freiger . 12,113 Veneziaspitze . 1 1 ,946 Tschengelser Hochwand 11,920 Monte Confinale 11,821 Glockthurm 11,818 Fernerkogel . 11,651 Monte Sobretta 11,618 Habicht .... 1 1 ,585 Pflerscher Tribulaun Chief Passes of the Ortler, Oetzthal and Stubai Ranges. Hochjoch (Sulden to the Zebru Glen), snow . . . 11,602 Vioz Pass (Santa Caterina to Pejo), snow . . . 10,949 Sonklarscharte (Solden to Sterzing), snow . . . 10,916 Konigsjoch (Sulden to Santa Caterina), snow . . . 10,811 Cevedale Pass (Santa Caterina to the Martell Glen), snow 10,732 Gepatschjoch (Vent to the Kauns Valley), snow . . 10,640 Ramoljoch (Vent to Gurgl), snow ..... 10,479 Langtaufererjoch (Vent to the Reschen Scheideck Pass), snow ......... 10,391 Bildstockljoch (Solden to Ranalt), snow .... 10,296 Gurgler Eisjoch (Gurgl to the Pfossen Glen), snow . . 10,292 Eissee Pass (Sulden to the Martell Glen), snow . . 10,279 Langthalerjoch (Gurgl to Pfelders), snow . . . 10,033 Passo del Zebru (Santa Caterina to the Zebru Glen), snow . 9,925 Sallentjoch (Martell Glen to Rabbi), snow . . . 9,913 Niederjoch (Vent to the Schnals Valley), snow . . 9,899 Sforzellina Pass (Santa Caterina to Pejo), snow . . 9,859 Pitzthalerjochl (Mittelberg to Solden), snow . . . 9,826 Eisjochl am Bild (Pfelders to the Pfossen Glen), snow . 9,541 Venter Hochjoch (Vent to the Schnals Valley), snow. . 9,465 Tabarettascharte (Sulden to Trafoi), foot path . . 9,459 Stelvio Pass (Trafoi to Bormio), carriage road . . . 9,055 Gavia Pass (Santa Caterina to Ponte di Legno), foot path 8,651 Timmeljoch orTimblerjoch (Solden to the Passeierthal and Meran), bridle path . . . . . . 8,232 Jaufen Pass (Sterzing to Meran), bridle path . . . 6,870 Reschen Scheideck Pass (Landeck to Meran), carriage road 4,902 Brenner Pass (Innsbruck to Verona), railway over . . 4,495 16. Lombard Alps (from the Lake of Como to the Adige Valley, south of the Valtellina and the Aprica and Tonale Passes. This 11,520 11,516 11,483 11,418 11,405 n,346 11,241 11,103 11,083 n,057 11,011 10,827 10,814 10,758 10,178 PEAKS AND PASSES] ALPS 747 division includes the Adamello, Presanella, Brenta and Bergamasque ranges. Chief Peaks of the Lombard Alps. 694 Pizzo del Diavolo Prcsanella .... Adamello 11,661 Care Alto 11,369 Dosson di Genova . . 11,254 Crozzon di Lares . .11 ,004 Corno di Baitonc. . . 10,929 Busazza 10,922 I.obbia Alta .... 10,486 Cima Tosa (Brenta) . 10,420 Cima di Brenta . . 10,352 Crozzon di Brenta . . 10,247 Pizzo di Coca (Bergam- asque) .... Pizzo di Scais Pizzo di Redorta Pietra Grande Re di Castello Recastello . . Monte Gleno Monte Tornello Corno Stella Monte Legnone Pizzo dei Tre Signori Pizzo di Presolana . Grigna .... Monte Baldo . . Monte Spinale . Monte Roen. Monte Gazza Monte Resegone 9,564 9,482 9475 9,459 8,819 8,596 8,563 8,380 8,239 7,9<>7 7,218 7,o94 6,939 6,529 6,155 . 10,014 ■ 9,974 ■ 9,964 • 9,630 Chief Passes of the Lombard Alps. Passo di Lares (Lares Glacier to the Lobbia Glacier), snow. Passo di Cercen (Val di Genova to Fucine), snow Passo della Lobbia Alta (Lobbia Glacier to the Mandron Glacier), snow-. ....... Passo di Presena (Val di Genova to the Tonale Pass), snow. Pisgana Pass (Val di Genova to Ponte di Legno), snow Bocca di Tuckett (Campiglio to Molveno), snow Passo di Val Morta or del Diavolo (Val Seriana toSondrio), foot path . . . Bocca di Brenta (Pinzolo or Campiglio to Molveno), snow. Passo del Groste (Campiglio to Cles), foot path. Passo di Venina (Val Brembana to Sondrio), foot path Passo del Salto (Val Seriana to Sondrio), foot path . Passo del Vencrocolo (Val di Scalve to the Aprica road), bridie path . . . . . . . Passo della Forcellina or di Campo (Cedegolo to the Val di Fumo), foot path ....... Passo di Dordona (Val Brembana toSondrio), foot path Passo di San Marco (Bergamo to Morbegno), bridle path . Croce Domini Pass (Breno to Bagolino in Val Caffaro), bridle path ......... Tonale Pass (Trent to Edolo), carriage road Passo di Zovetto (Val di Scalve to Edolo), bridle path Colle Maniva (Val Trompia to Bagolino), bridle path Campo or Ginevrie Pass (Dimaro by Campiglio to Pinzolo), carriage road ........ Gampenjoch (Cles to Meran), foot path .... Mendel Pass (Botzen to Cles), railway on the E. slope Passo di Castione or Presolana Pass (Clusone to the Val di Scalve), carriage road . Aprica Pass (Edolo to Tirano), carriage road . . . 17. The Dolomites of South Tirol (from the Brenner Pass to the Monte Croce Pass, and south of the Pusterthal). 10,483 9,984 9,961 9,879 9,626 8,7H 8,534 8,376 8,006 7,983 7,937 7,595 7,507 6,824 6,513 6,217 6,181 5,968 5,476 5-407 5,051 4,462 4,219 3,875 Chief Peaks of Marmolata .... Antelao Tofana di Mezzo Sorapiss Monte Civetta Vernel Monte Cristallo . Cima di Vezzana Cimon della Pala Langkofel Pelmo ......' Dreischusterspitze Botspitze Croda Rossa (Hoher Caisl) Piz Popena .... Elferkofel Grohmannspitze . Zwolferkofel .... Sass Rigais(Geislerspitzen) Drei Zinnen .... Kesselkogel (Rosengarten) Funffingerspitze . the Dolomites of South Tirol. 10,972 Pala di San Martino 10,706 Rosengartenspitze . 10,633 Marmarole .... 10,594 Cima di Fradusta . 10,564 Fermedathurm . 10,519 Cima d'Asta 10,496 Cima di Canali . 10,470 Croda Grande . IO >453 Vajoletthurm (highest) 10,427 Sass Maor .... 10,397 Cima di Ball IO >375 Cima della Madonna 10,342 (Sass Maor) . Rosetta 10,329 Croda da Lago . 10,312 Central Grasleitcnspitze 10,220 Schlern 10,207 Sasso di Mur 10,142 Cima delle Dodici . 9,932 Monte Pavione . 9,853 Cima di Posta . 9,846 Monte Pasubio . 9,833 9,831 9,78i 9,715 9,649 9,407 9,344 9,338 9,315 9.256 9,239 9,i3i 9,026 8,993 8,911 8,875 8,406 8,380 7,671 7,664 7,333 7,323 Chief Passes of the Dolomites of South Tirol. . Passo d' Ombretta (Campitello to Caprile), foot path . 8,983 Lungkofeljoch (Groden Valley to Campitello), foot path . 8,803 Tschagerjoch (Karersee to the Vajolet Glen), foot path . 8,675 Grasleiten Pass (Vajolet Glen to the Grasleiten Glen), foot path 8,521 Passo di Pravitale (Rosetta Plateau to the Pravitale Glen), foot path ........ 8,465 Passo delle Comelle (same to Cencenighe), foot path . 8,462 Passo della Rosetta (San Martino di Castrozza to the great limestone Rosetta Plateau), foot path . . . 8,442 Vajolet Pass (Tiers to the Vajolet Glen), foot path . . 8,363 Passo di Canali (Primiero to Agordo), foot path . . 8,193 Tiersalpljochl (Campitello to Tiers), foot path . . . 8,055 Passo di Ball (San Martino di Castrozza to the Pravitale Glen), foot path ........ 8,038 Forcella di Giralba (Sexten to Auronzo), foot path . . 7.992 Col dei Bos (Falzarego Glen to the Travernanzes Glen), foot path ... 7,579 Forcella Grande (San Vito to Auronzo), foot path . . 7,422 Pordoi Pass (Caprile to Campitello), carriage road . . 7,382 Sellajoch (Groden Glen to Campitello), bridle path . . 7,277 Tre Sassi Pass (Cortina to St Cassian), foot path . . 7,215 Mahlknechtjoch (Upper Duron Glen to the Seiser Alp), foot path . . . . .7,113 Grodenerjoch (Groden Glen to Colfuschg), bridle path . 7,011 Falzarego Pass (Caprile to Cortina), small carriage road . 6,946 Fedaja Pass (Campitello to Caprile), bridle path . . 6,713 Passo di Valles (Paneveggio to Cenccnighe), foot path . 6,667 Rolle Pass (Predazzo to San Martino di Castrozza and Primiero), carriage road ...... 6,509 Forcella Forada (Caprile to San Vito), bridle path . . 6,480 Passo di San Pellegrino (Moena to Cenccnighe), small carriage road ......... 6,267 Forcella d'AUeghe (Alleghe to the Zoldo Glen), foot path . 5,971 Tre Croci Pass (Cortina to Auronzo), carriage road . . ,5,932 Karersee or Caressa Pass (Welschenofen to Vigo di Fassa), carriage road . . . . , . 5,715 Monte Croce Pass (Innichen and Sexten to the Piave Valley and Belluno), carriage road . 5,374 Ampezzo Pass (Toblach to Cortina and Belluno), carriage road . . . . . . 5,066 Cereda Pass (Primiero to Agordo), bridle path . 4,501 Toblach Pass (Bruneck to Lienz), railway over. . . 3,967 18. South-Eastern Alps (east of the Monte Croce Pass). This division includes three small groups, the Julie, Carnicand Karawankas Alps — each peak and pass being distinguished by one of the initial letters " J," " C " or " K." Chief Peaks of the South-Eastern Alps. Terglou or Triglav (J) 9,400 Monte Cridola (C) 8,468 Monte Coglians (C) . 9,128 Grintovc (K) 8,429 Kellerwand (C) . 9,105 Prestrelenik (J) 8,202 Jof del Montasio (J) . ■ 9,039 Monte Cavallo (C) 7,386 Cima dei Preti (C) . 8,868 Krn (J) 7,369 Monte Paralba (C) . 8,829 Stou (K) ... 7,346 Manhart (J) . 8,786 Dobratsch (C) . 7,110 Jalouc (J) ... 8,711 Velka Kappa (K) . 5,059 Monte Camn (J) 8,471 Chief Passes of the South-Eastern Alps. Oefnerjoch (Forno Avoltri to St Lorenzen in the Gail Valley), foot path (C) Wolayer Pass (same to Mauthen), foot path (C) . Loibl Pass (Klagenfurt to Laibach), carriage road (K) Plocken Pass (Tolmezzo to Mauthen), bridle path (C) Predil Pass (Villach by Tarvis and Flitsch to Gorz), carriage road (J) Birnbaumerwald (Laibach to Gorz), carriage road (J) Saifnitz or Pontebba Pass (Villach by Tarvis and Pontebba to Udine), railway ....... 7,550 6,506 4,495 4,462 3,8i3 2,897 2,615 7. Political History and Modern State of the Inhabitants of the Alps. — We know practically nothing of the early dwellers in the Alps, save from the scanty accounts preserved to us by Roman and Greek historians and geographers. A few details have come down to us of the conquest of many of the Alpine tribes by Augustus, though not much more than their names. The suc- cessive emigrations and occupation of the Alpine region by divers Teutonic tribes from the 5th to the 6th centuries are, too, known to us only in outline, while to them, as to the Frankish kings and emperors, the Alps offered a route from one place to another rather than a permanent residence. It is not till the final break up of the Carolingian empire in the 10th and nth centuries that it becomes possible to trace out the local history of different parts of the Alps. In the case of the Western Alps (minus the bit from the chain of Mont Blanc to the Simplon, which followed the fortunes of the Valais), a prolonged struggle for the Alpine region took place between the feudal lords of Savoy, the Dauphine and Provence. In 1349 the Dauphine fell to France, while in 1388 the county of Nice passed from Provence to the house of Savoy, which too held Piedmont as well as other lands on the Italian side of the Alps. The struggle henceforth was limited to France and the house of Savoy, but little by little France succeeded in pushing 74 8 ALPS [HISTORY back the house of Savoy across the Alps, thus forcing it to be- come a purely Italian power. One turning-point in the rivalry was the treaty of Utrecht (1713), by which France gave up to Savoy the districts (all forming part of the Dauphine, and lying on the Italian slope of the Alps) of Exilles, Bardonneche, Oulx, Fenestrelles, and Chateau Dauphin, while Savoy handed over to France the valley of Barcelonnette, situated on the western slope of the Alps and forming part of the county of Nice. The final act in the long-continued struggle took place in i860, when France obtained by cession the rest of the county of Nice and also Savoy, thus remaining sole mistress on the western slope of the Alps. In the Central Alps the chief event, on the northern side of the chain, is the gradual formation from 1291 to 181 5 of the Swiss Confederation, at least so far as regards the mountain Cantons, and with especial reference to the independent confedera- tions of the Grisons and the Valais, which only became full members of the Confederation in 1803 and 1815 respectively. The attraction of the south was too strong for both the Forest Cantons and the Grisons, so that both tried to secure, and actually did secure, various bits of the Milanese. The former, in the 15th century, won the Val Leventina (down which the St Gotthard train now thunders) as well as Bellinzona and the Val Blenio (though the Ossola Valley was held for a time only),> while the latter added to the Val Bregaglia (which had been given to the bishop of Coire in 960 by the emperor Otto I.) the valleys of Mesocco and of Poschiavo. Further, in 1512, the Swiss Confederation as a whole won the valleys of Locarno with Lugano, which, combined with the 15th century conquests by the Forest Cantons, were formed in 1803 into the new Canton of Ticino or Tessin. On the other hand, the Grisons won in 151 2 the Valtellina, with Bormio and Chiavenna, but in 1797 these regions were finally lost to it as well as to the Swiss Con- federation, though the Grisons retained the valleys of Mesocco, Bregaglia and Poschiavo, while in 1762 it had bought the upper bit of the valley of Miinster that lies on the southern slope of the Alps. In the Eastern Alps the political history is almost monotonous, for it relates simply to the advance or retreat of the house of Habsburg, which still holds all but the whole of the northern portion (the exception is the small bit in the north-west that belongs to Bavaria) of that region. The Habsburgers, whose original home was in the lower valley of the Aar, where still stand the ruins of their ancestral castle, lost that district to the Swiss in 1415, as they had previously lost various other bits of what is now Switzerland. But they received a rich compensation in the Eastern Alps (not to speak of the imperial crown), for they there gathered in the harvest that numerous minor dynasties had prepared for them, albeit unconsciously. Thus they won the duchy of Austria with Styria in 1282, Carinthia and Carniola in ^HSi Tirol in 1363, and the Vorarlberg in bits from 1375 to 1523, not to speak of minor " rectifications " of frontiers on the northern slope of the Alps. But on the other slope their progress was slower, and finally less successful. It is true that they early won Primiero (1373), as well as (1517) the Ampezzo Valley and several towns to the south of Trent. In 1797 they obtained Venetia proper, in 1803 the secularized bishoprics of Trent and Brixen (as well as that of Salzburg, more to the north), besides the Valtellina region, and in 1815 the Bergamasque valleys, while the Milanese had belonged to them since 1535. But, as is well known, in 1859 they lost to the house of Savoy both the Milanese and the Bergamasca, and in 1866 Venetia proper also, so that the Trentino is now their chief possession on the southern slope of the Alps. The gain of the Milanese in 1859 by the future king of Italy (1861) meant that Italy then won the valley of Livigno (between the Upper Engadine and Bormio), which is the only important bit it holds on the non- Italian slope of the Alps, besides the county of Tenda (obtained in 1575, and not lost in i860), with the heads of certain glens in the Maritime Alps, reserved in i860 for reasons connected with hunting. Thus the Alpine states (Italy, Switzerland and Austria), other than France and Bavaria, hold bits of territory on the slope of the Alps where one would not expect to find them. Roughly speaking, in each of these five lands the Alpine population speaks the tongue of the country, though in Italy there are a few French-speaking districts (the Waldensian valleys as well as the Aosta and Oulx valleys) as well as some German-speaking and Ladin-speaking settlements. In Switzerland there are Italian-speaking regions, as well as some spots (in the Grisons) where the old Romance dialect of Romansch or Ladin survives; while in Austria, besides German, Italian and Ladin, we have a Slavonic-speaking population in the South-Eastern Alps. The highest permanently inhabited village in the Alps is Juf, 6998 ft. (Grisons); while in the French Alps, L'Ecot, 6713 ft; (Savoy), and St Veran, 6726 ft. (Dauphine), are rivals; the Italian Alps boast of Trepalle, 6788 ft. (between Livigno and Bormio), and the Tirolese Alps of Ober Gurgl, 6322 ft., and Fend, 621 1 ft. (both in the Oetzthal). 8. Exploration of the High Alps. — The higher region of the Alps were long left to the exclusive attention of the men of the adjoining valleys, even when Alpine travellers (as distinguished from Alpine climbers) began to visit these valleys. It is reckoned that about 20 glacier passes were certainly known before 1600, about 25 more before 1700, and yet another score before 1800; but though the attempt of P. A. Arnod (an official of the duchy of Aosta) in 1689 to " re-open " the Col du Geant may be counted as made by a non-native, we do not come upon another case of the kind till the last quarter of the 18th century. Nor did it fare much better with the high peaks, though the two earliest recorded ascents were due to non-natives, that of the Rochemelon in 1358 having been undertaken in fulfilment of a vow, and that of the Mont Aiguille in 1492 by order of Charles VIII. of France', in order to destroy its immense reputation for inaccessibility— in 1555 Conrad Gesner did not climb Pilatus proper, but only the grassy mound of the Gnepf stein, the lowest and the most westerly of the seven summits. The two first men who really systematically explored the regions of ice and snow were H. B. de Saussure (1 740-1 799), as regards the Pennine Alps, and thf Benedictine monk of Disentis, Placidus a Spescha (1752-1833, most of whose ascents were made before 1 806) , in the valleys at the sources of the Rhine. In the early 19th century the Meyer family of Aarau conquered in person the Jungfrau (1811) and by deputy the Finsteraarhorn (1812), besides opening several glacier passes, their energy being entirely confined to the Bernese Oberland. Their pioneer work was continued in that district, as well as others, by a number of Swiss, pre-eminent among whom were Gottlieb Studer (1804-1890) of Bern, and Edouard Desor (1811-1882) of Neuchatel. The first-known English climber in the Alps was Colonel Mark Beaufoy (1764-1827), who in 1787 made an ascent (the fourth) of Mont Blanc, a mountain to which his fellow-countrymen long exclusively devoted themselves, with a few noteworthy exceptions, such as Principal J. D. Forbes (1809-1868), A. T. Malkin (1803-1888), John Ball (1818-1889), and Sir Alfred Wills (b. 1828). Around Monte Rosa the Vincent family, Josef Zumstein (1783-1861), and Giovanni Gnifetti (1801-1867) did good work during the half century between 1778 and 1842, while in the Eastern Alps the Archduke John (1782-1859), Prince F. J. C. von Schwarzenberg, archbishop of Salzburg (1800-1885), Valentine Stanig (1774-1847), Adolf Schaubach (1800-1850), above all, P.J. Thurwieser (1 789-1865), deserve to be recalled as pioneers in the first half of the 19th century. In the early fifties of the 19th century the taste for mountaineering rapidly developed for several very different reasons. A great stimulus was given to it by the foundation of the various Alpine clubs, each of which drew together the climbers who dwelt in the same country. The first was the English Alpine Club (founded in the winter of 1857-1858), followed in 1862 by the Austrian Alpine Club (which in 1873 was fused, under the name of the German and Austrian Alpine Club, with the German Alpine Club, founded in 1869), in 1863 by the Italian and Swiss Alpine Clubs, and in 1874 by the French Alpine Ciub, not to mention numerous minor societies of more local character. It was by the members of these clubs (and a few others) that the minute exploration (now all but complete) BIBLIOGRAPHY] ALPS 749 of the High Alps was carried out, while much has been done in the way of building club huts, organizing and training guides, &c, to smooth the way for later comers, who benefit too by the detailed information published in the periodicals (the first dates from 1863 only) issued by these clubs. Limits of space forbid us to trace out in detail the history of the exploration of the High Alps, but the two sub-joined lists give the dates of the conquest of about fifty of the greater peaks (apart from the two climbed in 1358 and in 1492, see above), achieved before and after 1st January 1858. As a proof of the rapidly-growing activity of Englishmen, it may be pointed out that while before 1858 only four summits (the Mittelhorn, or central peak of the Wetterhorner, the highest point of Monte Rosa, Laquinhorn and Pelmo) were first ascended by Englishmen, in the case of the second list only five (Grand Combin,Wildspitze,Marmolata, Langkofel and Meije) were not so conquered (if the present writer, an American, be included among the English pro hac vice). (1) Before 1st January 1858:— Titlis (1744), Ankogel (1762), Mont Velan (1779), Mont Blanc (1786), Rheinwaldhorn (1789), Gross Glockner (1800), Ortler (1804), Jungfrau (1811), Fin- steraarhorn (1812), Zumsteinspitze (1820), T6di (1824), Altels (1834), Piz Linard (1835), Gross Venediger (184T), Signalkuppe (1842), Wetterhorner (1844-1845), Mont Pelvoux (1848), Diablerets and Piz Bernina (both in 1850), highest point of Monte Rosa (1855), Laquinhorn (1856) and Peimo (1857). (2) After 1st January 1858:— Dom (1858), Aletschhorn, Bietschhorn and Grand Combin (all in 1859), Grand Paradis and Grande Casse (both in i860), Weisshorn, Monte Viso, Gross Schreckhorn, Lyskamm and Wildspitze (all in 1861), Dent Blanche, Monte della Disgrazia and Taschhorn (all in 1862), Marmolata, Presanella, Pointe des Ecrins and Zinal Rothhorn (all in 1864), Matterhorn, Ober Gabelhorn, Aiguille Verte and Piz Roseg (all in 1865), Langkofel (1869), Cimon della Pala (1870), Rosengarten (1872), Meije (1877), Aiguilledu Dru (1878), Punta dell' Argentera (1879), Aiguille des Charmoz (1880), Aiguille de Grepon (1881) and Aiguille du Geant (1882). 9. General List of Books and Maps.— (i) Books. — For a longer list than we can give see John Ball's Hints and Notes for Travellers in the Alps (new ed., 1899) and also A. Waber's Landes- und Reise- beschreibungen der Schweiz (1899, supplement in 1907). In general see J. Ball's The Alpine Guide (3 vols., new ed. of vol. i., 1898; last ed. of vol. ii., 1876, and of vol. iii., 1879) ; H. A. Berlepsch, Die Alpen in Natur- und Lebensbildern (last ed., 1885, Eng. trans., 1861); T. G. Bonnev, The Alpine Regions of Switzerland and the Neighbouring Countries (1868); A. Civiale, Les Alpes au point de vue de la geo- graphie physique (1882); Sir Martin Conway, The Alps (1904); W. A. B. Coolidge, Swiss Travel and Swiss Guide-Boohs (1889) and The Alps (1908) ; R. von Lendenfeld, Aus den Alpen (2 vols., 1896) ; C. Lentheric, L'Homme devant les Alpes (1896); F. Umlauft, Die Alpen (1887, Eng. trans., 1889). On some special subjects see W. A. Baillie-Grohmann, Sport in the Alps (1896) ; A. Mosso. Fisio- logia dell' Uomo sulle Alpi (1897, English trans., 1898); N. Zuntz and others, Hohenklima und Bergwanderungen in ihrer Wirkungen auf den Menschen (1906); G. Berndt, Der Fbhn (1896, the south wind, so important in mountain districts) ; and the article on Glacier. As to Alpine legends, consult Maria Savi-Lopez, Leggende delle Alpi (1889); M. Tscheinen, Walliser-Sagen (1872); Th. Vernaleken, Alpensagen (1858); and I. V. Zingerle, Sagen aus Tirol (1859); and as to Alpine poetry — J. Adam, Der Natursinn in der deutschen Dichtung (1906); E. A. Baker and F. E. Ross, The Voice of the Mountains (1905, an anthology in verse and prose) ; A. von Haller, Die Alpen (1732, best ed., 1882, illustrated ed., 1902); and H. E. Jenny, Die Alpendichtung in der deutschen Schweiz (1905). As to Alpine dialects, consult J. Alton, Die ladinischen Idiome in Ladinien, Groden, Fassa, Buchenstein, Ampezzo (1879); J. A. Chabrand and A. de Rochas d'Aiglun, Patois des Alpes cottiennes (1877); Z. and E. Pallioppi, Dizionari dels Idioms Romauntschs d'Engiadina ota e bassa, &c. (1895); A - Socin, Schriftsprache und Dialekte im Deutschen (1888); F. J. Stalder, Die Landessprachen der Schweiz (18 19), and J. Zimmerli, Die deutsch-franzbsische Sprach- grenze in der Schweiz (3 vols., 1891-1899); besides the great Swiss Dialect Dictionary (Schweiz. Idiolikon) in course of publication since 1881. As to the history of the Alps, the following works touch on various aspects of the subject: — G. Allais, Le Alpi Occidentali nelV Antichitd ( 1891) ; \V. Brockedon, Illustrations of the Passes of the Alps (2 vols., 1828-1829); J. Grand-Carteret, La Montagne a travers Us ages (2 vols., 1902-1904); G. Oberziner, Le Guerre di Augusto conlro i populi alpini (1900); E. Oehlmann, Die Alpenpdsse im Mittelalter (1878-1879) ; R. Reinhard, Passe und Strassen in den Schweizer Alpen (1903); and L. Vaccarone, Le Vie delle Alpi Occidentali negli antichi tempi (1884); while W. A. B. Coolidge's Josias Simler et les origines de l' alpinisms jusqu'en 1600 (1904) summarises our know- ledge of the Alps up to 1600. Among works of a more or less descriptive nature (based on actual travels), the following list includes all the standard works dated before 1855: — Le Alpi che cingono I' Italia (1845); J. G. Altmann, Versuch einer hist. u. phys. Beschreibung der helvetischen Eisbergen (1751); A. C. Bordier, Voyage pittoresque aux glacieres de Savoye ( r 773); P- J- de Bourcet, Memoires militaires sur les frontieres de la France, du PUmont, et de la Savoie (1801) ; M. T. Bourrit, Descrip- tion des glacieres, glaciers, et amas de glace du duche de Savoye (1773, Eng. trans., 1775), Description des Alpes pennines et rhetiennes (2 vols., 1781, 3rd vol., 1785), and Description des cols ou passages des Alpes (2 vols., 1803); W. Brockedon, Journals of Excursions in the Alps (1833) ; U. Campell, Raetiae alpestris topo- graphica descriptio (finished in 1572, but publ. only in 1884, with a supplement in 1900); J. A. Deluc and P. G. Dentan, Relation de differents voyages' dans les Alpes du Faucigny (1776); E. Desor, Excursions et sejours dans les glaciers (2 series, 1844-1845) ; C. M. Engelhardt, Natur schilderungen aus den hbchsten Schweizer-Alpen (1840), and Das Monte-Rosa und Matterhorn-Gebirg (1852); J. D.- Forbes, Travels through the Alps of Savoy (1843, new ed., 1900); Sir John Forbes, A Physician's Holiday (1849); J. Frobel, Reise in die weniger bekannten Thaler auf der Nordseite der penninischen Alpen (1840) ; G. Gnifetti, Nozioni topografiche del Monte Rosa ed ascensioni su di esso (1845, 2nd ed., 1858); G. S. Gruner, Die Eis- gebirgedes Schweizerlandes (3 vols., 1760) ; J. Hegetschweiier, Reisen in den Gebirgsstock zwischen Glarus und Graubiinden, 1819-1822 (1825); G. Hoffmann, Wanderungen in der Gletschervielt (1843); F. J. Hugi, Naturkistorische Alpenreise (1830); C. J. Latrobe, The Alpenstock (1829) and The Pedestrian (1832); J. R. and H. Meyer, Reise auf den Jungfrau-Gletscher und Ersteigung seines Gipfels ( 1 8 1 1 ) ; De Montannel, La Topographie militaire de la frontiire des Alpes (written in 1777, but publ. in 1875 only); Operations giodisiques et astronomiques pour la mesure d'un arc du parallele moyen (2 vols., 1825-1827); H. R. Rebmann, Ein poetisch Gastmal und Gesprdch zweyer Bergen, nemlich des Niesens und Stockhorns (1606) ; C. Rohr- dorf, -Reise uber die Grindelwald-Viescher-Gletscher und Ersteigung des Gletschers des Jungfrau-Berges (1828) ; H. B. de Saussure, Voyages dans les Alpes (4 vols., 1 779-1 796) ; A. Schaubach, Deutsche Alpen (4 vols., 1845-1847); J. J. Scheuchzer, Helvetiae Stoicheio- graphia, Orographia, et Oreographia (1716), and Itinera per Helvetiae alpinas regiones facta annis 1702-1711 (4 vols., 1723); J. Simler, Vallesiae Descriptio et de Alpibus Commentarius (1574, new ed. in 1904, see Coolidge above) ; Albert Smith, The Story of Mont Blanc (!853); G. Studer, Topographische Mitteilungen aus dem Alpenge- birge (1843); R. TOpffer, Voyages en zigzag (2 series, 1844 and 1853); Aegid. Tschudi, De prised ac verd alpind Rhaelid (1538, also in German, same date) ; and L. von Welden, Der Monte Rosa (1824). As to works published alter 1855 we can only give a short, though carefully selected, list. C. Aeby and others, Das Hochgebirge von Grindelwald (1865); W. A. Baillie-Grohmann, Tyrol and the Tyrolese (1876), and Gaddings with a Primitive People (2 vols., 1878); H; von Barth, Aus den nordlichen Kalkalpen (1874); L. Barth and L. Pfaundler, Die Stubaiergebirgsgruppe (1865); G. F. Browne, Off the Mill (1895); Mrs H. W. Cole, A Lady's Tour round Monte Rosa (1859); E. T. Coleman, Scenes from the Snow Fields (1859); Sir Martin Conway, The Alps from End to End (1895); A. Daudet, Tartarin sur les Alpes (1885, Eng. trans., same date); C. T. Dent, Above the Snow Line (1885) ; Miss A. B. Edwards, Untrodden Peaks and Unfrequented Valleys (1873, Dolomites) ; Max Forderreuther, Die Allgauer Alpen (1906); D. W. Freshfield, Across Country from Thonon to Trent (1865), and Italian Alps (1875) ; Mrs Henry Fresh- field, Alpine Byways (1861), and A Summer Tour in the Grisons (1862); H. B. George, The Oberland and its Glaciers (1866); J. Gilbert and G. C. Churchill, The Dolomite Mountains (1864); A. G. Girdlestone, The High Alps without Guides (1870) ; P. Groh- mann, Wanderungen in den Dolomiten (1877) ; P. Giissfeldt, In den Hochalpen (1886), and Der Montblanc (1894); T. W. Hinchliff, Summer Months among the Alps (1857) ; C. Hudsonand E. S. Kennedy, Where there's a Will there's a Way (1856) ; E. Javelle, Souvenirs d' un Alpiniste (1886, Eng. trans., 1899); S. W. King, The Italian Valleys of the Pennine Alps (1858) ; Le Valli di Lanzo (publ. by the Italian Alpine Club in 1899); A. Lorria and E. A. Martel, Le Massif de la Bernina (1894) ; J. Michelet, La Montagne (1868, Eng. trans., 1872) ; A. W. Moore, The Alps in 1864 (1867, publ. ed., 1902); A. F. Mummery, My Climbs in the Alps (1895); Norman- Neruda, The Climbs of (1899);. Peaks, Passes and Glaciers (3 vols., 1859-1862); L. Purtscheller, Uber Pels und Firn (1901); E. Rambert, Ascensions et ftdneries (2 vols., 1888); G. Rey, // Monte Cervino (1904); John Ruskin, vol. iv. (On Mountain Beauty) of Modern Painters (1856); A. von Ruthner, Aus den Tauern (1864) and Aus Tirol (1869)-; V. Sella and D. Vallino, Monte Rosa e Gressoney (1890) ; F. Simony, Das Dachsteingebiet (1889-1896); L. Sinigaglia, Climbing Reminis- cences of the Dolomites (1896); K.' von Sonklar, Die Oetzthaler Gebirgsgruppe (i860), and Die Gebirgsgruppe der Hohen-Tauern (1866) ; Sir L. Stephen, The Playground of Europe (1871) ; B. Studer, Geschichte der physischen Geographie der Schweiz bis 181s (1863); 75° ALPS [GEOLOGY G. Studer and others, Berg- und Gletscherfahrten (2 series, 1859 and 1863); G. Theobald, Naturbilder aus den rhatischen Alpen (i860), and Das Bundner Oberland (1861) ; F. F. Tuckett, Hochalpensludien (2 vols., 1873-1874); Miss L. Tuckett, How we Spent the Summer (1864), Pictures in Tyrol (1867), and Zigzagging amongst Dolomites (1871); J. Tyndall, The Glaciers of the Alps (i860), Mountaineering in 1861 (1862), and Hours of Exercise in the Alps (1871); J. J. Weilenraann, A us der Firnenwelt (3 vols., 1872-1877) ; E. Whymper, Scrambles amongst the Alps (1871); Sir A. Wills, Wanderings among the High Alps (1856), and The " Eagle's Nest " in the Valley of Sixt (i860); G. Yeld, Scrambles in the Eastern Graians (1900); H. Zschokke, Reise auf die Eisgebirge des Kantons Bern und Ersteigung ihrer hbchsten Gipfel im Sommer von 1812 (1813) ; E. Zsigmondy, Im Hochgebirge (1889); M. Zurbriggen, From the Alps to the Andes (1899). Many useful practical hints as to climbing are to be found in C. T. Dent and others, Mountaineering (1892, 3rd ed., 1900, " Badminton Library ") ; the Manuel d'Alpinisme (1904, publ. by the French Alpine Club) ; J. Meurer, Handbuch der alpinen Sport (1882), Katechismus fur Bergsteiger (1892), and Der Bergsteiger im Hochgebirge (1893); and C. Wilson, Mountaineering (1893, "All England " series). As regards the dangers of Alpine climbing consult C. Fiorio and C. Ratti, / Pericoli dell' Alpinismo (1889), and E. Zsigmondy, Die Gefahren der Alpen (1885, Fr. trans., 1889). There are also special guide-books for the use of climbers in the Alps — the " Climbers' Guides " series, edited by Sir Martin Conway and W. A. B. Coolidge (10 vols., 1890-1904); W. A. B. Coolidge, H. Duhamel and F. Pcrrin, Guide du TIaut Dauphine (1887, with supplement in 1890, Eng. trans., 1892 and 1905) ; L. Purtscheller and H. Hess, Der Hochtourist in den Ostalpen (2 vols., 1894, 3 vols., 3rd ed., 1903) ; the 3 vols. publ. (1902-1905) by the Swiss Alpine Club under the name of Clubfuhrer to the Alps of Glarus and Uri, and V. Wolf von Glanvell, Dolomitenfiihrer (1898). As regards the early history of Alpine exploration consult W. A. B. Coolidge, Josias Simler et les origines de Valpinisme jusqu'en 1600 (1904), and F. Gribble, The Early Mountaineers (1899). For the later period see, besides the more general works of travel mentioned above, the publications (that date from 1863) of the various Alpine Clubs — the Alpine Journal (English A. C.),theAnnuaire, Bulletin, La Montagne, and Revue alpine (French A. C), the Jahrbuch, Mittei- lungen, Verhandlungen, and Zeilschrift (German and Austrian A. C), the Alpinista, Bollettino, and Rivista Mensile (Italian A. C), and the Alpina, Echo des Alpes, Jahrbuch, Schweizer Alpen-Zeitung (Swiss A. C), besides those of the smaller societies, such as the Osterreichische Alpen-Zeitung (Austrian A. C), the Annuaire (Societe des Touristes du Dauphine), and the Annuario (Societa degli Alpinisti Tridentini). Summaries of the Alpine history of the three great divisions of the Alps are given in (W. Alps) L. Vaccarone, Statistica delle Prime Ascensioni nelle Alpi Occidentali (3rd. ed., 1890 — this work omits the Dauphine Alps, as to which see the 1887 work or its Eng. version, 1905, mentioned above); (Central and Swiss Alps) G. Studer, Uber Eis und Schnee (2nd ed. 3 vols., 1896— 1899) ; and (E. Alps) G. Groger and J. Rabl, Die Entwickelung der Hochtouristik in den osterreichischen Alpen (1890), and E. Richter, Die Erschliessung der Ostalpen (3 vols., 1894). The detailed history of Mont Blanc has been written by Ch. Durier, Le Mont Blanc (1877, 4th ed., 1897), and C. E. Mathews, The Annals of Mont Blanc (1898). Lives of some of the most celebrated moun- tain guides have been written in C. D. Cunningham and W. de W. Abney, Pioneers of the Alps (2nd ed., 1888). (2) Maps. — There is no good modern and fairly large-scale map of the entire chain of the Alps. But L. Ravenstein's maps (scale 1 : 250,000) of the Swiss Alps (2 sheets) and of the Eastern Alps (8 sheets) include the whole chain, save that portion south of the range of Mont Blanc. All the countries which include Alpine districts have now issued official Government maps. The French map on a scale of 1 : 80,000 is clearer and more accurate than that on a scale of 1 : 100,000. The Italian Government has published maps on scales of 1 : 50,000 and 1 : 100,000 the Austrian on a scale of 1 : 75,000, and the Bavarian on a scale of 1 : 50,000. But the most splendid Government map of all is that put forth by the Swiss Federal Topographical Bureau, under the title of Siegfried Atlas (scale 1 -.50,000 for the Alpine districts), which has quite superseded the Dufour Map (scale 1 : 100,000), the history of which was published in 1896. For maps of the Swiss Alps and their neighbours, see J. H. Graf, Literatur der Landesvermessung (1896, with a supplement). A few of the best special maps of certain districts may be men- tioned — such as H. Duhamel's maps of the Dauphine Alps (4 sheets on a scale of 1 :i 00,000, 1889, 2nd ed., 1892), and that of the range of Mont Blanc (scale 1:50,000, 1896, 2nd ed., 1905), by X. Imfeld and L. Kurz. The German and Austrian Alpine Club is publishing a very fine set of maps (scale 1 : 50,000) of the Eastern Alps, which are clearer and better than the Austrian Government's Topo- graphische Detailkarten (11 sheets, scale 1 : 50,000). (W. A. B. C.) 10. Geology. — The Alps form but a small portion of a great zone of crumpling which stretches, in a series of curves, from iua riva lepd. &v oiiK eirl (iufiov 6 KaOayurfids dXX' hcl e5avtoi, or d^oficouiou Deities of an inferior order, who were conceived as working together — e.g. the wind gods — had an altar in common. In the same way, the ' ' unknown gods " were regarded as a unit, and had in Athens and at Olympia one altar for all (Paus. i. 1. 4; v. 14. 5; cf. Acts of Apostles, xvii. 18). An altar to all the gods is mentioned by Aeschylus (Suppl. 222). Among the exceptional classes of altars are also to be mentioned those on which fire could not be kindled ((Sdifioi iirvpoi), and those which were kept free from blood (/3co/k>i ava.ina.KToi), of which in both respects the altar of Zeus Hypatos at Athens was an example. The iaria was a round altar; the ecxapa, one employed apparently for sacrifice to inferior deities or heroes (but taxa-pc &oif}ov, Aesch. Pers. 205). In Rome an altar erected in front of a statue of a god was always required to be lower than the statue itself (Vitruvius iv. 9). Altars were always places of refuge, and even criminals and slaves were there safe, violence offered to them being insults to the gods whose suppliants the refugees were for the time being. They were also taken hold of by the Greeks when making their most solemn oaths. Ancient America. — As a single specimen of an altar, wholly unrelated to any of the foregoing, we may cite the ancient Mexican example described by W. Bullock (Six Months in Mexico, London, 1824, p. 335). This was cylindrical, 25 ft. in circum- ference, with sculpture representing the conquests of the national warriors in fifteen different groups round the side. 1 Portable altars and tables of offerings were used in pre-Christian as well as in Christian ritual. One such was discovered in the Gezer excavations, dating about 200 B.C. It was a slab of polished limestone about 6 in. square with five cups in its upper surface. Another from the same place was a small cubical block of limestone bearing a dedication to Heracles. They have also been found in Assyria. Pocket altars are still used in some forms of worship in India. See the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1852, p. 71. 1 Bullock also says (p. 354) that the altar in the church of the Indian village of S. Miguel de los Ranchos which he visited was " of the same nature as those in use before the introduction of Christianity." Altars in the Christian Church I. The Early Church.— The altar is spoken of by the early Greek and Latin ecclesiastical writers under a variety of names : — rpaire^a, the principal name in the Greek fathers and the liturgies; dvenaa-rripiov (rarer; used in the Septuagint for Hebrew altars); iXcurnjpiop; (la>(ws (usually avoided, as it. is a word with heathen associations); mensa Domini; ara (avoided like /3wju6s, and for the same reason) ; and, most regularly, altare. After the 4th century other names or expressions come into use, such as mensa tremenda, sedes corporis el sanguinis Chrisli. The earliest Christians had no altars, and were taunted by the pagans for this. It is admitted by Origen in Ids reply to Celsus (p. 389), who has charged the Christians with being a secret society "because they forbid to build temples, to raise altars." " The altars," says Origen, " are the heart of every Christian." The same appears from a passage in Lactantius, De Origine Err oris, ii. 2. We gather from these passages that down to about a.d. 250, or perhaps a little later, the communion was administered on a movable wooden table. In the Catacombs, the arcosolia or bench-like tombs are said (though the statement is doubtful) to have been used to serve this purpose. The earliest church altars were certainly made of wood; and it would appear from a passage in William of Malmesbury (De Gest. Pontif. Angl. in. 14) that English altars were of wood down to the middle of the nth century, at least in the diocese of Worcester. The cessation of persecution, and consequent gradual elabora- tion of church furniture and ritual, led to the employment of more costly materials for the altar as for the other fittings of ecclesiastical buildings. Already in the 4th century we find reference to stone altars in the writings of Gregory of Nyssa. In 517 the council of Epaone in Burgundy forbade any but stone pillars to be consecrated with chrism; but of course the decrees of this provincial council would not necessarily be received throughout the church. Pope Felix I. (a.d. 269-274) decreed that " mass should be celebrated above the tombs of martyrs " — an observance probably suggested by the passage in Revelation vi. 9, " I saw under the altar the soiils of them that were slain for the word of God." This practice developed into the medieval rule that no altar can be consecrated unless it contain a relic or relics. The form of the altar was originally table-shaped, consisting of a plane surface supported by columns. There were usually four, but examples with one, two and five columns are also recorded. But the development of the relic-custom led to the adoption of another form, the square box shape of an " altar- tomb." Transitional examples, combining the box with the earlier table shape, are found dating about 450. Mention is made occasionally of silver and gold altars in the 5th to the 8th centuries. This means no doubt that gold and silver were copiously used in its decoration. Such an altar still remains in Sant' Ambrogio at Milan, dating from the 9th century (see fig. 1). II. The Medieval Church. — It will be convenient now to pass to the fully-developed altar of the Western Church With its accessories, though the rudiments of most of the additional details are traceable in the earlier period. In the Roman Catholic Church, which preserves in this respect the tradition that had become established during the middle ages, the component parts of a fixed altar in the liturgical sense are the table (mensa), or super-altar, consisting of a stone slab; the support (stipes), consisting either of a solid mass or of four or more columns; the sepulchrum, or altar-cavity, a small chamber for the reception of the relics of martyrs. The support, in the technical sense, must be of stone solidly joined to the table; but, if this support consist of columns, the intervals may be filled with other materials, e.g. brick or cements The altar- slab or " table " alone is consecrated, and in sign of this are cut in its upper surface five Greek crosses, one in the centre and one in each corner. These crosses must have been anointed by the bishop with chrism in the ritual of consecration before the altar can be used. Crosses appear on the portable altar buried with 762 ALTAR St Cuthbert (a.d. 687), but the history of the origin and develop- ment of this practice is not fully worked out. According to the Caeromoniale (i. 12. 13) a canopy (balda- chinum) should be suspended over the altar; this should be square, and of sufficient size to cover the altar and the preddla on which the officiating priest stands. This baldachin, called liturgically the ciborium, is sometimes hung from the roof by chains in such a way that it can be lowered or raised; sometimes it is fixed to the wall or reredos; sometimes it is a solid structure of wood covered with metal or of marble supported on four columns. The latter form is, however, usual only in large churches, more especially of the basilica type, e.g. St Peter's at Rome or the Roman Catholic cathedral at Westminster. The origin of the ciborium is not certain, but it is represented in a mosaic at Thessalonica of a date not later than a.d. 500. Even at the present day, in spite of a decree of the Congregation of Rites (27th of May 1697) ordering it to be placed over all altars, it is — even at Rome itself— usually only found over the high altar and the altar of the Blessed Sacrament. Multiplication of altars is another medieval characteristic. This also is probably a result of the edict of Pope Felix already mentioned. In a vault where more than one martyr was buried an altar might be erected for each. It is in the 6th century that we begin to find traces of the multiplication of altars. In the church of St Gall, Switzerland, in the 9th century there were seventeen. In the modern Latin Church almost every large church contains several altars — dedicated to certain saints, in private side chapels, established for masses for the repose of the founder's soul, &c. Archbishop Wulfred in 816 ordered that beside every altar there should be an inscription recording its dedication. This regulation fell into abeyance after the 12th century, and such inscriptions are very rare. One remains mutilated at Deerhurst (Archaeologia, vol. 1. p. 69). Where there is in a cathedral or church more than one altar, the principal one is called a " high altar." Where there is a second high altar, it is generally at the end of the choir or chancel. In monastic churches (e.g. formerly at St Albans) it sometimes stands at the end of the nave ciose to the choir screen. Beside the altar was a drain (piscina) for pouring away the water in which the communion vessels were rinsed. This seems originally to have been under the altar, as it is still in the Eastern Church. That the primitive communion table was covered with a communion-cloth is highly probable, and is mentioned by Optatus (c. a.d. 370), bishop of Milevis. This had developed by the 14th or 15th century into a cerecloth, or waxed cloth, on the table itself; and three linen coverings one above the other, two of about the size of the table and one rather wider than the altar, and long enough to hang down at each end. Five crosses are worked upon it, four in the corners and one in the middle, and there is an embroidered edging. 1 In front was often a hanging panel of embroidered cloth (the frontal; but frontals of wood, ornamented with carving or enamel, &c, are also to be found). These embroidered frontals are changeable, so that the principal colour in the pattern can accord with the liturgical colour of the day. Speaking broadly, red is the colour for feasts of martyrs, white for virgins, violet for penitential seasons, &c. ; no less than sixty-three different uses differing in details have been enumerated. A similar panel of needlework (the dossal) is suspended behind the altar. Portable altars have been used on occasion since the time of Bede. They are small slabs of hard stone, just large enough for the chalice and paten. They are consecrated and marked with the five incised crosses in the same way as the fixed altar, but they may be placed upon a support of any suitable material, whether wood or stone. They are used on a journey in a heretical or heathen country, or in private chapels. In the inventory of the field apparel of Henry, earl of Northumberland, a.d. 1513, is 1 In the Eastern Church four small pieces of cloth marked with the names of the Evangelists are placed on the four corners of the altar, and covered with three cloths, the uppermost (the corporal) being of smaller size. included "A coffer wyth ij liddes to serue for an Awter and ned be" (Archaeologia, xuvi. 403). On the altar are placed a cross and candlesticks — six in number, and seven when a bishop celebrates in his cathedral; and over it is suspended or fixed a tabernacle qj receptacle for the reservation of the Sacrament. III. Post- Reformation Altars.— At the Reformation the altars in churches were looked upon as symbols of the unreforrhed doctrine, especially where the struggle lay between the Catholics and the Calvinists, who on this point were much more radical revolutionaries than the Lutherans. In England the name "altar" 2 was retained in the Communion Office in English, printed in 1 549, and in the complete English Prayer-book of the following year, known to students as the First Book of Edward VI. But orders were given soon after that the altars should be destroyed, and replaced by movable wooden tables; while from the revised Prayer-book of 1552 the word "altar" was carefully expunged, "God's board" or "the table" being substituted. The short reign of Mary produced a temporary reaction, but the work of reformation was resumed on the accession of Elizabeth. The name " altar " has been all along retained in the Corona- tion Office of the kings of England, where it occurs frequently. It was also recognized in the canons of 1640, but with the reserva- tion that "it was an altar in the sense in which the primitive chutch called it an altar and in no other." In the same canons the rule for the position of the communion tables, which has been since regularly followed throughout the Church of England, was formulated. In the primitive church the altars seem to have been so placed that, like those of the Hebrews, they could be surrounded on all sides by the worshippers. The chair of the bishop or celebrant was on their east side, and the assistant clergy were ranged On each side of him. But in the middle ages the altars were placed against the east wall of the churches, or else against a reredos erected at the east side of the altar, so as to prevent all access to the table from that side; the celebrant was thus brought round to the west side and caused to stand between the people and the altar. On the north and south sides there were often curtains. When tables were substituted for altars in the English churches, these were not merely movable, but at the administration of the Lord's Supper were actually moved into the body of the church, and placed table-wise — ^that is, with the long sides turned to the north and south, and the narrow ends to the east and west,— the officiating clergyman standing at the north side. In the time of Archbishop Laud, however, the present practice of the Church of England was introduced. The communion table, though still of wood and movable, is, as a matter of fact, never moved; it is placed altar-wise — that is, with its longer axis running north and south, and close against theeast wall. Often there is a reredos behind it ; it is also fenced in by rails to preserve it from profanation of various kinds. In 1841 the ancient church of the Holy Sepulchre at Cambridge was robbed of most of its interest by a calamitous " restoration " carried out under the superintendence and partly at the charge of the Camden Society. On this occasion a stone altar, consisting of a flat slab resting upon three other upright slabs, was presented to the parish, and was set up in the church at the east wall of the chancel. This was brought to the notice of the Court of Arches in 1845, and Sir H. Jenner Fust (Faulkner v. Lichfield and Steam) ordered it to be removed, on the ground that a stone structure so weighty that it could not be carried about, and seeming to be a mass of solid masonry, was not a communion-table in the sense recognized by the Church of England. Bibliography.— For altars in the ancient East see M. Jastrow, Religion of Assyria and Babylonia; Perrot and Chipiez, Art in Chaldea (i. 143, 255); Sir J. Gardiner Wilkinson, A Second Series of the Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, ii. 387 ; Benzinger's and Nowack's works on Hebraische Archdologie. For classical altars, much information can be obtained from the notes in J. G. Frazer's Pausanias. See also Schomann, Criechische Alterthumer, vol. ii. ; the volume on " Gottesdienstliche Alterthumer " in Hermann's Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitdten. On domestic altars and worship see Petersen, Hausgottesdienst der Griechen (Cassel, 1851). 2 Except in one place where the term used is " God's board." ALTDORF— ALTERNATION 763 On plural dedications consult Maurer, De aribus graecorum pluribus deis in commune positis (Darmstadt, 1885). For Christian altars, reference is best made to the articles on the subject in the dictionaries of Christian and liturgical antiquities of Migne, Martigny, Smith and Cheetham, and Pugin, where practically all the available informa- tion is collected. See also Ciampinus, Vetera Monumenta (Rome, 1747), where numerous illustrations of altars are to be found; Martene, De antiquis Ecclesiae ritibus, iii. vi. (Rouen, 1700); Voigt, Thysiasteriologia sive de altaribus veterum Christianorum (Hamburg, 1709) ; and the liturgical works of Bona. Many articles on various sections of the subject have appeared in the journals of archaeo- logical societies; we may mention Nesbitt on the churches of Rome earlier than 1 150 (Archaeologia, xl. p. 210), Didron, " L'Autel chretien " (Annates archeologiques, iv. p. 238), and a paper by Texier on enamelled altars in the same volume. (R. A. S. M.) ALTDORF, the capital of the Swiss canton of Uri. It is built at a height of 1516 ft. above sea-level, a little above the right bank of the Reuss, not far above the point where this river is joined on the right by the Schachen torrent. In 1900 the popula- tion was 31 1 7, all Romanists and German-speaking. Altdorf is 34 m. from Lucerne by the St Gotthard railway and 22 m. from Goeschenen. Its port on the Lake of Lucerne, Fliielen, is 2 m. distant. There is a stately parish church, while above the little town is the oldest Capuchin convent in Switzerland (1581). Altdorf is best known as the place where, according to the legend, William Tell shot the apple from his son's head. This act by tradition happened on the market-place, where in 1895, at the foot of an old tower (with rude frescoes commemorating the feat), there was set up a fine bronze statue (by Richard Kissling of Zurich) of Tell and his son. In 1899 a theatre was opened close to the town for the sole purpose of performing Schiller's play of Wilhelm Tell. The same year a new carriage-road was opened from Altdorf through the Schachen valley and over the Klausen Pass (6404 ft.) to the village of Linththal (30 m.) and so to Glarus. One and a half mile from Altdorf by the Klausen road is the village of Burglen, where by tradition Tell was born; while he is also said to have lost his life, while saving that of a child, in the Schachen torrent that flows past the village. On the left bank of the Reuss, immediately opposite Altdorf, is Attinghausen, where the ruined castle (which belonged to one of the real founders of the Swiss Confederation) now houses the cantonal museum of antiquities. (W. A. B. C.) ALTDORFER, ALBRECHT (? 1480-1538), German painter and engraver, was born at Regensburg (Ratisbon), where in 1505 he was enrolled a burgher, and described as " twenty-five years old." Soon afterwards he is known to have been prosperous, and as city architect he erected fortifications and a public slaughter- house. Altdorfer has been called the " Giorgione of the North." His paintings are remarkable for minute and careful finish, and for close study of nature. The most important of them are to be found in the Pinakothek at Munich. A representation of the battle of Arbela (1529), included in that collection, is usually considered his chief work. His engravings on wood and copper are very numerous, and rank next to those of Albrecht Diirer. The most important collection is at the Berlin museum. Albrecht's brother, Erhard Altdorfer, was also a painter and engraver, and a pupil of Lucas Cranach. ALTEN, SIR CHARLES [Karl] (1764-1840), Hanoverian and British soldier, son of Baron Alten, a member of an old Hanoverian family, entered the service of the elector as a page at the age of twelve. In 1781 he received a commission in the Hanoverian guards, and as a captain took part in the campaigns of 1793- 1795 in the Low Countries, distinguishing himself particularly on the Lys in command of light infantry. In 1803 the Hanoverian army was disbanded, and Alten took service with the King's German Legion in British pay. In command of the light infantry of this famous corps he took part with Lord Cathcart in the Hanoverian expedition of 1805 and in the siege of Copenhagen in 1807, and was with Moore in Sweden and Spain, as well as in the disastrous Walcheren expedition. He was soon employed once more in the Peninsula, and at Albuera commanded a brigade. In April 1813 Wellington placed him at the head of the famous " Light Division " (43rd, 52nd, 95th, and Cacadores) , in which post he worthily continued the records of Moore and Robert Craufurd at Nivelle, Nive, Orthez and Toulouse. His officers presented him with a sword of honour as a token of their esteem. In 1815 Alten commanded Wellington's 3rd division and was severely wounded at Waterloo. His conduct won for him the rank of Count von Alten. When the King's German Legion ceased to exist, Alten was given the command of the Hanoverians in France, and in 1818 he returned to Hanover, where he became subsequently minister of war and foreign affairs, and rose to be field-marshal, being retained on the British Army list at the same time as Major-General Sir Charles Alten, G. C. B. He died in 1840. A memorial to Alten has been erected at Hanover. See Gentleman's Magazine, 1840; N. L. Beamish, Hist, of the King's German Legion, 2 vols. (1832-1837). ALTENA, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, on the river Lenne, 38 m. S.S.E. from Dortmund. Pop. (1900) 12,769. It consists of a single street, winding up a deep valley for about 3 m. There are three churches, a museum, high grade and popular schools. Its hardware in- dustries are important, and embrace iron rolling, the manufacture of fine wire, needles, springs and silver ornaments. On the neighbouring Schlossberg is the ancestral castle of the counts of La Marck, ancestors, on the female side, of the Prussian royal house. ALTENBURG, a town of Germany, capital of the duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, situated near the river Pleisse, 23 m. S. of Leipzig, and at the junction of the Saxon state railways Leipzig- Hof and Altenburg-Zeitz. Pop. (1905) 38,811. The town from its hilly position is irregularly built, but many of its streets are wide, and contain a number of large and beautiful buildings. Its ancient castle is picturesquely situated on a lofty porphyry rock, and is memorable as the place from which, in 1455, Kunz von Kaufungen carried off the young princes Albert and Ernest, the founders of the present royal and ducal families of Saxony. Its beautiful picture gallery, containing portraits of several of the famous princes of the house of Wettin, was almost totally destroyed by fire in January 1905. Altenburg is th<5 seat of the higher courts of the Saxon duchies, and possesses a cathedral and several churches, schools, a library, a gallery of pictures and a school of art, an infirmary and various learned societies. There is also a museum, with natural history, archaeological, and art collections, and among other buildings may be mentioned St Bartholomew's church (1089), the town hall (1562-1564), a lunatic asylum, teachers' seminary and an agricultural academy. There is considerable traffic in grain and cattle brought from the surrounding districts; and twice a year there are large horse fairs. Cigars, woollen goods, gloves, hats and porcelain are among the chief manufactures. There are lignite mines in the vicinity. ALTENSTEIN, a castle upon a rocky mountain in Saxe- Meiningen, on the south-western slope of the Thiiringerwald, not far from Eisenach. It is the summer residence of the dukes of Meiningen, and is surrounded by a noble park, which contains, among other objects of interest, a remarkable under- ground cavern, 500 ft. long, through which flows a large and rapid stream. Boniface, the apostle of the Germans, lived and preached at Altenstein in 724; and near by is the place where, in 1521, Luther was seized, by the order of the elector Frederick the Wise, to be carried off to the Wartburg. An old beech called " Luther's tree," which tradition connected with the reformer, was blown down in 1841, and a small monument now stands in its place. ALTERNATION (from Lat. alternare, to do by turns), strictly, the process of " alternating," i.e. of two things following one another regularly by turns, as night alternates with day. A somewhat different sense is attached to some usages of the derivatives. Thus, in American political representative bodies and in the case of company directors, a substitute is sometimes called an " alternate." An " alternative " is that which is offered as a choice of two things, the acceptance of the one implying the rejection of the other. It is incorrect to speak of more than two alternatives, though Mr Gladstone wrote in 1857 of a fourth (Oxf. Essays, 26). When there is only one course open there is said to be no alternative. 764 ALTHAEA— ALTONA ALTHAEA, in classical legend, daughter of Thestius, king of Aetolia, wife of Oeneus, king of Calydon, and mother of Meleager (q.v.). ALTING, JOHANN HEINRICH (1583-1644), German divine, was born at Emden,where his father, Menso Alting (1541-1612), was minister. Johann studied with great success at the uni- versities of Groningen and Herborn. In 1608 he was appointed tutor of Frederick, afterwards elector-palatine, at Heidelberg, and in 161 2 accompanied him to England. Returning in 1 613 to Heidelberg, after the marriage of the elector with Princess Elizabeth of England, he was appointed professor of dogmatics, and in 16 16 director of the theological department in the Col- legium Sapientiae. In 1618, along with Abraham Scultetus, he represented the university in the synod of Dort. When Count Tilly took the city of Heidelberg (1622) and handed it over to plunder, Alting found great difficulty in escaping the fury of the soldiers. He first retired to Schorndorf; but, offended by the " semi-Pelagianism " of the Lutherans with whom he was brought in contact, he removed to Holland, where the unfortunate elector and " Winter King " Frederick, in exile after his brief reign in Bohemia, made him tutor to his eldest son. In 1627 Alting was appointed to the chair of theology at Groningen, where he continued to lecture, with increasing reputation, until his death in 1644. Though an orthodox Calvinist, Alting laid little stress on the sterner side of his creed and, when at Dort he opposed the Remonstrants, he did so mainly on the ground that they were " innovators." Among his works are: — Notae in Decadem Problematum Jacobi Behm (Heidelberg, 1618); Scripta Theologica Heidelbergensia (Amst., 1662); Exegesis Augustanae Confessionis (Amst, 1647). ALTINUM (mod. Altino), an ancient town of Venetia, 12 m. S.E. of Tarvisium (Treviso), on the edge of the lagoons. It was probably only a small fishing village until it became the point of junction of the Via Postumia and the Via Popillia (see Aquixeia). At the end of the republic it was a municipium. Augustus and his successors brought it into further importance as a point on the route between Italy and the north-eastern portions of the empire. After the foundation of the naval station at Ravenna, it became the practice to take ship from there to Altinum, instead of following the Via Popillia round the coast, and thence to continue the journey by land. A new road, the Via Claudia Augusta, was constructed by the emperor Claudius from Altinum to the Danube, a distance of 350 m., apparently by way of the Lake of Constance. The place thus became of considerable strategic and commercial importance, and the comparatively mild climate (considering its northerly situation) led to the erection of villas which Martial (Epigr. iv. 25) compares with those of Baiae. It was destroyed by Attila in a.d. 452, and its inhabitants took refuge in the islands of the lagoons, forming settlements from which Venice eventually sprang. ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high), height or eminence, and particularly the height above the ground or above sea-level. In geometry, the altitude of a triangle is the length of the perpendicular from the vertex to the base. In astronomy, the altitude of a heavenly body is the apparent angular elevation of the body above the plane of the horizon (see Astronomy: Splierical). Apparent altitude is the value which is directly observed; true altitude is deduced by correcting for astronomical refraction and dip of the horizon; geocentric altitude by correcting for parallax. ALTMUHL, a river of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria. It is an important left bank tributary of the Danube, rising in the Franconian plateau (Frankische Terrasse), and after a tortuous course of 116 m., at times flowing through meadows and again in weird romantic gorges, joins the Danube at Kelheim. From its mouth it is navigable up to Dietfurt (18 m.), whence the Ludwigscanal (100 m. long) proceeds to Bamberg on the Regnitz, thus establishing communication between the Danube and the Rhine. ALTO (Ital. for " high "), a musical term applied to the highest adult male voice or counter-tenor, and to the lower boy's or woman's (contralto) voice. ALTON, a market-town in the Fareham parliamentary dfvision of Hampshire, England, 463 m. S.W. of London by the London & South- Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5479. It has a pleasant undulating site near the headwaters of the river Wey. Of the church of St Lawrence part, including the tower, is Norman; the building was the scene of a fierce conflict between the royalist and parliamentary troops in 1643. There is a museum of natural history; the collection is reminiscent of the famous naturalist Gilbert White, of Selborne in this vicinity. Large markets and fairs are held for corn, hops, cattle and sheep; and the town contains some highly reputed ale breweries, besides paper mills and iron foundries. ALTON, a city of Madison county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the W. part of the state, on the Mississippi river, about 10 m. above the mouth of the Missouri, and about 25 m. N. of St Louis, Missouri. Pop. (1890) 10,294; (*9° ) *4> 2IO > of whom 1638 were foreign-born; (1910) 17,528. Alton is served by the Chicago & Alton, the Chicago, Peoria & St Louis, the Cleve- land, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Illinois Terminal railways. The river is here spanned by a bridge. The residential portion of the city lies on the river bluffs, some of which rise to a height of 250 ft. above the water level, and the business streets are on the bottom lands of the river. Alton has a public library and a public park. Upper Alton (pop. 2918 in 1910), about i|m. N.E. of Alton, is the seat of the Western Military Academy (founded in 1879 as Wyman Institute; chartered in 1892), and of Shurtleff College (Baptist, founded in 1827 at Rock Spring, removed to Upper Alton in 1831, and chartered in 1833), which has a college of liberal arts, a divinity school, an academy and a school of music; and the village of Godfrey, 5 where he led the advanced guard of the Guard corps, his energy and initiative were still more conspicuous. Soon afterwards he suc- ceeded to the command of his division, General Hiller v. Gartringen having fallen in the battle; he was promoted lieutenant-general, and retained this command after the conclu- sion of peace, receiving in addition the order pour le tncrite for his services. In 1870, on the outbreak of war with France, von Alvensleben succeeded Prince Frederick Charles in command of the III army corps which formed part of the II German ALVEOLATE— AL WAR 775 Army commanded by the prince. Under their new general, the Brandenburg regiments forming the III corps proved them- selves collectively the best in the whole German army, with the possible exception of the Prussian guards, and, if Prince Frederick Charles is entitled to the chief credit in training the III corps, Alvensleben had contributed in almost equal degree to the efficiency of the Guard infantry, while his actual leadership of the III corps in the battles of 1870 and 1871 showed him afresh as a fighting general of the very first rank. The battle of Spicheren, on the 6th of August, was initiated and practically directed throughout by him, and in the confusion which followed this victory, for which the superior commanders were not pre- pared, Alvensleben showed his energy and determination by resuming the advance on his own responsibility. This led to the great battles of the 14th, 16th and 18th of August around Metz, and again the III corps was destined, under its resolute leader, to win the chief credit. Crossing the Moselle the instant that he received permission from his army commander to do so, Alvensleben struck the flank of Bazaine's whole army (August 16th) in movement westward from Metz. The III corps attacked at once, and for many hours bore the whole brunt of the battle at Yionville. By the most resolute leading, and at the cost of very heavy losses, Alvensleben held the whole French army at bay while other corps of the I and II German Armies gradually closed up. In the battle of Gravelotte, on the 18th, the corps took little part. Its work was done, and it remained with the II Army before Metz until the surrender of Bazaine's army. Prince Frederick Charles then moved south-west to co-operate with the grand-duke of Mecklenburg on the Loire. At the battle of Beaune-la-Rolande, the corps, with its comrades of Yionville, the X corps under General v. Voigts-Rhetz, won new laurels, and it participated in the advance on Le Mans and the battle at that place on the 12th of January 1871. At the close of the war Alvensleben received the oak-leaves of the order pour le merite, the first class of the Iron Cross and a grant of 100,000 thalers. He became full general of infantry in 1873 and retired immediately afterwards. In 1889 the emperor William II. ordered that the 52nd infantry regiment (one of the distinguished regiments of Vionville) should thereafter bear Alvensleben's name, and in 1892, on the anniversary of the battle of Le Mans, the old general received the order of the Black Eagle. He died on the 28th of March 1892 at Berlin. His brother, Gustav von Alvensleben (1803-1881), Prussian general of infantry, was born at Eichenbarleben on the 30th of September 1803, entered the Guard infantry in 1821, and took part as a general staff officer in the suppression of the Baden insurrection of 1849. He became a major-general in 1858, aide-de-camp to the king in 1861, and lieutenant-general in 1863, and in the campaign of 1866 performed valuable military and political services. He was promoted general of infantry in 1868. In the war of 1870 he commanded the IV army corps, which took a conspicuous part in the action of Beaumont and afterwards served in the siege of Paris. He received the Iron Cross, the order pour le merite, and a money grant, as a reward for his services, and retired in 1872. He died at Gernrode in the Harz on the 30th of June 1881. Another brother, Albrecht, Count von Alvensleben (1794- 1858), was a distinguished Prussian statesman. ALVEOLATE (from Lat. alveolus), honeycombed, a word used technically in biology, &c, to mean pitted like a honeycomb. ALVERSTONE, RICHARD EVERARD WEBSTER, ist Baron (1842- ), lord chief justice of England, was born on the 22nd of December 1842, being the second son of Thomas Webster, Q.C. He was educated at King's College and Charter- house schools, and Trinity College, Cambridge; was called to the bar in 1868, and became Q.C. only ten years afterwards. His practice was chiefly in commercial, railway and patent cases until (June 1885) he was appointed attorney-general in the Conservative Government in the exceptional circumstances of never having been solicitor-general, and not at the time occupying a seat in parliament. He was elected for Launceston in the following month, and in November exchanged this seat for the Isle of Wight, which he continued to represent until his elevation to the House of Lords. Except under the brief Glad- stone administration of 1886, and the Gladstone-Rosebery cabinet of 1892-1895, Sir Richard Webster was attorney-general from 1885 to 1900. In 1890 he was leading counsel for The Times in the Parnell inquiry; in 1893 he represented Great Britain in the Bering Sea arbitration; in 1898 he discharged the same function in the matter of the boundary between British Guiana and Venezuela; and in 1903 was one of the members of the Alaska Boundary Commission. He was well known as an athlete in his earlier years, having represented his university as a runner, and his interest in cricket and foot-racirg was kept up in later life. In the House of Commons, and outside it, he was throughout his political career prominently associated with church work; and his speeches were distinguished for gravity and earnestness. In 1900 he succeeded Sir Nathaniel Lindley as Master of the Rolls, being raised to the peerage as Baron Alverstone,' and in October of the same year he was elevated to the office of lord chief justice upon the death of Lord Russell of Killowen. ALWAR, or Ulwar, a native state of India in the Rajputana agency. It is bounded on the E. by the state of Bharatpur and the British district of Gurgaon, on the N. by Gurgaon district and the state of Patiala, on the W. by the states of Nabha and Jaipur, and on the S. by the state of Jaipur. Its configuration is irregular, the greatest length from north to south being about 80 m., and breadth from east to west about 60 m., with a total area of 3141 sq. m. The eastern portion of the state is open and highly cultivated; the western is diversified by hills and peaks, which form a continuation of the Aravalli range, from 12 to 20 m. in breadth. These hills run in rocky and precipitous parallel ridges, in some places upwards of 2200 ft. in height. The Sabhi river flows through the north-western part of the state, the only other stream of importance being the Ruparel, which rises in the Alwar hills, and flows through the state into the Bharatpur territory. The population in 1901 was 828,487, showing an increase of 8 % during the decade. When compared with a heavy decrease elsewhere throughout Rajputana, this increase may be attributed to the successful administration of famine relief, under British officials. The revenue is £185,000. The maharaja Jai Singh, who succeeded in 1892 at the age of ten, was educated at the Mayo college, where he excelled both in sports and in knowledge of English. He came of age in 1903, when he was invested by the viceroy with full ruling powers. Alwar was the first native state to accept a currency struck at the Calcutta mint, of the same weight and assay as the imperial rupee, with the head of the British sovereign on the obverse. Imperial service troops are maintained, consisting of both cavalry and infantry, with transport. The state is traversed by the Delhi branch of the Rajputana railway. A settlement of thelarid revenue has been carried out by an English civilian. The state was founded by Pratap Singh (1740-1791), a Rajput of ancient lineage, and increased by his adopted son Bakhtawar Singh. The latter joined the British against the Mahrattas, and in 1803, after the battle of Laswari (Nov. 1), signed a treaty of offensive and defensive alliance with the British government. In 1811, owing to his armed intervention in Jaipur, a fresh engagement was made, prohibiting him from political intercourse with other states without British consent. In 1857 the raja Binni Singh sent a force of Mussulmans and Rajputs to relieve the British garrison in Agra; the Mussulmans, however, deserted, and the rest were defeated by the mutineers. The Citv of Alwar has a railway station on the Rajputana line, 98 m. from Delhi; pop. (1901) 56,771, showing a steady increase. It stands in a valley overhung by a fortress 1O00 ft. above. It is surrounded by a rampart and moat, with five gates, and contains fine palaces, temples and tombs. The water-supply is brought from a lake 9 m. distant. It has a high school, affiliated to the Allahabad university; and a school for the sons of nobles, founded to commemorate the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria. The Lady Dufferin hospital is under the charge of an English lady doctor, with two female assistants. 776 ALYATTES—AMADIS DE GAULA ALYATTES, king of Lydia (609^560 B.C.), the real founder of the Lydian empire, was the son of Sadyattes, of the house of the Mermnadae. For several years he continued the war against Miletus begun by his father, but was obliged to turn his attention to the Medes and Babylonians. On the 28th of May 585, during a battle on the Halys between him and Cyaxares, king of Media, an eclipse of the sun took place; hostilities were suspended, peace concluded, and the Halys fixed as the boundary between the two kingdoms. Alyattes drove the Cimmerii (see Scythia) from Asia, subdued the Carians, and took several Ionian cities (Smyrna, Colophon). He was succeeded by his son Croesus. His tomb still exists on the plateau between lake Gygaea and the river Hermus to the north of Sardis — a large mound of earth with a substructure of huge stones. It was excavated by Spiegelthal in 1854, who found that it covered a large vault of finely-cut marble blocks approached by a flat-roofed passage of the same stone from the south. The sarcophagus and its contents had been removed by early plunderers of the "tomb, all that was left being some broken alabaster vases, pottery and charcoal. On the summit of the mound were large phalli of stone. See A. von Olfers, "fiber die lydischen Konigsgraber bei Sardes," Abh. Berl. Ak., 1858. ALYPIUS, a Greek writer on music whose works, with those of six others, were collected and published with a commentary and explanatory notes {Antiquae Musicae Auctores Septem, Amstel., 1652), by Mark Meibomius (1630-1711). He is said to have written before Euclid and Ptolemy; and Cassiodorus arranges his Introduction to Music between those of Nicomachus and Gaudentius. The work consists solely of a list of symbols of the various scales and modes, and is probably only a fragment. ALYPIUS or Antioch, a geographer of the 4th century, who was sent by the emperor Julian into Britain as first prefect, and was afterwards commissioned to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem. Among the letters of Julian are two (29 and 30) addressed to Alypius; one inviting him to Rome, the other thanking him for a geographical treatise, which no longer exists. See also Ammianus Marcellinus xxiii. 1, § 2. ALYTES, the midwife toad, first discovered by P. Demours in 1 741, on the border of a small pond in the Jardin des Plantes, in the very act of parturition which has rendered it famous, and described as Petit crapaud mdle accoucheur de sa femelle. Alytes obstetricans is of special interest as the first known example of paternal solicitude in Batrachians, and although many no less wonderful cases of nursing instinct have since been revealed to us, it remains the only one among European forms. Alytes obstetricans is a small toad-like Batrachian, two inches in length, of dull greyish coloration, plump form with warty skin and large eyes with vertical pupils. Although toad like it is not really related to the toads proper, but belongs to the family Discoglossidae, characterized by a circular, adherent tongue, teeth in the upper jaw and on the palate, short but distinct ribs on the anterior vertebrae, and convex-concave vertebrae. It inhabits France, Belgium, Switzerland, Western Germany (east- wards to the Weser), Spain and Portugal. A second species, A . cistemasii, occurs in Spain and Portugal. A lytes is nocturnal and slow in its movements. It is thoroughly terrestrial, selecting for its retreat in the daytime holes made by small mammals, or interstices between stones. Towards evening it reveals its presence by a clear whistling note, which has often been compared to the sound of a little bell, or to a chime when produced by numerous individuals. The breeding season lasts throughout spring and summer, and the female is able to spawn two, three or even four times in the year. Pairing and oviposition take place on land; the male seizes the female round the waist. The eggs are large and yellow, and produced in two rosary-like strings, as if strung together by elastic filaments continuous with the gelatinous capsules. After impregnation, the male twists them round his legs and returns to his usual retreat, going about at night in order to feed himself and to keep up the moisture 'of the eggs, even resorting to a short immersion in the water during exceptionally dry nights. The development of the embryo within the egg takes about three weeks. When the time for eclosion has come, the male enters the water with his burden; the larvae, in the full tadpole condition, measuring 14 to 17 millimetres, bite their way through their tough envelope, which is not abandoned by the father until all the young are liberated, and complete in the ordinary way their metamorphosis. The tadpoles grow to a large size considering that of the adult, the body equalling in size a sparrow's or even a small pigeon's egg, and they often remain more than a year in that condition. See A. de l'lsle, " Memoire sur les mceurs et l'accouchement de l'Alytes obstetricans," Ann. Set. Nat. (6) iii. 1876; G. A. Boulenger. Tailless Batrachians of Europe (Ray Society, 1897). (G. A. Bj ALZEY, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Hesse- Darmstadt, 18 m. S. of Mainz by rail. Pop. (1900) 6893. There are a Roman Catholic and two Protestant churches, several high- grade schools and a teachers' seminary. Alzey has industries of dyeing and weaving, breweries, and does a considerable trade in wine. It is immortalized in the Nibelungenlied in the person of " Volker von Alzeie," the warrior who in the last part of the epic plays a part second only to that of Hagen, and who " was called the minstrel (spilman) because he could fiddle." It became an imperial city in 1277. In 1620 it was sacked by the Spaniards and in 1689 burnt by the French. Annexed to France during the Napoleonic wars, it passed in 181 5 to the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt. ALZOG, JOHANN BAPTIST (1808-1878), German theologian, was born at Ohlau, in Silesia, on the 29th of June 1808. He studied at Breslau and Bonn and was ordained priest at Cologne in 1834. In the following year he accepted the chairs of exegesis and church history at the seminary of Posen. He removed in 1844 to Hildesheim, where he had been appointed rector of the seminary. He became professor of church history at the university of Freiburg in the Breisgau in 1853 and held that post till his death on the 1st of March 1878. Together with Dollinger, Alzog was instrumental in convoking the famous Munich assembly of Catholic scholars in 1863. He also took part, with Bishops Hefele and Haseberg, in the preparatory work of the Vatican Council and voted in favour of the doctrine of papal infallibility but against the opportuneness of its promulgation. Alzog's fame rests mainly on his Handbuch der Universai-Kirchengeschichte (Mainz, 1841, often reprinted under various titles; Eng. trans, by Pabisch and Byrne, A Manual of Church History, 4 vols. Cincinnati, 1874). Based upon the foundations laid by Mohler, this manual was generally accepted as the best exposition of Catholic views, in opposition to the Protestant manual by C. A. Hase, and was translated into several languages. Besides a host of minor writings on ecclesi- astical subjects, and an active collaboration in the great Kirchen- lexiconoi Wetzer and Welte, Alzog was also the author of Grundriss der Patrologie (Freiburg, 1866, 4th ed. 1888), a scholarly work; though now superseded by that of O. Bardenhewer. A full list of Alzog's writings is given in H. Hurter's Nomenclator literarius recentioris theologiae catholicae, vol. iii. For an account of his life see the funeral oration by F. X. Kraus, entitled: Gedachtnissrede auf Johannes Alzog (Freiburg, 1879). AMADfS DE GAULA. This famous romance of chivalry survives only in a Castilian text, but it is claimed by Portugal as well as by Spain. The date of its composition, the name of its author, and the language in which it was originally written are not yet settled. It is not even certain when the romance was first printed, for though the oldest known edition (a unique copy of which is in the British Museum) appeared at Saragossa in 1508, it is highly probable that Amadis was in print before this date: an edition is reported to have been issued at Seville in 1496. As it exists in Spanish, Amadis de Gaula consists of four books, the last of which is generally believed to be by the regidor of Medina del Camp©, Garci Rodriguez de Montalvo (whose name is given as Garci Ordonez de Montalvo in all editions of Amadis later than that of 1508, and as Garci Gutierrez de Montalvo in some editions of the Sergas de Esplandidn). Montalvo alleges that the first three books were arranged and corrected by him from " the ancient originals," and a reference in the prologue to the siege, of Granada points to the conclusion that the Spanish recast was made shortly after 1492; it is AMADOU— AMALASUNTHA 777 possible, however, that the prologue alone was written after 1492, and that the text itself is older. The number of these " ancient originals " is not stated, nor is there any mention of the language in which they were composed; Montalvo's silence on the latter point might be taken to imply that they were in Castilian, but any such inference would be hazardous. Three books of Amadis de Gaida are mentioned by Pero Ferriis who was living in 1379, and there is evidence that the romance was current in Castile more than a quarter of a century earlier; but again there is no i nf ormation as to the language in which they were written. Gomes Eannes de Azurara, in his Chronica de Conde D. Pedro de Menezes {c. 1450), states that Amadis de Gaula was written by Vasco de Lobeira in the time of king Ferdinand of Portugal who died in 1383: as Vasco de Lobeira was knighted in 1385, it would follow that he wrote the elaborate romance in his earliest youth. This conclusion is untenable, and the suggestion that the author was Pedro de Lobeira (who flourished in the 1 5th century) involves a glaring anachronism. A further step was taken by the historian Joao de Barros, who maintained in an unpublished work dating between 1540 and 1550 that Vasco de Lobeira wrote Amadis de Gaula in Portuguese, and that his text was translated into Castilian; this is unsupported assertion. Towards the end of the 1 6th century Miguel Leite Ferreira, son of the Portuguese poet, Antonio Ferreira, declared that the original manuscript of Amadis de Gaula was then in the Aveiro archives, and an Amadis de Gaula in Portuguese, which is alleged to have existed in the conde de Vimeiro's library as late as 1586, had vanished before 1726. In the absence of corroboration, these dubious details must be received with extreme reserve. A stronger argument in favour of the Portuguese case is drawn from the existing Spanish text. In book I, chapters 40 and 42, it is recorded that the Infante Alphonso of Portugal suggested a radical change in the narrative of Briolanja's relations with Amadis. This prince has been identified as the Infante Alphonso who died in 1312, or as Alphonso IV. who ascended the Portuguese throne in 1325. Were either of these identifications established, the date of com- position might be referred with certainty to the beginning of the 14th century or the end of the 13th. But both identifications are conjectural. Nevertheless the passage in the Spanish text undeniably lends some support to the Portuguese claim, and recent critics have inclined to the belief that Amadis de Gaula was written by Joao de Lobeira, a Galician knight who frequented the Portuguese court between 1258 and 1285, and to whom are ascribed two fragments of a poem in the Colocci-Brancuti Canzoniere (Nos. 240 and 240 b ), which reappears with some unimportant variants in Amadis de Gaula (book II, chapter n). The coincidence may be held to account in some measure for the traditional association of a Lobeira with the authorship of Amadis de Gaula; but, though curious, it warrants no definite conclusion being drawn from it. Against the Portuguese claim it is argued that the VUlancico corresponding to Joao de Lobeiro's poem is an interpolation in the Spanish text, that Portuguese prose was in a rudimentary stage of development at the period when — ex hypothesi — the romance was composed, and that the book was very popular in Spain almost a century before it is even mentioned in Portugal. Lastly, there is the incontrovertible fact that A midis de Gaula exists in Castilian, while it remains to be proved that it ever existed in Portuguese. As to its substance, it is beyond dispute that much of the text derives from the French romances of the Round Table; but the evidence does not enable us to say (1) whether it was pieced together from various French romances; (2) whether it was more or less literally translated from a lost French original; or (3) whether the first Peninsular adapter or translator was a Castilian or a Portuguese. On these points judgment must be suspended. There can, however, be no hesitation in accepting Cervantes' verdict on Amadis de Gaula as the " best of all the books of this kind that have ever been written." It is the prose epic of feudalism, and its romantic spirit, its high ideals, its fantastic gallantry, its ingenious adventures, its mechanism of symbolic wonders, and its flowing style have entranced readers of such various types as Francis I. and Charles V:, Ariosto and Montaigne. Bibliography. — Carolina Michaelis de Vasconcellos and Gottfried Baist in the Grundriss der romanischen PJiilologie (Strassburg, 1897), ii. Band, 2. Abteilung, pp. 216-226 and 440-442; Ludwig Braunfels, Kritischer Versuch iiber den Roman Amadis von Gallien (Leipzig, 1876) ; Theophilo Braga, Historia das novelas portuguezas de cavalleria (Porto, 1873), Curso de litieratura e arte portugueza (Lisboa, 1881), and QuestBes de litteratura e arte portugueza (Lisboa, 1885) ; Marcelino Menendez y Pelayo, Origenes de la novela (Madrid, 1905) ; Eugene Baret, De V Amadis de Gaule et de son influence sur les mosurs et Id litterature au XVI' et au XVII' siecle (Paris, 1873). (J. F. -K.) AMADOU, a soft tough substance used as tinder, derived from Polyporus fomentarius, a fungus belonging to the group Basidiomycetes and somewhat resembling a mushroom in manner of growth. It grows upon old trees, especially the oak, ash, fir and cherry. The fungus is cut into slices and then steeped in a solution of nitre. Amadou is prepared on the continent of Europe, chiefly in Germany, but the fungus is a native of Britain. Polyporus igniarius and other species are also used, but yield an inferior product. AMAKUSA, an island belonging to Japan, 26^ m. long and 13^ in extreme width, situated about 32° 20' N., and 130° E. long., on the west of the province of Higo (island of Kiushiu), from which it is separated by the Yatsushiro-kai. It has no high mountains, but its surface being very hilly — four of the peaks rise to a height over 1500 ft. — the natives resort to the terrace system of cultivation with remarkable success. A number of the heads of the Christians executed in connexion with the Shimabara rebellion in the first half of the 17th century were buried in this island. Amakusa produces a little coal and fine kaolin, which was largely used in former times by the potters of Hirado and Satsuma. AMAL, the name of the noblest family among the Ostrogoths, and that from which nearly all their kings were chosen. AMALARIC (d. 531), king of the Visigoths, son of Alaric II., was a child when his father fell in battle against Clovis, king of the Franks (507). He was carried for safety into Spain, which country and Provence were thenceforth ruled by his maternal grandfather, Theodoric the Ostrogoth, acting through his vice- gerent, an Ostrogothic nobleman named Theudis. In 522 the young Amalaric was proclaimed king, and four years later, on Theodoric's death, he assumed full royal power in Spain and a part of Languedoc, relinquishing Provence to his cousin Atha- laric. He married Clotilda, daughter of Clovis ; but his disputes with her, he being an Arian and she a Catholic, brought on him the penalty of a Frankish invasion, in which he lost his life in 53 1 . AMALASUNTHA or Amalasuentha, queen of the Ostrogoths (d- S3 5), daughter of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, was married in 515 to Eutharic, an Ostrogoth of the old Amal line, who had previously been living in Spain. Her husband died, apparently in the early years of her marriage, leaving her with two children, Athalaric and Matasuentha. On the death of her father in 526, she succeeded him, acting as regent for her son, but being herself deeply imbued with the old Roman culture, she gave to that son's education a more refined and literary turn than suited the ideas of her Gothic subjects. Conscious of her unpopularity she banished, and afterwards put to death, three Gothic nobles whom she suspected of intriguing against her rule, and at the same time opened negotiations with the emperor Justinian with the view of removing herself and the Gothic treasure to Constantinople. Her son's death in 534 made but little change in the posture of affairs. Amalasuntha, now queen; with a view of strengthening her position, made her cousin Theodahad partner of her throne (not, as sometimes stated, her husband, for his wife was still living). The choice was un- fortunate: Theodahad, notwithstanding a varnish of literary culture, was a coward and a scoundrel. He fostered the dis- affection of the Goths, and either by his orders or with his permission, Amalasuntha was imprisoned on an island in the Tuscan lake of Bolsena, where in the spring of 535 she was murdered in her bath. The letters of CassiodorUs, chief minister and literary adviser of Amalasuntha, and the histories of Procopius and Jordanes, give us our chief information as to the character of Amalasuntha. 77 8 AMALEKITES— AMAERIC AMALEKITES, an ancient tribe, or collection of tribes, in the south and south-east of Palestine, often mentioned in the Old Testament as foes of the Israelites. They were regarded as a branch of the Edomites (Gen. xxxvi. 12, see Edom), and appear to have numbered among their divisions the Kenites. When the Israelites were journeying from Egypt to the land of Canaan, the Amalekites are said to have taken advantage of their weak condition to harry the stragglers in the rear, and as a judgment for their hostility it was ordained that their memory should be blotted out from under heaven (Deut. xxv. 17-19). An allusion to this appears in the account of Israel's defeat on the occasion of the attempt to force a passage from Kadesh through Hormah, evidently into Palestine (Num. xiv. 43-45, cp. Deut. i. 44-46). The statements are obscure, and elsewhere Hormah is the scene of a victory over the Canaanites by Israel (Num. xxi. 1-3), or by the tribes Judah and Simeon (Judg. i. 17). The question is further complicated by the account of Joshua's overthrow of Amalek apparently in the Sinaitic peninsula. The event was commemorated by the erection of the altar " Yahweh- nissi " (" Yahweh my banner " or " memorial "), and rendered even more memorable by the utterance, "Yahweh hath sworn: Yahweh will have war with Amalek from generation to genera- tion " (Ex. xvii. 8-16, on its present position, see Exodus [Book]). The same sentiment recurs in Yahweh's command to Saul to destroy Amalek utterly for its hostility to Israel (1 Sam. xv.), and in David's retaliatory expedition when he distributed among his friends the spoil of the " enemies of Yahweh " (xxx. 26). Saul himself, according to one tradition, was slain by an Amalekite (2 Sam. i., contrast 1 Sam. xxxi.). A similar spirit appears among the prophecies ascribed to Balaam: " Amalek, first (or chief) of nations, his latter end [will be] destruction " (Num. xxiv. 20). The district of Amalek lay to the south of Judah (cp. I Chron. iv. 42 seq), probably between Kadesh and Hormah (cp. Gen. xiv. 7; 1 Sam. xv. 7, xxvii. 8), and the interchange of the ethnic with " Canaanites " and " Amorites " suggests that the Amalekites are merely one of Israel's traditional enemies of the older period. Hence we find them taking part with Ammonites and Midianites (Judg. iii. 13, vi. 3), and their king Agag, slain by Samuel as a sacrificial offering (1 Sam. xv. 9), was a byword for old-time might and power (Num. xxiv. 7). Even in one of the Psalms (lxxxiii. 7) Amalek is mentioned among the enemies of Israel — just as Greek writers of the 6th century of this era applied the old term Scythians to the Goths (Noldeke),— and the traditional hostility between Saul and Amalek is reflected still later in the book of Esther where Haman the Agagite is pitted against Mordecai the Benjamite. Twice Amalek seems to be mentioned as occupying central Palestine (Judg. v. 14, xii. 15), but the passages are textually un- certain. The name is celebrated in Arabian tradition, but the statements regarding them are confused and conflicting, and for historical purposes are practically worthless, as has been proved by Th. Noldeke {Veber die Amalekiter, Gottingen, 1864).' On the biblical data, see also E. Meyer, Die Israeliten (Index, s.v.). , (S. A. C.) AM ALFI, a town and archiepiscopal see of Campania, Italy, in the province of Salerno, from the town of which name it is distant 12 m. W.S.W. by road, on the N. coast of the Gulf of Salerno. Pop. (1901) 6681. It lies at the mouth of a deep ravine, in a sheltered situation, at the foot of Monte Cerreto (4314 ft.), in the centre of splendid coast scenery, and is in consequence much visited by foreigners. The cathedral of S. Andrea is a structure in the Lombard-Norman style, of the nth century; the facade in black and white stone was well restored in 189 1; the bronze doors were executed at Constantinople before 1066. The campanile dates from 1276. The interior is also fine, and contains ancient columns and sarcophagi. The conspicuous Capuchin monastery on the W. with fine cloisters (partly de- stroyed by a landslip in 1899) is now used as an hotel. Amalfi is first mentioned in the 6thcentury,and soon acquired importance as a naval power; in the 9th century it shared with Venice and Gaeta the Italian trade with the East, and in 848 its fleet went to the assistance of Pope Leo IV. against the Saracens. It was then an independent republic with a population of some 70,000, but in 1131 it was reduced by King Roger of Sicily. In 1 13 5 and 1 137 it was taken by the Pisans, and rapidly declined in importance, though its maritime code, known as the Tavole Amalfitane, was recognized in the Mediterranean until 1570. In 1343 a large part of the town was destroyed by an inundation, and its harbour is now of little importance. Its industries too, have largely disappeared, and the paper manufacture has lost ground since 1861. AMALGAM, the name applied to alloys which contain mercury. It is said by Andreas Libavius to be a corruption of /xaXayna; in the alchemists the form algamala is also found. Many amal- gams are formed by the direct contact of a metal with mercury, sometimes with absorption, sometimes with evolution, of heat. Other methods are to place the metal and mercury together in dilute acid, to add mercury to the solution of a metallic salt, to place a metal in a solution of mercuric nitrate, or to electrolyse a metallic salt using mercury as the negative electrode. Some amalgams are liquids, especially when contain- ing a large proportion of mercury; others assume a crystalline form. In some cases definite compounds have been isolated from amalgams which may be regarded as mixtures of one or more of such compounds with mercury in excess. In general these compounds are decomposable by heat, but some of them, such as those of gold, silver, copper and the alkali metals, even when heated above the boiling point of mercury retain mercury and leave residues of definite composition. Tin amalgam is used for " silvering " mirrors, gold and silver amalgam in gilding and silvering, cadmium and copper amalgam in dentistry, and an amalgam of zinc and tin for the rubbers of electrical machines ; the zinc plates of electric batteries are amalgamated in order to reduce polarization. AMALRIC, the name of two kings of Jerusalem. Amalric I., king from 1162 to 1174, was the son of Fulk of Jerusalem, and the brother of Baldwin III. He was twice married: by his first wife, Agnes of Edessa, he had issue a son and a daughter, Baldwin IV. and Sibylla, while his second wife, Maria Comnena, bore him a daughter Isabella, who ulti- mately carried the crown of Jerusalem to her fourth husband, Amalric of Lusignan (Amalric II.). The reign of Amalric I. was occupied by the Egyptian problem. It became a question between Amalric and Nureddin, which of the two should control the discordant viziers, who vied with one another for the control of the decadent Caliphs of Egypt. The acquisition of Egypt had been an object of the Franks since the days of Baldwin I. (and indeed of Godfrey himself, who had promised to cede Jerusalem to the patriarch Dagobert as soon as he should himself acquire Cairo). The capture of Ascalon by Baldwin III. in 1153 made this object more feasible; and we find the Hospitallers preparing sketch-maps of the routes best suited for an invasion of Egypt, in the style of a modern war office. On the other hand, it was natural for Nureddin to attempt to secure Egypt, both because it was the terminus of the trading route which ran from Damascus and because the acquisition of Egypt would enable him to surround the Latin kingdom. For some five years a contest; was waged between Amalric and Shirguh (Shirkuh), the lieutenant of Nureddin, for the possession of Egypt. Thrice (1164,1167,1168) Amalric penetrated into Egypt: but the contest ended in the establishment of Saladin, the nephew of Shirguh, as vizier — a position which, on the death of the puppet caliph in 1171,' was turned into that of sovereign. The extinction of the Latin kingdom might now seem imminent; and envoys were sent to the West with anxious appeals for assistance in 1169, n 71 and 1 1 73. But though in n 70 Saladin attacked the kingdom, arid captured Aila On the Red Sea, the danger was not so great as it seemed. Nureddin was jealous of his over-mighty subject, and his jealousy bound Saladin's hands. This was the position of affairs when Amalric died, in 11 74; but, as Nureddin died in the same year, the position was soon altered and Saladin began the final attack on the kingdom. Amalric I., the second of the native kings of Jerusalem, had the qualities of his brother Baldwin III. (q.v.). He was something of a scholar, and it Was AMALRIC— AMANA 779 he who set William of Tyre to work. He was perhaps still more of a lawyer: his delight was in knotty points of the law, and he knew the Assises better than any of his subjects. The Church had some doubts of him, and he laid his hands on the Church. William of Tyre was once astonished to find him questioning, on a bed of sickness, the resurrection of the body; and his taxa- tion of clerical goods gave umbrage to the clergy generally. But he maintained the state of his kingdom with the resources which he owed to the Church; and he is the last in the fine list of the early kings of Jerusalem. William of Tyre is our original authority: see xix. 2-3 for his sketch of Amalric. Rohricht narrates the reign of Amalric I., Ceschichte des Konigreichs Jerusalem, c. xvii.-xviii. Amalric II., king from 1197 to 1205, was the brother of Guy of Lusignan. He had been constable of Jerusalem, but in 1.194, on the death of his brother, he became king of Cyprus, as Amalric I. He married Isabella, the daughter of Amalric I. by his second marriage, and became king of Jerusalem in right of his wife in 1197. In 1198 he was able to procure a five years' truce with the Mahommedans, owing to the struggle between Saladin's brothers and his sons for the inheritance of his territories. The truce was disturbed by raids on both sides, but in 1204 it was renewed for six years. Amalric died in 1205, just after his son and just before his wife. The kingdom of Cyprus passed to Hugh, his son by an earlier marriage, while that of Jerusalem passed to Maria, the daughter of Isabella by her previous marriage with Conrad of Montferrat. (E. Br.) AMALRIC (Fr. Amaury) OF BENA(d.c. 1204-1207), French theologian, was born in the latter part of the 12th century at Bena, a village in the diocese of Chartres. He taught philosophy and theology at the university of Paris and enjoyed a great reputation as a subtle dialectician; his lectures developing the philosophy of Aristotle attracted a large circle of hearers. In 1204 his doctrines were condemned by the university, and, on a personal appeal to Pope Innocent III., the sentence was ratified, Amalric being ordered to return to Paris and recant his errors. His death was caused, it is said, by grief at the humiliation to which he had been subjected. In 1 209 ten of his followers were burnt before the gates of Paris, and Amalric's own body was exhumed and burnt and the ashes given to the winds. The doctrines of his followers, known as the Amalricians, were formally condemned by the fourth Lateran Council in 121 5. Amalric appears to have derived his philosophical system from Erigena (q.v.), whose principles he developed in a one-sided and strongly pantheistic form. Three propositions only can with certainty be attributed to him: (1) that God is all; (2) that every Christian is bound to believe that he is a member of the body of Christ, and that this belief is necessary for salvation: (3) that he who remains in love of God can commit no sin. These three propositions were further developed by his followers, who maintained that God revealed Himself in a threefold revelation, the first in Abraham, marking the epoch of the Father; the second in Christ, who began the epoch of the Son; and the third in Amalric and his disciples, who inaugurated the era of the Holy Ghost. Under the pretext that a true believer could cbmmit no sin, the Amalricians indulged in every excess, and the sect does not appear to have long survived the death of its founder. See W. Preger, Geschichte der deutschen Mystik im Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1874, i. 167-173); Haureau, Hist, de la phil. scol. (Paris; 1872) ; C. Schmidt, Hist, de VlLglise d' Occident pendant le moyen dge (Paris, 1885); Hefele, Conciliengesch. (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1886). AHALTEO, the name of an Italian family belonging to Oderzo, Treviso, several members of which were distinguished in literature. The best known are three brothers, Geronimo (1507-1574), Giambattista (j 525-1 573) and Cornelk)(i 530-1603), whose Latin poems were published in one collection under the title Trium Fratrum Amaltheorum Carmina (Venice, 1627; Amst., 1689). The eldest brother, Geronimo, was a celebrated physician; the second, Giambattista, accompanied a Venetian embassy to England in 1554, and was secretary to Pius IV. at the council of Trent; the third, Cornelio, was a physician and secretary to the republic of Ragusa. AMALTEO, POMPONIO (1 505-1 584), Italian painter of the Venetian school, was born at San Vito in Friuli. He was a pupil and son-in-law of Pordenone, whose style he closely imitated. His works consist chiefly of frescoes and altar-pieces and many of them (e.g. in the church of Santa Maria de' Battisti, at San Vito) have suffered greatly from the ravages of time. AMALTHEIA, in Greek mythology, the foster-mother of Zeus. She is sometimes represented as the goat which suckled the infant-god in a cave in Crete, sometimes as a nymph of uncertain parentage (daughter of Oceanus, Haemonius, Olen, Melisseus), who brought him up on the' milk of a goat. This goat having broken off one of its horns, Amaltheia filled it with flowers and fruits and presented it to Zeus, who placed it together with the goat amongst the stars. According to another story, Zeus himself broke off the horn and gave it to Amaltheia, promising that it would supply whatever she desired in abundance. Amaltheia gave it to Achelbus (her reputed brother), who exchanged it for his own horn which had been broken off in hfc contest with Heracles for the possession of Deianeira. According to ancient mythology, the owners of the horn were many and various. Speaking generally, it was regarded as the symbol of inexhaustible riches and plenty, and became the attribute of various divinities (Hades, Gaea, Demeter, Cybele, Hermes) , and of rivers (the Nile) as fertilizers of the land. The term " horn of Amaltheia " is applied to a fertile district, and an estate belonging to Titus Pomponius Atticus was called Amaltheum. Cretan coins represent the infant Zeus being suckled by the goat; other Greek coins exhibit him suspended from its teats or carried in the arms of a nymph (Ovid, Fasti, v. 115; Metam. ix. 87). AMANA, a township in Iowa county, Iowa, U.S.A., 19 m. S.W. (by rail) of Cedar Rapids. Pop. (1900) 1748; (1910) 1729. It is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railways. The town- ship is the home of a German religious communistic society, the Amana Society, formerly the True Inspiration Society (so called from its belief in the present inspiration of the truly godly and perfectly pious), whose members live in various villages near the Iowa river. These villages are named Amana, West Amana, South Amana, East Amana, Middle Amana, High Amana and Homestead. The houses are of brick or unpainted wood. The society has in all 26,000 acres of land, of which about 10,000 acres are covered with forests. The principal occupation of the members is farming, although they also have woollen mills (their woollens being of superior quality), a cotton print factory, flour mills, saw mills and dye shops. Each fan ily has its own dwelling-place and a small garden; each member of a family has an annual allowance of credit at the common store and a room in the dwelling-house ; and each group of families has a large garden, a common kitchen and a common dining-hall where men and women eat at separate tables. Between the ages of five and fourteen education is compulsory for the entire year. In the schools nature study and manual training are prominent; German is used throughout and English is taught in upper classes only. No man is permitted to marry until twenty-four years of age, and no woman until twenty. The society's views and practices are nearly related to the teachings of Schwenkfeld and Boehme. Baptism is not practised; the Lord's Supper is celebrated only once in two years; foot-washing is held as a sacrament. At an annual spiritual examination of the members, there are mutual criti- cisms and public confessions of sin. The Inspirationists are opposed to war and to taking of oaths. The Society became attached to the Separatist leader, Eberhard Ludwig Gruber (d. 1728) in Wetterau in 1714; in 1842-1844 about 600 members, led by Christian Metz, the " divine instrument " of the Society, emigrated from Germany to the United States and settled in a colony called Ebenezer, in Erie county, near Buffalo, N.Y.; in 1855 the colony began to remove to its present home, which it named from the mountain mentipned in the Song of Solomon, iv. 8, the Hebrew word meaning " remain true " (or, more probably, " fixed "), and in 1859 it was incorporated under the t name of the Amana Society. Metz died in 1864 and was 780 AMANITA— AMARAPURA succeeded by Barbara Landmann, since, whose death in 1884 the community has lacked an inspired leader. Amana was the strongest in numbers of the few sectarian communities in America which outlived the 19th century. A few new members have joined the community from Switzerland and Germany in recent years. In 1905 the community won a suit brought against it for its dissolution on the ground that, having been incorporated solely as a benevolent and religious body, it was illegally carrying on a general business. See W. R. Perkins and B. L. Wick, History of the Amana Society or Community of True Inspiration, Historical Monograph, No. I, in State University of Iowa publications (Iowa City, 1891; ; R. T. Ely, " Amana: A Study of Religious Communism," in Harper's Maga- zine for October 1902; and Bertha M. H. Shambaugh, Amana, the Community of '. True Inspiration (Iowa City, 1908). AMANITA. The amanitas include some of the most showy representatives of the Agaricineae or mushroom order of fungi (q.v.). In the first stages of growth, they are completely en- veloped by an outer covering called the veil. As the plant develops the veil is ruptured; the lower portion forms a sheath or volva round the base of the stem, while the upper portion persists as white patches or scales or warts on the surface of the cap. The stem usually bears an upper ring of tissue, the B C v Amanita muscaria. A, the young plant. g, the gills. B, the mature plant. a, the annulus, or remnant of C, longitudinal section of mature velum partiale. plant. v, remains of volva or velum p, the pileus. universale, s, the stalk, remains of an inner veil, that stretched from the stem to the edge of the cap and broke away from the cap as the latter expanded. The presence of the volva, and the clear white gills and spores, distinguish this genus from all other agarics. They are beautiful objects in the autumn woods; Amanita muscaria, the fly fungus, formerly known as Agaricus muscarius, being especially remarkable by its bright red cap covered with white warts. Others are pure white or of varying shades of yellow or green. There are sixteen British species of Amanita; they grow on the ground in or near woods. Several of the species are very poisonous. AMANUENSIS (a Latin word, derived from the phrase servus a manu, slave of the hand, a secretary), one who writes, from dictation or otherwise, on behalf of another. AMAPALA, the only port on the Pacific coast of Honduras, on the northern shore of Tigre island, in the Bay of Fonseca (q.v.); in 13 3' N., and 87° 9' W. Pop. (1905) about 4000. Amapala was founded in 1838, and its port was opened and declared free in 1868. The roadstead is perfectly sheltered and so deep that the largest vessels can lie within a few yards of the shore. It is the natural outlet for the commerce of some of the richest parts of Honduras, Nicaragua and Salvador; and during the 19th century it exported large quantities of -gold, silver and other ores, although its progress was retarded by the delay in constructing a transcontinental railway from Puerto Cortes. Its depots on the mainland, both about 30 m. distant, are La Brea, for the line to Puerto Cortes, and San Lorenzo, for Tegucigalpa. Silver is still exported, in addition to hides, timber, coffee and indigo, and there are valuable fisheries. AMARANTH, or Amarant (from the Gr. a/x&pavros, un- withering), a name chiefly used in poetry, and applied to certain plants which, from not soon fading, typified immortality. Thus Milton (Paradise Lost, iii. 353) : — " Immortal amarant, a flower which once In paradise, fast by the tree of life, Began to bloom ; but soon for man's offence To heaven removed, where first it grew, there grows, And flowers aloft, shading the fount of life, And where the river of bliss through midst of heaven Rolls o'er elysian flowers her amber stream : With these that never fade the spirits elect Bind their resplendent locks." It should be noted that the proper spelling of the word is amarant; the more common spelling seems to have come from a hazy notion that the final syllable is the Greek word avdcs, "flower," which enters into a vast number of botanical names. The plant genus Amaranlus (natural order Amarantaceae) contains several well-known garden plants, such as love-lies- bleeding (A. catidatus), a native of India, a vigorous hardy annual, with dark purplish flowers crowded in handsome droop- ing spikes. Another species A. hypochandriacus, is prince's feather, another Indian annual, with deeply-veined lance- shaped leaves, purple on' the under face, and deep crimson flowers densely packed oh erect spikes. " Globe amaranth " belongs to an allied genus, Gomphrena, and is also a native of India. It is an annual about 18 in. high, with solitary round heads of flowers; the heads are violet from the colour of the bracts which surround the small flowers. In ancient Greece the amaranth (also called xp" anQl i\ixpvcos) was sacred to Ephesian Artemis. It was supposed to have special hiealing properties, and as a symbol of immor- tality was used to decorate images of the gods and tombs. In legend, Amarynthus (a form of Amarantus) was a hunter of Artemis and king of Euboea; in a village of Amarynthus, of which he was the eponymous hero, there was a famous temple of Artemis Amarynthia or Amarysia (Strabo x. 448; Pausan. i- 3.1, P- S)- See Lenz, Botanik der alt. Griech. u'nd Rom. (1859) ; J. Murr, Die Pflqnzenwelt itider griech. Mythol. (1890). AMARAPURA ("the city of the gods"), formerly the capital of the Burmese kingdom, now a suburb of Mandalay, Burma, with a : population in 1901 of 9103. The town was founded in 1783 to form a new capital about 6 m. to the north-east of Ava. It increased rapidly in size and population, and in 1810 was estimated to contain 170,000 inhabitants; but in that year the town was destroyed by fire, and this disaster, together with' the: removal of the native court to Ava in 1823, caused a decline in the prosperity' of the place. In 1827 its population was estimated at Only 30,000. It suffered severe calamity from an earthquake, which in 1839 destroyed the greater part of the city. It was finally abandoned in i860, when king Mindon. occupied Mandalay, 5 or 6 m. farther north. Amarapura was laid out on much the same plan as Ava. The ruins of ,the city wall, now overgrown with jungle, show it to have been a square with a side of about three-quarters of a mile in length. At each corner stood a solid brick.pagoda about looit. high. The most remarkable edifice was a celebrated temple, adorned with 250 lofty pillars of gilt wood, and containing a colossal bronze statue of Buddha. The remains of the former palace of the Burmese monarchs still survive in the centre of the town. During the time of its prosperity Amarapura was defended by a rampart and a large square citadel, with a broad moat, the walls being 7000 ft. long and 20 ft. high, with a bastion at each corner. The Burmans know it now as Myohaung, " the old city." It has a station on the Rangoon-Mandalay railway, and is the junction for the line to Maymyo and the Kunlong ferry and for the Sagaing-Myitkyina railway. The group of villages called Amarapura by Europeans is known to the Burmans as Taung-myo, ■'" the southern city," as distinguished from Mandalay, the Myauk-myo, or " northern city," 3 m. distant.' ! AMARAR— AMASIA 781 AMARAR, a tribe of African " Arabs " inhabiting the moun- tainous country on the west side of the Red Sea from Suakin northwards towards Kosseir. Between them and the Nile are the Ababda and Bisharin tribes and to their south dwell the Hadendoa. The country of the Amarar is called the Etbai. Their headquarters are in the Ariab district. The tribe is divided into four great families: (1) Weled Gwilei, (2) Weled Aliab, (3) Weled Kurbab Wagadab, and (4) the Amarar proper of the Ariab district. They claim to be of Koreish blood and to be the descendants of an invading Arab army. Possibly some small bands of Koreish Arabs may have made an inroad and converted some of the Amarar to Islam. ■ Further than this there is little to substantiate their claim. See Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (London; 1905) ; Sir F. R. Wingate, Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan (London, 1891); A. H. Keane, Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan (London, 1884). AMARA SINHA (c. a.d. 375), Sanskrit grammarian and poet, of whose personal history hardly anything is known. He is said to have been " one of the nine gems that adorned the throne of Vikramaditya," and according to the evidence of Hsiian Tsang, this is the Chandragupta Vikramaditya that flourished about a.d. 375. Amara seems to have been a Buddhist; and an early tradition asserts that his works, with one exception, were destroyed during the persecution carried on by the orthodox Brahmins in the 5th century. The exception is the celebrated Amara- Kosha (Treasury of Amara), a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots, in three books, and hence sometimes called Trikanda or the " Tripartite." It contains 10,000 words, and is arranged, like other works of its class, in metre, to aid the memory. The first chapter of the Kosha was printed at Rome in Tamil character in 1798. An edition of the entire work, with English notes and an index by H. T. Colebrooke, appeared at Serampore in 1808. The Sanskrit text was printed at Calcutta in 1831. A French translation by A. L. A. Loiseleur-Deslongchamps as published at Paris in 1839. AMARI, MICHELE (1806-1889), Italian orientalist and patriot, was born at Palermo. From his earliest youth he imbibed liberal principles from his relatives, especially from his grand- father, and although at the age of fourteen he was appointed clerk in the Bourbon civil service, he joined the Carbonari like many other young Sicilians and actively sympathized with the revolution of 1820. The movement, which was separatist in its tendencies, was quickly suppressed, but the conspiracies continued, and Amari's father, implicated in that of 1822, was arrested and condemned to death together with many others; but his sentence was commuted to imprisonment, and in 1834 he was liberated. Michele Amari still held his clerkship, but he regarded the Neapolitan government with increasing hatred, and he led a life of active physical exercise to train himself for the day of revolution. He devoted much of his time to the study of English and of history; his first literary essay was a translation of Sir Walter Scott's Marmion (1832), and in 1839 he published a work on the Sicilian Vespers, entitled Un Periodo dette storie Siciliane del XIII. secolo, filled with political allusions reflecting unfavourably on the government. The book had an immediate success and went through many editions, but it brought the author under the suspicion of the authorities, and in 1842 he escaped from a boat just as he was about to be arrested. He settled in Paris, where he came in contact with a number of literary men, such as Michelet and Thierry, as well as with the Italian exiles. Having no private means he had to earn a precarious livelihood by literature. He was much struck with certain French translations of Arabic works on Sicily, which awoke in him a desire to read the authors in the original. With the assistance of Prof. Reinaud and Baron de Slane he soon acquired great proficiency in Arabic, and his translations and editions of oriental texts, as well as his historical essays, made him a reputa- tion. In 1844 he began his great work La Storia del Mustdmani in Sicilia, but the revolution of 1848 plunged, him into politics ' once more. His pamphlet, Quelques Observations sur le droit public de la Sicile, advocating the revival of the 181 2 constitution for the island, met with great success, and on arriving at Palermo, whence the Bourbon government had been expelled, he was chosen member of the war committee and appointed professor of public law at the university. At the general elections Amari was returned for Palermo and became minister of finance in the Stabile cabinet. On ite fall he was sent to Paris and London to try to obtain help for the struggling island; having failed in his mission he returned to Sicily in 1849, hoping to fight. But the Neapolitan troops had re-occupied the island, the Liberals were in disagreement among themselves, and Amari with several other notables with difficulty escaped to Malta. Characteristic of his scholarly nature is the fact that he delayed his flight to take the impress of an important Arabic inscription. He returned to Paris, sad and dejected at the collapse of the movement, and devoted himself once more to his Arabic studies. He published a work on the chronology of the Koran, for which he received a prize from the Academie des Inscriptions, edited the Solwan el Mota by Ibn Zafer (a curious collection of philosophical thoughts) and Ibn Haukal's Description of Palermo, and in 1854 the first volume of his history of the Mahommedans in Sicily appeared. He received a meagre stipend for cataloguing the Arabic MSS. in the Bibliotheque Nationale, and he contributed many articles to the reviews. Although a firm friend of Mazzini, he discouraged the latter's premature conspiracies. In 1859, after the expulsion of the central Italian despots, Amari was appointed professor of Arabic at Pisa and afterwards at Florence. But when Garibaldi and his thousand had conquered Sicily, Amari returned to his native island, and was given an appointment in the government. Although intensely Sicilian in sentiment, he became one of the stauhchest advocates of the union of Sicily with Italy, and was subsequently made senator of the kingdom at Cavour's instance^ He was minister of education in the Farini and Minghetti cabinets, but on the fall of the latter in 1864, he resumed his professorship at Florence and spent the rest of his life in study. His circle of acquaintances, both in Italy and abroad, was very large, and his sound scholarship was appreciated in all countries. He died in 1889, loaded with honours. The last volume of his Storia dei Musulmani appeared in 1873, and in addition to the above-mentioned works he published many others on oriental and historical subjects. His work on the Sicilian Vespers was re-written as La Guerra del Vespro (9th ed., Milan, 1886). He was the pioneer of Arabic studies in modern Italy, and he still remains the standard authority on the Mussul- man domination in Sicily, though his judgment on religious questions is sometimes warped by a violently anti-clerical bias. See A. D'Ancona, Carteggio di Michele Amari coll' elogio di lui (Turin, 1896); and Oreste Tommasini's essay in his Scritti di storia e critica (Rome, 1891). (L. V.*) AMARYLLIS (the name of a girl in classical pastoral poetry), in botany, a genus of the natural order Amaryllidaceae, containing the belladonna lily (Amaryllis Belladonna), a native of South Africa, which was introduced into cultivation at the beginning of the 18th century. This is a half-hardy bulbous plant, produc- ing in the spring a number of strap-shaped, dull green leaves, 1-15 ft. long, arranged in two rows, and in autumn a solid stem, bearing at the top a cluster of 6-12 funnel-shaped flowers, of a rose colour and very fragrant. Several forms are known in cultivation. Most of the so-called Amaryllis of gardens belong to the allied genus Hippeastrum (q.v.). AMASIA (anc. Amasia), the chief town of a sanjak in the Sivas vilayet of Asia Minor and an important trade centre on the Samsun-Sivas road, beautifully situated on the Yeshil Irmak (Iris). Pop. 30,000; Moslems about 20,000, of whom a large proportion are Kizilbash (Shia); Christians (mostly Armenians), 10,000. It was one of the chief towns of the kingdom of Trebizond and of the Seljuks, one of whose sultans, Kaikobad I,, enriched it with fine buildings and restored the castle, which was thus enabled to stand a seven months' siege by Tinmr. It was also much favoured by the early Osmanli sultans, one of whom, Selim I., was born, there. Bayezid II. built a fine mosque. The place was modernized about a generation ago by Zia Pasha, the poet, when governor, and is now an unusually well built Turkish town with good, bazaar and khans and a fine clock-tower. The 782 AMASIS— AMATEUR Americans and the Jesuits have missionary schools for the Armenian population. Amasia has extensive orchards and fruit gardens still, as in Ibn Batuta's time, irrigated by water wheels turned by the current of the river; and there are steam flour- mills. Wheat, flour and silk are exported. Ancient Amasia has left little trace of itself except on the castle rock, on the left of the river, where the acropolis walls and a number of splendid rock-cut tombs, described by Strabo as those of the kings of Pontus, can be seen. The cliff is cut away all round these immense sepulchres so that they stand free. The finest, known from its polished surfaces as the " Mirror Tomb," is about 2 m. from the modern city. Amasia rose into historical importance after the time of Alexander as the cradle of the power of Pontus; but the last king to reign there was the father of Mithradates Eupator " The Great." The latter, however, made it the base of his operations against the Romans in 89, 72 and 67 B.C. Pompey made it a free city in 65, after Mithradates' fall. It was the birthplace of Strabo. (D. G. H.) AMASIS, or Amosis (the Greek forms of the Egyptian name Ahmase, Ahmosi, " the moon is born," often written Aahmes or A times in modern works), the name of two kings of ancient Egypt. Amasis I., the founder of the XVIIIth dynasty, is famous for his successful wars against the Hyksos princes who still ruled in the north-east of the Delta (see Egypt: History, sect. 1.) Amasis II. was the last great ruler of Egypt before the Persian conquest, 570-526 B.C. Most of our information about him is derived from Herodotus (ii. 161 et seq.) and can only be im- perfectly controlled by monumental evidence. According to the Greek historian he was of mean origin. A revolt of the native soldiers gave him his opportunity. These troops, returning home from a disastrous expedition to Cyrene, suspected that they had been betrayed in order that Apries, the reigning king, might rule more absolutely by means of his mercenaries, and their friends in Egypt fully sympathized with them. Amasis, sent to meet them and quell the revolt, was proclaimed king by the rebels, and Apries, who had now to rely entirely on his mercen- aries, was defeated and taken prisoner in the ensuing conflict at Momemphis; the usurper treated the captive prince with great lenity, but was eventually persuaded to give him up to the people, by whom he was strangled and buried in his ancestral tomb at Sais. An inscription confirms the fact of the struggle between the native and the foreign soldiery, and proves that Apries was killed and honourably buried in the 3rd year of Amasis. Although Amasis thus appears first as champion of the disparaged native, he had the good sense to cultivate the friendship of the Greek world, and brought Egypt into closer touch with it than ever before. Herodotus relates that under his prudent administration Egypt reached the highest pitch of prosperity; he adorned the temples of Lower Egypt especially with splendid monolithic shrines and other monuments (his activity here is proved by remains still existing). To the Greeks Amasis assigned the commercial colony of Naucratis on the Canopic branch of the Nile, and when the temple of Delphi was burnt he contributed 1000 talents to the rebuilding. He also married a Greek princess named Ladice, the daughter of Battus, king of Cyrene, and he made alliances with Polycrates of Samos and Croesus of Lydia. His kingdom consisted probably of Egypt only, as far as the First Cataract, but to this he added Cyprus; and his influence was great in Cyrene. At the beginning of his long reign, before the death of Apries, he appears to have sustained an attack by Nebuchadrezzar (568 B.C.). Cyrus left Egypt unmolested; but the last years of Amasis were disturbed by the threatened invasion of Cambyses and by the rupture of the alliance with Polycrates of Samos. The blow fell upon his son Psam- metichus III., whom the Persian deprived of his kingdom after a reign of only six months. See Naucratis; also W. M. Flinders Petrie, History, vol. iii.; Breasted, History and Historical Documents, vol. iv. p. 509; Maspero, Les Empires. (F. Lt. G.) AMATEUR (Lat. amator, lover), a person who takes part in any art, craft, game or sport for the sake of the pleasure afforded by the occupation itself and not for pecuniary gain. Being thus a person for whom the pursuit in question is a recreation and not a business, and who therefore presumably devotes to it a portion only of his leisure and not his working hours, the average amateur possesses less skill than the average professional, whose livelihood and reputation depend on his ( proficiency, and who therefore concentrates all his energies on the task of attaining the greatest possible mastery in his chosen career. In the arts, such as music, painting and the drama, the best amateurs are outdistanced as executants not merely by the best professionals but by professionals far below the highest rank; and although the inferiority of the amateur is not perhaps so pronounced or so universal in the case of game,s and outdoor sports, the records of such pastimes as horse-racing, boxing, rowing, billiards, tennis and golf prove that here also the same contrast is gener- ally to be found. Hence it has come about that the term "amateur," and more especially the adjectival derivative " amateurish," has acquired a secondary meaning, usually employed somewhat contemptuously, signifying inefficiency, unskilfulness, superficial knowledge or training. The immense increase in popularity of athletic contests and games of all kinds in modern times, and especially the keen competition for " records " and championships, often of an international character, have made it a matter of importance to arrive at a clear and formal definition of the amateur as dis- tinguished from the professional. The simple, straightforward definition of the amateur given above has been proved to be easily evaded. Many leading cricketers, for example, preserve their amateur status who, although they are not paid wages for each match they play like their professional colleagues, are provided with an annual income by their county or club under the guise of salary for performing the duties of "secretary" or some other office, leaving them free to play the game six days a week. Similarly, " gentlemen riders " are often presented with a cash payment described as a bet, or under some other pretext. Nor is the dividing-line between " out-of-pocket expenses " allowed to the amateur and the remuneration payable to the professional always strictly drawn. The various associations controlling the different branches of sport have therefore devised working regulations to be observed so far as their jurisdiction extends. Thus the Amateur Athletic Association of Great Britain defines an amateur as "one who has never competed for a money prize or staked bet, or with or against a professional for any prize, jar who has never taught, pursued or assisted in the practice of athletic exercises as a means of obtaining a livelihood." The rules of the Amateur Rowing Association are stricter, denying amateur status to anyone who has ever steered or rowed in a race with a professional for any prize, or who is or has been by trade or employment for wages a mechanic, artisan or labourer, or engaged in any menial duty, besides insisting upon the usual restrictions in regard to ta'king money and competing with professionals. In association football the rules are much more lax, for although amateurs are clearly distinguished from professionals, an amateur may even become a regular member, though unsalaried, of a professional team without losing his amateur status. The Rugby game was, up to 1895, entirely controlled by the Rugby Football Union, which, by the strictness of its laws, effectually prevented the growth of professionalism, but there had been much dissatisfaction in the provinces with the Union's decision against reimbursing day- working players for " broken time," i.e. for that part of their wages which they lost by playing on working days, and this resulted in the formation (1895) of the Northern Union, which permits remuneration for "broken time," but allows no. person who works for his living to play football unless regularly employed at his particular trade. In America the amateur 1 question is less complicated than in Great Britain; but the intensely business-like character of American ideas of sport has encouraged the modern spirit of professionalism-. All important sports in America, except baseball, football, cricket, golf and rowing, are, however, under the control of the Amateur Athletic Union of the United States, AMATHUS— AMAZON 783 the rules of which, so far as they relate to professionalism, are as follows. No person shall be eligible to compete in any athletic meeting, game or entertainment, given or sanctioned by this Union, who has (1) received or competed for compensation or reward in any form for the display, exercise or example of his skill or knowledge of any athletic exercise, or for rendering personal service of any kind to any athletic organization, or for becoming or continuing a member of any athletic organization; or (2) has entered any competition under a name other than his own, or from a club of which he was not at that time a member in good standing; or (3) has knowingly entered any competition open to any professional or professionals, or has knowingly competed with any professional for any prize or token; or (4) has issued or allowed to be issued in his behalf any challenge to compete against any professional or for money; or (5) has pawned, bartered or sold any prize won in athletic competition. It will be seen that by rule 3 the American Union enacts a standard for all athletes not much different from that of the British Amateur Rowing Association. The rules for the sports not within the Union's jurisdiction are practically the same, except that in baseball, cricket and golf amateurs may compete with professionals, though not for cash prizes. In the case of open golf competitions professional prize-winners receive cash, while amateurs are given plate to the value of their prizes as in Great Britain. There are practically no professional football players in America. On both sides of the Atlantic the question of the employment of professional coaches has occasioned much discussion. In America it has been accepted as legal. In England the same is almost universally true, but there are certain exceptions, such as the decision of the Henley Regatta Committee, that no crew entering may be coached by a professional within two months of the race-day. Whether such a regulation be wise or the reverse is a question that depends upon the spirit in which games are regarded. Nobody wants to disparage proficiency; but if a game is conducted on business methods, the " game " element tends to be minimized, and if its object is pecuniary it ceases to be " sport " in the old sense, and the old idea of the " amateur " who indulges in it for love of the mere enjoyment tends to disappear. AMATHUS, an ancient city of Cyprus, on the S. coast, about 24 m. W. of Larnaka and 6 m. E. of Limassol, among sandy hills and sand-dunes, which perhaps explain its name in Greek (a/uaSos, sand). The earliest remains hitherto found on the site are tombs of the early Iron Age period of Graeco- Phoenician influences (1000-600 B.C.). Amathus is identified by some (E. Oberhummer, Die Insel Cypern, i., 1902, pp. 13-14; but see Citium) with Kartihadasti (Phoenician " New-Town ") in the Cypriote tribute-list of Esarhaddon of Assyria (668 B.C.). It certainly maintained strong Phoenician sympathies, for it was its refusal to join the phil-Hellene league of Onesilas of Salamis which provoked the revolt of Cyprus from Persia in 500-494 B.C. (Herod, v. 105), when Amathus was besieged unsuccessfully and avenged itself by the capture and execution of Onesilas. The phil-Hellene Evagoras of Salamis was similarly opposed by Amathus about 385-380 B.C. in conjunction with Citium and Soli (Diod. Sic. xiv. 98); and even after Alexander the city re- sisted annexation, and was bound over to give hostages to Seleucus (Diod. Sic. xix. 62). Its political importance now ended, but its temple of Adonis and Aphrodite {Venus Amathusia) remained famous in Roman time. The wealth of Amathus was derived partly from its corn (Strabo 340, quoting Hipponax, fl. 540 B.C.), partly from its copper mines (Ovid, Met. x. 220, 531), of which traces can be seen inland (G. Mariti, i. 187; L. Ross, Inselreise, iv. 195; W. H. Engel, Kypros, i. 11 1 ff.). Ovid also mentions its sheep {Met. x. 227); the epithet Amathusia in Roman poetry often means little more than "Cypriote," attesting however the fame of the city. Amathus still nourished and produced a distinguished patriarch of Alexandria (Johannes Eleemon), as late as 606-616, and a ruined Byzantine church marks the site; but it was already almost deserted when Richard Cceur de Lion won Cyprus by a victory there over Isaac Comnenus in 1191. The rich necro- polis, already partly plundered then, has yielded valuable works of art to New York (L. P. di Cesnola, Cyprus, 1878 passim) and to the British Museum {Excavations in Cyprus, 1894 (1899) passim) ; but the city has vanished, except fragments of wall and of a great stone cistern on the acropolis. A similar vessel was transported to the Louvre in 1867. Two small sanctuaries, with terra-cotta votive offerings of Graeco-Phoenician age, lie not far off, but the great shrine of Adonis and Aphrodite has not been identified (M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kypros, i. ch.i). (J.L. M.) AMATI, the name of a family of Italian violin-makers, who flourished at Cremona from about 1550 to 1692. According to Fetis, Andrea and Nicolo Amati, two brothers, were the first Italians who made violins. They were succeeded by Antonio and Geronimo, sons of Nicolo. Another Nicolo, son of Geronimo, was born on the 3rd of September 1596 and died on the 12th of August 1684. He was the most eminent of the family. He im- proved the model adopted by the rest of the Amatis and produced instruments capable of yielding greater power of tone. His pattern was usually small, but he also made the so-called "Grand Amatis." Of his pupils the most famous were Andrea Enamieri and Antonio Stradivari. AMATITLAN, or San Joan de Amatitlan, the capital of a department bearing the same name in Guatemala, on Lake Amatitlan, 15 m. S.W. of Guatemala city by the transcontinental railway from Puerto Barrios to San Jose. Pop. (1905) about 10,000. The town consists almost entirely of one-storeyed adobe huts inhabited by mulattoes and Indians, whose chief industry is the production of cochineal. In 1840 only a small Indian village marked its site, and its subsequent growth was due to the sugar plantations established by a Jesuit settlement. The wells of the town are strongly impregnated with salt and alum, and in the vicinity there are several hot springs. Lake Amatitlan, 9 m. long and 3 m. broad, lies on the northern side of the great Guatemalan Cordillera. Above it rises the four- cratered volcano of Pacaya (8390 ft.), which was in eruption in 1870. The outlet of the lake is a swift river 65 m. long, which cuts a way through the Cordillera, and enters the Pacific at Istapa, after forming at San Pedro a fine waterfall more than 200 ft. high. AMAUROSIS (Gr. for " blinding,"), a term for " deprivation of sight," limited chiefly to those forms of defect or loss of vision which are caused by diseases not directly involving the eye. AMAZON, the great river of South America. Before the con- quest of South America, the Rio de las Amazonas had no general name; for, according to a common custom, each savage tribe gave a name only to the section of the river which it occupied — such as Paranaguazu, Guyerma, Solimoes and others. In the year 1 500, Vicente Yanez Pinzon, in command of a Spanish expedition, discovered and ascended the Amazon to a point about 50 m. from the sea. He called it the Rio Santa Maria de la Mar Didce, which soon became abbreviated to Mar Duke, and for some years, after 1502, it was known as the Rio Grande. The principal com- panions of Pinzon, in giving evidence in 1515, mention it as El Ryo Maranon. There is much controversy about the origin of the word Maranon. Peter Martyr in a letter to Lope Hurtado de Mendoza in 1513 is the first to state that it is of native origin. Ten years after the death of Pinzon, his friend Oviedo calls it the Maranon. Many writers believe that this was its Indian name. We are disposed to agree with the Brazilian historian Constancio that Maranon is derived from the Spanish word marana, a tangle, a snarl, which well represents the bewildering difficulties which the earlier explorers met in navigating not only the entrance to the Amazon, but the whole island-bordered, river-cut and indented coast of the now Brazilian province of Maranhao. The first descent of the mighty artery from the Andes to the sea was made by Orellana in 1541, and the name Amazonas arises from the battle which he had with a tribe of Tapuya savages where the women of the tribe fought alongside. the men, 7 8 4 AMAZON as was the custom among all of the Tapuyas, Orelana, no doubt, derived the name Amazonas from the ancient Amazons (q.v.) of Asia and Africa described by Herodotus and Diodorus. The first ascent of the river was made in 1638 by Pedro Texiera, a Portuguese, who reversed the route of Orellana and reached Quito by way of the. Rio Napo. He returned in 1639 with the Jesuit fathers Acuna and Artieda, delegated by the viceroy of Peru to accompany him. The river Amazon has a drainage area of 2,722,000 sq. m., if the Tocantins be included in its basin. It drains four-tenths of South America, and it gathers its waters from 5 N. to 20° S. latitude. Its most remote sources are found on the inter-Andean plateau, but a short distance from the Pacific Ocean; and, after a course of about 4000 m. through the interior of Peru and across Brazil, it enters the Atlantic Ocean on the equator. It is generally accepted by geographers that the Maranon, or Upper Amazon, rises in the little lake, Lauricocha, in io° 30' S. latitude, and 100 m. N.N.E. of Lima. They appear to have followed the account given by Padre Fritz which has since been found incorrect. According to Antonio Raimondi, it is the Rio de Nupe branch of the small stream which issues from the lake that has the longer course and the greater volume of water. The Nupe rises in the Cordillera de Huayhuath and is the true source of the Maranon. There is a difference among geographers as to where the Maranon ends and the Amazon begins, or whether both names apply to the same river. The Pongo de Manseriche, at the base of the Andes and the head of useful navigation, seems to be the natural terminus of the Maranon; and an examination of the hydrographic conditions of the great valley makes the convenience and accuracy of this apparent. Raimondi terminates the Maranon at the mouth of the Ucayali, Reclus the same, both following the missionary fathers of the colonial period. C. M. de la Condamine uses " Amazon " and " Maranon " indiscriminately and considers them one and the same. Smyth and Lowe give the mouth of the Javary as the eastern limit, as does d'Orbigny. Wolf, apparently uncertain, carries the " Maranon or Amazon " to the Peruvian frontier of Brazil at Tabatinga. Other travellers and explorers contribute to the confusion. This probably arises from the rivalry of the Spaniards and Portuguese. The former accepted the name Maranon in Peru, and as the missionaries penetrated the valley they extended the name until they reached the mouth of the Ucayali; while, as the Portuguese ascended the Amazon, they carried this name to the extent of their explora- tions. Beginning with the lower river we propose to notice, first, the great affluents which go to swell the volume of the main stream. Tributaries. The Tocantins is not really a branch of the Amazon, although usually so considered. It is the central fluvial artery of Brazil, running from south to north for a distance of about 1500 m. It rises in the mountainous district known as the Pyreneos; but its more ambitious western affluent, the Araguay, has its extreme southern headwaters on the slopes of the Serra Cayapo, and flows a distance of 1080 m. before its junction with the parent stream, which it appears almost to equal in volume. Besides its main tributary, the Rio das Mortes, it has twenty smaller branches, offering many miles of canoe navigation. In finding its way to the lowlands, it breaks frequently into falls and rapids, or winds violently through rocky gorges, until, at a point about 100 m. above its junction with the Tocantins, it saws its way across a rocky dyke for 12 m. in roaring cataracts. The tribu- taries of the Tocantins, called the Maranhao and Parana-tinga, collect an immense volume of water from the highlands which surround them, especially on the south and south-east. Between the latter and the confluence with the Araguay, the Tocantins is occasionally obstructed by rocky barriers which cross it almost at a right angle. Through these, the river carves its channel, broken into cataracts and rapids, or cachoeiras, as they are called throughout Brazil. Its lowest one, the Itaboca cataract, is about 130 m. above its estuarine port of Cameta, for which distance the river is navigable; but above that it is useless as a commer- cial avenue, except for laborious and very costly transportation. The flat, broad valleys, composed of sand and clay, of both the Tocantins and its Araguay branch are overlooked by steep bluffs. They are the margins of the great sandstone plateaus, from 1000 to 2000 ft. elevation above sea-level, through which the rivers have eroded their deep beds. Around the estuary of the Tocantins the great plateau has disappeared, to give place to a part of the forest-covered, half submerged alluvial plain, which extends far to the north-east and west. The Pari river, generally called one of the mouths of the Amazon, is only the lower reach of the Tocantins. If any portion of the waters of the Amazon runs round the southern side of the large island of Marajo into the river Para, it is only through tortuous, natural canals, which are in no sense outflow channels of the Amazon. The Xingu, the next large river west of the Tocantins, is a true tributary of the Amazon. It was but little known until it was explored in 1884-1887 by Karl von den Steinen from Cuyaba. Travelling east, 240 m., he found the river Tamita- toaba, 180 ft. wide, flowing from a lake 25 m. in diameter. He descended this torrential stream to the river Romero, 1300 ft. wide, entering from the west, which receives the river Colisu. These three streams form the Xingu, or Parana-xingu, which, from 73 m. lower down, bounds along a succession of rapids for 400 m. A little above the head of navigation, 105 m. from its mouth, the river makes a bend to the east to find its way across a rocky barrier. Here is the great cataract of Itamaraca, which rushes down an inclined plane for 3 m. and then gives a final leap, called the fall of Itamaraca. Near its mouth, the Xingu expands into an immense lake, and its waters then mingle with those of the Amazon through .a labyrinth of canos (natural canals), winding in countless directions through a wooded archipelago. The Tapajos, running through a humid, hot and unhealthy valley, pours into the Amazon 500 m. above Para and is about 1200 m. long. It rises on the lofty Brazilian plateau near Diamantino in 14 25' S. lat. Near this place a number of streams unite to form the river Arinos, which at latitude io° 25' joins the Juruena to form the Alto Tapajos, so called as low down as the Rio Manoel, entering from the east. Thence to Santarem the stream is known as the Tapajos. The lower Arinos, the Alto Tapajos and the Tapajos to the last rapid, the Maranhao Grande, is a continuous series of formidable cataracts and rapids; but from the Maranhao Grande to its mouth, about 188 m., the river can be navigated by large vessels. For its last 100 m. it is from 4 to 9 m. wide and much of it very deep. The valley of the Tapajos is bordered on both sides by bluffs. They are from 300 to 400 ft. high along the lower river; but, a few miles above Santarem, they retire from the eastern side and only approach the Amazon flood-plain some miles below Santarem. The Madeira has its junction with the Amazon 870 m. by river above Para,, and almost rivals it in the volume of its waters. It rises more than 50 ft. during the rainy season, and the largest ocean steamers may ascend it to the Fall of San Antonio, 663 m. above its mouth; but in the dry months, from June to November, it is only navigable for the same distance for craft drawing from 5 to 6 ft. of water. According to the treaty of San Udefonso, the Madeira begins at the confluence of the Guapore with the Mamore. Both of these streams have their headwaters almost in contact with those of the river Paraguay. The idea of a connecting canal is based on ignorance of local conditions. San Antonio is the first of a formidable series of cataracts and rapids, nineteen in number, which, for a river distance of 263 m., obstruct the upper course of the Madeira until the last rapid called Guajara Merim (or Small Pebble), is reached, a little below the union of the Guapore with the Mamore. The junction of the great river Beni with the Madeira is at the Madeira Fall, a vast and grand display of reefs, whirl- pools and boiling torrents. Between Guajara-Merim and this fall, inclusive, the Madeira receives the drainage of the north- eastern slopes of the Andes, from Santa Cruz de la Sierra to Cuzco, the whole of the south-western slope of Brazilian Matto Grosso, and the northern one of the Chiquitos sierras, an area about AMAZON 785 The AMAZON BASIN English Miles o 50 100 200 100 Longitude West 70" of Greenwich equal to that of France and Spain. The waters find their way to the falls of the Madeira by many great rivers, the principal of which, if we enumerate them from east to west, are the Guapor6 or Itenez, the Baures and Blanco, the Itonama or San Miguel, the Mamore, Beni, and Mayutata or Madre de Dios, all of which are reinforced by numerous secondary but powerful affluents. The Guapore presents many difficulties to continuous navigation; the Baures and Itonama offer hundreds of miles of navigable waters through beautiful plains; the Mamore has been sounded by the writer in the driest month of the year for a distance of 500 m. above Guajara-Merim, who found never less than from 10 to 30 ft. of water, with a current of from i to 3 m. an hour. Its Rio Grande branch, explored under the writer's instructions, was found navigable for craft drawing 3 ft. of water to within 30 m. of Santa Cruz de la Sierra — a level sandy plain intervening. The Grande is a river of enormous length, rising in a great valley of the Andes between the important cities of Sucre and Cocha- bamba, and having its upper waters in close touch with those of the Pilcomayo branch of the river Paraguay. It makes a long curve through the mountains, and, after a course of about 800 m., joins the Mamore near 15° S. lat. The Chapare, Secure and Chimore, tributaries of the Mamore, are navigable for launches up to the base of the mountains, to within 130 m. of Cochabamba. The Beni has a 12-ft. fall 18 m. above its mouth called "La Esperanza"; beyond this, it is navigable for 217 m. to the port of Reyes for launches in the dry season and larger craft in the wet one. The extreme source of the Beni is the little river La Paz, which rises in the inter-Andean region, a few miles south- east of Lake Titicaca, and flows as a rivulet through the Bolivian city of La Paz. From this point to Reyes the river is a torrent. The principal affluent of the Beni, and one which exceeds it in volume, enters it 120 m. above its mouth, and is known to the Indians along its banks as the Mayutata, but the Peruvians Emery Vftfetf |fr call it the Madre de Dios. Its ramifications drain the slopes of the Andes between 12 and 15 of latitude. It is navigable in the wet season to within 180 m. of Cuzco. Its upper waters are separated by only a short transitable canoe portage of 7 m. in a straight line from those of the Ucayali. The portage on the eastern side terminates at the Cashpajali river 22 m. above its junction with the Manu. For the first 13 m. it is navigable all the year for craft drawing 18 in. of water, but the remaining o m. present many obstacles to navigation. At the Manu junc- tion the elevation above sea-level is 1070 ft., the river width 300ft., depth 8 ft., current ij m. per hour. The general direction of the Manu is south-east for 158 m. as far as the Pilcopata river, where under the name of Madre de Dios it continues with a flow of 22,000 cubic metres per minute. Here its elevation is 718 ft. above the sea and its width 500 ft. During the above course of 158 m. the Manu receives 135 large and small affluents. Although the inclination of its bed is not great, the obstacles to free navigation are abundant, and consist of enormous trees and masses of tree-trunks which have filled the river during the period of freshets. From the time it receives the Manu, the Madre de Dios carries its immense volume of waters 485 m. to the Beni over the extremely easy slope of a vast and fertile plain. Its banks are low, its bottom pebbly. A greater part of its course is filled with large and small islands some 63 in number. Its average width is about 1500 ft. Below the mouth of the Tambopata, the flow is estimated at 191,250 cubic metres per 1 minute. The average current is 25 m. per hour. There are two important rapids and one cataract on the lower 300 m. of the river. The Mayutata receives three principal tributaries from the south— ^-the Tambopata, Inambari and Pilcopata. The Peruvian government has sought to open a trade route between the Rio Ucayali and the rich rubber districts of the < 786 AMAZON Mayutata. All of the upper branches of the river Madeira find their way to the falls across the open, almost level Mojos and Beni plains, 35,000 sq. m. of which are yearly flooded to an average depth of about 3 ft. for a period of from three to four months. They rival if they do not exceed in fertility the valley of the Nile, and are the healthiest and most inviting agricultural and grazing region of the basin of the Amazon. The Purus, a very sluggish river, enters the Amazon west of the Madeira, which it parallels as far .south as the falls of the latter stream. It runs through a continuous forest at the bottom of the great depression lying between the Madeira river, which skirts the edge of the Brazilian sandstone plateau, and the Ucayali which hugs the base of the Andes. One of its marked features is the five parallel furos 1 which from the north-west at almost regular intervals the Amazon sends to the Purus; the most south-westerly one being about 150 m. above the mouth of the latter river. They cut a great area of very low-lying country into five islands. Farther down the Purus to the right three smaller furos also connect it with the Amazon. Chandless found its elevation above sea-level to be only 107 ft. 590 m. from its mouth. It is one of the most crooked streams in the world, and its length in a straight line is less than half that by its curves. It is practically only a drainage ditch for the half-submerged, lake-flooded district it traverses. Its width is very uniform for 1000 m. up, and for 800 m. its depth is never less than 45 ft. It is navigable by steamers for 1648 m. as far as the little stream, the Curumaha, but only by light-draft craft. Chandless ascended it 1866 m. At 1792 m. it forks into two small streams. Occasionally a cliff touches the river, but in general the lands are subject to yearly inundations throughout its course, the river rising at times above 50 ft., the numerous lakes to the right and left serving as reservoirs. Its main tributary, the Aquiry or Acre, enters from the right about 1104 m. from the Amazon. Its sources are near those of the Mayu- tata. It is navigable for a period of about five months of the year, when the Purus valley is inundated; and, for the remaining seven months, only canoes can ascend it sufficiently high to communicate overland with the settlements in the great india- rubber districts of the Mayutata and lower Beni; thus these regions are forced to seek a canoe outlet for their rich products by the very dangerous, costly and laborious route of the falls of the Madeira. The Juhua is the next great southern affluent of the Amazon west of the Purus, sharing with this the bottom of the immense inland Amazon depression, and having all the characteristics of the Purus as regards curvature, sluggishness and general features of the low, half-flooded forest country it traverses. It rises among the Ucayali highlands, and is navigable and un- obstructed for a distance of 1133 m. above its junction with the Amazon. The Javary, the boundary line between Brazil and Peru, is another Amazon tributary of importance. It is supposed to be navigable by canoe for 900 m. above its mouth to its sources among the Ucayali highlands, but only 260 have been found suitable for steam navigation. The Brazilian Boundary Com- mission ascended it in 1866 to the junction of the Shino with its Jaquirana branch. The country it traverses in its extremely sinuous course is very level, similar in character to that of the Jurua, and is a fostered wilderness occupied by a few savage hordes. The Ucayali, which rises only about 70 m. north of Lake Titicaca, is the most interesting branch of the Amazon next to the Madeira. The Ucayali was first called the San Miguel, then the Ucayali, Ucayare, Poro, Apu-Poro, Cocama and Rio de Cuzco. Peru has fitted out many costly and ably-conducted expeditions to explore it. One of them (1867) claimed to have reached within 240 m. of Lima, and the little steamer " Napo " forced its way up the violent currents for 77 m. above the junction with the Pachitea river as far as the river Tambo, 770 m. from 1 A Jure is a natural canal — sometimes merely a deviation from the main channel, which it ultimately rejoins, sometimes a connexion across low flat country between two entirely separate streams. the confluence of the Ucayali with the Amazon. The ' 'Napo " then succeeded in ascending the Urubamba branch of the Ucayali 35 m. above its union with the Tambo, to a point 200 m. north of Cuzco. The remainder of the Urubamba, as shown by Bosquet in 1806 and Castelnau in 1846, is interrupted by cascades, reefs and numberless other obstacles to navigation. Senor Torres, who explored the Alto Ucayali for the Peruvian government, gives it a length of 186 m., counting from the mouth of the Pachitea to the junction of the Tambo and Uru- bamba. Its width varies from 1300 to 4000 ft., due to the great number of islands. The current runs from 3 to 4 m. an hour, and a channel from 60 to 1 50 ft. wide can always be found with a minimum depth of 5 ft. There are five bad passes, due to the accumulation of trees and rafts of timber. Sometimes enormous rocks have fallen from the mountains and spread over the river-bed causing huge whirlpools. " No greater difficulties present themselves to navigation by 10-knot steamers drawing 4 ft. of water." The Tambo, which rises in the Vilcanota knot of mountains south of Cuzco, is a torrential stream valueless for commercial purposes. The banks of the Ucayali for 500 m. up are low, and in the rainy season extensively inundated. The Huallaga (also known as the Guallaga and Rio de Iqs Motilones), which joins the Amazon to the west of the Ucayah, rises high among the mountains, in about io° 40' S. lat., on the northern slopes of the celebrated Cerro de Pasco. For nearly its. entire length it is an impetuous torrent running through a succession of gorges. It has forty-two rapids, its last obstruction being the Pongo de Aguirre, so called from the traitor Aguirre who passed there. To this point, 140 m. from the Amazon, the Huallaga can be ascended by large river steamers. Between the Huallaga and the Ucayali lies the famous " Pampa del Sacra- mento," a level region of stoneless alluvial lands covered with thick, dark forests, first entered by the missionaries in 1726. It is about 300 m. long, from north to south, and varies in width from 40 to 100 m. Many streams, navigable for canoes, penetrate this region from the Ucayali and the Huallaga. It is still occupied by savage tribes. The river Maranon rises about 100 m. to the north-east of Lima. It flows through a deeply-eroded Andean valley in a north-west direction, along the eastern base of the Cordillera of the Andes, as far as 5° 36' S. lat.; then it makes a great bend to the north-east, and with irresistible power cuts through the inland Andes, until at the Pongo de Manseriche 2 it victoriously breaks away from the mountains to flow onwards through the plains under the name of the Amazon. Barred by reefs, and full of rapids and impetuous currents, it cannot become a commercial avenue. At the point where it makes its great bend the river Chinchipe pours into it from southern Ecuador. Just below this the mountains close in on either side of the Maranon, forming narrows or pongos for a length of 35 m., where, besides numerous whirlpools, there are no less than thirty-five formidable rapids, the series concluding with three cataracts just before reaching the river Imasa or Chunchunga, near the mouth of which La Condamine embarked in the 18th century to descend the Amazon. Here the general level of the country begins to decrease in elevation, with only a few mountain spurs, which from time to time push as far as the river and form pongos of minor importance and less dangerous to descend. Finally, after passing the narrows of Guaracayo, the cerros gradually disappear, and for a distance of about 20 m. the river is full of islands, and there is nothing visible from its low banks but an immense forest-covered plain. But the last barrier has yet to be passed, the Pongo de Manseriche, 3 m. long, just below the mouth of the Rio Santiago, and between it and the old abandoned missionary station of Borja, in 38° 30' S. lat. and 77° 30' 40" W. long. According to Captain Carbajal, who descended it in the little 2 Pongo is a corruption of the Quichua puncu and the Aymara ponco, meaning a door. The Pongo' de Manseriche was first named' Maranon, then Santiago, and later Manseric, afterwards Mansariche and Manseriche, owing to the great numbers of parrakeets found on the rocks there. AMAZON 787 steamer " Napo " in 1868, it is a vast rent in the Andes about 2000 ft. deep, narrowing in places to a width of only 100 ft., the precipices " seeming to close in at the top." Through this dark canon the Maranon leaps along, at times, at the rate of 12 m. an hour. 1 The Pongo de Manseriche was first discovered by the Adelantado Joan de Salinas. He fitted out an expedition at Loxa in Ecuador, descended the Rio Santiago to the Maranon, passed through the perilous Pongo in 1557 and invaded the country of the Maynas Indians. Later, the missionaries of Cuenca and Quito established many missions in the Pais de los Maynas, and made extensive use of the Pongo de Manseriche as an avenue of communication with their several convents on the Andean plateau. According to their accounts, the huge rent in the Andes, the Pongo, is about five or six m. long, and in places not more than 80 ft. wide, and is a frightful series of torrents and whirlpools interspersed with rocks. There is an ancient tradition of the savages of the vicinity that one of their gods descending the Maranon and another ascending the Amazon to communicate with him, they opened the pass called the Pongo de Manseriche. From the northern slope of its basin the Amazon receives many tributaries, but their combined volume of water is not nearly so great as that contributed to the parent stream by its affluents from the south. That part of Brazil lying between the Amazon and French, Dutch and British Guiana, and bounded on the west by the Rio Negro, is known as Brazilian Guiana. It is the southern watershed of a tortuous, low chain of mountains running, roughly, east and west. Their northern slope, which is occupied by the three Guianas first named, is saturated and river-torn; but their southern one, Brazilian Guiana, is in general thirsty and semi-barren, and the driest region of the Amazon valley. It is an area which has been left almost in the undisturbed possession of nomadic Indian tribes, whose scanty numbers find it difficult to solve the food problem. From the divorlium aquarum between French Guiana and Brazil, known as the Tumuc-humac range of highlands, two minor streams, the Yary and the Parou, reach the Amazon across the intervening broken and barren tableland. They are full of rapids and reefs. The Trombetas is the first river of importance we meet on the northern side as we ascend the Amazon. Its confluence with this is just above the town of Obidos. It has its sources in the Guiana highlands, but its long course is frequently interrupted by violent currents, rocky barriers, and rapids. The inferior zone of the river, as far up as the first fall, the Porteira, has but little broken water and is low and swampy; but above the long series of cataracts and rapids the character and aspect of the valley completely change, and the climate is much better. The river is navigable for 135 m. above its mouth. The Negro, the great northern tributary of the Amazon, has its sources along the watershed between the Orinoco and the Amazon basins, and also connects with the Orinoco by way of the Casiquiare canal. Its main affluent is the Uaupes, which disputes with the headwaters of the Guaviari branch of the Orinoco the drainage of the eastern slope of the " oriental " Andes of Colombia. The Negro is navigable for 450 m. above its mouth for 4 ft. of water in the dry season, but it has many sandbanks and minor difficulties. In the wet season, it overflows the country far and wide, sometimes to a breadth of 20 m., for long distances, and for 400 m. up, as far as Santa Isabella, is a succession of lagoons, full of long islands and intricate channels, and the slope of the country is so gentle that the river has almost no current. But just before reaching the Uaupes there is a long series of reefs, over which it violently flows in cataracts, rapids and whirlpools. The Uaupes is full of similar obstacles, some fifty rapids barring its navigation, although a long stretch of its upper course is said to be free from them, and to flow gently through a forested country. Despite the impediments, canoes ascend this stream to the Andes. 1 One of the most daring deeds of exploration ever known in South America was done by the engineer A. Wertheman: He fitted out three rafts, in August 1 870, and descended this whole series of rapids and cascades from the Rio Chinchipe to Borja. The Branco is the principal affluent of the Negro from the north; it is enriched by many streams from the sierras which separate Venezuela and British Guiana from Brazil. Its two upper main tributaries are the Urariquira and the Takutu. The latter almost links its sources with those of the Essequibo. The Branco flows nearly south, and finds its way into the Negro through several channels and a chain of lagoons similar to those of the latter river. It is 350 m. long, up-to its Urariquira confluence. It has numerous islands, and, 235 m. above its mouth, it is broken by a bad series of rapids. Casiquiare Canal. In 1744 the Jesuit Father Roman, while ascending the Orinoco river, met some Portuguese slave- traders from the settlements on the Rio Negro. He accompanied them on their return, by way of the Casiquiare canal, and after- wards retraced his route to the Orinoco. La Condamine, seven months later, was able to give to the French Academy an account of Father Roman's extraordinary voyage, and thus confirm the existence of this wonderful waterway first reported by Father Acuna in 1639. But little credence was given to Father Roman's statement until it was verified, in 1756, by the Spanish Boundary-line Commission of Yturriaga y Solano. The actual elevation of the canal above sea-level is not known, but is of primary importance to the study of the hydrography of South America. Travellers in general give it at from 400 to 900 ft., but, after much study of the question of altitudes throughout South America, the writer believes that it does not exceed 300 ft. The canal connects the upper Orinoco, 9 m. below the mission of Esmeraldas, with the Rio Negro affluent of the Amazon near the town of San Carlos. The general course is south-west, and its length, including windings, is about 200 m. Its width, at its bifurcation with the Orinoco, is approximately 300 ft., with a cur- rent towards the Negro of three-quarters of a mile an hour; but as it gains in volume from the very numerous tributary streams, large and small, whicly t receives en route, its velocity increases, and in the wet season reaches 5 and even 8 m. an hour in certain stretches. It broadens considerably as it approaches its mouth, where it is about 1750 ft. in width. It will thus be seen that the volume of water it captures from the Orinoco is small in comparison to what it accumulates in its course. In flood-time it is said to have a second connexion with the Rio Negro by a branch which it throws off to the westward called the Itinivini, which leaves it at a point about 50 m. above its mouth. In the dry season it has shallows, and is obstructed by sandbanks, a few rapids and granite rocks. Its shores are densely wooded, and the soil more fertile than that along the Rio Negro. The general slope of the plains through which the canal runs is south-west, but those of the Rio Negro slope south-east. The whole line of the Casiquiare is infested with myriads of tormenting insects. A few miserable groups of Indians and half-breeds have their small villages along its southern portion. It is thus seen that this marvellous freak of nature is not, as is generally supposed, a sluggish canal on a flat tableland, but a great, rapid river which, if its upper waters had not found contact with the Orinoco, perhaps by cutting back, would belong entirely to the Negro branch of the Amazon. To the west of the Casiquiare there is a much shorter and more facile connexion between the Orinoco and Amazon basins, called the isthmus of Pimichin, which is reached by ascending the Terni branch of the Atabapo affluent of the Orinoco. Although the Terni is somewhat obstructed, it is believed that it could easily be made navigable for small craft. The isthmus is 10 m. across, with undulating ground, nowhere over 50 ft. high, with swamps and marshes. It is much used for the transit mi large canoes, which are hauled across it from the Terni river, and which reach the Negro by the little stream called the Pimichin. The Yapura. West of the Negro the Amazon receives three more imposing streams from the north-west — the Yapura, the lea or Putumayo, and the Napo. The first was formerly known as the Hyapora, but its Brazilian part is now called the Yapura, and its Colombian portion the Caqueta. Barao de Marajo gives it 600 m. of navigable, stretches. Jules Crevaux, who descended it, describes it as full of obstacles to. navigation, the current very strong and the stream frequently interrupted by rapids and cataracts. It rises in the Colombian Andes, nearly in touch with the sources of the Magdalena, and augments its volume j88 AMAZON from many branches as it courses through Colombia. It was long supposed to have eight mouths; but Ribeiro de Sampaio, in his voyage of 1774, determined that there was but one real mouth, and that the supposed others are all furos or cafios. 1 In 1 864- 1 868 the Brazilian government made a somewhat careful examination of the Brazilian part of the river, as far up as the rapid of Cupaty. Several very easy and almost complete water-routes exist between the Yapura and Negro across the low, flat intervening country. Barao de Mara jo says there are six of them, and one which connects the upper Yapura with the Uaupes branch of the Negro; thus the Indian tribes of the respective valleys have facile contact with each other. The Ic;a or Putumayo, west of and parallel to the Yapura, was found more agreeable to navigate by Crevaux. He ascended it in a steamer drawing 6 ft. of water, and running day and night. He reached Cuemby, 800 m. above its mouth, without finding a single rapid. Cuemby is only 200 m. from the Pacific Ocean, in a straight line, passing through the town of Pasto in southern Colombia. There was not a stone to be seen up to the 1 base of the Andes; the river banks were of argillaceous earth and the bottom of fine sand. The Napo rises on the flanks of the volcanoes of Antisana, Sincholagua and Cotopaxi. Before it reaches the plains it receives a great number of small streams from impenetrable, saturated and much broken mountainous districts, where the dense and varied vegetation seems to fight for every square foot of ground. From the north it is joined by the river Coca, having its sources in the gorges of Cayambe on the equator, and also a powerful river, the Aguarico, having its headwaters between Cayambe and the Colombian frontier. From the west it receives a secondary tributary, the Curaray, from the Andean slopes, between Cotopaxi and the volcano of Tungur|igua. From its Coca branch to the mouth of the Curaray the Napo is full of snags and shelving sandbanks, and throws out numerous cafios among jungle-tangled islands, which in the wet season are flooded, giving the river an immense width. From the Coca to the Amazon it runs through a forested plain where not a hill is visible from the river— its uniformly level banks being only interrupted by swamps and lagoons. From the Amazon the Napo is navigable for river craft up to its Curaray branch, a distance of about 216 m., and perhaps a few miles farther; thence, by painful canoe navigation, its upper waters may be ascended as far as Santa Rosa, the usual point of embarkation for any venturesome traveller who descends from the Quito tableland. The Coca river may be penetrated as far up as its middle course, where it is jammed between two mountain walls, in a deep canyon, along which it dashes over high falls and numerous reefs. This is the stream made famous by the expedition of Gonzalo Pizarro. The Nanay is the next Amazon tributary of importance west of the Napo. It belongs entirely to the lowlands, and is very crooked, has a slow current and divides much into cafios and strings of lagoons which flood the flat, low areas of country on either side. It is simply the drainage ditch of districts which are extensively overflowed in the rainy season. Captain Butt ascended it 195 m., to near its source. The Tigre is the next west of the Nanay, and is navigable for 125 m. from its confluence with the Amazon. Like the Nanay, it belongs wholly to the plains. Its mouth is 42 m. west of the junctio* of the Ucayali with the Amazon. Continuing west from the Tigre we have the Parinari, Chambira, and Nucuray, all short lowland streams, resembling the Nanay in character. The Pastaza (the ancient river Sumatara) is the next large river we meet. It rises on the Ecuadorian tableland, where a branch from the valley of Riobamba unites with one from the Latacunga basin and breaks through the inland range of the Andes; and joined, afterwards, by several important tributaries, finds its way south-east among the gorges; thence it turns southward into the plains, and enters the Amazon at a point about 60 m. west of the mouth of the Huallaga. So far as 1 A cafro, like furo, is a kind of natural canal ; it forms a lateral discharge for surplus water from a river. known, it is a stream of no value except for canoe navigation. Its rise and fall are rapid and uncertain, and it is shallow and full of sandbanks and snags. It is a terrible river when in flood. The Morona flows parallel to the Pastaza and immediately to the west of it, and is the last stream of any importance on the northern side of the Amazon before reaching the Pongo de Manseriche. It is formed from a multitude of water-courses which descend the slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes south of the gigantic volcano of Sangay; but it soon reaches the plain, which commences where it receives its Cusulima branch. The Morona is navigable for small craft for about 300 m. above its mouth, but it is extremely tortuous. Canoes may ascend many of its branches, especially the Cusulima and the Miazal, the latter almost to the base of Sangay. The Morona has been the scene of many rude explorations, with the hope of finding it serviceable as a commercial route between the inter-Andean tableland of Ecuador and the Amazon river. A river called the Paute dashes through the eastern Andes from the valley ef Cuenca;ahd a second, the Zamora, has broken through the same range from the basin of Loja. Swollen by their many affluents, they reach the lowlands and unite their waters to form the Santiago, which flows into the Marafion at the head of the Pongo de Manseriche. There is but little known of a trustworthy character regarding this river, but Wolf says that it is probably navigable up to the junction of the Paute with the Zamora. The Main River. The Amazon Main River is navigable for ocean steamers as far as Iquitos, 2300 m. from the sea, and 486 m. higher up for vessels drawing 14 ft. of water, as far as Achual Point. Physical Beyond that, according to Tucker, confirmed by characte,-- Wertheman, it is unsafe; but small steamers frequently istlcs - ascend to the Pongo de Manseriche, just above Achual Point The average current of the Amazon is about 3 m. an hour; but, especially in flood, it dashes through some of its contracted channels at the rate of 5 m. The U.S. steamer "Wilmington" ascended it to Iquitos in 1899. Commander Todd reports that the average depth of the river in the height of the rainy season is 120 ft. It commences to rise in November, and increases in volume until June, and then falls until the end of October. The rise of the Negro branch is not synchronous; for the steady rains do not commence in its valley until February or March. By June it is full, and then it begins to fall with the Amazon. According to Bates, the Madeira " rises and sinks " two months earlier than the Amazon. The Amazon at times broadens to 4 and 6 m. Occasionally, for long distances, it divides into two main streams with inland, lateral channels, all connected by a complicated system of natural canals, cutting the low, flat igapo lands, which are never more than 15 ft. above low river, into almost numberless islands. 1 At the narrows of Obidos, 400 m. from the sea, it is compressed into a single bed a mile wide and over 200 ft. deep, through which the water rushes at the rate of 4 to 5 m. an hour. In the rainy season it inundates the country throughout its course to the extent of several hundred thousand square miles, covering the flood-plain, called iiar gem. The flood-levels are in places from 40 to 50 ft. high above low river. Taking four roughly equidistant places, the rise at Iquitos is 20 ft., at Teffe 45, near Obidos 35, and at Para, 12 ft. The first high land met in ascending the river is on the north bank, opposite the mouth of the Xingu, and extends for about 150 m. up, as far as Monte Alegre. It is a series of steep, table- topped hills, cut down to a kind of terrace which lies between them and the river. Monte Alegre reaches an altitude of several hundred feet. On the south side, above the Xingu, a line of low bluffs extends, in a series of gentle curves with hardly any breaks nearly to Santarem, but a considerable distance inland, bordering the; flood-plain, which is many miles wide. Then they bend to the south-west, and, abutting upon the lower Tapajos, merge 1 Igapo is thus the name given to the recent alluvial tracts along the margins of rivers, submerged by moderate floods, whereas vargem is the; term used for land between the levels of moderate and high floods, white for land above this the people use the term terra firma. AMAZON 789 into the bluffs which form the terrace margin of that river valley. The next high land on the north side is Obidos, a bluff, 56 ft. above the river, backed by low hills. From Serpa, nearly opposite the river Madeira, to near the mouth of the Rio Negro, the banks are low, until approaching Manaos, they are rolling hills; but from the Negro, for 600 m., as far up as the village of Canaria, at the great bend of the Amazon, only very low land is found, resembling that at the mouth of the river. Vast areas of it are submerged at high water, above which only the upper part of the trees of the sombre forests appear. At Canaria, the high land commences and continues as far as Tabatinga, and thence up stream. On the south side, from the Tapajos to the river Madeira, the banks are usually low, although two or three hills break the general monotony. From the latter river, however, to the Ucayali, a distance of nearly 1500 m., the forested banks are just out of water, and are inundated long before the river attains its maximum flood-line. Thence to the Huallaga the elevation of the land is somewhat greater; but not until this river is passed, and the Pongo de Manseriche approached, does the swelling ground of the Andean foot-hills raise the country above flood-level. The Amazon is not a continuous incline, but probably consists of long, level stretches connected by short inclined planes of extremely little fall, sufficient, however, owing to its great depth, to give the gigantic volume of water a continuous impulse towards the ocean. The lower Amazon presents every evidence of having once been an ocean gulf, the upper waters of which washed the cliffs near Obidos. Only about 10 % of the water discharged by the mighty stream enters it below Obidos, very little of which is from the northern slope of the valley. The drainage area of the Amazon basin above Obidos is about 1,945,000 sq. m., and, below, only about 423,000 sq. m., or say 20%, exclusive of the 354,000 sq. m. of the Tocantins basin. The width of the mouth of the monarch river is usually measured from Cabo do Norte to Punto Patijoca, a distance of 207 statute m.; but this includes the ocean outlet, 40 m. wide, of the Para, river, which should be deducted, as this stream is only the lower reach of the Tocantins. It also includes the ocean frontage of Marajo, an island about the size of the kingdom of Denmark lying in the mouth of the Amazon. Following the coast, a little to the north of Cabo do Norte, and for 100 m. along its Guiana margin up the Amazon, is a belt of half-submerged islands and shallow sandbanks. Here the tidal phenomenon called the bore, or Pororoca, occurs, where the soundings are not over 4 fathoms. It commences with a roar, constantly increasing, and advances at the rate of from 10 to 15 m. an hour, with a breaking wall of water from 5 to 12 ft. high. Under such conditions of warfare between the ocean and the river, it is not surprising that the former is rapidly eating away the coast and that the vast volume of silt carried by the Amazon finds it impossible to build up a delta. The Amazon is not so much a river as it is a gigantic reservoir, extending from the sea to the base of the Andes, and, in the wet season, varying in width from 5 to 400 m. Special attention has already been called to the fourteen great streams which discharge into this reservoir, but it receives a multitude of secondary rivers, which in any other part of the world would also be termed great. For 350 years after the discovery of the Amazon, by Pinzon, the Portuguese portion of its basin remained almost an undis- turbed wilderness, occupied by Indian tribes whom the Papula- f 00( j q ues t jj a( j sp ]; t j nt0 CO untless fragments. It is Hon, trade, ,./: ..... ,. . , , . , , &Ct doubtful if its indigenous inhabitants ever exceeded one to every 5 sq. m. of territory, this being the maxi- mum it could support under the existing conditions of the period in question, and taking into account Indian methods of life. A few settlements on the banks of the main river and some of its tribu- taries, either for trade with the Indians or for evangelizing purposes, had been founded by the Portuguese pioneers of European civilization. The total population of the Brazilian portion of the Amazon basin in 1850 was perhaps 300,000, of whom about two-thirds were white and slaves, the latter number- ing about 25,000. The principal commercial city, Para, had from 10,000 to 12,000 inhabitants, including slaves; The town of Manaos, at the mouth of the Rio Negro, had from 1000 to 1500 population; but all the remaining villages, as far up as Tabatinga, on the Brazilian frontier of Peru, were wretched little groups of houses which appeared to have timidly effected a lodgment on the river bank, as if they feared to challenge the mysteries of the sombre and gigantic forests behind them. The value of the export and import trade of the whole valley in 1850 was but £500,000. On the 6th of September 1850 the emperor, Dom Pedro II., sanctioned a law authorizing steam navigation on the Amazon, and confided to an illustrious Brazilian, Barao Maua (Irineu Evangilista de Sousa), the task of carrying it into effect. He organized the " Compania de Navigacao e Commercio do Amazonas" at Rio de Janeiro in 1852; and in the following year it commenced operations with three small steamers, the "Monarch," the "Marajo" and "Rio Negro." At first the naviga- tion was principally confined to the main river; and even in 1857 a modification of the government contract only obliged the company to a monthly service between Para, and Manaos, with steamers of 200 tons cargo capacity, a second line to make six round voyages a year between Manaos and Tabatinga, and a third, two trips a month between Para and Cameta. The government paid the company a subvention of £3935 monthly. Thus the first impulse of modern progress was given to the dormant valley. The success of the venture called attention to the unoccupied field; a second company soon opened commerce on the Madeira, Purus and Negro; a third established a line between Para and Manaos; and a fourth found it profitable to navigate some of the smaller streams; while, in the interval, the Amazonas Company had largely increased its fine fleet. Meanwhile private individuals were building and running small steam craft of their own, not only upon the main river but upon many of its affluents. The government of Brazil, constantly pressed by the maritime powers and by the countries encircling the upper Amazon basin, decreed, on the 31st of July 1867, the opening of the Amazon to all flags; but limited this to certain defined points— Tabatinga, on the Amazon; Cameta, on the Tocantins; Santarem, on the Tapajos; Borba, on the Madeira; Manaos, on the Rio Negro; the decree to take effect on the 7th of September of the same year. Para, Manaos and Iquitos are now thriving commercial centres. The first direct foreign trade with Manaos was commenced about 1874. The local trade of the river is carried on by the English successors to the Amazonas Company — the Amazon Steam Navigation Company. In addition to its excellent fleet there are numerous small river steamers, belonging to companies and firms engaged in the rubber trade, navigating the Negro, Madeira, Purus and many other streams. The principal exports of the valley are india-rubber, cacao, Brazil nuts and a few other products of very minor importance. The finest quality of india- rubber comes from the Acre and Beni districts of Bolivia, especially from the valley of the Acre (or Aquiry) branch of the river Funis. Of the rubber production of the Amazon basin, the state of Para gives about 35 %. The cacao tree is not cultivated, but grows wild in great abundance. There is but one railway in the whole valley; it is a short line from Para, towards the coast. The cities of Para, and Manaos have excellent tram- ways, many fine public buildings and private residences, gardens and public squares, all of which give evidence of artistic taste and great prosperity. The number of inhabitants in the Brazilian Amazon basin (the states of Amazonas and Para) is purely a matter of rough estimate. There may be 500,000 or 600,000; or more; for the immigration during recent years from the other parts of Brazil has been large, due to the rubber excitement. The influx from the state of Ceara alone, from 1892 to 1899 inclusive, reached 98,348. As Commander Todd, in his report to the United States government, says: "The crying need of the Amazon valley is 79° AMAZONAS— AMAZONS food for the people. ... At the small towns along the river it is nearly impossible to obtain beef, vegetables, or fruit of any sort, and the inhabitants depend largely upon river fish, mandioc, and canned goods for their subsistence." Although more than four centuries have passed since the discovery of the Amazon river, there are probably not 25 sq. m. of its basin under cultivation, excluding the limited and rudely cultivated areas among the mountains at its extreme headwaters, which are inaccessible to commerce. The extensive exports of the mighty valley are almost entirely derived from the products of the forest. (G. E. C.) AMAZONAS, the extreme north-western and largest state of Brazil, bounded N. by Colombia and Venezuela, E. by the state of Para, S. by the state of Matto Grosso and Bolivia, and W. by Peru and Colombia. It embraces an area of 742,123 sq. m., wholly within the Amazon basin. A small part bordering the Venezuelan sierras is elevated and mountainous, but the greater part forms an immense alluvial plain, densely wooded, traversed by innumerable rivers, and subjected to extensive annual inundations. The climate is tropical and generally unfavourable to white settlement, the exceptions being the elevated localities on the Amazon exposed to the strong winds blowing up that river. The state is very sparsely populated; two-thirds of the inhabitants are Indians, forming small tribes, and subject only in small part to government control. The principal products are rubber, cacao and nuts; cattle are raised on the elevated plains of the north, while curing fish and collecting turtle eggs for their oil give occupation to many people on the rivers. Coffee, tobacco, rice and various fruits of superior quality are produced with ease, but agriculture is neglected and production is limited to domestic needs. The capital, Manaos, is the only city and port of general commercial importance in the state; other prominent towns are Serpa and Teffe on the Amazon, Borba and Crato on the Madeira, and Barcellos on the Rio Negro. Up to 1755 all the Portuguese territory on the Amazon formed part of the capitania of Para. The upper districts were then organized into a separate capitania, called S. Jose do Rio Negro, to facilitate administration. When Brazil became independent in 1822, Rio Negro was overlooked in the reorganization into provinces and reverted, notwithstanding the protests and an attempted revolu- tion (1832) of the people, to a state of dependence upon Para. In 1850 autonomy was voted by the general assembly at Rio de Janeiro, and on the 1st of January 1852 the province of Amazonas was formally installed. In 1889 it became a federal state in the Brazilian republic. AMAZONAS, a northern department of Peru, covering a mountainous district between the departments of Loreto and Cajamarca, with Ecuador on the N. The Maranon river forms the greater part of its W. boundary-line. Area, 13,943 sq. m.; pop. (1896) 70,676. The rainfall is abundant, and the soil of the heavily wooded valleys and lower mountain slopes is exception- ally fertile and productive. Its settlement and development is seriously impeded by the lack of transportation facilities. The capital, Chachapoyas, is a small town (pop. about 6000) situated on a tributary of the Maranon, 7600 ft. above sea-level. It is the seat of a bishopric, created in 1802, which covers the depart- ments of Amazonas and Loreto, and one province of Libertad. It has an imposing cathedral and a university. The climate is equable and delightful, the mean temperature for the year being 62 F. AMAZONAS, a territory belonging to Venezuela, and occupy- ing the extreme southern part of that republic, adjoining the Brazilian state of Amazonas. It lies partly within the drainage basin of the Orinoco and partly within that of the Rio Negro, an affluent of the Amazon. The territory is covered with dense forests and is filled with intricate watercourses, one of which, the Casiquiare, forms an open communication between the Orinoco and the Rio Negro and is navigable for large canoes. The capital of the territory is Maroa, situated on the Guainia river, an affluent of the Rio Negro. AMAZONS, an ancient legendary nation of female warriors. They were said to have lived in Pontus near the shore of the Euxine sea, where they formed an independent kingdom under the government of a queen, the capital being Themiscyra on the banks of the river Thermodon (Herodotus iv. 110-117). From this centre they made numerous warlike excursions— to Scythia, Thrace, the coasts of Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean, even penetrating to Arabia, Syria and Egypt. They were supposed to have founded many towns, amongst them Smyrna, Ephesus, Sinope, Paphos. According to another account, they originally came to the Thermodon from the Palus Maeotis (Sea of Azov). No men were permitted to reside in their country; but once a year, in order to prevent their race from dying out, they visited the Gargareans, a neighbouring tribe. The male children who were the result of these visits were either put to death or sent back to their fathers; the female were kept and brought up by their mothers, and trained in agricultural pursuits, hunting, and the art of war (Strabo xi. p. 503). It is said that their right breast was cut off or burnt out, in order that they might be able to use the bow more freely; hence the ancient derivation of 'Ajudfovts from a-^afos, " without breast." But there is no indication of this practice in works of art, in which the Amazons are always represented with both breasts, although the right is frequently covered. Other suggested derivations are: & (intensive) and Aiafos, breast, " full-breasted "; & (privative) and /lacra-w, touch, " not touching men "; maza, a Circassian word said to signify " moon," has suggested their connexion with the worship of a moon- goddess, perhaps the Asiatic representative of Artemis. The Amazons appear in connexion with several Greek legends. They invaded Lycia, but were defeated by Bellerophon, who was sent out against them by Iobates, the king of that country, in the hope that he might meet his death at their hands (Iliad, yi. 186). They attacked the Phrygians, who were assisted by Priam, then a young man (Iliad, iii. 189), although in his later years, towards the end of the Trojan war, his old opponents took his side against the Greeks under their queen Penthesileia, who was slain by Achilles (Quint. Smyr. i. ; Justin ii. 4; Virgil, Aen. i. 490). One of the tasks imposed upon Heracles by Eurystheus was to obtain possession of the girdle of the Amazonian queen Hippolyte (Apollodorus ii. 5). He was accompanied by his friend Theseus, who carried off the princess Antiope, sister of Hippolyte, an incident which led to a retaliatory invasion of Attica, in which Antiope perished fighting by the side of Theseus. The Amazons are also said to have undertaken an expedition against the island of Leuke, at the mouth of the Danube, where the ashes of Achilles had been deposited by Thetis. The ghost of the dead hero appeared and so terrified the horses, that they threw and trampled upon the invaders, who were forced to retire. They are heard of in the time 'of Alexander the Great, when their queen Thalestris visited him and became a mother by him, and Pompey is said to have found them in the army of Mithradates. The origin of the story of the Amazons has been the subject of much discussion. While some regard them as a purely mythical people, others assume an historical foundation for them. The deities worshipped by them were Ares (who is consistently assigned to them as a god of war, and as a god of Thracian and generally northern origin) and Artemis, not the usual Greek goddess of that name, but an Asiatic deity in some respects her equivalent. It is conjectured that the Amazons were originally the temple-servants and priestesses (hierodulae) of this goddess; and that the removal of the breast corresponded with the self-mutilation of the galli, or priests, of Rhea Cybele. Another theory is that, as the knowledge of geography extended, travellers .brought back reports of tribes ruled entirely by women, who carried out the duties which elsewhere were regarded as peculiar to man, in whom alone the rights of nobility and inheritance were vested, and who had the supreme control of affairs. Hence arose the belief in the Amazons as a nation of female warriors, organized and governed entirely by women. According to J. Viirtheim (De Ajacis origine, 1907), the Amazons were of Greek origin: " all the Amazons were Dianas, as Diana herself was an Amazon." It has been suggested that the fact AMAZON-STONE— AMBASSADOR 79 of the conquest of the Amazons being assigned to the two famous heroes of Greek mythology, Heracles and Theseus — who in the tasks assigned to them were generally opposed to monsters and beings impossible in themselves, but possible as illustrations of permanent danger and damage, — shows that they were mythical illustrations of the dangers which beset the Greeks on the coasts of Asia Minor; rather perhaps, it may be intended to represent the conflict between the Greek culture of the colonies on the Euxine and the barbarism of the native inhabitants. In works of art, combats between Amazons and Greeks are placed on the same level as and often associated with combats of Greeks and centaurs. The belief in their existence, however, having been once accepted and introduced into the national poetry and art, it became necessary to surround them as far as possible with the appearance of not unnatural beings. Their occupation was hunting and war; their arms the bow, spear, axe, a half shield, nearly in the shape of a crescent, called pelta, and in early art a helmet, the model before the Greek mind having apparently been the goddess Athena. In later art they approach the model of Artemis, wearing a thin dress, girt high for speed; while on the later painted vases their dress is often peculiarly Persian — that is, close-fitting trousers and a high cap called the kidaris. They were usually on horseback but sometimes on foot. The battle between Theseus and the Amazons is a favourite subject on the friezes of temples (e.g. the reliefs from the frieze of the temple of Apollo at Bassae, now in the British Museum), vases and sarcophagus reliefs; at Athens it was represented on the shield of the statue of Athena Parthenos, on wall-paintings in the Theseum and in the Poikile Stoa. Many of the sculptors of antiquity, including Pheidias, Poly- clitus, Cresilas and Phradmon, executed statues of Amazons; and there are many existing reproductions of these. - The history of Bohemia affords a parallel to the Greek Amazons. During the 8th century a large band of women, under a certain Vlasta, carried on war against the duke of Bohemia, and enslaved or put to death all men who fell into their hands. In the 16th century the Spanish explorer Orellana asserted that he had come into conflict with fighting women in South America on the river Marafion, which was named after; them the Amazon (q.v. ) or river of the Amazons, although others derive its name from the Indian amassona (boat-destroyer), applied to the tidal phenomenon known as the " bore." The existence of " Amazons " (in the sense of fighting women) in the army of Dahomey in modern times is an undoubted fact, but they are said to have died out during the French protectorate. For notable cases of women who have become soldiers, reference may be made to Mary Anne Talbot and Hannah Snell. See A. D. Mordtmann, Die Amazonen (1862); W. Strieker, Die A. in Sage und Geschichte (1868) ; A. Kliigmann, Die A. in der attischen Literatur und Kunst (1875) ; H. L. Krause, Die Amazonen- sage (1893); F. G. Bergmann, Les Amazones dans Vhistoire et dans la fable (1853); P. Lacour, Les Amazones (1901); articles in Pauly- Wissowa's Realencyclopadie and Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; Grote, Hist, of Greece, pt. i. ch. n. In article Greek Art, fig. 40 represents three types of Amazons, and fig. 70 (pi. iv.) a battle between Amazons and Greeks. AMAZON-STONE, or Amazonite, a green variety of microcline- felspar. The name is taken from that of the river Amazon, whence certain green stones were formerly obtained, but it is doubtful whether green felspar occurs in the Amazon district. The modern amazon-stone is a mineral of restricted occurrence. Formerly it was obtained almost exclusively from the neighbour- hood of Miyask, in the Ilmen mountains, 50 m. S.W. of Chelia- binsk, Russia, where it occurs in granitic rocks. Of late years, magnificent crystals have been obtained from Pike's Peak, Colorado, where it is found associated with smoky quartz, orthoclase and albite in a coarse granite or pegmatite. Some other localities in the United States yield amazon-stone, and it is also found in pegmatite in Madagascar. On account of its lively green colour, it is cut and polished to a limited extent as an ornamental stone. The colour has been attributed to the presence of copper, but as it is discharged by heat it is likely to be due to some pigment of organic origin, and an organic salt of iron has been suggested. (See Microcline.) AMBARVALIA, an annual festival of the ancient Romans, occurring in May, usually on the 29th, the object of which was to secure the growing crops against harm of all kinds. The priests were the Arval Brothers (q.v.), who conducted the victims — ox, sheep and pig (suovetaurilia) — in procession with prayer to Ceres round the boundaries of the ager Romanus. As the extent of Roman land increased, this could no longer be done, and in the Acta of the Fratres, which date from Augustus, we do not find this procession mentioned (Henzen, Acta Fratrum Arvalium, 1874); but there is a good description of this or a similar rite in Virgil, Georg. i. 338 ff., and in Cato's work de Re Rustica (141) we have full details and the text of the prayers used by the Latin farmer in thus " lustrating " his own land. In this last case the god invoked is Mars. The Christian festival which seems to have taken the place of these ceremonies is the Rogation or Gang week of the Roman Church. The perambulation or beating of bounds is probably a survival of the same type of rite. See W. W. Fowler, Roman Festivals (1899), p. 124 ff. (W. W. F.*) AMBASSADOR (also Embassador, the form sometimes still used in America; from the Fr. ambassadeur, with which compare Ital. ambasciatore and Span, embajador, all variants of the Med. Lat. ambasciator, ambassiator, ambasator, &c, derived from Med. Lat. ambasciare or ambactiare, " to go on a mission, to do or say anything in another's name," from Lat. ambactus, 1 a vassal or servant; see Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. ambasciare) , a public minister of the first rank, accredited and sent by the head of a sovereign state as his personal repre- sentative to negotiate with a foreign government, and to watch over the interests of his own nation abroad. The power thus conferred is defined in the credentials or letters of credence of which the ambassador is the bearer, and in the instructions under the sign-manual delivered to him. The credentials consist of a sealed letter addressed by the sovereign whom the ambassador represents to the sovereign to whom he is accredited, and they embody a general assurance that the sovereign by whom the ambassador is sent will confirm whatever is done by the ambassador in his name. In Great Britain letters of credence are under the royal sign-manual, and are not countersigned by a minister. Ambassadors are distinguished as ordinary and extraordinary, which implied originally the difference between a permanent mission and one appointed to conduct a particular negotiation. The style of ambassador extraordinary is, however, now often given to a minister accredited to a court for an in- definite time and implies a somewhat more dignified rank. By the protocol of the 19th of March 1815, afterwards embodied in the treaty of Vienna (181 5) and confirmed by an instrument signed by the five great powers at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 21st of November 1818, it was finally determined that " ambassadors and papal legates and nuncios alone have a representative character," i.e. in the most exalted and peculiar sense, as repre- senting the person of the sovereign, or the head of a republic, as well as the state to which they belong. It follows that only states enjoying " royal honours," i.e. empires, kingdoms, grand duchies, the great republics (e.g. France, Switzerland, the United States of America) and the Holy See, have the right to send or to receive ambassadors. By custom it has moreover been established that, as a general rule, only the greater " royal states " are represented by ambassadors, and then only when these are accredited to states esteemed, for one reason or another, to be of equal rank. Thus the promotion of the Japanese lega- tions in Europe and the United States to the rank of embassies, and the corresponding change in the representation of the various 1 Ambactus is explained by Festus (Paulus Diaconus ex Festo, ed. C. O. Miiller) as a Gallic word used by Ennius and meaning serous. Caesar (De Bello Gallico, vi. 15) says of the Gallic equites, " atque eorum ut quisque est genere copiisque amplissimus, plurimos circum se ambactos clientesque habent." Accepting the Celtic origin of the word, it has been connected with the Welsh amaeth, a tiller of the ground. A Teutonic origin has been suggested in the Old High Ger. ambaht, a retainer, which appears in a Scandinavian word amboht, bondwoman or maid, in the Ormulum (c. 1200). 792 AMBATO— AMBER powers at Tokio, marked in 1905 the definite recognition of Japan as a great power. To this rule the United States of America long remained an exception, and was content, in accordance with the tradition of republican simplicity, to be represented abroad only by ministers of the second rank. The subordinate position given to the representatives of so great a power, however, inevitably led to many inconveniences, and in 1893 an act of Congress empowered the president to accredit ambassadors to the great powers. The distinction between an ambassador and ministers of the second rank is one rather of rank and dignity than of power or functions. His special immunities he shares with other diplo- matic representatives of all classes. The peculiar privilege which he claims of free access to the sovereign has, in common practice, been reduced to the right of being received on presenting his credentials in public or private audience by the sovereign in person, it being obviously against public policy that a foreign representative should negotiate with the ruler otherwise than through his responsible ministers. In Great Britain the sovereign, when granting an audience to a foreign ambassador, is always attended by one or more ministers, and the same is usual in other states. An ambassador, however, unless specially armed with plenary authority, cannot decide any questions beyond his instructions without reference to his government. Thus Lord Londonderry ' (Lord Stewart), who represented Great Britain at the conferences of Troppau in 1820 and Laibach in 1821, had not the same standing as the plenipotentiaries of the other powers present, and efforts were even made to exclude him from some of the more important discussions in consequence, not on the ground of inferior rank but of defective powers. Socially, the position of an ambassador is one of great dignity. The pomp and magnificence which in earlier days characterized his progresses and his " entries " are indeed no longer observed. He is received, however, by the sovereign to whom he is accredited with elaborate state, of which every detail is minutely regulated, and ranks, as representing his own sovereign, next to the princes of the blood in the court where he resides. The controversies that once raged as to the order of precedence of the various ambassadors accredited to any one court were settled by the treaties already mentioned, it being decided that they should rank in order of seniority according to the date of the presentation of their credentials. In Roman Catholic countries, however — as in France before the abrogation of the concordat, — the position of doyen (dean) of the diplomatic body is given by courtesy to the nuncio of the pope. The special immunities and privileges enjoyed by ambassadors are dealt with in the articles Exterritoriality and Diplomacy. See also the latter for the history of the subject. The most authoritative modern hand-book on the subject is Charles de Martens, Manuel diplomatique(Paris, 1822 ; new ed., 1868). See also Henry Wheaton, Hist, of the Law of Nations (New York, 1845); L. Oppenheira, International Law (London, 1905); and the list of books attached to the article Diplomacy. (W. A. P.) AMBATO, or Asiento de Ambato, an inland town of Ecuador, capital of the province of Tunguragua, 80 m. S. of Quito by the highway, and near the northern foot of Chimborazo. Pop. (est.) 10,000. The town stands in a bowl-like depression, 8606 ft. above sea-level, surrounded by steep, sandy, barren mountains, and has an equable climate, which has been likened to a perpetual autumn. The immediate environs are very fertile and produce a great variety of fruits, including many of the temperate zone, but the surrounding country is arid and sterile, producing scanty crops of barley, Indian corn and pease. The cochineal insect is found on the cactus which grows in abundance in the vicinity, and the town is known throughout Ecuador for its manufacture of boots and shoes, and for a cordage made from cabuya, the fibre of the agave plant. Ambato was destroyed by an eruption of Cotopaxi in 1698, and has been badly damaged two or three times by earthquakes. Ambato is also the name of a range of mountains in northern Argentina, being a spur of the Sierra de Aconquija crossing the province of Catamarca from north to south. AMBER, a ruined city of India, the ancient capital of Jaipur state in the Rajputana agency. The name of Amber is first mentioned by Ptolemy. It was founded by the Minas and was still flourishing in a.d. 967. In 1037 it was taken by the Rajputs, who held it till it was deserted. In 1728 it was supplanted by the modern city of Jaipur, from which it is 5 m. distant. The picturesque situation of Amber at the mouth of a rocky mountain gorge, in which nestles a lovely lake, has attracted the admiration of all travellers, including Jacquemont and Heber. It is now only remarkable for its architecture. The old palace begun by Man Sing in 1600 ranks second only to Gwalior. The chief building is the Diwan-i-Khas built by Mirza Raja. " No sooner " (it is related) " had Mirza completed the Diwan-i-Khas than it came to the ears of the emperor Jehangir that his vassal had surpassed him in magnificence, and that this last great work quite eclipsed all the marvels of the imperial city; the columns of red sandstone having been particularly noticed as sculptured with exquisite taste and elaborate detail. In a fit of jealousy the emperor commanded that this masterpiece should be thrown down, and sent commissioners to Amber charged with the execution of this order; whereupon Mirza, in order to save the structure, had the columns plastered over with stucco, so that the messengers from Agra should have to acknowledge to the emperor that the magnificence, which had been so much talked of, was after all pure invention. Since then his apathetic suc- cessors have neglected to bring to light this splendid work; and it is only by knocking off some of the plaster that one can get a glimpse of the sculptures, which are perfect as on the day they were carved." AMBER, a fossil resin much used for the manufacture of ornamental objects. The name comes from the Arab, anbar, probably through the Spanish, but this word referred originally to ambergris, which is an animal substance quite distinct from yellow amber. True amber has sometimes been called karabe, a word of oriental derivation signifying " that which attracts straw," in allusion to the power which amber possesses of acquir- ing an electric charge by friction. This property, first recorded by Thales of Miletus, suggested the word " electricity," from the Greek, r/'keiCTpov, a frame applied, however, not only to amber but also to an alloy of gold and silver. By Latin writers amber is variously called electrum, sucinum (succinum), and glaesum or glesum. The Hebrew hashmal seems to have been amber. Amber is not homogeneous in composition, but consists of several resinous bodies more or less soluble in alcohol, ether and chloroform, associated with an insoluble bituminous substance. The average composition of amber leads to the general formula C10H16O. Heated rather below 300 C. amber suffers decomposi- tion, yielding an "oil of amber," and leaving a black residue which is known as "amber colophony," or "amber pitch"; this forms, when dissolved in oil of turpentine or in linseed oil, " amber varnish " or " amber lac." True amber yields on dry distillation succinic acid, the pro- portion varying from about 3 to 8%, and being greatest in the pale opaque or " bony " varieties. The aromatic and irritating fumes emitted by burning amber are mainly due to this acid. True Baltic amber is distinguished by its yield of succinic acid, for many of the other fossil resins which are often termed amber contain either none of it, or only a very small proportion; hence the name " succinite " proposed by Professor J. D. Dana, and now commonly used in scientific writings as a specific term for the real Prussian amber. Succinite has a hardness between 2 and 3, which is rather greater than that of many other fossil resins. Its specific gravity varies from 1-05 to i-io. The Baltic amber or succinite is found as irregular nodules in a marine glauconitic sand, known as " blue earth," occurring in the Lower Oligocene strata of Samland in East Prussia, where it is now systematically mined. It appears, however, to have been partly derived from yet earlier. Tertiary deposits (Eocene) ; and it occurs also as a derivative mineral in later formations, such as the drift. Relics of an abundant flora Occur in association with the amber, suggesting relations with the flora 0/ Eastern AMBER 793 Asia and the southern part of North America. H. R. Goppert named the common amber-yielding pine of the Baltic forests Pinites succinifer, but as the wood, according to some authorities, does not seem to differ from that of the existing genus it has been also called Pinus succinijera. It is improbable, however, that the production of amber was limited to a single species; and indeed a large number of conifers belonging to different genera are represented in the amber-flora. The resin contains, in addi- tion to the beautifully preserved plant-structures, numerous remains of insects, spiders, annelids, crustaceans und other small organisms which became enveloped while the exudation was fluid. In most cases the organic structure has disappeared, leaving only a cavity, with perhaps a trace of chitin. Even hair and feathers have occasionally been represented among the enclosures. Fragments of wood not infrequently occur, with the tissues well-preserved by impregnation with the resin; while leaves, flowers and fruits are occasionally found in marvellous perfection. Sometimes the amber retains the form of drops and stalactites, just as it exuded from the ducts and receptacles of the injured trees. The abnormal development of resin has been called " succinosis." Impurities are often present, especially when the resin dropped on to the ground, so that the material may be useless except for varnish-making, whence the impure amber is called firniss. Enclosures of pyrites may give a bluish colour to amber. The so-called " black amber " is only a kind of jet. " Bony amber " owes its cloudy opacity to minute bubbles in the interior of the resin. Although amber is found along the shores of a large part of the Baltic and the North Sea, the great amber-producing country is the promontory of Samland. Pieces of amber torn from the sea-floor are cast up by the waves, and collected at ebb-tide. Sometimes the searchers wade into the sea, furnished with nets at the end of long poles, by means of which they drag in the sea- weed containing entangled masses of amber; or they dredge from boats in shallow water and rake up amber from between the boulders. Divers have been employed to collect amber from the deeper waters. Systematic dredging on a large scale was at one time carried on in the Kurisches Haff by Messrs Stantien and Becker, the great amber merchants of Konigsberg. At the present time extensive mining operations are conducted in quest of amber. The " pit amber " was formerly dug in open works, but is now also worked by underground galleries. The nodules from the " blue earth " have to be freed from matrix and divested of their opaque crust, which can be done in revolving barrels containing sand and water. The sea-worn amber has lost its crust, but has often acquired a dull rough surface by rolling in sand. Amber is extensively used for beads and other trivial orna- ments, and for cigar-holders and the mouth-pieces of pipes. It is regarded by the Turks as specially valuable, inasmuch as it is said to be incapable of transmitting infection as the pipe passes from mouth to mouth. The variety most valued in the East is the pale straw-coloured, slightly cloudy amber. Some of the best qualities are sent to Vienna for the manufacture of smoking appliances. In working amber, it is turned on the lathe and polished with whitening and water or with rotten stone and oil, the final lustre being given by friction with flannel. During the working much electricity is developed. By gradually heating amber in an oil-bath it becomes soft and flexible. Two pieces of amber may be united by smearing the surfaces with linseed oil, heating them, and then pressing them together while hot. Cloudy amber may be clarified in an oil-bath, as the oil fills the numerous pores to which the turbidity is due. Small fragments, formerly thrown away or used only for varnish, are now utilized on a large scale in the formation of " ambroid " or " pressed amber." The pieces are carefully heated with exclusion of air and then compressed into a uniform mass by intense hydraulic pressure; the softened amber being forced through holes in a metal plate. The product is extensively used for the production of cheap jewellery and articles for smoking. This pressed amber yields brilliant interference colours in polarized light. Amber, has often been imitated by other resins like copal and kauri, as well as by celluloid and even glass. True amber is sometimes coloured artificially. Amber was much valued as an ornamental material in very early times.. It has been found in Mycenaean tombs; it is known from lake-dwellings in Switzerland, and it occurs with neolithic remains in Denmark, whilst in England it is found with interments of the bronze age. A remarkably fine cup turned in amber from a bronze-age barrow at Hove is now in the Brighton Museum. Beads of jamber occur with Anglo-Saxon relics in the south of England; and up to a comparatively recent period the material was valued as an amulet. It is still believed to possess certain medicinal virtue. Rolled pieces of amber, usually small but occasionally of very large size, may be picked up on the east coast of England, having probably been washed up from deposits under the North Sea. Cromer is the best-known locality, but it occurs also on other parts of the Norfolk coast, as well as at Yarmouth, Southwold, Aldeburgh and Felixstowe 'in Suffolk, and as far south as Walton-on-the-Naze in Essex, whilst northwards it is not un- known in Yorkshire. On the other side of the North Sea, amber is found at various localities on the coast of Holland and Denmark. On the shores of the Baltic it occurs not only on the Prussian and Pomeranian coast but in the south of Sweden, in Bornholm and other islands, and in S. Finland. Amber has indeed a very wide distribution, extending over a large part of. northern Europe and occurring as far east as the Urals. Some of the amber districts of the Baltic and North Sea were known in prehistoric times, and led to early trade with the south of Europe. Amber was carried to Olbia on the Black Sea, Massilia on the Mediterranean, and Hatria at the head of the Adriatic; and from these centres it was distributed over the Hellenic world. Whilst succinite is the common variety of European amber, the following varieties also occur: — Gedanite, or " brittle amber," closely resembling succinite, but much more brittle, not quite so hard, with a lower melting- point and containing no succinic acid. It is often covered with a white powder easily removed by wiping. The name comes from Gedanum, the Latin name of Danzig. Stantienite, a brittle, deep brownish-black resin, destitute of succinic acid. Beckerite, a rare amber in earthy-brown nodules, almost opaque, said to be related in properties to gutta-percha. Glessite, a nearly opaque brown resin, with numerous micro- scopic cavities and dusty enclosures, named from glesunt, an old name for amber, , Krantzite, a soft amber-like resin, found in the lignites of Saxony. Allingite, a fossil resin allied to succinite, from Switzerland. Roumanite, or Rumanian amber, a dark reddish resin, occurring with lignite in Tertiary deposits. The nodules are penetrated by cracks, but the material can be worked on the lathe. Sulphur is present to the extent of more than i %, whence the smell of sulphuretted hydrogen when the resin is heated. According to G, Murgoci the Rumanian amber is true succinite. Simetite, or Sicilian amber, takes its name from the river Simeto or Giaretta. It occurs in Miocene deposits and is also found washed up by the sea near Catania. This beautiful material presents a great diversity of tints, but a rich hyacinth red is common. It is remarkable for its fluorescence, which in the opinion of some authorities adds to its beauty. Amber is also found in many localities in Emilia, especially near the sulphur-mines of Cesena. It has been conjectured that the aflcient Etruscan ornaments in amber were wrought in the Italian material, but it seems that amber from the Baltic reached the Etruscans at Hatria. It has even been supposed that amber passed from Sicily to northern Europe in early times: — a sup- position said to receive some support from the fact that much of the amber dug up in Denmark is red; but it must not be forgotten that reddish amber is found also on the Baltic, though not being fashionable it is used rather for varnish-making than for ornaments. Moreover, yellow amber after long burial is 794 AMBERG— AMBIGUITY apt to acquire a reddisn colour. The amber of Sicily seems not to have been recognized in ancient times, for it is not mentioned by local authorities like Diodorus Siculus. Burmite is the name under which the Burmese amber is now described. Until the British occupation of Burma but little was known as to its occurrence, though it had been worked for centuries and was highly valued by the natives and by the Chinese. It is found in flat rolled pieces, irregularly distributed through a blue clay probably of Miocene age. It occurs in the Hukawng valley, in the Nangotaimaw hills, where it is irregularly worked in shallow pits. The mines were visited some years ago by Dr Fritz Noetling, and the mineral has been described by Dr Otto Helm. The Burmese amber is yellow or reddish, some being of ruby tint, and like the Sicilian amber it is fluorescent. Burmite and simetite agree also in being destitute of succinic acid. Most of the Burmese amber is worked at Mandalay into rosary-beads and ear-cylinders. Many other fossil resins more or less allied to amber have been described. Schraufitc is a reddish resin from the Carpathian sandstone, and it occurs with jet in the cretaceous rocks of the Lebanon; ambrite is a resin found in many of the coals of New Zealand; retinite occurs in the lignite of Bovey Tracey in Devonshire and elsewhere; whilst copaline has been found in the London clay of Highgate in North London. Chemawinite or cedarite is an amber-like resin from the Saskatchewan river in Canada. Amber and certain similar substances are found to a limited extent at several localities in the United States, as in the green- sand of New Jersey, but they have little or no economic value. A fluorescent amber is said, however, to occur in some abundance in Southern Mexico. Amber is recorded also from the Dominican Republic. References. — See, for Baltic amber, P. Dahms, " Ueber die Vorkommen und die Verwendung des Bernsteins," Zeitsch. fur praktische Geologie, 1901, p. 201; H. Conwentz, Monographic der baltischen Bernsteinbdume (Danzig, 1890); R. Klebs, Guide to Exhibit of the German Amber Industry at World's Fair (St Louis, 1904) ; and abstract by G. F. Kunz in Mineral Resources of the U. S. (1904). For Sicilian amber, W. Arnold Buffum, The Tears of the Heliades, or Amber as a Gem (London, 1896). For Burmese amber, papers by Fritz Noetling and Otto Helm in Records of Geol. Sun. of India, vol. xxvi. (1893), pp. 31, 61. For British amber, Clement Reid in Trans. Norfolk Nat. Soc, vol. iii. (1884) p. 601; vol. iv. (1886) p. 247; and H. Conwentz in Natural Science, vol. ix. (1896) pp. 99, 161. (F. W. R:*) AMBERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, formerly the capital of the Upper Palatinate, situated on both sides of the Vils, 42 m. E. of Nuremberg by rail. Pop. 22,089. It has a town hall with handsome rooms, a library, a gymnasium, a lyceum, elementary schools, an arsenal, and eleven churches, the finest of which is St Martin's, of the 15th century, with many excellent paintings and a tower 300 ft. high. A former Jesuit monastery is now used for a grammar school and seminary. There are also a pilgrimage church on a hill 162 1 ft. high, a large convict prison for men, an industrial, commercial and other schools. The principal manufactures are firearms, ironmongery, earthenware, woollen cloth, beer, stoneware, zinc goods, colours and salt; in the neighbourhood are iron and coal mines. The French under Jourdan were defeated by the Austrians under the Archduke Charles near Amberg in 1796. AMBERGRIS (Ambra grisea, Ambre gris, or grey amber), a solid, fatty, inflammable substance of a dull grey or blackish colour, the shades being variegated like marble, possessing a peculiar sweet, earthy odour. It occurs as a biliary concretion in the intestines of the spermaceti whale (Physeter macrocephalus), and is found floating upon the sea, on the sea-coast, or in the sand near the sea-coast. It is met with in the Atlantic Ocean; on the coasts of Brazil and Madagascar; also on the coast of Africa, of the East Indies, China, Japan and the Molucca islands; but most of the ambergris which is brought to England comes from the Bahama Islands, Providence, &c. It is also sometimes found in the abdomen of whales, always in lumps of various shapes and sizes, weighing from foz. to 100 or more pounds. Ambergris, when taken from the intestinal canal of the sperm whale, is of a deep grey colour, soft consistence and a disagreeable smell. On exposure to the air it gradually hardens, becomes pale and develops its peculiar sweet, earthy odour. In that condition its specific gravity ranges from 0-780 to 0-926. It melts at about 62 C. to a fatty, yellow resinous-like liquid; and at ioo° C. it is volatilized into a white vapour. It is soluble in ether, and in volatile and fixed oils; it is only feebly acted on by acids. By digesting in hot alcohol, a substance termed ambrein, closely resembling cholesterin, is obtained, which separates in brilliant white crystals as the solution cools. The use of ambergris in Europe is now entirely confined to perfumery, though it formerly occupied no inconsiderable place in medicine. In minute quantities its alcoholic solution is much used for giving a " floral " fragrance to bouquets, washes and other preparations of the perfumer. It occupies a very important place in the perfumery of the East, and there it is also used in pharmacy and as a flavouring material in cookery. The high price it commands makes it peculiarly liable to adulteration, but its genuineness is easily tested by its solubility in hot alcohol, its fragrant odour, and its uniform fatty consistence on being penetrated by a hot wire. AMBERT, a town of central France, capital of an arrondisse- ment of the department of Puy-de-D6me, on the Dore, 52 m. E.S.E. of Clermont-Ferrand by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 3889; commune, 7581. The town has a church of the 15 th and 16th centuries and carries on the manufacture of paper, lace, ribbon, rosaries, &c, and trade in cheese. It is the seat of a sub-prefect, and the public institutions include tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of arts and manufactures, and a communal college. AMBIENT (from Lat. ambi, on both sides, and ire, to go), surrounding; a word implying a moving rather than a stationary encircling. It is used mostly in the phrase the " ambient air," though Bacon applied it as an adjective to the clergy, suggesting " ambition." In astrology it means the sky. AMBIGU, a French game of cards, composed of the character- istic elements of whist, bouillotte and piquet. A whist pack with the court cards deleted is used, and from two to six persons may play. Each player is given an equal number of counters, and a limit of betting is agreed upon. Two cards are dealt, one at a time, to each player, after each has placed two counters in a pool. Each player then either keeps his hand, saying " Enough," or takes one or two new cards from the top of the stock; after which the stock is reshuffled and cut, and each player receives two more cards, one at a time. The players then either " play "or " pass." If a person " plays," he bets a number of counters and the others may equal this bet or raise it. Should no player meet the first bet, the bettor takes back his bet, leaving the pool intact, and receives two counters from the last player who refuses to play. When two or more bet the same number, they again draw cards and " pass " or " play " as before. If all " pass," each pays a counter to the pool and a new deal ensues. The player betting more than the others call wins the pool. He then exposes his hand and is paid by each adversary according to its value. The hands rank as follows: — " Point," the number of pips on two or more cards of a suit (one counter). "Prime," four cards of different suits (two counters). " Grand Prime," the same with the number of pips over 30 (three counters). " Sequence," a hand containing three cards of the same suit in sequence (three counters). " Tricon," three of a kind (four counters). " Flush," four cards of the same suit (five counters) . "Doublet," a hand containing two counting combinations at once, as 2, 3, 4 and 7 of spades, amounting to both a " sequence " and a " flush " (eight counters). " Fredon," four of a kind (the highest possible hand), ten or eleven counters, according to the number of pips. Ties are decided by the' number of pips. AMBIGUITY (Fr. ambiguilS, med. Lat. ambiguitas, from Lat. ambiguus, doubtful; ambi, both ways, agere, to drive), doubtful- ness or uncertainty. In law an ambiguity as to the meaning of the words Of a written instrument may be of considerable importance. Ambiguity, in law, is of two kinds, patent and latent. (1) Patent AMBIORIX— AMBLYPODA 795 ambiguity is that ambiguity which is apparent on the face of an instrument to any one perusing it, even if he be unacquainted with the circumstances of the parties. In the case of a patent ambiguity parol evidence is admissible to explain only what has been written, not what it was intended to write. For example, in Saunderson v. Piper, 1839, 5 B.N.C. 425, where a bill was drawn in figures for £245 and in words for two hundred pounds, evidence that " and forty-five " had been omitted by mistake was rejected. But where it appears from the general context of the instrument what the parties really meant, the instrument will be construed as if there was no ambiguity, as in Saye and Sele's case, 10 Mod. 46, where the name of the grantor had been omitted in the operative part of a grant, but, as it was clear from another part of the grant who he was, the deed was held to be valid. (2) Latent ambiguity is where the wording of an instrument is on the face of it clear and in- telligible, but may, at the same time, apply equally to two different things or subject matters, as where a legacy is given " to my nephew, John," and the testator is shown to have two nephews of that name. A latent ambiguity may be ex- plained by parol evidence, for, as the ambiguity has been brought about by circumstances extraneous to the instrument, the explanation must necessarily be sought ior from such circumstances. (See also Evidence.) AMBIORIX, prince of the Eburones, a tribe of Belgian Gaul. Although Caesar (q.v.) had freed him from paying tribute to the Aduatuci, he joined Catuvolcus (winter, 54 B.C.) in a rising against the Roman forces under Q. Titurius Sabinus and L. Aurunculeius Cotta, and almost annihilated them. An attack on Quintus Cicero (brother of the orator), then quartered with a legion in the territory of the Nervii, failed owing to the timely appearance of Caesar. Ambiorix is said to have found safety across the Rhine. Caesar, Bell, Gall. v. 26-51, vi. 29-43, viii. 24; Dio Cassius xl. 7-1 1 ; Floras iii. 10. AMBLESIDE, a market-town in the Appleby parliamentary division of Westmorland, England, a mile from the head of Windermere. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2536. It is most beautifully situated, for though the lake is hardly visible from the town, the bare, sharply rising hills surrounding the richly wooded valley of the Rothay afford a series of exquisite views. The hills immediately above this part of the valley are Wansfell on the east, Loughrigg Fell on the west, and Rydal Fell and the ridge below Snarker Pike (2096 ft.) to the north. At the head of Winder- mere is Waterhead. the landing-stage of Amble- side, which is served by the lake steamers of the Furness Railway Company. The chief roads which centre upon Ambleside are — one from the town of Windermere, following the eastern shore of the lake; one from Ulls water, by Patterdale and Kirkstone Pass; one from Keswick, by Dunmail Raise and Grasmere, and the two lovely lakes of Grasmere and Rydal Water; and one from the Brathay valley and the Langdales to the west. Ambleside is thus much frequented by tourists. In its vicinity is Rydal Mount, for many years the residence of the poet Wordsworth. The town has some industry in bobbin-making, and there are slate quarries in the neigh- bourhood. Close by the lake side the outlines are still visible of a Roman fort, the name of which is not known. It appears to have guarded a route over the hills by Hard- knott and Wrynose Pass to Ravenglass on the coast of Cumberland. AMBLYGONITE, a mineral usually found as cleavable or columnar, and compact masses; it is translucent and has a vitreous lustre, and the colour varies from white to pale shades of violet, grey, green or yellow. There are good cleavages in two directions. The hardness is 6 and the specific gravity 3'0. The mineral is thus not unlike felspar in general appearance, but it is readily distinguished from this by its chemical characters, being an aluminium and lithium fluophosphate, Li(AlF)P0 4 , with part of the lithium replaced by sodium and part of the fluorine by hydroxyl. Crystals, which are rarely distinctly developed, belong to the anorthic system, and frequently show twin lamellae. The mineral was first discovered in Saxony by A. Breithaupt in 1817, and named by him from the Greek a^i/3Xus, blunt, and yoivia, angle, because of the obtuse angle between the cleavages. Later it was found at Montebras, dep. Creuse, France, and at Hebron in Maine; and on account of slight differences in optical character and chemical composition the names montebrasite and hebronite have been applied to the mineral from these localities. Recently it has been discovered in considerable quantity at Pala in San Diego county, California, and at Caceres in Spain. Amblygonite occurs with lepidolite, tourmaline and other lithia-bearing minerals in pegmatite-veins. It contains about 10% of lithia, and, since 1886, has been utilized as a source of lithium salts, the chief commercial sources being the Montebras deposits, and later the Californian. (L. J. S.) AMBLYPODA, a suborder of primitive ungulate mammals, taking its name from the short and stumpy feet, which were furnished with five toes each, and supported massive pillar-like limbs. The brain-cavity was extremely small, and insignificant in comparison to the bodily bulk, which was equal to that of the largest rhinoceroses. These animals are, in fact, descendants of the small ancestral ungulates which have retained all the primitive characters of the latter accompanied by a huge increase in bodily size. They are confined to the Eocene period, and occur both in North America and Europe. The cheek teeth are short crowned (brachyodont) , with the tubercles more or less completely fused into transverse ridges, or cross-crests (lophodont type); and the total number of teeth is in one case the typical 44, but in another is reduced below this. The vertebrae of the neck unite by nearly flat surfaces, the humerus has lost the foramen, or perforation, at the lower end, and the third trochanter to the femur may also be wanting. In the fore-limb the upper and lower series of carpal bones scarcely alternate, but in the hind- foot the astragalus overlaps the cuboid, while the fibula, which is quite distinct from the tibia(as is the radius from the ulna in the fore-limb), articulates with both astragalus and calcaneum. The most generalized type is Coryphodon, representing the family Restored skeleton of Vintalhcrium {Dinoceras) mirabile. (After O. C. Marsh.) Coryphodontidae, from the lower Eocene of Europe and North America, in which there were 44 teeth, and no horn-like excres- cences on the long skull, while the femur had a third trochanter. The canines are somewhat elongated, and were followed by a short gap in each jaw, and the cheek-teeth were adapted for succulent food. The length of the body reached about 6 ft. in some cases. In the middle Eocene formations of North America occurs the more specialized Uinlatherium (or Dinoceras) , typifying the family Uintatheriidae, which also contains species sometimes 79 6 AMBO— AMBOISE separated as Tinoceras. Uintatheres were huge creatures, with long narrow skulls, of which the elongated facial portion carried three pairs of bony horn-cores, probably covered with short horns in life, the hind-pair being much the largest. The dental formula is i. %,c. \, p. ^?j, m. §; the upper canines being long sabre-like weapons, protected by a descending flange on each side of the front of the lower jaw. In the basal Eocene, of North America the Amblypoda were represented by extremely primitive, five-toed, small ungulates such as Periptychus and Pantolambda, each of these typifying a family. The full typical series of 44 teeth was developed in each, but whereas in the Periptychidae the upper molars were bunodont and tritubercular, in the Pantolambdidae they have assumed a selenodont structure. Creodont characters (see Creodonta) are displayed in the skeleton. See also H. F. Osborn, " Evolution of the Amblypoda," Bull. Amer. Mus. vol. x. p. 169. (R. L.*) AMBO, or Ambon (Gr. afifjwv, from avaflaiveiv, to walk up, the reading-desk of early Basilican churches, also called Trvpyos. Originally small and movable, it was afterwards made of large proportions and fixed in one place. Iri the Byzantine and early Romanesque periods it was an essential part of church furniture; but during the middle ages it was gradually super- seded in the Western Church by the pulpit and lectern. The gospel and epistle are still read from the ambo in the Ambrosian rite at Milan. The position of the ambo -was not absolutely uniform; sometimes in the central point between the sanctuary and the nave, sometimes in the middle of the church, and some- times at one or both of the sides of the chancel. The normal ambo, when the church contained only one, had three stages or degrees, one above the other, and it was usually mounted by a flight of steps at each end. The uppermost stage was re- served for the deacon who sang the gospel (facing the congrega- tion); for promulgating episcopal edicts; reciting the names inscribed on the diptychs (see Diptych); announcing fasts, vigils and feasts; reading ecclesiastical letters or acts of the martyrs celebrated on that day; announcing new miracles for popular edification, professions by new converts or recantations by heretics; and (for priests and deacons) preaching sermons, — bishops as a general rule preaching from their own throne. The second stage was for the sub-deacon who read the epistle (facing the altar); and the third for the subordinate clergy who read other parts of scripture. The inconvenience of having a single ambo led to the substitution of two separate ambones, between which these various functions were divided, one on the south side of the chancel being for the reading of the gospel, and one on the north for reading the epistle. In the Russian Orthodox Church the term " ambo " is used of the semicircular steps leading to the platform in front of the iconostasis (q.v.), but in cathedrals the bishop has an ambo in the centre of the church. In the Greek Church the older form remains, usually placed at the side. In the Uniate Greek Catholic Church the " ambo " has become a table, on which ate placed a crucifix and lights, before the doors of the iconostasis; here baptisms, marriages and confirmations take place. Ambones were made of wood or else of costly marbles, and were decorated with mosaics, reliefs, gilding, &c; sometimes also covered with canopies supported on columns. They were often of enormous size; that at St Sophia in Constantinople was large enough for the ceremonial of coronation. "> The churches in Rome possess many fine examples of ambones in marble, of which the oldest is probably that in S. Clemente, reconstructed in the beginning of the 12th century. Those of slightly later date are enriched with marble mosaic known as Cosmati work, of which the examples in S. Maria-in-Ara-Coeli, S. Maria-in-Cosmedin and S. Lorenzo are those which are best known. Some early ambones are found in Ravenna, and in the south of Italy are many fine examples; the epistle ambo in the cathedral at Ravello (1130), which is perhaps the earliest, shows a Scandinavian influence in the design of its mosaic inlay, an influence which is found in Sicilian work and may be a Norman importation. The two ambones in the cathedral of Salerno, which are different in design, are magnificent in effect and are enriched with sculpture as well as with mosaic. In the gospel ambo in the cathedral of Ravello (1272), and also in that of the convent of the Trinita della Cava near Salerno, the spiral columns inlaid with mosaic stand on the backs of lions. In the epistle ambo at Salerno and the gospel ambones at Cava and San Giovanni del Toro in Ravello, the columns support segmental arches carrying the ambones; the epistle ambo at Ravello and all those in Rome are raised on solid marble bases. See the liturgical and ecclesiastical dictionaries of Martigny, Migne, and Smith and Cheetham, sub voce, where all the scattered references are collected together and summarized. In Ciampinus, Vetera Monumenia (Rome, 1747), plates xii., xiii., are several illus- trations of actual examples. AMBOISE, GEORGES D' (1460-1510), French cardinal and minister of state, belonged to a noble family possessed of con- siderable influence. His father, Pierre d'Amboise, seigneur de Chaumont, was chamberlain to Charles VII. and Louis XI. and ambassador at Rome. His eldest brother, Charles d'Amboise, was governor of the Isle of France, Champagne and Burgundy, and councillor of Louis XI. Georges d' Amboise was only fourteen when his father procured for him the bishopric of Montauban, and Louis XL appointed him one of his almoners. On arriving at manhood d'Amboise attached himself to the party of the duke of Orleans, in whose cause he suffered im- prisonment, and on whose return to the royal favour he was elevated to the archbishopric of Narbonne, which after some time he changed for that of Rouen (1493). On the appointment of the duke of Orleans as governor of Normandy, d'Amboise became his lieutenant-general. In 1498 the duke of Orleans mounted the throne as Louis XII., and d'Amboise was suddenly raised to the high position of cardinal and prime minister. His administration was, in many respects, well-intentioned and useful. Having the good fortune to serve a king who was both economical and just, he was able to diminish the imposts, to introduce order among the soldiery, and above all, by the ordinances of 1499, to improve the organization of justice. He was also zealous for the reform of the church, and particularly for the reform of the monasteries; and it is greatly to his credit that he did not avail himself of the extremely favourable oppor- tunities he possessed of becoming a pluralist. He regularly spent a large income in charity, and he laboured strenuously to stay the progress of the plague and famine which broke out in 1 504. His foreign policy, less happy and less wise, was aniraated by two aims — to increase the French power in Italy and to seat himself on the papal throne; and these aims he sought Xq achieve by diplomacy, not by force. He, hdwever, sympatluzed with, and took part in, the campaign which was begun in 1499 for the conquest of Milan. In 1500 he was named lieutenant- general in Italy and charged with the organization of the con- quest. On the death of Alexander VI. he aspired to the papacy. He had French troops at the gates of Rome, by means of which he could easily have frightened the conclave and induced them to elect him; but he was persuaded to trust to his influence; the troops were dismissed, and an Italian was appointed as Pius III.; and again, on the death of Pius within the month, another; Italian, Julius II., was chosen (1503). D'Amboise received hi compensation the title of legate for life in France and in the Comtat Venaissin. He was one of the negotiators of the dis- astrous treaties of Blois (1504), and in 1508 of the League of Cambrai against 'Venice. In 1509 he again accompanied Louis XII. into Italy, but on his return he was seized at the city of Lyons with a fatal attack of gout in the stomach. He died there on the 25th of May 1510. His body was removed to Rouen; and a magnificent tomb, on which he is represented kneeling in the attitude of prayer, was erected to his memory in the cathedral of that town. Throughout his life he was an enlightened patron of letters and art, and it was at his orders that the chateau of Gaillon near Rouen was built. See Lettres du roi Louis XII. et du cardinal d'Amboise (Brussels, 1712); L. Legendre, Vie du cardinal d'Amboise (Rouen, 1726); E. Lavisse, Histoire de France (vol. v. by H. Lemonnier, Paris, 1903); AMBOISE— AMBRACIA 797 J. A. Deville, Tombeaux de la cathedrale de Rotten (3rd ed., 1881). For a bibliography of the printed sources, see H. Hauser, Les Sources de I'hisloire de France, XVIe Steele, vol. i. (1906). (J. I.) AMBOISE, a town of central France in the department of Indre-et-Loire, on the left bank of the Loire, 12 m. E. of Tours by the Orleans railway. Pop. (1906) 4632. Amboise owes its celebrity to the imposing chateau which overlooks the Loire from the rocky eminence above the town. The Logis du Roi, the most important portion, was the work of Charles VIII. ; the other wing was built under Louis XII. and Francis I. The ramparts are strengthened by two massive towers containing an inclined plane on which horses and carriages may ascend. The chapel of St Hubert, said to contain the remains of Leonardo da Vinci, who was summoned to Amboise by Francis I., king of France, and died there in 1519, is in the late Gothic style; a delicately carved relief over the doorway represents the con- version of St Hubert. The h6tel de ville is established in a mansion of Renaissance architecture; a town gateway of the 15th century, surmounted by a belfry, is also of architectural interest. Iron-founding, wool-weaving, and the manufacture of boots and farm implements are among the industries. Amboise at the end of the nth century was a lordship under the counts of Anjou, one of whom, Hugues I., rebuilt the ancient castle. Its territory was united to the domain of the crown of France by Charles VII. about the middle of the 15th century, and thenceforth the chateau became a favourite residence of the French kings. The discovery in 1560 of the " conspiracy of Amboise," a plot of the Huguenots to remove Francis II. from the influence of the house of Guise, was avenged by the death of 1200 members of that party. In 1563 Amboise gave its name to a royal edict allowing freedom of worship to the Huguenot nobility and gentry. After that period the chateau was fre- quently used as a state prison, and Abd-el-Kader was a captive there from 1848 to 1852. In 1872 it was restored by the National Assembly to the house of Orleans, to which it had come by inheritance from the duke of Penthievre in the latter half of the 1 8th century. AMBOYNA (Dutch Ambon), the name of a residency, its chief town, and the island on which the town is situated, in the Dutch East Indies. The residency shares with that of Ternate the administration of the Moluccas, the previous government of which was abolished in 1867. It includes a mass of islands in the Banda Sea (2 30'- 8° 20' S. and i25°45'-i35°E.), including the island-belt which surrounds the sea on the north, east and south; and is divided for administrative purposes into nine districts (afdeelingen) : 1) Amboyna, the island of that name; (2) Saparua, with Oma and Nusa Laut; (3) Kajeli (Eastern Bum); (4) Masareti (Western Buru); (5) Kairatu (Western Ceram); (6) Wahai (the northern part of Mid-Ceram); (7) Amahai (the southern part of Mid-Ceram); (8) the Banda Isles, with East Ceram, Ceram Laut and Gorom; (9) the islands of Aru, Kei, Timor Laut or Tenimber, and the south-western islands. The total area of the residency is about 19,861 sq. m., and its population 296,000, including 2400 Europeans. ' Amboyna Island lies off the south-west of Ceram, on the north side of the Banda Sea, being one of a series of volcanic isles in the inner circle round the sea. It is 32 m. in length, with an area of about 386 sq. m., and is of very irregular figure, being almost divided into two. The south-eastern and smaller portion (called Leitimor) is united to the northern (Hitoe) by a neck of land a few yards in breadth. The highest mountains, Wawani (3609 ft.) and Salhutu (4020 ft.), have hot springs and solfataras. They are considered to be volcanoes, and the mountains of the neighbouring Uliasser islands the remains of volcanoes. Granite and serpentine rocks predominate, but the shores of Amboyna Bay are of chalk, and contain stalactite caves. The surface is fertile, the rivers are small and not navigable, and the roads are mere footpaths. Cocoa is one of the products. The climate is comparatively pleasant and healthy; the average temperature is 8o° F., rarely sinking below 72 . The rainfall, however, after the eastern monsoons, is very heavy, and the island is liable to violent hurricanes. It is remarkable that the dry season (October to April) is coincident with the period of the west monsoon. Indigenous mammals are poor in species as well as few in number; birds are more abundant, but of no greater variety. The ento- mology of the island, however, is very rich, particularly in re- spect of Lepidoptera. Shells are obtained in great numbers and variety. Turtle-shell is also largely exported. The vegetation is also rich, and Amboyna produces most of the common tropical fruits and vegetables, including the sago-palm, bread-fruit, cocoa-nut, sugar-cane, maize, coffee, pepper and cotton. Cloves, however, form its chief product, though the trade in them is less important than formerly, when the Dutch prohibited the rearing of the clove-tree in all the other islands subject to their rule, in order to secure the monopoly to Amboyna. Amboyna wood, of great value for ornamental work, is obtained from the hard knots which occur on certain trees in the forests of Ceram. The population (about 39,000) is divided into two classes — orang burger or citizens, and orang negri or villagers, the former being a class of native origin enjoying certain privileges conferred on their ancestors by the old Dutch East India Company. The natives are of mixed Malay-Papuan blood. They are mostly Christians or Mahommedans. There are also, besides the Dutch, some Arabs, Chinese and a few Portuguese settlers. Amboyna, the chief town, and seat of the resident and military commander of the Moluccas, is protected by Fort Victoria, and is a clean little town with wide streets, well planted. Agriculture, fisheries and import and export trade furnish the chief means of subsistence. It lies on the north-west of the peninsula of Leitimor, and has a safe and commodious anchorage. Its population is about 8000. The Portuguese were the first European nation to visit Amboyna (1511). They established a factory there in 1521, but did not obtain peaceable possession of it till 1580, and were dispossessed by the Dutch in 1609. About 161 5 the British formed a settlement in the island, at Cambello, which they retained until 1623, when it was destroyed by the Dutch, and frightful tortures inflicted on the unfortunate persons connected with it. In 1654, after many fruitless negotiations^ Cromwell compelled the United Provinces to give the sum of £300,000, together with a small island, as compensation to the descendants of those who suffered in the " Amboyna massacre." In 1673 the poet Dryden produced his tragedy of Amboyna, or the Cruelties of the Dutch to the English Merchants. In 1796 the British, under Admiral Rainier, captured Amboyna, but restored it to the Dutch at the peace of Amiens in 1802. It was retaken by the British in 1810, but once more restored to the Dutch in 1814. AMBRACIA (more correctly Ampracia) , an ancient Corinthian colony, situated about 7 m. from the Ambracian Gulf, on a bend of the navigable river Aracthus (or Aratthus), in the midst of a fertile wooded plain. It was founded between 650 and 625 B.C. by Gorgus, son of the Corinthian tyrant Cypselus. After the expulsion of Gorgus's son Periander its government developed into a strong democracy. The early policy of Ambracia was determined by its loyalty to Corinth (for which it probably served as an entrepot in the Epirus trade), its consequent aversion tq Corcyra, and its frontier disputes with the Amphilochians and Acarnanians. Hence it took a prominent part in the Pelopon- nesian War until the crushing defeat at Idomene (426) crippled its resources. In the 4th century it continued its traditional policy, but in 338 surrendered to Philip II. of Macedon. After forty- three years of autonomy under Macedonian suzerainty it became the capital of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who adorned it with palace, temples and theatres. In the wars of Philip V. of Macedon and the Epirotes against the Aetolian league (220-205) Ambracia passed from one alliance to the other, but ultimately joined the latter confederacy. During the struggle of the Aetolians against Rome it stood a stubborn siege. After its capture and plunder by M. Fulvius Nobilior in 189, it fell into insignificance. The foundation by Augustus of Nicopolis (?.».),. into which the remaining inhabitants were drafted, left the site desolate. . In Byzantine times a new settlement took its place 798 AMBRIZ— AMBROSE under the name of Arta (q.v.). Some fragmentary walls of large, well-dressed blocks near this latter town indicate the early prosperity of Ambracia. Authorities. — Thucydides ii. 68-iii. 114; Aristotle, Politics, 1303a sqq.; Strabo p. 325; Polybius xxii. 9-13; Livy xxxviii. 3-9; G. Wolfe, Journal of Geographical Society (London), iii. (1833) PP- 77~94; E. Oberhummer, Akarnanien, Ambrakien, &c. im Altertum (Munich, 1887). (Ml O. B. C.) AMBRIZ, a West African seaport belonging to Portugal, at the mouth of the Loje River, in 7 50' S., 13° E., some 70 m. N. of Loanda. It forms a part of the province of Angola (q.v.): The town is within the free-trade area of the conventional basin of the Congo river. Its chief exports are rubber, gum, coffee and copper. Pop. about 2500. Ambriz was, previously to 1884, the northernmost point of Africa south of the equator acknowledged as Portuguese territory. AMBROS, AUGUST WILHELM (1816-1876), Austrian com- poser and historian of music, was born at Mauth near Prague. His father was a cultured man, and his mother was the sister of R. G. Kiesewetter (1773-1850), the musical archaeologist and collector. Ambros was well educated in music and the arts, which were his abiding passion; but he was destined for the law and an official career in the Austrian civil service, and he occupied various important posts under the ministry of justice, music being the employment of his leisure. From 1850 onwards he became well known as a critic and essay- writer, and in i860 he began working on his magnum opus, his History of Music, which was published at intervals from 1864 in five volumes, the last two (1878, 1882) being edited and completed by Otto Kade and Langhaus. Ambros became professor of the history of music at Prague in 1869. He was an excellent pianist, and the author of numerous compositions somewhat reminiscent of Mendelssohn. He died at Vienna on the 28th of June 1876. AMBROSE (fl. 1 190), Norman poet, and chronicler of the Third Crusade, author of a work called L'Estoire de la guerre sainte, which describes in rhyming French verse the adventures of Richard Cceur de Lion as a crusader. The poem is known to us only through one Vatican MS., and long escaped the notice of historians. The credit for detecting its value belongs to the late Gaston Paris, although his edition (1897) was partially anticipated by the editors of the Monumenta Germaniae Historica, who published some selections in the twenty-seventh volume of their Scriptores (1885). Ambrose followed Richard I. as a non- combatant, and not improbably as a court-minstrel. He speaks as an eye-witness of the king's doings at Messina, in Cyprus, at the siege of Acre, and in the abortive campaign which followed the capture of that city. Ambrose is surprisingly accurate in his chronology; though he did not complete his work before 1195, it is evidently founded upon notes which he had taken in the course of his pilgrimage. He shows no greater political insight than we should expect from his position; but relates what he had seen and heard with a naive vivacity which compels attention. He is prejudiced against the Saracens, against the French, and against all the rivals or enemies of his master; but he is never guilty of deliberate misrepresentation. He is rather to be treated as a biographer than as a historian of theCrusade in its broader aspects. None the less he is the chief authority for the events of the years 11 90-1 192, so far as these are connected with the Holy Land. The 1 tinerarium Regis Ricardi (formerly attributed to Geoffrey Vinsauf, but in reality the work of Richard, a canon of Holy Trinity, London) is little more than a free paraphrase of Ambrose. The first book of the Itinerarium contains some additional facts; and the whole of the Latin version is adorned with flowers of rhetoric which are foreign to the style of Ambrose. But it is no longer possible to regard the Itinerarium as a first- hand narrative. Stubbs's edition of the Itinerarium (Rolls Series, 1864), in which the contrary hypothesis, is maintained, appeared before Gaston Paris published his discovery. See the edition of L'Estoire de la guerre sainte by Gaston Paris in the Collection des documents inedits sur I'histoire de France (1897); the editor discusses in his introduction the biography of Ambrose, the value of the poem as a historical source, and its relation to the Itinerarium. R. Pauli's remarks (iri Monumenta Germaniae His- torica. Scriptores, xxvii.) also deserve attention. (H. W. C. D.) AMBROSE, SAINT (c. 340-307), bishop of Milan, one of the most eminent fathers of the church in the 4th Century, was a citizen of Rome, bom about 337-340 in Treves, where his father was prefect of Gallia Narbonensis. His mother was a woman of intellect and piety. Ambrose was early destined to follow his father's career, and was accordingly educated in Rome. He made such progress in literature, law and rhetork, that the praetor Anicius Probus first gave him a place in the council and then made him consular prefect of Liguria and Emilia, with headquarters at Milan, where he made an excellent administrator. In 374 Auxentius, bishop of Milan, died, and the orthodox and Arian parties contended for the succession. An address delivered to them at this crisis by Ambrose led to his being acclaimed as the only competent occupant of the see; though hitherto only a catechumen, he was baptized, and a few days saw him duly installed as bishop of Milan. He immediately betook himself to the necessary studies, and acquitted himself in his new office with ability, boldness and integrity. Having apportioned his money among the poor, and settled his lands upon the church, with the exception of making his sister Marcellina tenant during life, and having committed the care of his family to his brother, he entered upon a regular course of theological study, under the care of Simptician, a presbyter of Rome, and devoted himself to the labours of the church, labours which were temporarily interrupted by an invasion of Goths, which compelled Ambrose and other churchmen to retire to Illyricum. The eloquence of Ambrose soon found ample scope in the dispute between the Arians and the orthodox or Catholic party, whose cause the new bishop espoused. Gratian, the son of the elder Valentinian, took the same side; but the younger Valen- tinian, who had now become his colleague in the empire, adopted the opinions of the Arians, and all the arguments and eloquence of Ambrose could not reclaim the young prince to the orthodox faith. Theodosius, the emperor of the East, also professed the orthodox belief; but there were many adherents of Arius scattered throughout his dominions. In this distracted state of religious opinion, two leaders of the Arians, Palladius and Secundianus, confident of numbers, prevailed upon Gratian to call a general council from all parts of the empire. This request appeared so equitable that he complied without hesitation; but Ambrose, foreseeing the consequence, prevailed upon the emperor to have the matter determined by a council of the Western bishops. A synod, composed of thirty-two bishops, was accordingly held at Aquileia in the year 381. Ambrose was elected president; and Palladius, being called upon to defend his opinions, declined, insisting that the meeting was a partial one, and that, all the bishops of the empire not being present, the, sense of the Christian church concerning the- question in dispute could not be obtained. A vote was then taken, when Palladius and his associate Secundianus were deposed from the episcopal office. Ambrose was equally zealous in combating the attempt made by the upholders of the old state religion to resist the enactments of Christian emperors. The pagan party was led by Quintus Aurelius Symmachus (q.v.), consul in 391, who presented to Valentinian II. a forcible but unsuccessful petition praying for the restoration of the altar of Victory to its ancient station in the hall of the. senate, the proper support of seven vestal virgins, and the regular observance of the other pagan ceremonies. To this petition Ambrose replied in a letter to Valentinian, arguing that the devoted worshippers of idols had often been forsaken by their deities; that the native valour of the Roman soldiers had gained their victories, and not the pretended influence of pagan, priests; that these idolatrous worshippers requested for themselves what they refused, to Christians; that voluntary was more honourable than constrained virginity; that as the Christian ministers declined to receive temporal emoluments, they should also be denied to pagan priests; that it was absurd to suppose that God would inflict a famine upon the empire for neglecting to support a religious system contrary to His will as revealed in the Scriptures; that the whole process of nature encouraged innovations, and that all nations had AMBROSE 799 permitted them, even in religion; that heathen sacrifices were offensive to Christians; and that it was the duty of a Christian prince to suppress pagan ceremonies. In the epistles of Sym- machus and of Ambrose both the petition and the reply are preserved. They are a strange blend of sophistry, superstition, sound sense and solid argument. The increasing strength of the Arians proved a formidable task for Ambrose. In 384 the young emperor and his mother Justina, along with a considerable number of clergy and laity professing the Arian faith, requested from the bishop the use of two churches, one in the city, the other in the suburbs of Milan. Ambrose refused, and was required to answer for his conduct before the council. He went, attended by a numerous crowd of people, whose impetuous zeal so overawed the ministers of Valentinian that he was permitted to retire without making the surrender of the churches. The day following, when he was performing divine service in the Basilica, the prefect of the city came to persuade him to give up at least the Portian church in the suburbs. As he still continued obstinate, the court proceeded to violent measures: the officers of the household were commanded to prepare the Basilica and the Portian churches to celebrate divine service upon the arrival of the emperor and his mother at the ensuing festival of Easter. Perceiving the growing strength of the prelate's interest, the court deemed it prudent to restrict its demand to the use of one of the churches. But all entreaties proved in vain, and drew forth the following characteristic declaration from the bishop: — " If you demand my person, I am ready to submit: carry me to prison or to death, I will not resist; but I will never betray the church of Christ. I will not call upon the people to succour me; I will die at the foot of the altar rather than desert it. The tumult of the people I will not encourage: but God alone can appease it." Many circumstances in the history of Ambrose are strongly characteristic of the general spirit of the times. The chief causes of his victory over his opponents were his great popularity and the superstitious reverence paid to the episcopal character at that period. But it must also be noted that he used several in- direct means to obtain and support his authority with the people. He was liberal to the poor; it was his custom to comment severely in his preaching on the public characters of his times; and he introduced popular reforms in the order and manner of public worship. It is alleged, too, that at a time when the influence of Ambrose required vigorous support, he was admonished in a dream to search for, and found under the pavement of the church, the remains of two martyrs, Gervasius and Protasius. The applause of the vulgar was mingled with the derision of the court party. Although the court was displeased with the religious principles and conduct of Ambrose, it respected his great political talents ; and when necessity required, his aid was solicited and generously granted. When Maximus usurped the supreme power in Gaul, and was meditating a descent upon Italy, Valentinian sent Ambrose to dissuade him from the undertaking, and the embassy was successful. On a second attempt of the same kind Ambrose was again employed; and although he was unsuccessful, it cannot be doubted that, if his advice had been followed, the schemes of the usurper would have proved abortive; but the enemy was permitted to enter Italy; and Milan was taken. Justina and her son fled; but Ambrose remained at his post, and did good service to many of the sufferers by causing the plate of the church to be melted for their relief. Theodosius, the emperor of the East, espoused the cause of Justina, and regained the kingdom. This Theodosius was sternly rebuked by Ambrose for the massacre of 7000 persons at Thessalonica in 300, and was bidden imitate David in his repentance as he had imitated him in guilt. In 392, after the assassination of Valentinian and the usurpa- tion of Eugenius, Ambrose fled from Milan; but when Theodosius was eventually victorious, he supplicated the emperor for the pardon of those who had supported Eugenius. Soon after acquiring the undisputed possession of the Roman empire, Theodosius died at Milan in 395, and two years later (4th April 397) Ambrose also passed away. He was succeeded by Simplician. A man of pure character, vigorous mind, unwearying zeal and uncommon generosity, Ambrose ranks high among the fathers of the ancient church on many counts. His chief faults were ambition and bigotry. Though ranking with Augustine, Jerome, and Gregory the Great, as one of the Latin " doctors," he is most naturally compared with Hilary, whom he surpasses in administrative excellence as much as he falls below him in theological ability. Even here, however, his achievements are of no mean order, especially when we remember his juridical training and his comparatively late handling of Biblical and doctrinal subjects. In matters of exegesis he is, like Hilary, an Alexandrian; his chief productions are homiletic commentaries on the early Old Testament narratives, e.g. the Hexaemeron (Creation) and Abraham, some of the Psalms, and the Gospel according to Luke. In dogmatic he follows Basil of Caesarea and other Greek authors, but nevertheless gives a distinctly Western cast to the speculations of which he treats. This is particularly manifest in the weightier emphasis which he lays upon human sin and divine grace, and in the place which he assigns to faith in the individual Christian life. His chief works in this field are De fide ad Gratianum Augustum, De Spiritu Sancto, De incarnationis Dominicae sacramento, De mysteriis. His great spiritual successor, Augustine, whose conversion was helped by Ambrose's sermons, owes more to him than to any writer except Paul. Ambrose's intense episcopal consciousness furthered the growing doctrine of the Church and its sacerdotal ministry, while the prevalent asceticism of the day, continuing the Stoic and Ciceronian training of his youth, enabled him to promulgate a lofty standard of Christian ethics. Thus we have the De qfficiis ministrorum, De viduis, De virginitate and De paenitenlia. Ambrose has also left several funeral orations and ninety- one letters, but it is as a hymn-writer that he perhaps deserves most honour. Catching the impulse from Hilary and confirmed in it by the success of Arian psalmody, Ambrose composed several hymns, marked by dignified simplicity, which were not only effective in themselves but served as a fruitful model for later times. We cannot certainly assign to him more than four or five (Deus Creator Omnium, Aeterne rerum conditor, Jam surgit hora tertia, and the Christmas hymn Veni redemptor gentium) of those that have come down to us. Each of these hymns has eight four-line stanzas and is written in strict iambic tetrameter. On the Ambrosian ritual see Liturgy ; on the Ambrosian library see Libraries; on the church founded by him at Milan in 387 see Milan. Editions: The Benedictine (4 vols., Venice, 1748 ff.); Migne, Patrol. Lat. xiv.-xvii. ; P. A. Ballerini (6 vols., Milan, 1875 ff.). Literature: Th. Forster, Ambrose, B. of Mailand (Halle, 1884), and art. in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk., where the literature is cited in full; A. Ebert, Gesch. der christUch-latein. Litt. (2nd ed., 1889); O. Bardenhewer, Patrologie (2nd ed., 1891); A. Harnack, Hist, of Dogma, esp. vol. v.; W. Bright, Age of the Fathers. (A. J. G.) AMBROSE (Andrey Sertis-Kamenskiy) (1708-1771), arch- bishop of Moscow, was born at Nezhine in the government of Chernigov, and studied in the school of St Alexander Nevskiy, where he afterwards became a tutor. At the age of thirty-one he entered a monastery, where he took the name of Ambrose. Subsequently he was appointed archimandrite of the convent of New Jerusalem at Voznesensk. From this post he was trans- ferred as bishop, first to the diocese of Pereyaslav, and afterwards to that of Krusitsy near Moscow, finally becoming archbishop of Moscow in 1761. He was famous not only for his interest in schemes for the alleviation of poverty in Moscow, but also as the founder of new churches and monasteries. A terrible outbreak of plague occurred in Moscow in 1771, and the populace began to throng round an image of the Virgin to which they attributed supernatural healing power. Ambrose, perceiving that this crowding together merely enabled the contagion to spread, had the image secretly removed. The mob, suspecting that he was responsible for its removal, attacked a monastery to which he had retired, dragged him away from the sanctuary, and, having given 8oo AMBROSE--AMBROSIANS him time to receive the sacrament, strangled him. Ambrose's works include a liturgy and translations from the Fathers. AMBROSE (Ambroise), AUTPERT (d.- 778), French Bene- dictine monk. He became abbe of St Vincent on the Volturno " in the time of Desiderius, king of the Lombards." He wrote a considerable number of works on the Bible and religious subjects generally. Among these are commentaries on the Apocalypse (see Bibl. Patrum, xiii. 403), on the Psalms, on the Song of Solomon; Lives of SS. Paldo, Tuto and Vaso (according to Mabillon); Assumption of the Virgin; Combat between the Virtues and the Vices. See Mabillon, Acta sand. Bolland. III. ii. 259, 266 ; Georg Lommel, Der ostfrankische Reformator Ambrosius (Giessen, 1847) ' Bollandist Bibl. hag. lat. (1898), 61. AMBROSE, ISAAC (1604-1663/4), English Puritan divine, was the son of Richard Ambrose, vicar of Ormskirk, and was probably descended from the Ambroses of Lowick in Furness, a well-known Catholic family; He entered Brazeriose College, Oxford, in 1621, in his seventeenth year. Having graduated B.A. in 1624 and been ordained, he received in 1627 the little cure of Castleton in Derbyshire. By the influence of William Russell, earl of Bedford, he was appointed one of the king's itinerant preachers in Lancashire, and after living for a time in Garstang, he was selected by the Lady Margaret Hoghton as vicar of Preston. He associated himself with Presbyterianism, and was on the celebrated committee for the ejection of " scandalous and ignorant ministers and schoolmasters " during the Commonwealth. So long as Ambrose continued at Preston he was favoured with the warm friendship of the Hoghton family, their ancestral woods and the tower near Blackburn affording him sequestered places for those devout meditations and " experiences " that give such a charm to his diary, portions of which are quoted in his Prima Media and Ultima (1650, 1659). The immense auditory of his sermon {Redeeming the Time) at the funeral of Lady Hoghton was long a living tradition all over the county. On account of the feeling engendered by the civil war Ambrose left his great church of Preston in 1654, and became minister of Garstang, whence, however, in 1662 he was ejected with the two thousand ministers who refused to conform. His after years were passed among old friends and in quiet meditation at Preston. He died of apoplexy about the 20th of January 1663/4. As a religious writer Ambrose has a vividness and freshness of imagination possessed by scarcely any of the Puritan Nonconformists. Many who have no love for Puritan doctrine, nor sympathy with Puritan experience, have appreciated the pathos and beauty of his writings, and his Looking to Jesus long held its own in popular appreciation with the writings of John Bunyan. AMBROSE THE CAMALDULIAN, the common name of Ambrogio Traversari (1386-1439), French ecclesiastic, born near Florence at the village of Portico. At the age of fourteen he entered the Camaldulian Order in the monastery of Sta Maria degli Angeli, and rapidly became a leading theologian and Hellenist. In Greek literature his master was Emmanuel Chrysoloras. He became general of the order in 143 1, and was a leading advocate of the papacy. This attitude he showed clearly when he attended the council of Basel as legate of Eugenius IV. So strong was his hostility to some of the delegates that he described Basel as a western Babylon. He likewise supported the pope at Ferrara and Florence, and worked hard in the attempt to reconcile the Eastern and Western Churches. Though this cause was unsuccessful, Ambrose is interesting as typical of the new humanism which was growing up within the church. Voigt says that he was the first monk in Florence in whom the love of letters and art became predominant over his ecclesiastical views. Thus while among his own colleagues he seemed merely a hypocritical and arrogant priest, in his re- lations with his brother humanists, such as Cosimo de Medici, he appeared as the student of classical antiquities and especially of Greek theological authors. His chief works are: — Hodoeporicon, an account of a journey taken by the pope's command, during which he visited the monasteries of Italy; a translation of Palladius' Life 0) Ghrysostom; of Nineteen Sermons ■of Epkraem Syrus;oi the Book of St Basil on Virginity. A number of MSS. remain in the library of St Mark at Venice. He died on the 20th of October 1439. See G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des klass. Altertums ,(2 vols., 3rd ed., 1893); his Epistolae were published by Cannato (Florence, 1759) with a life by Mehus; Bollandist Bibl. hag. lat. (1898), 63; A. Masius, tlber die Stellung des Kamald-ulensers Ambrogio Ttaversari zum Papst Eugen IV. und zum Busier Konzil (Dobeln, 1888); Savigny, Geschichte rom. Rechts,.Mittel. (1850), vi. 422-424. AMBROSIA, in ancient mythology, sometimes the food, sometimes the drink of the gods. The word has generally been derived from Gr. &-, hat, and ju/3poros, mortal; hence the. food or drink of the immortals. A. W. Verrall, however, denies that there is any clear example in which the word d^Spoatos necessarily means "immortal," and prefers to explain it as "fragrant," a sense which is always suitable; cf. W. Leaf, Iliad (2nd ed.), on the phrase afifipanos vwpos (ii. 18)*: If so, the word may he derived from the Semitic ambar (ambergris) to which Eastern nations attribute miraculous properties. W. H. Roscher thinks that both nectar and ambrosia were kinds of honey, in which case their power of conferring immor- tality would be due to the supposed healing and cleansing power of honey (see further Nectar) . Derivatively the word A mbrosia (neut. plur.) was given to certain festivals in honour of Dionysus, probably because of the predominance of feasting in connexion with them. The name Ambrosia was also applied by Dioscorides and Pliny to certain herbs, and has been retained in modern botany for a genus of plants from which it has been extended to the group of dicotyledons called Ambrosiaceae, including Ambrosia, Xanthium and Iva, all annual herbaceous plants represented in America. Ambrosia maritima and some other species occur also in the Mediterranean region. There is also an American beetle, the Ambrosia beetle, be- longing to the family of Stolytidae, which derives its name from its curious cultivation of a succulent fungus, called ambrosia. Ambrosia beetles bore deep though minute galleries into trees and timber, and the wood-dust provides a bed for the growth of the fungus, on which the insects and larvae feed. AMBROSIANS, the name given to several religious brother- hoods which at various times since the 14th century have sprung up in and around Milan; they have about as much connexion with St Ambrose as the " JefOmites " who were found chiefly in upper Italy and Spain have with their patron saint. Only the oldest of them, the Pratres S. Ambrosii ad Nemus, had any- thing more than a very local significance. This order is known from a bull of Gregory XL addressed to the monks of the church of St Ambrose outside Milan. These monks, it would appear, though under the authority of a prior, had no rule. In response to the request of the archbishop, the pope had commanded them to follow the rule of Augustine and to be known by the above name. They were further to recite the Ambrosian office. Subsequently the order had a number of independent establish- ments in Italy which were united into one congregation by Eugenius IV., their headquarters being at Milan. Their discipline' afterwards became so slack that an appeal Was made to Cardinal Borromeo asking him to reform their houses. By Sixtus V. the order was amalgamated with the congregation of St Barnabas, but Innocent X. dissolved it in 1650. The name Ambrosiatts is- also given to a 16th-century Ana- baptist sect, which laid claim to immediate communication with God through the Holy Ghost. Basing their theology upon the words of the Gospel of St John i. 9— " There was the* true light which lighteth every man, coming into the world "• — they denied the necessit}' of any priests or ministers to interpret the Bible. Their leader Ambrose went so far as to hold further that the revelation which was vouchsafed to him was a higher authority than the Scriptures. The doctrine of the ■• Ambrosians, who belonged probably to that section of the Anabaptists known as Pneumatici, may be f the continents (Western highlands, or Cordilleras, of North America; Andean Cordilleras of South America) of geologically modern deformation and upheaval, with enclosed basins and abundant volcanic action, but each a system in itself, disconnected and not standing in alignment; (4) confluent lower lands between the highlands, giving river drainage to the north (Mackenzie, Orinoco), east (St Lawrence, Amazon), and south (Mississippi, La Plata). Differences of dimension and detail are numerous, but they do not suffice to mask what seems to be a resemblance in general plan. Indeed, some of the chief contrasts of the two con- tinents arise not so much from geological unlikeness as from their unsymmetrical situation with respect to the equator, whereby the northern one lies mostly in the temperate zone, while the southern one lies mostly in the torrid zone. North America is bathed in frigid waters around its broad northern shores; its mountain's bear huge glaciers in the north-west; the outlying area of Green- land in the north-east is shrouded with ice; and in geologically recent times a vast ice-sheet has spread over its north-eastern third; while warm waters bring corals to its southern shores. South America has warm waters and corals on the north-east, and cold waters and glaciers only on its narrowing southern end. If the symmetry : that is so noticeable in geological history had extended to climate as well, many geographical features might now present likenesses instead of contrasts. The relation of the Americas to each other and to the rest of the world, as the home of plants and animals, is greatly affected by the breadth of the adjacent oceans, and also by the geologically recent changes of altitude whereby the breadth of the narrowerparts of the lands and the oceans has been significantly altered. Between the parallels of 6o° and 70° N. the east and west widening of North America forms more than a third of the almost continuous land ring around a zone of sub- Arctic climate, through the middle of which runs the Arctic circle. As a result there is a remarkable community of resemblance of plant and animal life in the high northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia. In strong contrast with this relation of close fellowship is the exceptional 8o6 AMERICA [HISTORY isolation of far southern South America. Excepting the barren lands of the Antarctic regions, with which Patagonia is somewhat associated by a broken string of islands, the nearest continental lands of a more habitable kind are South Africa and New Zealand., In contrast to the sub-Arctic land ring, here is a sub-Antarctic ocean ring, and as a result the land flora and fauna of South America to-day are strongly unlike the life forms of the other south-ending continents. For further treatment of the physical geography of the American continents, see North America, South America. (W. M. D.) II. General Historical Sketch. — The name America was derived from that of Amerigo Vespucci (q.v.). In Waldseemuller's map of 1507 the name is given to a body of land roughly corresponding to the continent of South America. As discovery revealed the existence of another vast domain to the north, the name spread to the whole of the pair of continents by customary use, in spite of the protests of the Spaniards, by whom it was not officially used of North America till the 18th century. The discovery of America is justly dated on the 12th (N.S. 21st) of October 1492, when Christopher Columbus (q.v.), the Genoese, made his landfall on the island of Guanahani, now identified with Watling Island in the Bahamas. In the 10th and nth centuries Norse sea-rovers, starting from Iceland, had made small settle- ments in Greenland and had pushed as far as the coast of New England (or possibly Nova Scotia) in transient visits (see Vinland and Leif Ericsson). But the Greenland colony was obscure, the country was believed to form part of Europe, and the records of the farther explorations were contained in sagas which were only rediscovered by modern scholarship. Throughout the middle ages, legendary tales of mythical lands lying in the western ocean — the Isle of St Brandan, of Brazil and Antilia — had been handed down. Scholars, guessing from isolated passages in classic writers, or arguing on general principles, had held that the " Indies " could be reached by sailing due west. But the venture was beyond the resources of the ships and the seamanship of the time. The opinions of scholars, and the fantasies of poets, became an enthusiastic belief in the mind of Columbus. After many disappointments he persuaded the Catholic sovereigns Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain to furnish him with a squadron of three small vessels. With it he sailed from Palos in Andalusia on the 3rd of August 1492, reached Guanahani on the 12th of October, touched on the coast of Cuba and Hispaniola, established a small post on the latter, and returned to Lisbon on the 4th of March 1493, and thence to Spain. It was the belief of Columbus and his contemporaries that he had reached the islands described by Marco Polo as forming the eastern extremity of Asia. Hence he spoke of the " Indies," and " las Indias " continued to be the official name given to their American possessions by the Spaniards for many generations. His feat produced a diplomatic controversy with Portugal which was destined to have important political consequences. In 1454 Pope Nicholas V. had given the Portuguese the exclusive right of exploration and conquest on the road to the Indies. His bull contemplated only the use of the route by the coast of Africa to the south and east. In 1488 the Portuguese Bartholomeu Diaz had rounded the Cape of Good Hope. After the return of Columbus and his supposed demonstration that the Indies could be reached by sailing west, disputes might obviously arise be- tween the two powers as to their respective " spheres of influ- ence." The Catholic sovereigns applied to Pope Alexander VI., a Spaniard, for a confirmation of their rights. The pope drew a line from north to south one hundred leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands, and gave the Spaniards the claim to all to the west (May 4, 1493). The Portuguese thought the division unfair to them, and protested. A conference was held between the two powers at Tordesillas in 1494, and by common consent the line was shifted to three hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. The boundary line corresponded to the 50th 1 degree of longitude west of Greenwich, which strikes the main- 1 The exact position has been disputed. According to John Fiske, the line would be between 41 ° and 44° long. land of South America about the mouth of the Amazon. Thence- forward the Spaniards claimed the right to exclude all other peoples from trade or settlement " beyond the line." Between September 1493 and the time of his last voyage (May 1502 to November 1504), Columbus explored the West Indies, reached the mainland of South America at the mouth of the Orinoco and sailed along the coast of Central America from Cape Honduras to Nombre de Dios (near Colon) . Henry VII. of England allowed the Bristol merchants to fit out a western voyage under the command of another Genoese, John Cabot (q.v.), in 1497. The history of the venture is very obscure, but Cabot is thought to have reached Newfoundland and the mainland. Be- tween 1 500 and 1 503 a Portuguese family of the name of Cortereal carried out voyages of exploration on the eastern coast of North America, with the consent of their government, and with little regard for the treaty of Tordesillas. In 1 500 the Portuguese Pedro Alvarez Cabral, while on his way to the East Indies, sighted the coast of Brazil at Monte Pascoal in the Aimores, and took formal possession. The belief that the eastern extremity of Asia had been reached died slowly, and the great object of exploration in America continued for some years to be the discovery of a passage through to the Spice Islands, in order to compete with the Portu- guese, who had reached them by the Cape route. The first Spanish settlement in Hispaniola spread to the mainland by the adventure of Alonso de Ojeda and Diego de Nicuesa in Darien in 1509. Cuba was occupied by Diego de Velazquez in 1511. In 1512 (or 1513) Juan Ponce de Leon made the first recorded exploration of the coast of Florida and the Bahama Channel. In 1513, Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed the isthmus of Darien and saw the South Sea (Pacific) . The hope that a passage through to the Spice Islands would be found near existing Spanish settle- ments was now given up. One was sought farther south, and in November 1520 Ferdinand Magellan (q.v.) passed through the strait which bears his name and sailed across the Pacific. At last the existence of a continent divided by a vast stretch of ocean from Asia, and mostly lying within the sphere of influence assigned to Spain by the pope, was revealed to the world. The first aim of the Spaniards had been trade with the Indies. The Casa de Contratacion, a committee for the regulation of trade, was established at Seville in 1 503. European plants and animals were introduced into Hispaniola and Cuba, and sugar plantations were set up. But the main object of the Spaniards, who could not labour in the tropics even if they had wished to do so, was always gold, to be won by slave labour. As the surface gold of the islands was exhausted, and the feeble island races perished before the invaders, the Spaniards were driven to go farther afield. In 1 5 1<^ Pedrarias Davila transferred the Darien settlement to Panama, In that and the following year the coasts of Yucatan and of the Gulf of Mexico were explored successively by Francisco Hernan- dez C6rdova and Juan de Grijalva, who both sailed from Cuba. From Cuba it was that Hernan Cortes (q.v.) sailed on the 10th (or 18th) of February 1519 for the conquest of Mexico. Hitherto the Spaniards had met only the weak islanders, or the more robust cannibal Caribs, both alike pure savages. In Mexico they found " pueblo " or town Indians who possessed an organized govern- ment and had made some progress in civilization. The hegemony of the Aztecs, who dominated the other tribes from the central valley of Mexico, was oppressive. Cortes, the most accomplished and statesmanlike of the Spanish conquerors, raised the subject peoples against them. His conquest was effected by 152 1. His example stimulated the settlers at Panama, who had heard of a great people owning vast quantities of gold to the south of them. Between 1524 and 1535 Francisco Pizarro (q.v.) and Diego de Almagro had completed the conquest of Peru, which was followed, however, by a long period of strife among the Spaniards, and of rebellions. The country between Peru and Panama was subdued before 1537 by the conquest of Quito by Sebastian de Benalcazar and of New Granada by Jimenez de Quesada. From Peru the Spaniards advanced southwards to Chile, which was first unsuc- cessfully invaded (1535-37) by Diego de Almagro, and afterwards occupied (1540-53) by Pedro de Valdivia. Their advance to the south was checked by the indomitable opposition HISTORY] AMERICA 807 of the Araucanians, but from the southern Andes the Spaniards overflowed on to the great plains which now form the interior of the Argentine Republic. The first permanent settlement at the mouth of the river Plate at Buenos Aires dates from 1 580. In its main lines the Spanish conquest was complete by 1550. What the Spaniards had then overrun from Mexico to Chile is still Spanish America. Brazil, after a period of exploration which began in 1510, was gradually settled by the Portuguese, though its bounds on the south remained a subject of dispute with the Spaniards till the 18th century. The vast territories acquired by Spain in this brief period were held to be, by virtue of the pope's bull, the peculiar property of the sovereign. When the wide and dangerous powers granted to Columbus by his patent were confiscated, Ferdinand first imposed Bishop Fonseca on him as a check. In 1509 the council of the Indies was established, but it did not take its final form till 1524. It consisted of a president, with a board of advisers, who possessed legislative and administrative powers, and who varied in number at different times. There was an appeal to it from all colonial governors and courts. The Casa de Conlratacion, another board, regulated the trade. In America the crown was repre- sented by governors. After the preliminary period of conquest the whole of the Spanish possessions were divided into the two " kingdoms " of New Spain, — consisting of Venezuela and the Spanish possessions north of the isthmus — and of New Castile, a title soon changed to Peru, which included the Central American isthmus and all of South America except Venezuela and Brazil. Each was ruled by a viceroy. As the Spanish dominions became more settled, the viceroyalty of Peru was found to.be unwieldy. New Granada (which included the present republics of Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador) was created a viceroyalty in 17 18 (soon abolished, but re-created in 1740). A fourth viceroyalty for the river Plate was formed in 1778. Other governments known as captain-generalships were cut out of the viceroyalties at different periods — Guatemala in 1527, Venezuela in 1773, Cuba in 1777 and Chile in 1778. The captains-general corresponded directly with the council of the Indies, and were independent of the viceroys except in war time. The administrative powers of the viceroys were very great. They were, however, checked by the. audi- encias, or law courts, of which there were eleven from the reign of Philip IV. — Santo Domingo, Mexico, Panama, Lima, Guate- mala, Guadalajara, Bogota, La Plata, Quito, Chile, Buenos Aires. They acted as councils to the governors, and had civil and criminal jurisdiction with an appeal to the council of the Indies at Seville. The towns had municipal franchises, exercised by a governing body comprised of Spaniards, either immigrants from Old Spain, or Creoles, i.e. descendants of Spanish settlers. The places were often sold, and were objects of ambition to the richer merchants. In practice the selling of a seat in the town councils, or cabildos, did not have the bad consequences which might have appeared in- evitable. In the earlier stages of Spanish colonial history meet- ings of delegates (procurators) of the town councils, in imitation of the national cortes of Spain, were not uncommon. The kings of Spain had obtained from the popes Alexander VI. and Julius II. the right of levying the tithe, and of naming the holders of all ecclesiastical benefices. These immense concessions, made when the development of the Spanish settlements could not be foreseen, were regretted by later popes, but the crown adhered firmly to its regalities. The government of Spain administered its dominions from the beginning in the strictest spirit of the " colonial system." The Indies were expected to supply precious metals and raw materials, and to take all manufactures from the mother country. In order to facilitate the regulation of the trade by the Casa de Conlratacion, it was concentrated first in Seville, and when the Guadalquivir was found to be becoming too shallow for the growing tonnage of ships, at Cadiz. Merchant vessels were required for their protection to sail in convoy. The convoys or flotas sailed in October first to Cartagena in South America, and from thence to Nombre de Dios or, in later times, Porto Bello. The yearly fairs at these places received the imports from Europe and the colonial trade of the Pacific coast, first collected at Panama and then carried over the isthmus. From Nombre de Dios or Porto Bello the convoys went to La Vera Cruz for the trade of New Spain, and returned home in July by the Florida straits. One-fifth of the produce of the mines belonged to the crown. The collection of this bullion was at all times a main object with the Spanish government, and more especially so after the discovery of the great silver deposits of Potosi in Bolivia. Forced labour was required to work them and the natives were driven to the toil. The excesses of the earliest Spanish settlers have become a commonplace, largely through the passionate eloquence of Bartolome de Las Casas (see Las Casas). The Spanish government made strenuous attempts to regulate forced labour by limiting the rights of the toasters. An encomienda was required by anyone who wished to exact labour, i.e. the Indians of a district were given to him " in commendam " with the power to demand a corvte from them and a small yearly payment per head. The laws endeavoured to check abuses, but there can be no doubt that they were often defeated by the greed of the colonists — more especially in the viceroyalty of Peru, which was always less well governed than Mexico. But the bulk of the inhabitants of the Spanish possessions were of pure or mixed Indian blood, and many Indians were prosperous as traders, manufacturers, farmers and artisans. The Portuguese settlement in Brazil was more purely colonial than the Spanish possessions. Until 1 534 little was done to regu- late the activity of private adventures. In that year the coast was divided into captaincies, which were united under a single governor-general in 1549. Between 1555 and 1567 the Portu- guese had to contend with the French Huguenot invaders who seized Rio, and whom they expelled. Between 1572 and 1576 there were in Brazil the two governments of Rio de Janeiro and Bahia, but its history is of little importance till the occupation of Portugal by Philip II. drew the country into the wars of the Spanish monarchy. The ciaim of the Peninsula powers to divide the American con- tinent between them, based as it was on an award given in entire ignorance of the facts, would in no case have been respected. In the great upheaval of the Renaissance and the Reformation it was certain to be defied. As England was in general alliance with the sovereigns of Spain during the early 16th century, English- men turned their attention at first towards the discovery of a route to the Spice Islands round the north of Asia. But the rivalry of Francis I. and Charles V. gave France a strong motive for assailing the Spaniards in the New World now revealed to the ambition of Europe. King Francis encouraged the ill-recorded and disputed voyages of the Florentine Giovanni da Verrazano in 1524, and the undoubted explorations of Jacques Carrier. Between 1534 and 1542 this seaman, a native of St Malo, explored the Strait of Belle Isle and the Gulf of St Lawrence, and visited the Indian village of Hochelaga, now Montreal. The claims of France to the possession of a great part of the northern half of America were based on the voyages of Verrazano and Carrier. The death of King Francis, and the beginning of the wars of religion, suspended colonial enterprise under royal direction. But the Huguenots, under the inspiration of Coligny, made three attempts to found colonies to the south — at Rio de Janeiro in 1555-1567, near the present Beaufort, South Carolina, in 1562, and in Florida in 1 565. These ventures were ruined partly by the hostility of the Spaniards and Portuguese, partly by the dissen- sions of the colonists. Meanwhile French corsairs from St Malo and Dieppe had been active in infesting the West Indies and the trade route followed by the Spanish convoys. After the accession of Queen Elizabeth, and the beginning of the breach between England and Spain, they were joined by English sea-rovers. The English claimed the right to trade with all Spanish possessions in or out of Europe by virtue of their treaty of trade and amity made in the reign of Charles V. The Spaniards disputed this interpretation of the treaty, and maintained that there was " no peace beyond the line," i.e. Pope Alexander's line as finally fixed by the conference at Tordesillas. The English retaliated by armed smuggling voyages. It was, however, not till late that they attempted to found permanent settlements. In 1 5 78 Sir Humphrey Gilbert obtained 8o8 AMERICA {HISTORY a patent for discovery and settlement. In 1583 he perished in an effort to establish a colony in Newfoundland. His work was taken up by his half-brother Sir Walter Raleigh in 1584. Between 1586 and 1603 Sir Walter made successive efforts to settle a colony in the wide territory called Virginia, in honour of Queen Elizabeth, a name of much wider significance then than in later days. His colony at Roanoke, in what is now the state of North Carolina, was unsuccessful, and after his fall his patent reverted to the crown, but the new Virginia Company carried on his schemes. In 1607 the first lasting settlement was made in Virginia, and after a period of struggle began to flourish by the cultivation of tobacco. In 1620 another settlement was made. A small body of reli- gious dissentients, one hundred and one men, women and children, including some who had fled to Holland to escape the discipline of the church of England, secured leave from the Virginia Company to plant themselves within its bounds. They sailed in a single ship, the " Mayflower," and landed near Cape Cod, where they founded the colony of Plymouth, afterwards (1621) obtain^ ing a patent from the council for New England. From these two centres, and from later settlements, arose the " Plantations " of the English, which gradually increased to the number of thirteen and were destined to become the United States of America. Two strongly contrasted types were found among them. The Virginian or southern type, which may be said to have prevailed from Maryland southward, were for the most part planters producing tobacco, Indian corn, rice, indigo and cotton, largely by the labour of negro slaves. They had no very pronounced religious leaning, though Maryland was founded as a Roman Catholic refuge, but they had a prevailing leaning to the church of England. The northern or New England element began by endeavouring to establish a Puritan theocracy which broke down. But the tendency was towards " Independency," and the New Englanders were farmers tilling their own land, traders and sea- faring men. In the middle region between them religion had a large share in promoting the formation of Pennsylvania, which was founded by the Quaker William Penn. The English colonies, though divided by interest or character, were all alike jealous to defend, and eager to extend, their freedom of self-government, based on charters granted by, or. extorted from, the crown. The settlers by degrees threw off the control of the proprietors who had received grants from the crown and had promoted the first settlements. It was a marked character- istic of the English colonists, and a strong element in their prosperity, that they were hospitable in welcoming men of other races, — Germans from the Palatinate, and French Huguenots driven out by persecution who brought with them some capital, more intelligence and an enduring hatred of Roman Catholic France. Though the British government gave, more or less un^ willingly, a large measure of self-government to the Plantations, it was no less intent than the Spanish crown on retaining the whole colonial trade in British hands, and on excluding foreigners. Like the Spaniards it held that this trade should be confined to an exchange of colonial raw produce for home manufactures. Two foreign settlements within the English sphere — the Dutch colony of New Netherland, now New York, and the Swedish settlement on the Delaware— were absorbed by the growing English element. While the English plantations were striking root along the coast, by somewhat prosaic but fruitful industry, and were growing in population with rapid strides, two other movements were in pro- gress. To the south, the English, French and Dutch, though often in rivalry with one another, combined to break in on the mono- poly of the Spaniards. They turned the maxim that " there is no peace beyond the line " against its inventors. They invaded the West Indies, seized one island after another, and formed the f reebooting communities known as the Brethren of the Coast and the Buccaneers (q.v.). After the renewal of the war between Spain and Holland in 162 1 , the Dutch invaded the Portuguese colony of Brazil, and seized Bahia. A long period of struggle followed, but, after the declaration of Portuguese independence in 1640, local opposition, and the support given to the Portuguese by the French, led to the retreat of the Dutch. To the north, to the west and to the south of the English settle- ments on the mainland, a : most characteristic French colonial policy was being carriedout. No sooner were the wars of religion over than the French again set about making good their claim to Canada, and to whatever they could represent as arising naturally out of Canada. In 1599, under the encouragement of Henry IV., speculators began to frequent the St Lawrence in pursuit of the fur trade. Their settlements were mainly trading posts. Their colon? ists were not farmers but trappers, woodrangers, coureurs du bois^ who married Indian women, and formed a mixed race known as the bois brules. Not a few of the leaders, notably Samuel de Champlain (q.v.), who founded Quebec in 1608, were brave ingenious men, but the population provided no basis for a lasting colony. It was adventurous, small, scattered and unstable. The religious impulse which was so strong both in the Spanish and the English colonies was prominent in the French, but in the most fatal form. Pious people were eager to bring about the cohversion of the Indians, and were zealously served by missionaries. The Jesuits, whose first appearance in New France dates from 1611, were active and devoted. Their aim was to reduce the fierce Red men to a state of childlike docility to priests, and they discouraged all colonization in their neighbourhood. It was true that the most active French colonial element, the trappers, were barbarized by the natives, and that the pursuit of the fur trade and other causes had brought the French into sharp collision with the most formidable of the native races, the confederation known as the Five (or Six) Nations. During the reign of Louis XIV., after 1660, the French government paid great attention to Canada, but not in a way capable of leading to the formation of a colony. The king was as intent as the rulers of Spain had been to keep the American possessions free from all taint of heresy. Therefore he carried on the policy- of excluding the Huguenots- — the only colonizing element among his subjects,— and drove them into the English plantations. A small handful of obedient peasants, priest-ridden and over-administered, formed the basis of the colony. On this narrow foundation was raised a vast super- structure, ecclesiastical, administrative and military. His priests; and his officials civil and military, gave the French king many daring explorers. While the English.colonies were slowly digging their way, taking firm hold of the soil, and growing in numbers, from the sea to the Alleghanies, French missionaries arid explorers had ranged far and. wide. In 1682 Robert Cavelier, sieur de la Salle, who had already explored the Ohio, sailed down the Missis- sippi and took possession of the region at the mouth by the name of Louisiana. The problem which was to be settled by a century of strife was now posed. On the one hand were the English plantations, popu- lated, cultivated, profitable, stretching along the east coast of North America; on the other were the Canadian! settlements; poverty-stricken, empty, over-officialled, a cause of constant expense to the home government, and, at a vast distance, those of Louisiana, struggling and bankrupt. The French remedy im an unsuccessful colony has always been to annex mors territory, and forestall a possible rival. Therefore the French government strove to unite the beggarly settlements in Canada and Louisiana by setting up posts all along the Ohio a$d the Mississippi, in order to confine the English between the Alleghaoiesand thesea. The political history of North America till 1763,1s mainly the story of the pressure of the English colonies on this paper barrier. As regards Spanish America, England was content to profit by the Asiento (q.v.) treaty, which gave her the monopoly of slave- hunting for the Spanish colonies and an opening for contraband trade. In the river Plate region, where the dissensions of Spaniards and Portuguese afforded another- opening, English traders smuggled. The Spaniards, with monstrous fatuity, refused to make use of the superb waterways provided by the Parana and Paraguay, and endeavoured to stifle all trade, England's main struggle was with France. It was prolonged by her entanglement in European disputes and by political causes, by the want of co-operation among the English colonies and their jealousy of control by the home government. The organization of the French colonies, though industrially ruinous^ gave them AMERICA Plate I, 'HfillMiii Illustrations representative of the primitive cultures of Central America, Mexico and Peru (q.q.v.) selected and arranged by Dr Walter Lehmann of the Royal Ethnographical Museum, Munich. Fig. i. — Stone Sculpture, from Teo- tihuacan, Mexico. Prae-Mexican culture (? Totonacan). -View of the Giant Pyramid of the Sun, Teotihuacan.FiG. 3-— Alabaster Vessel, with carved "■ " Prae-Mexican culture (? Totonacan). lizard as handle Teotihuacan, Mexico. Proto-Mexican culture. Fig. Plateau region, Mexico. Fig. 6. — Sculptured Frieze of the Temple of Xochicalco. Plateau region, Mexico. Mexican culture with Mayan influence. (Figs. 2 and 6 from photos by Waite, Mexico.) Fig. 5. — Carved Stone Figure of the god of sports and dancing (Xochipilli-Miacuil- xochitl, "five flowers"), squatting on a stool, decorated with flowers and tonallo emblems. Plateau region, Mexico. Mexican culture. Fig. 7. — Stone Tablet in memory of the year chicuei-acatl (" 8 reeds "), a.d. 1487, when the Great Temple in Mexico was con- secrated; above are the figures of the Kings Ticoc and Ahuitzotl, sacrificing, with the date of the beginning of the rebuilding, chicome-acatl ("7 reeds ") , A.D. 1447. Mexico City. Mexican culture. Fig. 8. — Leaf 3 of the Tonalamatl, or sacred cycle of 260 days, from the Aubin collec- tion. Figures of the gods Quetzalcoatl and Tepeyollotli. Mexico. Mexican culture. 9. — Leaf 10 of Codex Borbonicus. with figure of the god of the underworld (Mictlantecutli) as regent of the tenth of the 20 sections, each of 13 days of the tonalamatl, which begins with "one flint" (ce tepcatl). Mexico. Mexican culture. Fig. 10. — Leaf 54 of Codex Borbonicus B., with figures of the ancient moon-god, the twelve months, and the rabbit as the animal moon -emblem. Mexico. Mexican culture. (Figs. 8-10 from the publications of the duke of Loubat.) Plate II. AMERICA Fig. i. — Male Clay Figure, holding weapon ( ?) . From near Tzintzun- tzan Michoacan, Mexico. (?) Tarascan culture. Fig. 2- -View of the Ruins of the Pyramid Temple of Papantla near Vera Cruz, Mexico. Totonacan culture. Fig. 3. — Hump-Backed Clay Jngure, standing on a fish; a reed staff in one hand, and incised lines on face. From Tzintzuntzan. (?) Tarascan culture. Fig. 4. — Human Figure, with a rattle-stick in the right hand. From near Alva- rado, Vera Cruz, Mexico. Totonacan culture. Fig. 5. — Stone Carving, deeply undercut, of the so-called Palmatype. From Coatepec, Canton Falapa, Vera Cruz, Mexico. Totonacan culture. Fig. 6. — Similar Carving, with human figure. From Coate- pec. Totonacan culture. Fig. 7. — Stone Yoke, carved in the so-called frog-type. Vera Cruz, Mexico. Totonacan culture. I • &£***?■ Fig. 8. — Crucified Figure, pierced with arrows, of the victim at the festival of the god Xipe (Mexi- can TlacaxipenaliztH), with the symbols of the god. Culture of the Mayan transitional peoples of the Atlantic coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Totonacan culture. Fig. 9. — Temple Chambers, with stone pillars, from the ruins of Mitla, Oaxaca, with wall mosaic of joined stones. Zapotecan cul- ture with proto- Mexican influ° ence. Fig. 10. — Wall Mosaic of joined Stone from the ruins of Mitla. Zapote- can culture with proto- Mexican influence. (Ftgs. 2, and 10 are from photos by Waite Mexico; Fig. 8, from the ' Codex Nuttall, ' ' publica- tions of the Peabody Museum.) HISTORY] AMERICA 809 the command of more available military forces than were at the disposal of the English. Thus the fight dragged on, and was constantly maintained in Acadia, where the sovereignty had been early disputed, and the border never properly settled. At last, when under the leadership of the elder Pitt (see Chatham, Earl of) England set to work resolutely to force a final' settlement, the end came. The British navy cut off the French from all help from home, and after a gallant struggle, their dominion in Canada was conquered, and the French retired from the North American continent; They surrendered Louisiana to Spain, which had suffered much in an attempt to help them, and their possessions in America were reduced to their islands in the West Indies and French Guiana. The fall of the French dominion on the continent of North America was ■ practically the beginning of the existence of independent nations of European origin in the New World. The causes which led to the revolt of the Plantations, the political and military history of the War of Independence, are dealt with under the heiading of United States {History) and American War of Independence. The significance of these great events in the general history of America is that from 1783 onwards there was, in the New World, an autonomous community not wholly unified at once, nor without strife, but self-governing and self-subsisting, in entire separation from European control. Such a polity, sur- rounded as it was by territory dependent on European sovereigns, could not be without a profound influence on its neighbours. Of deliberate direct action there was not much, nor was it needed. The peoples of the thirteen states which had secured emancipation from British sovereignty were wisely intent on framing their own Federal Union, and in taking effective possession of the vast terri- tories in the Ohio region and beyond the Mississippi. But their example worked. Their independence tempted, their prosperity stimulated. From the freedom of the United States came the revolt of Spanish America, and the grant by Great Britain to Canada of the amplest rights of self-government. The effect which the establishment of the great northern re- public was bound to have on their own colonies was not unknown to the wiser among the rulers of Spain. They took, however, few and weak steps to counteract the visible peril. During the later 1 7th century and the whole of the 18th, the history of the Spanish colonies and of the Portuguese in Brazil, was not, as has often been said, one of pure stagnation. Apart from such a peculiar development as the rise, formation and fall of the Jesuit missions in Paraguay, there was growth and change. The Creole popula- tion increased and was steadily recruited from home. Apart from settlers who came for trade, the flow of government officials, and soldiers, both officers and men, ended generally in recruiting the Creole element. The newcomers married in the country, and died there, leaving their families to grow up Americans. San Martin, the military leader of Buenos Aires in the revolt, was the son of a Spanish army officer and a Creole mother, and he is quoted as the example of thousands. He was educated in Spain, and began as an officer in the Spanish army. Increasing numbers of Creoles came home for education, and though they rarely went beyond Spain, yet Spain itself was being permeated by the influence of French philosophic and economic writers. The Creoles brought back new ideas. Slow as the Spanish government was to move, and obstinately as.it clung to old ways, it was forced to remove restrictions on trade, largely by the discovery that it could not prevent smuggling, which was, in fact, carried on with the con- nivance of its own corrupt officials.' The attempt to prevent all trade on the river Plate was given up, and a vigorous commercial community arose. A revolt of the Indians in Peru in 1 780, which was savagely suppressed, forced the government to take note of the abuses of its colonial administration. Many reforms were introduced. Spanish America was never so well governed as at the end of the 18th century, and was on the whole prosperous. But the reforms and concessions of Spain came too late. In commerce it had to compete with the highly developed maritime industry of Great Britain. In government it had to meet with the growing discontent of the Creoles, who found themselves treated as children, and their country looked on as a milch cow. The wars of the French Revolution and of the emperor Napoleon, in which Spain was entangled, interrupted its communications with its colonies, and weakened its hold on them. The defeat, in 1806 and 1807, of two British expeditions to Buenos Aires and Monte- video, resulting in the capitulation of the English force, gave a great impulse to the self-reliance of the colonists, to whom the credit of the victory entirely belonged. When the intervention of Napoleon in Spain plunged the mother country into anarchy, the colonists began to act for themselves. They were still loyal, but they were no longer passive. The brutality of some Spanish governors on the spot provoked [anger.^ The cortes assembled in Cadiz, being under the influence of the merchants and mob, could make no concessions, and aU Spanish America flamed into revolt. For the details of the struggle the reader must refer to the articles Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, Paraguay, Uruguay, Venezuela. Brazil followed the 1 same course in a milder way and a little later. The struggle of Spanish America for independence lasted from 1810 to 1826. This vast extension of the area of independence in America could not but have its proportionate effect on the general balance of power among nations. So long as Spain retained her colonies on the mainland, while England held Canada, and the English, Dutch and French had possessions in Guiana, the New World must have remained in political dependence on the Old. When the Spanish colonies secured effective independence, and even before their freedom was formally recognized, foreign sovereignty became at once the exception in America. The change thus established de facto owed its first diplomatic consecration to the develop- ments of international politics in the Old World. The committee of the great powers which, since the downfall of Napoleon, had succeeded to the authority which he had usurped in Europe (see Europe: History), was for the few years of its unbroken exist- ence fully occupied with the task of preserving the " European Confederation " from the peril to its peace of renewed revolution- ary outbreaks. As early as the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), however, the question of the relations of Spain and her colonies had been brought up and the suggestion made of concerted inters vention, to put an end to a state of things scandalous in itself and dangerous, if only by force of example, to the monarchical principle. The proposal came to nothing, and fared no better when revived at subsequent conferences, owing to the opposition of Great Britain and of Spain herself. Spanish pride resented the interference of an alliance in which Spain had no part; Great Britain could not afford to allow any action to be taken which might end in the re-establishment of the old Spanish colonial system and the destruction of the considerable British trade, still' nominally contraband, which had grown up with the colonies during the troubles. Had the Spanish government frankly accepted the situation and acknowledged the trade as legitimate, England would have had no objection to the re-establishment of the Spanish sovereignty in America. But the stubborn blindness of Ferdinand VII. and his ministers made any such solution impossible, and, before the meeting of the congress of Verona, in 1822, Castlereagh had realized the eventual necessity of recogniz-. ing the independence of the South American states. Matters were brought to a crisis by the outcome of the Verona conferences (see Verona, Congress of), and the re-establishment, in 1823, of the absolute power of the king in Spain by French arms and under French influence, the logical consequence of which seemed to be the reconquest, with the aid of France, of the Spanish colonies. Great Britain could not afford to stand aside and watch, the accomplishment of an ambition to prevent which she had, -at immense sacrifice of blood and treasure, overthrown the power of Louis XIV. and of Napoleon. She had exhausted every art of diplomatic obstruction to the aggressive action of France; her counterstroke to the unexpectedly easy victory of the French arms was the formal recognition of the revolted colonies as independent states. " If France has Spain," cried Canning in parliament, " at least it shall be Spain without the Indies. We have called a New World into existence to redress the balance of the Old." On the 23rd of July 1824, a commercial treaty was signed 8io AMERICA [ETHNOLOGY between Great Britain and Brazil; Colombia and Mexico were acknowledged in December of the same year; and the recognition of the other states followed, as each was able to give guarantees of stable government. Meanwhile the United States, acting in harmony, but not in formal co-operation, with England, had taken decisive action. President Monroe, in his message to Congress on the 2nd of December 1823, laid down the rule that no part of America was any longer res nullius, or open to colonial settlement. Though the vast ultimate consequences of this sudden appearance of the great western republic in the arena of international politics were not realized even by those in sympathy with Monroe's action, the weight of the United States thrown into the scale on the side of Great Britain made any effective protest by the European powers impossible; Russia, Austria and Prussia contented themselves with joining in a mild expression of regret that the action of Great Britain " tended to encourage that revolutionary spirit it had been found so difficult to control in Europe." Great Britain and the United States were, indeed, not in complete agreement as to the legitimacy of fresh colonial settlements in the New World, but they were practically resolved that nobody should make any new settlements except themselves. From President Monroe's de- claration has grown up what is now known as the Monroe Doctrine (q.v.), which, in substance, insists that America forms a separate system apart from Europe, wherein still existing European possessions may be tolerated, but on the understanding that no extension of them, and no establishment of European control over a nominally independent American state, will be allowed. The Monroe Doctrine is indeed the recognition, rather than the cause, of undeniable fact. Europe is still possessed of some measure of sovereign power in the New World, in Canada, in Guiana and in the West Indian islands. But Canada is bound only by a voluntary allegiance, Guiana is unimportant, and in the West Indian islands, where the independence of Hayti and the loss of Cuba and Porto Rico by Spain have diminished the European sphere, European dominion is only a survival of the colonial epoch. America, North and South, does form a separate system. Within that system power is divided as it has not been in Europe since the fall of the Roman empire. On the one hand are the United States and Canada. On the other are all the states formed out of the colonial empires of Spain and Portugal. The states of the American Union are non-tropical, adapted to the development of European races, not mixed with Indian blood, and possessed by long inheritance of the machinery needed for the successful conduct of self-government. They grew during the 1 9th century in population and wealth at a rate that placed them far ahead of the Spanish and Portuguese states, which in the year 1800 were the richer and the more populous. ' The Spanish and Portuguese states of America are mainly tropical, and therefore ill adapted to the health of a white race. Their population is divided between a white minority, among whom there are to be found strains of Indian blood, and a coloured majority, sometimes docile and in- dustrious, sometimes mere savages. They inherited no machinery of self-government. Townships governed by close corporations, and all embedded in the despotic power of the crown, presented none of the elements out of which a commonwealth could be formed. It was inevitable that in the early stages of their history, the so-called Latin communities should fall under the control of " the single person," and no less inevitable that he should be a soldier. The sword and military discipline supplied the only effective instruments of government. It would have been a miracle if the first generation of Mexican and South American history had not been anarchical. And though in recent years Spanish America has seemingly settled down, and republican institutions have followed upon long periods of continual revolution, yet over the American continent as a whole there is an overwhelming predominance, material and intellectual, of the communities of English speech and politically of English origin: Authorities. — Separate bibliographies will be found under the headings of the separate states. Amid the plethora of books, the reader cannot do better than consult the Narrative and Critical History of America, edited by Justin Winsor (1886-1889), in eight large octavo volumes, in which all the chapters are supplied with copious and carefully compiled bibliographies, (D. H.) III. Ethnology and Archaeology. — A summary account is here given of the American aborigines, who are discussed in more detail under Indians, North American. Whether with Payne it is assumed that in some remote time a J** speechless anthropoid passed over a land bridge, now a^r^fae*. the Bering Sea, which then sank behind him; or with W. Boyd Dawkins and Brinton, that the French cave man came hither by way of Iceland; or with Keane, that two subvarieties, the long-headed Eskimo-Botocudo type and the Mexican round- headed type, prior to all cultural developments, reached the New World, one by Iceland, the other by Bering Sea; or that Malayoid wanderers were stranded on the coast of South America; or that no breach of continuity has occurred since first the march of tribes began this way — ethnologists agree that the aborigines of the western came from the eastern hemisphere,and there is lacking any biological evidence of Caucasoid or Negroid blood flowing in the veins of Americans before the invasions of historic times. The time question is one of geology. Following Notes and Queries on Anthropology, published by the British Association for the Advancement of Science, the study of the American aborigines divides itself into two parts: that re- lating to their biology, and that relating to their culture. In the four subdivisions of humanity based on the hair, the Americans are straight-haired or Mongoloid. But it will free this account of them from embarrassments if they be looked upon as a distinct subspecies of Homo sapiens. Occupying 135 degrees of latitude, living on the shores of frozen or of tropical waters; at altitudes varying from sea-level to several thousands of feet; in forests, grassy prairies or deserts; here starved, there in plenty; with a night here of six months' duration, there twelve hours long; here among health-giving winds, and there cursed with malaria — this brown man became, in different culture provinces, brunette or black, tall or short, long-headed or short-headed, and developed on his own hemisphere variations from an average type. Since the tribes practised far more in-breeding than out-breed- ing, the tendency was toward forming not only verbal linguistic groups, but biological varieties; the weaker the tribe, the fewer the captures, the greater the isolation and harder the conditions — producing dolichocephaly, dwarfism and other retrogressive characteristics. The student will find differences among anthro- pologists in the interpretation of these marks — some averring that comparative anatomy is worthless as a means of subdividing the American subspecies, others that biological variations point to different Old World origins, a third class believing these structural variations to be of the soil. The high cheek-bone and the hawk's- bill nose are universally distributed in the two Americas; so also are proportions between parts of the body, and the frequency of certain abnormalities of the skull, the hyoid bone, the humerus and the tibia. Viability, by which are meant fecundity, longevity and vigour, was low in average. The death-rate was high, through lack of proper weaning foods, and hard life. The readiness with which the American Indian succumbed to disease is well known. For these reasons there was not, outside of southern Mexico, northern Central America and Peru, a dense population. In the whole hemisphere there were not over ten million souls. The materials for studying the American man biologically are abundant in the United States National Museum in Washington; thePeabody Museum, at Cambridge, Massachusetts; theAmerican Museum of Natural History, New York; the Academy of Sciences and the Free Museum of Arts and Sciences, Philadelphia; Pennsylvania; the Field Museum in Chicago; the National Museum, city of Mexico, and the Museum of La Plata. In Europe there are excellent collections in London, Cambridge, Paris, Berlin, St Petersburg and Prague. Professor Putnam measured for the World's Columbian Ex- position 1 700 living Indians, and the results have been summed up by Boas. The breadth of the Indian face is one centimetre more than that of the whites, and the half-breeds are nearer the Indian standard; this last is true also of colour in the skin, eyes and hair. In stature, the tall tribes exceed 170 cm.; middle stature ranges between 166 and 170; and short tribes are under 166 cm. The Indians are on the whole a tall people. Tribes that ETHNOLOGY] AMERICA 811 have changed residence have changed stature. The tallest statures are on the plains in both America's. The mountains of the south-east and of the west reveal the shortest statures. The whole Mississippi valley was occupied by tall peoples. The Athapascans of New Mexico are of middle stature, the Pueblo peoples are short. The Shoshoni, Shahaptin and Salish tribes are of middle stature; on the coast of British Columbia, Puget Sound, in Oregon, and northern California, are the shortest of all the North Americans save the Eskimo, while among them, on the Columbia, are taller tribes. The comparison of cranial indexes is rendered difficult by intentional flattening of the forehead and undesigned flattening of the occiput by the hard cradle-board. The Mississippi valley tribes are nearly brachy- cephalic; the index increases around the Great Lakes, and lessens farther east. The eastern Eskimo are dolichocephalic, the western are less so, and the Aleuts brachycephalic. On the North Pacific coast, and in spots down to the Rio Grande, are short heads, but scattered among these are long heads, frequent in southern California, but seen northward to Oregon, as well as in Sonora and some Rio Grande pueblos. The same variety of index exists in South America. In the regions of greatest linguistic mixture is the greatest heterogeneity of cephalic index. The concepts on which the peoples of the Old World have been classified, such as stature, colour, skeletal measurements, nation- ality, and so on, cannot as yet be used in America with Classifies* tioa. success. The only basis of division practicable is language, which must be kept separate in the mind from the others. However, before the conquest, in no other part of the globe did language tally so nearly with kinship. Marriage was exogamic among clans in a tribe, but practically, though not wholly, endogamic as between tribes, wife and slave capture being common in places. In his family tree of HomoAmericanus Keane follows out such a plan, placing the chief linguistic family names on the main limbs, North American on one side, and South American on the other. Deniker groups mankind into twenty- nine races and sub-races. Americans are numbered thus: — 21, South American sub-race; Palaeo Americans and South Americans. 22, North American sub-race; tall, mesocephalic. 23, Central American race; short, brachycephalic. 24, Pata- gonian race; tall, brachycephalic. 25, Eskimo race; short, dolichocephalic. Farrand speaks of physical, linguistic, geographic, and cultural criteria, the first two the more exact, the latter more convenient and sometimes the only feasible bases. Zoologists divide the earth into biological areas or regions, so both archaeologists and ethnologists may find it convenient to have in mind some such scheme of provinces as the provinces, following) named partly after the dominant ethnic groups: — Eskimo, on Arctic shores; Dene (Tinneh), in north-western Canada; Algonquin-Iroquois, Canada and eastern United States; Sioux, plains of the west; Muskhogee, Gulf States; Tlinkit-Haida, North Pacific coast; Salish-Chinook, Fraser-Columbia coasts and basins; Shoshoni, interior basin; California-Oregon, mixed tribes; Pueblo province, south- western United States and northern Mexico; Nahuatla-Maya, southern Mexico and Central America; Chibcha-Kechua, the Cordilleras of South America; Carib-Arawak, about Caribbean Sea; Tupi-Guarani, Amazon drainage; Araucanian, Pampas; Patagonian, peninsula; Fuegian, Magellan Strait. It is neces- sary to use geographical terms in the case of California and the North Pacific, the Caucasus or cloaca gentium of the western hemisphere, where were pocketed forty out of one hundred or more families of native tribes. The same is true in a limited senge of Matto Grosso. That these areas had deep significance for the native races is shown by the results, both in biology and culture. The presence or absence of useful minerals, plants and animals rendered some congenial, others unfriendly; some areas were the patrons of virile occupations, others of feminine pursuits. Among the languages of America great differences exist in the sounds used. A collection of all the phonetic elements exhausts the standard alphabets and calls for new letters. A comparison of one family with another shows also that some are vocalic and soft, others wide in the range of sounds, while a third set are harsh and guttural, the speaking of them (according i iaagua m. to Payne) resembling coughing, barking and sneezing. Powell also thinks that man lived in America before he acquired articulate speech. The utterance of these speech elements in definite order constitutes the roots and sentences of the various tongues. From the manner of assemblage, all American languages are agglutinative, or holophrastic, but they should not be called polysynthetic or incorporative or inflexional. They were more or less on the way to such organized forms, in which the world's literatures are preserved. As in all other languages, so in those of aboriginal America, the sentence is the unit. Words and phrases are the organic parts of the sentence, on which, therefore, the languages are classified. It is on this basis of sentential elements that Powell has arranged the linguistic families of North America. He has brought together, in the Bureau of American Ethnology in Washington, many hundreds of manuscripts, written by travellers, traders, missionaries, and scholars; and, better still, in response to circulars, carefully prepared vocabu- laries, texts and long native stories have been written out by trained collectors. A corps of specialists — Boas, Dall, Dorsey, Gatschet, Hewitt, Mooney, Pilling, J. R. Swanton — have studied many of these languages analytically and comparatively. Other institutional investigations have been prosecuted, the result of all which will be an intelligent comprehension of the philology of a primitive race. Attention is frequently called to the large number of linguistic families in America, nearly 200 having been named, embracing over 1000 languages and dialects. A few of them, how- ever, occupied the greater part of lands both north tamittes. and south of Panama; the others were encysted in the territory of the prevailing families, or concealed in culs-de-sac of the mountains. They are, through poverty of material, unclassed languages, merely outstanding phenomena. Factions separated from the parent body developed dialects or languages by contact, intermarriage and incorporation with foreign tribes. To the old- time belief that languages multiplied by splitting and colonizing, must be added the theory that languages were formerly more numerous, and that those of the Americans were formed by com- bining. The families of North America, Middle America and South America are here given in alphabetical order, the prevailing ones in small capitals: — Algonquin, E. Can., N. Atlantic States, middle States, middle western States; Athapascan, N.W. Can., Alaska, Wash., Or., Cal., Ariz., Mex. ; Attacapan, La.; Beothukan, Nova North Scotia ; Caddoan, Tex., Neb., Dak. ; Chimakuan, Wash. ; America Chimarikan, N. Cal. ; Chimmesyan, Brit. Col. ; Chinoo- kan, Or.; Chitimachan, La.; Chumashan, S. Cal.; Coahuiltecan, Tex.; Copehan, N. Cal.; Costanoan, Cal.; Eskimauan, Arctic province; Esselenian, Cal.; Iroquoian, N.Y., N.C.; Kalapooian, Or.; Karankawan, Tex.; Keresan, N. Mex.; Kiowan, Neb.; Kitunahan, Brit. Col. ; Koluschan, S. Alaska; Kulanapan, Cal. ; Kusan, Cal.; Lutuamian, Or.; Mariposan, Cal.; Moquelumnan, Cal.; Muskhogean, Gulf States; Natchesan, Miss.; Palaihnihan, Cal.; Piman, Ariz.; Pujunan, Cal.; Quoratean, Or.; Salinan, Cal.; Salishan, Brit. Col.; Sastean, Or.; Shahaptian, Or.; Shoshonean, Interior Basin; Siouan, Mo. Valley; Skittagetan, Brit. Col.; Takilman, Or.; Tanyoan, Mex.; Timuquanan, Fla.; Tonikan, Miss. ; Tonkawan, Tex. ; Uchean, Ga. ; Waiilatpuan, Or.; Wakashan, Vancouver I.; Washoan, Nev. ; Weitspekan, Or.; Wishoskan, Cal. ; Yakonan, Or. ; Yanan, Or. ; Yukian, Cal. ; Yuman, L. Cal. ; Zunyan, N. Mex. Chapanecan, Chi.; Chinantecan, Oax.; Chontalan, S. Mex.; Huatusan, Nic. ; Huavean, Tehuant.; Lencan, Hon.; Mayan, Yuc. and Guat. ; Nahuatlan, Mex. ; Otomitlan, Cen. Mex. ; Middle Raman, Hond. ; Serian, Tiburon I.; Subtiaban, Nic; Amerlva. Tarascan, Mich.; Tehuantepecan, Isthmus; Tequist- latecan, Oax.; Totonacan, Mex.; Triquian, S. Mex.; Ulvan, Nic; Xicaquean, Hond.; Zapotecan, Oax.; Zoquean, Tehuant. Alikulufan, T. del Fuego; Arauan, R. Puriis; Arawakian, E. Andes; Atacamenyan, S. Peru; Araucanian, Pampas; Aymaran, Peru; Barbacoan, Colombia; Betoyan, Bogota; Cani- south chanan, Bolivia; Carahan, S. Brazil; Caribian, around America. Caribbean Sea; Catamarenyan, Chaco; Changuinan, Panama; Charruan, Parana R.; Chibchan, Colombia; Churoyan, Orinoco R. ; Coconucan, Colombia; Cunan, Panama ; Guaycuruan. 8l2 AMERICA [ARCHAEOLOGY Paraguay R. ; JivarOan, Ecuador; Kechuan, Peru; Laman, N.E. Peru; Lulean, Vermejo R.; Mainan, S. Ecuador; Matacqan, Vermejo R.; Mocoari, Colombia; Mosetenan, E. Bolivia; Onan,' T. del Fuego; Paniquitan, Colombia; Panoan, Ucayali R. , Peru; Payaguan, Chaco; Puquinan, Titicaca L.; Sainucan, Bolivia; Tacanan, N. Bolivia; Tapuyan, Brazil; Timotean, Venezuela; Topian, Amazon R. ; Tzonecan, Patagonia ; Yahgan, T. del Fuego ; Yuncan, Truxillo, Peru; Yurucarian, E. Bolivia; Zaparoan, Ecuador. Written language was largely hierographic and heroic. The drama, the cult image, the pictograph, the synecdochic picture, the ideaglyph, were steps in a progress without a break. The warrior painted the story of conflicts on his robe only in part, to help him recount the history of his life; the Eskimo etched the prompters of his legend on ivory; the Tlinkit carved them on his totem post; the women fixed them in pottery, basketry, or blankets. At last, the central advanced tribes made the names of the abbreviated pictures useful in other connexions, and were far on the way to a syllabary. Intertribal communication was through gestures; it may be, survivals of a primordial speech, antedating the differentiated spoken languages. See publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology, by F. W. Hodge (1906); Farrand, Basis of Am. History, chap, xviii. ; and Orozco y Berra, Geografia de las lenguas, &c. (Mexico, 1868). To supply their wants the Americans invented modifications in natural materials, the working of which was their industries. The vast collections in richly endowed European and Jw""' American museums are the witnesses and types of these. There is danger of confounding the products of native industries. The following classes must be carefully discrimin- ated: — (a) pre-Columbian, (b) Columbian, (c) pre-oontact, (d) first contact, (e) post-contact, (/) present, and (g) spurious. Pre- Columbian or pre-historic material is further classified into that which had been used by Indians before the discovery, and such as is claimed to be of a prior geological period. Columbian, or 1 5 th- century material, still exists in museums of Europe and America, and good descriptions are to be found in the writings of contem- porary historians. Pre-contact material is such as continued to exist in any tribe down to the time when they were touched by the presence of the trade of the whites. In some tribes this would bring the student very near to the present time; for example, before Steinen, the Indians in Matto Grosso were in the pre- contact period. Post-contact material is genuine Indian work more or less influenced by acculturation. It is interesting in this connexion to study also first contact in its lists of articles, and the effects produced upon aboriginal minds and methods. For example, a tribe that would jump at iron arrow-heads stoutly declined to modify the shafts. Present material is such as the Indian tribes of the two Americas are making to-day. Spurious material includes all that mass of objects made by whites and sold as of Indian manufacture; some of it follows native models and methods; the rest is fraudulent and pernicious. The question whether similarities in technology argue for contact of tribes, or whether they merely show corresponding states of culture, with modifications produced by environment, divides ethnologists. (See Farrand, chap, xviii.) The study of mechanics involves materials, tools, processes and products. No iron tools existed in America before the invasion of the whites. Mineral, vegetable and animal substances, mecAunfei soft an< ^ hard, were wrought into the supply of wants by means of tools and apparatus of stone, wood and bone — tools for cutting, or edged tools; tools for abrading and smoothing the surfaces of substances, like planes, rasps and sand- paper; tools for striking, that is, pounding for the sake of pound- ing, or for crushing and fracturing violently; perforating tools; devices for grasping and holding firmly. These varied in the different culture provinces according to the natural supply, and the presence or absence of good tool material counted for as much as the presence or absence of good substances on which to work. As a means of grading progress among the various tribes, the tool is valuable both in its working part and its hafting, or manual part. Fire drills were universal. Besides chipped stone knives, the teeth of rodents, sharks, and other animals served an excellent purpose. In north-west America and in the Caribbean area the adze was highly developed. In Mexico, Colombia and Peru the cutting of friable stgne with tough volcanic hammers and chisels, as well as rude metallurgy, obtained, but the evidences of smelting are not convincing. Engineering devices were almost wanting. The. Eskimo lifted his weighted boat with sheer-legs made of two paddles; he also had a tackle without sheaves, formed by reaving a greased thong through slits cut in the hide of a walrus. The north-west coast Indians hoisted the logs that formed the plates of their house frames into position with skids and parbuckles of rope. The architectural Mexicans, Central Americans, and especially the Peruvians, had no derricks or other hoisting devices, but rolled great stones into place along prepared ways and up inclined planes of earth, which were afterwards removed. In building the fortress of Sacsahuaman, heights had to be scaled; in Tiahuanaco stones weighing 400 tons were carried seventeen miles; in the edifices of Ollantaytambo not only were large stones hauled up an ascent, but were fitted perfectly. The moving of vast objects by these simple processes shows what great numbers of men could be enlisted in a single effort, and how high a grade of government it was which could hold them together and feed them. In Arizona, Mexico and Peru, reservoirs and aqueducts prove that hydro- techny was understood. (Hodge, Am. Anthrop. vi. 323.) Time-keeping devices were not common. Sun-dials and calendar monuments were known among the more advanced tribes. Fractional portions of time were gauged by shadows, and time of day indicated by the position of the sun with reference to natural features. No standards of weighing or measuring were known, but the parts of the body were the units, and money con- sisted in rare and durable vegetable and animal substances, which scarcely reached the dignity of a mechanism of exchange. If the interpretation of the Maya calculiform glyphs be trustworthy, these people had carried their numeral system into the hundreds of thousands and devised symbols for recording such high numbers. {See Bulletin 28, Bur. Am. Ethnol.) ■ The Americans were, in most places, flesh-eaters. The air^ the waters and the land were their base of supplies, and cannibalism, it is admitted, was widespread. With this animal diet . p oo4 everywhere vegetable substances were mixed, even in the boreal regions. Where the temperature allowed, vegetable diet increased, and fruits, seeds and roots were laid under tribute. Storage was common, and also the drying of ripened fruits. The most favoured areas were those where corn and other plants could be artificially produced, and there barbaric cultures were elabor- ated. This farming was of the , rudest kind. Plots of ground were burned over, trees were girdled, and seeds were ; planted by means of sharpened sticks. The first year the crop would be free from weeds, the second year only those grew whose seeds were wafted or carried by birds, the third year the crop required hoeing, which was done with sticks, and then the space was abandoned for new ground. Irrigation and terrace culture were practised at several points on the Pacific slope from Arizona to Peru. The steps along which plant and animal domestication passed up* wards in artificiality are graphically illustrated in the aboriginal food quest. Except in the boreal areas thebreeeh-clout was nearly universa , with men, and the cincture or short petticoat with women. Eve£ in Mexican and Mayan sculptures the gods are arrayed i, . in gorgeous breech-clouts. The foot-gear in the tropics aa a a dorn- was the sandal, and, passing northward, the moccasin, meat. , becoming the long boot in the Arctic. Trousers and the. , :-: blouse were known only among the Eskimo, and it is difficult to say how much these have heen modified by contact. Leggings and skin robes took their place southward, giving way at last to the. nearly nude. Head coverings also were gradually tabooed south of the 49th parallel. Tattooing and painting the body were well-nigh universal. Labrets, i.e. pieces of bone, stone, shell, &c. , were worn as ornaments in the lip (Latin, labrum) or cheek by Eskimo, Tlinkit, Nahuatlas arid tribes o» the Brazilian coast. For ceremonial purposes all American tribes, were expert in. the masquerade and dramatic apparel. A study of these in the AMERICA Plate III. Photo, Wails, Mexico Fig. 2. — General View of the Ruins of Monte Alban, Oaxaca, with terraced pyramids. Zapotecan culture. Fig. r. — Stone Tablet with seated figures, and charac- teristic hieroglyphs (un- deciphered). From Monte Alban, Oaxaca. Zapotecan culture. Fig. 3. — Sepulchral Clay Urn, with beast mask and rich head ornament. Oaxaca. Zapotecan culture. Fig. 5. — Leaf 44 of Codex Fejervdry Mayer. Figure of the god Tex- catlipoca, surrounded by the 20 day symbols of the sabred cycle of 260 days, tonalamatl. Mexican culture with Mayan influence. (From publications of the Duke of Loubat.) Fig. 4.— Sepulchral Clay Urn, in the form of a jaguar-like human figure, with shell ornament and loin-cloth. Oaxaca. Zapotecan culture. Fig. 6.— Temple Chamber, with richly carved wall facing and hieroglyph groups beneath the plinth. Copan, Honduras. Mayan culture. Fig. 7. — Temple Pyramid, with sculptured corner- stone at base. Copan, Honduras. Mayan culture. G. 8. — Stone Stele, with richly dec- orated human figure, the hands meeting across the breast. Copan, Honduras. Mayan culture. Fig. 9. — Stone Figure of the so-called Chac-Mol type, with round vessel resting on the body and characteristic breastplate. Chi-chen-itza, Yucatan. Proto-Mexican culture. Fig. 10. — Stone Stele, with human figure. Chiapas, Mexico. Mayan culture. Plate IV. AMERICA Fig. 3. — Polychrome Clay Bowl, with incised curves and figure of the earth monster. Necropolis of Santa Barbara, Guana- caste, Costa Rica. Mexi- can culture. 1 1. '7^'" '<€ff|| '""■I l 8 Its, ill i3J 1 HH 1 1E1 sjHK l* r :H| p^B ; aN'«I F/, Etms . ^IH i Al,^' fct*| K jK Up *ty Mir < Rv-iJ ■k^^Rhw HB Em *4m JfH Thwui? ■t ir^H H v ' ^1 ■ :T S?V ^Hi PM& *•£ \ ^BP ^j| Fig. 3.— Polychrome Clay Bowl, with maeander border and stencilled figures in three fields. Santa Barbara Necro- polis. Guanacaste. Choro- tega culture. Fig. 2. — Stone Relief, with figure of a peni- tent (gaca-quixtiani) passing through his tonguea thong studded with thorns. It is accompanied by two groups of hieroglyphs. Lorillard City, Chiapas, Mexico. Mayan culture. Fig. 4. — Lower Portion of Leaf 60 of Codex Dresdensis, with figures of four deities and groups of hieroglyphs on Agave paper. Mayan culture. From E. F&rstmann, 1892. Fig. 5. — Gold Breast Ornament from the grave of a chief, in the form of a crocodile with three reptiles on each side. S. E. Costa Rica (EI General), Central America. Culture of the Coto and Quepo. Fig. 6. — Two Typical Stone Sculptures in the form of human heads, with characteristic ■ ornaments. Interior of Costa Rica, Central America. Culture of the Guetar. ■ Fig. 7. — Large Gold Human Figure, with a gold coco-flask in each hand; gold diadem, nose and ear ornaments, and chains on neck and legs. Antioquia, Columbia. Chibcha culture. Fig. 8. — Stone Vessel supported by prone Human Figure. Interior of Costa Rica, Central America. Culture of the Guetar. Fig. 9. — Painted Clay Vessel in poly- chrome, with neck in form of a. human face with tear marks. Beneath a stencilled bird resem- bling a condor. Tiahuanaco style. Pachacamac, Peru. Pre- inra culture. Fig. 10.— Painted Clay Vessel in polychrome on white stucco ground. A human figure with pearl chain and arrows in left hand, and parrot on a wooden stick in the right. Nasca style. Nasca, Peru. Pre-Inca culture. Fig. 11. — Typical painted Clay Vessel, with geometric pattern, standing on a conical point. Cuzco style. Cuzco, Peru. ARCHAEOLOGY] AMOEKIGA 813 historic tribes makes plain the motives in gorgeous Mexican sculptures. The tribal system of family organization, universal in America, dominated the dwelling. The Eskimo underground houses of sod and snow, the Dene (Thmeh) and Sioux bunch of bark Hon. or s ^ n wigwams, the Pawnee earth lodge, the Iroquois long house, the Tlinkit great plank house, the Pueblo with its honeycomb of chambers, the small groups of thatched houses in tropical America and the Patagonian toldos of skin are examples. The Indian habitation was made up of this composite abode, with whatever out-structures and garden plots were needed. A group of abodes, however joined together, constituted the village or home of the tribe, and there was added to these a town hall or large assembly structure where men gathered and gossiped, and' where all dramatic and religious ceremonies were held. Powell contends that in a proper sense none of the Indian tribes was nomadic, but that, governed by water-supply, bad seasons and superstition (and discomfort from vermin must be added), even the Pueblo tribes often tdre down and rebuilt their domiciles. The fur trade, the horse, the gun, disturbed the sedent- ary habit of American tribes. Little attention was paid to furni- ture. In the smoke-infested wigwam and hut the ground was the best place for sitting or sleeping. The communal houses of the Pacific coast had bunks. The hammock was universal in the tropics, and chairs of wood or stone. Eating was from the pot, with the hand or spoon. Tables, knives, forks and other prandial apparatus were as lacking as they were in the palaces of kings a few centuries before. (Morgan, Houses and HouseLife; Farrand, p. 286.) Stone- working was universal in America. The tribes quarried by means of crowbars and picks of wood and bone. They split the silicious rocks with stonehammers,and then chipped working. th em mto shape with bone tools. Soapstone for pot- tery was partly cut into the desired shape in the native ledge, broken or prised loose, and afterwards scraped into form. Paint was excavated with the ubiquitous digging-stick, and rubbed fine on stones with water or grease. For polished stone- work the material was pecked by blows, ground with other stones, and smoothed with fine material. Sawing was done by means of sand or with a thin piece of harder stuff. Boring was effected with the sand-drill; the hardest rocks may have been pierced with specially hard sand. At any rate stones were sawed, shaped, polished, carved and perforated, not only by the Mexicans, but among other tribes. For building purposes stones were got out, dressed, carved and sculptured with stone hammers and chisels made of hard and tenacious rock. Stone-cutters' tools of metal are not known to have existed, and they were not needed. Their quarrying and stone- working were most wasteful. Those localities where chipping was done reveal hundreds of tons of splinters and failures, and these are often counted as ruder implements of an earlier time. The dressed stones for great buildings were pecked out of the ledges, and broken off with levers in pieces much too large for their needs. (McGiiire, " The Stone Hammer," Am. Anthrop. iv., 1801; Holmes, Archaeological Studies; see Hodge's List, Bur. Am. Ethnol., 1906, and Handbook.) Metals were treated as malleable stones by the American ab- origines. No evidence of smelting ores with fluxes is offered, but casting from metal melted in open fires is assumed. lurgy. Gold, silver, copper, pure or mixed with tin or silver, are to be found here and there in both continents, and nuggets were objects of worship. Tools and appliances for work- ing metals were of the rudest kind, and if moulds for casting were employed these were broken up; at least no museum contains samples of them, and the processes are not described. In the Arctic and Pacific coast provinces, about Lake Superior, in Virginia and North Carolina, as well as in ruder parts of Mexico and South America, metals were cold-hammered into plates, weapons, rods and wire, ground and polished, fashioned into carved blocks of hard, tenacious stone by pressure or blow, over- laid, cold-welded and plated. Soldering, brazing and the blow- pipe in the Cordilleran provinces are suspected, but the evidence of their existence must be further examined. A deal of studv has Pottery. been devoted to the cunning Tubal Cains, the surprising produc- tions of whose handiwork have been recovered in the art provinces of Mexico and the Cordilleras, especially in Chiriqui, between Costa Rica and Colombia. It must be admitted, however, that both the tools and the processes have escaped the archaeologist, as they did " the ablest goldsmiths in Spain, for they never could conceive how they had been made, there being no sign of a hammer or an engraver or any other instrument used by them, the Indians having none such" (Herrera). The potter's wheel- did not exist in the western world, but it was almost invented. Time and muscle, knack and touch, a trained eye and brain and an unlimited array of patterns hanging on fancy's walls, aided by a box of dry sand, were competent to give the charming results. No more striking contrast can be found between forlorn conditions and refined art products. Art in clay was far from universal in the two Americas. The Eskimo on Bering Sea had learned to model shallow bowls for lamps. No pottery existed in Athapascan boundaries. Algonquin- Iroquois tribes made creditable ware in Canada and eastern United States. Muskhogean tribes were potters, but Sioiian tribes, as a rule, in all the Mississippi drainage were not. In their area, however, dwelt clay-working tribes, and the Mandans had the art. Moreover, the mound-builders in the eastern half of this vast plain, being sedentary, were excellent potters. The efflor- escence of aboriginal pottery is to be found in the Pueblo region of south-westernUnited States, in Mexico, Central America, Carib- bean Islands, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and restricted areas of eastern Brazil. (The literature on this subject is extensive. See Cushing, Fewkes, Holmes, Hough, Stevenson.) On the Pacific side of the continent not one of the forty linguistic families made pottery. The only workers in clay west of the Rockies and north of the Pueblo country belonged to the Shoshonean family of the Interior Basin. The study of Indian textiles includes an account of their fibres, tools, processes, products, ornaments and uses. The fibres were either animal or vegetable; animal fibres were hair, fur on the skin, feathers, hide, sinew and intestines; ] n a„ str j es vegetable fibres were stalks of small trees, brush, straw, cotton, bast, bark, leaves and seed vessels in great variety as one passes from the north southward through all the culture provinces. The products of the textile industry in America were bark cloth, wattling for walls, fences and weirs, paper, basketry, matting, loom products, needle or point work,' net-work, lace- work and embroidery. In the manufacture of these the sub- stances were reduced to the form of slender filaments, shreds, rods, splints, yarn, twine and sennit or braid. All textile work was done by hand; the only devices known were the bark peeler and beater, the shredder, the flint-knife, the spindle, the rope-twister, the bodkin, the warp^beam and the most primitive harness;: The processes involved were gathering the raw material, shredding, splitting, gauging, wrapping, twining, spinning and braiding. Twining and spinning were done with the fingers of both hands, with the palm on the thigh, with the spindle and with the twister. Ornamentation was in form, colour, technical processes and dyes. The uses to which the textiles were put were for clothing, furniture for the house, utensils for a thousand industries, fine arts, social functions and worship. Jn order to comprehend the more intricate processes of the higher peoples it is necessary to examine the textile industry in all of the culture areas. It is essentially woman's work, though among the Pueblos, strangely enough, men are weavers. The Eskimo woman did not weave, but was expert in sewing and embroidering with sinew thread by means of a bodkin. The Dene (Tinneh) peoples used strips of hide for snowshoes and game-bags, sewed their deerskin clothing with sinew thread, and embroidered in split quill. Their basketry, both in Canada and in Arizona, was coiled work. The northern Algonquin and Iroquoian tribes practised similar arts, and in the Atlantic states wove robes of animal and bird skins by cutting the latter into long strips, wind- ing these strips on twine of hemp, and weaving them by the same processes employed in their basketry. Textile work in the Sioux province was chiefly the making of skin garments with sinew 814 AMERICA [ARCHAEOLOGY thread, but in the Gulf states the existence of excellent cane and grasses gave opportunity for several varieties of weaving. On the Pacific coast of America the efflorescence of basketry in every form of technic was known. This art reached down to the borders of Mexico. Loom-weaving in its simplest form began with the Chilkats of Alaska, who hung the warp over a long pole, and wrought mythological figures into their gorgeous blankets by a process resembling tapestry work. The forming of bird skins, rabbit skins and feathers into robes, and all basketry technic, existed from Vancouver Island to Central America. In northern Mexico net-work, rude lace-work in twine, are followed farther south, where finer material existed, by figured weaving of most intricate type and pattern; warps were crossed and wrapped, wefts were omitted- and texture changed, so as to produce marvel- lous effects upon the surface. This composite art reached its climax in Peru, the llama wool affording the finest staple on the whole hemisphere. Textile work in other parts of South America did not differ from that of the Southern states of the Union. The addition of brilliant ornamentation in shell, teeth, feathers, wings of insects and dyed fibres completed the round of the textile art. A peculiar type of coiled basketry is found at the Strait of Magellan, but the motives are not American. (Consult the works of Boas, Dixon, G. T. Emmons, Holmes, Otis T. Mason, Matthews, John Murdoch, E. W. Nelson, A. P. Niblack, Lucien M. Turner.) Since most American tribes lived upon flesh, the activities of life were associated with the animal world. These activities were not confined to the land, but had to do also with those y ' littoral meadows where invertebrate and vertebrate marine animals fed in unlimited numbers. An account of savage life, therefore, includes the knowledge of the animal life of America and its distribution, regarding the continent, not only as " a whole, but in those natural history provinces and migrations which governed and characterized the activities of the peoples. This study would include industries connected with capture, those that worked up into products the results of capture, the social organizations and labours which were involved in pursuit of animals, the language, skill, inventions and knowledge resulting therefrom, and, finally, the religious conception united with the animal world, which has been named zootheism. In the capture of animals would be involved the pedagogic influence of animal life; the engineering embraced in taking them in large numbers; the cunning and strategy necessary to hunters so poorly armed giving rise to disguises and lures of many kinds. Capture begins among-the lower tribes with the hand, without devices, develop- ing knack and skill in seizing, pursuing, climbing, swimming, and maiming without weapons; and proceeds to gathering with devices that take the place of the hand in dipping, digging, hook- ing and grasping; weapons for striking, whether clubs, missiles or projectiles; edged weapons of capture, which were rare in America; piercing devices for capture, in lances, barbed spears, harpoons and arrows; traps for enclosing, arresting and killing, such as pens, cages, pits, pen-falls, nets, hooks, nooses, clutches, adhesives, deadfalls, impalers, knife traps and poisons; animals consciously and unconsciously aiding in capture ; fire in the form of torches, beacons, burning out and smoking out; poisons and asphyxiators; the accessories to hunting, including such changes in food, dress, shelter, travelling, packing, mechanical tools and intellectual apparatus as demanded by these arts. Finally, in this connexion, the first steps in domestication, beginning with the improvement of natural corrals or spawning ground, and hunting with trained dogs and animals. Zootechnic products include food, clothing, ornaments, habitations, weapons, industrial tools, textiles, money, &c. In sociology the dependence of the American tribes upon the animal world becomes most apparent. A great majority of all the family names in America were from animal totems. The division of labour among the sexes was based on zootechny. Labour organizations for hunting, communal hunt and migrations had to do with the animal world. In the duel between the hunter and the beast-mind the intellectual powers of perception, memory, reason and will were developed; experience and knowledge by experience were enlarged, language and the graphic arts were fostered, the inventive faculty was evoked and developed, and primitive science was fostered in the unfolding of numbers, metrics, clocks, astronomy, history and the philosophy of causation. Beliefs and practices with reference to the heavenly world were inspired by zoic activities; its location, scenery and environment were the homes of beast gods. It was largely a zoopantheon: thus zootheism influenced the organization of tribes and societies in the tribes. The place, furniture, liturgies and apparatus of worship were hereby suggested. Myths, folk-lore, hunting charms, fetishes, superstitions and customs were based on the same idea. (For life zones, see C. H. Merriam, Biol. Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Excepting for extensive and rapid travel over the snow in the Arctic regions by means of dog sleds, the extremely limited transportation by dog travail (or sledge) in the Sioux province, and the use of the llama as a beast of burden throughout the Peruvian highlands, land travel was on foot, and land transportation on the backs of men and women. One of the most interesting topics of study is the trails along which the seasonal and annual migrations of tribes occurred, becoming in Peru the paved road, with suspension bridges and wayside inns, or tambos. In Mexico, and in Peru especially, the human back was utilized to its utmost extent, and in most parts of America harness adapted for carrying was made and frequently decorated with the best art. In the Mexican codices pictures of -men and women carrying are plentiful. Travelling on the water was an important activity in aboriginal times. Hundreds of thousands of miles of inland waters and archipelagoes were traversed. Commencing in the Arctic region, the Eskimo in his' kayak, consisting of a framework of driftwood or bone covered with dressed sealskin, could paddle down east Greenland, up the west shore to Smith Sound, along Baffin Land and Labrador, and the shores of Hudson Bay throughout insular Canada and the Alaskan coast, around to Mount St Elias, and for many miles on the eastern shore of Asia. In addition to this most delicate and rapid craft, he had his umiak or freight boat, sometimes called woman's boat. The Athapascan covered all north-western Canada with his open and portable birch-bark canoe, somewhat resembling the kayak in finish. The Algonquin-Iroquois took up the journey at Bear Lake and its tributaries, and by means of paddling and portages traversed the area of middle and eastern Canada, including the entire St Lawrence drainage. The absence of good bark, dugout timber, and chisels of stone deprived the whole Mississippi valley of creditable water-craft, and reduced the natives to the clumsy trough for a dugout and miserable bull-boat, made by stretching dressed buffalo hide over a crate. On the Atlantic coast of the United States the dugout was improved in form where the waters were more dis- turbed. John Smith's Indians had a fleet of dugouts. The same may be said of the Gulf states tribes, although they added rafts made of reed. Along the archipelagoes of the North Pacific coast, from Mount St Elias to the Columbia river, the dugout attained its best. The Columbia river canoe resembled that of the Amur, the bow and stern being pointed at the water-line. Poor dugouts and rafts, made by tying reeds together, con- stituted the water-craft of California and Mexico until Central America is reached. The Caribs were the Haidas of the Caribbean Sea and northern South America. Their craft would vie in form, in size, and sea- worthiness with those of the North Pacific coast. The cata- maran and the reed boat were known to the Peruvians. The tribes of Venezuela and Guiana, according to Im Thurn, had both the dugout and the built-up hull. The simplest form of navi- gation in Brazil was the woodskin, a piece of bark stripped from a tree and crimped at the ends. The sangada, with its platform and sail, belonging to the Brazilian coast, is spoken of as a good seaworthy craft. Finally, the Fuegian bark canoe, made in three pieces So that it can be taken apart and transported over hills and sewed together, ends the series. The American craft was pro- pelled by poling, paddling, rowing^ and by rude sails of matting. ARCHAEOLOGY] AMERICA 815 The aesthetic arts of the American aborigines cannot be studied apart from their languages, industries, social organizations, lore Fine art an< ^ worships. Art was limited most of all by poverty in technical appliances. There were just as good materials and inspirations, but what could the best of them do without metal tools? One and all skilful to a surpassing degree — weavers, embroiderers, potters, painters, engravers, carvers, sculptors and jewellers, — they were wearied by drudgery and over- powered by a never-absent, weird and grotesque theology. The Eskimo engraved poorly, the Dene (Tinneh) embroidered in quill, the North Pacific tribes carved skilfully in horn, slate and cedar, the California tribes had nimble fingers for basketry, the Sioux gloried in feathers and painted parfleche. The mound builders, Pueblo tribes, middle Americans and Peruvians, were potters of many schools; gorgeous colour fascinated the Amazonians, the Patagonians delighted in skins, and even the Fuegians saw beauty in the pretty snail shells of their desolate island shores. Of the Mexican and Central American sculpture and architecture a competent judge says that Yucatan and the southern states of Mexico are not rich in sculptures, apart from architecture; but in the valley of Mexico the human figure, animal forms, fanciful life motives in endless variety, were embodied in masks, yokes, tablets, calendars, cylinders, disks, boxes, vases and ornaments. The Nahuatl lapidaries had at hand many varieties of workable and beautiful stone — onyx, marble, limestone, quartz and quartz crystal, granite, syenite, basalt, trachyte, rhyolite, diorite and obsidian, the best of material prepared for them by nature; while the Mayas had only limestone, and hard, tenacious rock with which to work it, and timber for burning lime. However, looking over the whole field of North American achievement, architectural and non-architectural, composite and monolithic, the palm for boldness, magnitude of proportions and infinity of labour, must go to the sculptured mosaics of Yucatan. Maya architecture is the best remaining index of the art achievements of the American race. The construction of such buildings as the palace at Uxmal and the Castillo at Chichen (Chichenitza) indi- cates a mastery in architectural design. There is lack of unity in plan and grouping, and an enormous waste of material as com- pared with available room. At Uxmal the mass of masonry is to chamber space about as forty to one. The builders were " ignor- ant of some of the most essential principles of construction, and are to be regarded as hardly more than novices in the art " (Holmes, Archaeological Studies, &c). As for the marvels of Peru, the walls of the temple of the sun in Cuzco, with their circular form and curve inward, from the ground upward, are most imposing. Some of the gates without lintels are beautiful, and the geometric patterns in the walls extremely effective. The same objection to over-massiveness might not apply here as in Mexico, owing to volcanic activity. Institutions in Europe and America have gathered abundant material for an intelligent comprehension of American Indian Sociology, sociology. The British Association had a committee reporting during many years on the tribes of north- west Canada. The American Museum in New York has prepared a series of monographs on the tribes of the North Pacific coast, of northern Mexico, and of the Cordilleras of South America. The reports of the Bureau of American Ethnology in Washington cover the Eskimo, east and west, and all the tribes of the United States. In Mexico the former labours of Pimentel and Orozco y Berra are supplemented by those of Bandelier, Penafiel, Herrera and Alfredo Chavero. Otto Stoll's studies^in Guatemala, Berendt's in Central America, Ernst's in Veneztrela, Im Thurn's in Guiana, those of Ehrenreich, von den Steinen, Meyer in Brazil, or of Bandelier, Bastian, Briihl, Middendorf, von Tschudi in Peru, afford the historian of comparative sociology ample ground- work for a comprehensive grasp of South American tribes. In all parts of the western hemisphere society was organized on cognate kinship, real or artificial, the unit being the clan. There were tribes where the basis of kinship was agnate, but these were the exceptions. The headship of the clan was sometimes hereditary, sometimes elective, but each clan had a totemic name, and the clans together constituted the tribe, the bond being not land, but blood. Women could adopt prisoners of war, in which case the latter became their younger sons. When a confederacy was organized under a council, intermarriage between tribes some- times occurred; an artificial kinship thus arose, in which event the council established the rank of the tribes as elder and younger brother, grandfather, father and sons, rendering the relationship and its Vocabulary most intricate, but necessary in a social system in which age was the predominant consideration and etiquette most exacting. (See Morgan, Tables of Consanguinity, Smithsonian Contributions, xvii.) The Eskimo have a regular system of animal totem marks and corresponding gentes. Powell sets forth the laws of real and arti- ficial kinship among the North American tribes, as well as tribal organization and government, the formation of confederacies, and the intricate rules of artificial kinship by which rank and courtesy were established. (Many papers in Reports of Bur. Am. Ethnol.) Bandelier declares that in Mexico existed neither state nor nation, nor political society of any kind, but tribes represent- ing dialects, and autonomous in matters of government, and forming confederacies for the purposes of self-defence and con- quest. The ancient Mexican tribe was composed of twenty autonomous kins. According to Brinton the social organization of ancient Peru was a government by a council of the gentes. The Inca was a war chief elected by the council to carry out its commands. Among the Caribs a like social order prevailed; indeed, their family system is identical with the totem system of North American Indians. Dominated by the rule of blood relationship, the Indians regulated all co-operative activities on this basis. Not only marriage, but speech and common industries, such as rowing a boat or chasing a buffalo, were under its sway. It obtrudes itself in fine art, behaviour, law-making, lore and religion. In larger or smaller numbers of cognate kindred, for shorter or longer periods of time, near or far from home, the aborigines developed their legislatures, courts, armies,, secret societies and priesthoods. In organization, engineering, strategy, offence and defence, the art of war was in the barbarous and the savage status or grade. One competent to judge asserts that peace, not war, was the normal intertribal habit. They held frequent intercourse, gave feasts and presents, and practised unbounded hospitality. Through this traffic objects travelled far from home, and now come forth out of the tombs to perplex archaeologists. Remembering the organization of the tribe everywhere prevalent, it is not difficult to understand that the army, or horde, that stands for the idea, was assembled on the clan basis. The number of men arrayed under one banner, the time during which they might cohere, the distances from home they could march, their ability to hold permanently what they had gained, together form an excellent metric scale of the culture grade in the several American provinces, and nowhere, even in the most favoured, is this mark high. With the Mexicans war was a passion, but warfare was little above the raid (Bandelier; Farrand) . The lower tribes hunted their enemies as they hunted animals. In their war dances, which were only rehearsals, they disguised themselves as animals, and the pantomime was a mimic hunt. They had striking, slashing and piercing weapons held in the hand, fastened to a shaft or thong, hurled from the hand, from a sling, from an atlatl or throwing-stick, or shot from a bow. Their weapons were all individual, not one co-operative device of offence being known among them, although they under- stood fortification. The term " slavery " is often applied to the aboriginal American tribes. The truth of this depends upon the definition of the word " slave." If it means the capture of men, and especially of women, and adoption into the tribe, this existed everywhere; but if subjection to a personal owner, who may compel service, sell or put to death the individual, slavery was far from universal. Nieboer finds it only on the North Pacific coast as far south as Oregon, among the Navajo and the Cibola pueblos, and in a few tribes of Middle and South America. The thought life of the American aborigines is expressed in their practical knowledge and their lore. The fascination which Art of war. 8i6 AMERICA [ARCHAEOLOGY hangs around the latter has well-nigh obscured the former. As in medicine theory is one thing and practice another, so among , these savages must the two be carefully discriminated. Dorsey, again, draws a distinction between lore narratives, which can be rehearsed without fasting or prayer, and rituals which require the most rigid preparation. In each culture province the Indians studied the heavenly bodies. The Arctic peoples regulated their lives by the long day and night in the year; among the tribes in the arid region the place of sunrise was marked on the horizon for each day; the tropical Indians were not so observant, but they worshipped the sun-god above all. The Mayas had a calendar of 360 days, with intercalary days; this solar year was intersected by their sacred year of twenty weeks of thirteen days each, and these assembled in bewildering cycles. Their knowledge of the air and its properties was no less profound. Heat and cold, rain and drought, the winds in rela- tion to the points of the compass, were nearest their wants and supplies, and were never out of their thoughts. In each province they had found the best springs, beds of clay, paint, soapstone, flinty rock, friable stone for sculpture and hard, tenacious stone for tools, and used ashes for salt. The vegetal kingdom was no less familiar to them. Edible plants, and those for dyes and medicines, were on their lists, as well as wood for tools, utensils and weapons, and fibres for textiles. They knew poisonous plants, and could eliminate noxious properties. The universal reliance on animal life stimulated the study of the animal king- dom. Everywhere there were names for a large number of species; industries and fine arts were developed through animal substances. Society was organized in most cases on animal clans, and religion was largely zoomorphic. The hunting tribes knew well the nature and habits of animals, their anatomy, their migra- tions, and could interpret their voices. Out of this practical knowledge, coupled with the belief in perscneity, grew a folk-lore so vast that if it were written down the world would not contain the books. The religion of the American aborigines, so far as it can be made a subject of investigation, consisted (1) in what the tribes believed Religion about spirits, or shades, and the spirit world — its organization, place, activities and relation to'our world; and (2) in what they did in response to these beliefs. The former was their creeds, the latter their cults or worships. In these worships, social organization, religious dramas and paraphernalia, amusement and gambling, and private religion or fetichism, found place. In order to obtain an intelligent grasp of the religion of tribes in their several culture provinces, it must be understood : (1) That the form of belief called animism by Tylor (more correctly speaking, personeity) , was universal; everything was somebody, alive, sentient, thoughtful, wilful. This personeity lifts the majority of earthly phenomena out of the merely physical world and places them in the spirit world. Theology and science are one. All is supernatural, wakan. (2) That there existed more than one self or soul or shade in any one of these personalities, and these shades had the power not only to go away, but to transform their bodily tenements at will; a bird, by raising its head, could become a man; the latter, by going on all fours, could become a deer. (3) That the regulative side of the spirit world was the natural outcome of the clan social system and the tribal government in each tribe. Even one's personal name had reference to the world of ghosts. The affirmation that American aborigines believed in an all-pervading, omnipotent Spirit is entirely inconsistent with the very nature of the case. (4) Worship was everywhere dramatic. Only here and there among the higher tribes were bloody sacrifices in vogue, and prayers were in pantomime. In the culture areas the environment gave specific characters to the religion. In the Arctic province the overpowering influ- ence of meteorological phenomena manifested itself both in the doctrine of shades and in their shamanistic practices. The raven created the world. The Den6 (Tinneh) myths resembled those of the Eskimo, and all the hunting tribes of eastern Canada and United States and the Mississippi valley have a mythology based upon their zootechny and their totemism. The religious concep- tions of the fishing tribes on the Pacific coast between Mount St Elias and the Columbia river are worked out by Boas; the trans- formation from the hunting to the agricultural mode of life was accompanied by changes in belief and worship quite as radical. These have been carefully studied by Cushing, Stevenson and Fewkes. The pompous ceremonials of the civilized tribes of Mexico and the Cordilleras in South America, when analysed, reveal only a higher grade of the prevailing idea. Im Thurn says of the Carib: " All objects, animate and inanimate, seem exactly of the same nature, except that they differ in the accident of bodily form." These mythological ideas and symbols of the American aborigines were woven in their textiles, painted on their robes and furniture, burned into their pottery, drawn in sand mosaics on deserts, and perpetuated in the only sculptures worthy of the name, in wood and stone. They are inseparable from industry; language, social organization and custom wait upon them: they explain the universe in the savage mind. The archaeology of the western hemisphere should be divided as follows: (1) that of Indian activities; (2) the question of man's existence in a prior geological period. There is no dividing line between first-contact ethnology and to ' pre-contact archaeology. Historians of this time, both north and south of Panama, described tools and products of activities similar to those taken from beneath the soil near by. The archaeologist recovers his specimens from waste places, cave deposits, abandoned villages, caches, shell-heaps, refuse-heaps, enclosures, mounds, hut rings, earthworks, garden beds, quarries and workshops, petroglyphs, trails, graves and cemeteries, cliff and cavate dwellings, ancient pueblos, ruined stone dwellings, forts and temples, canals or reservoirs. The relics found in these places are material records of language, industries, fine arts, social life, lore and religion. Here and there in the Arctic province remains of old village sites have been examined, and collections brought away by whalers and exploring expeditions. Two facts are established— namely, that the Eskimo lived formerly farther south on the Atlantic coast, and that, aboriginally, they were not specially adept in carving and etching. The old apparatus of hunting and fishing is quite primitive. The Dene (Tinneh) province in Alaska and north-western Canada yields nothing to the spade. Algon- quin-Iroquois Canada, thanks to the Geological Survey and the Department of Education in Ontario, has revealed old Indian camps, mounds and earthworks along the northern drainage of Lakes Erie and Ontario, and pottery in a curved line from Montreal to Lake of the Woods. Throughout eastern United States shell-heaps, quarries, workshops and camp sites are in abundance. The Sioux and the Muskhogee province is the mound area, which extends also into Canada along the Red river. The forms of these are earth-heaps, conical mounds, walls of earth, rectangular pyramids and effigies (Putnam). Thomas sums up the work of the Bureau of American Ethnology upon the struc- ture, contents and distribution of these earth monuments, over a vast area from which adobe, building stone and stone-working material were absent. (See Hodge's List of Pubs, of the Bur. Am. Ethnol.) No writings have been recovered, the artisans shaping small objects in stone were specially gifted, the potters in - only a few places approached those of the Pueblos, the fine art was poor, and relics found in the mounds do not indicate in their makers a grade of culture above that of the Indian tribes near by. The archaeology of the Pacific coast, from the Aleutian Islands, is written in shell-heaps, village sites, caves, and burial-places (Dall, Harlan I. Smith*, Schumacher). The relics of bone, antler, stone, shell and copper are of yesterday. Even the Calaveras man is no exception, since his skull and his polished conical pestle, the latter made of stone more recent than the auriferous gravels, show him to have been of Digger Indian type. In Utah begin the ruins of the Pueblo culture. These cover Arizona and New Mexico, with extensions into Colorado on the north and Mexico on the south. The reports of work done in this province for several years past form a library of text and illustration. Cliff dwellings, cavate houses, pueblos and casas are all brought into a series with- out a break by Bandelier, Cushing, Fewkes, Holmes, Hough, AMERICA Plate V. Fig. i. — Reddish Brown Clay Vessel, in the form of a human head (portrait). Trujillo style. Chimboto, Peru. Inca culture. Fig. 2. — Red Clay Vessel, in the form of a demon shaped like a crab upon a mussel. Tru- jillo style. Chimboto, Peru- Inca culture. FlG. 3. — Black Clay Vessel, in the form of a human figure, with peculiar head - gear. Trujillo, Peru. Inca culture. Fig. 4. — Black Clay Vessel, in the form of a human figure, with large head-gear and ornamen- tation of maize-cobs. Trujillo, Peru. Inca culture. Fig. 5. — Red-Brown Clay Flask, with impressed relief repre- senting a mythological scene. Supe, Peru. Fig. 6. — Female Mummy, with mantle of feathered mosaic ; neckband, shawls, hair-net, head-wrap over tassels of parrot feathers. Peru, Inca culture. Fig. 7. — Textile Fabric, with stencilled human figure ; colours, black, red-brown and yellow. Peru. Inca culture. Fig. 8.— Coloured Textile Fabric, with picture writing. Peru. Fig. 9. — Textile Fabric in brown and yellowish white, with figures of birds and men holding staves and head trophies. Inca style. Peru. Fig. 10. — Two Gold Beakers, with human faces. Peru. Inca culture. Fig. 11. — Human Clay Figure, with bead chain of mussel shells and of Venetian glass in the ears and on the neck; 1st period of Spanish con- quest. Chancay, Peru. Fig. 12. — Black-Painted Clay Vessel, in form of a human figure holding a mussel, Chancay, Peru. ARCHAEOLOGY] AMERICA 817 Mindeleff, Nordenskjold, Powell and Stevenson. From Casa Grande, in Chihuahua, to Quemada, in Zacatecas, Carl S. Lum- holtz found survivals of the cliff dwellers. Between Quemada and Copan, in Honduras, is an unbroken series of mural structures. The traditions agree with the monuments, whatever may be objected to assigning any one ruin to the Toltec, the Chichimec or the Nahuatl, that there are distinct varieties in ground-plan, motives, stone-craft, wall decorations and sculptures. Among these splendours in stone the following recent explorers must be the student's guide: — Bowditch, Charnay, Forstemann, F. T. Goodman, Gordon, Holmes, Maudslay, Mercer, Putnam, Sapper, Marshall H. Saville, Seler, Cyrus Thomas, Thompson. A list of the ruins, printed in the handbook on Mexico published by the Department of State in Washington, covers several pages. The special characteristics of each are to be seen partly in the skill and genius of their makers, and partly in the exigencies of the site and the available materials. A fascinating study in this con- nexion is that of the water-supply. The cenotes or underground reservoirs were the important factors in locating the ruins of northern Yucatan. From Honduras to Panama the urn burials, the pottery, the rude carved images and, above all, the grotesque jewellery, absorb the archaeologist's attention. (Publications of Peabody Museum.) Beyond Chiriqui southward is El Dorado. Here also bewilder- ing products of ancient metallurgy tax the imagination as to the processes involved, and questions of acculturation also interfere with true scientific results. The fact remains, however, that the curious metal-craft of the narrow strip along the Pacific from Mexico to Titicaca is the greatest of archaeological enigmas. Bandelier, Dorsey, Holmes, Seler and Uhle have taken up the questions anew. Beyond Colombia are Ecuador and Peru, where, in the widening of the continent, architecture, stone-working, pottery, metallurgy, textiles are again exalted. Among the Cordilleras in their western and interior drainages, over a space covering more than twenty degrees of latitude, the student comes again upon massive ruins. The materials on the coast were clay and gravel wrought into concrete, sun-dried bricks and pise, or rammed work, cut stalks of plants formed with clay a kind of staff, and lintels were made by burying stems of cana brava (Gynerium saccharoides) in blocks of pise. On the uplands structures were of stone laid up in a dozen ways. Walls for buildings, garden terraces and aqueducts were straight or sloping. Doorways were usually square, but corbelled archways and gateways surmounted with sculptures were not uncommon. Ornamentation was in carving and in colour, the latter far more effectively used than in Middle America. A glance at the exquisite textiles reveals at once the inspiration of mural decorations. The most prolific source of Peruvian relics is the sepulchres or huacas, the same materials being used in their construction as in building the houses. Here, owing to a dry climate, are the dead, clad and surrounded with food, vessels, tools and art products, as in life. The textiles and the pottery can only be mentioned; their quality and endless varieties astonish the technologist. In the Carib province there are no mural remains, but the pottery, with its excessive onlaying, recalls Mexico and the jewellers of Chiriqui. The polished stone work is superb, finding its climax in Porto Rico, which seems to have been the sacred island of the Caribs. For the coasts of South America the vast shell-heaps are the repositories of ancient history. Since 1880 organized institutions of anthropology have taken the spade out of the hands of individual explorers in order to know the truth concerning Glacial or Pleistocene man. The Hthic man. geologist and the trained archaeologist are associated. In North America the sites have been examined by the Peabody Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, and others, with the result that only the Trenton gravels have any standing. The so-called palaeolithic implements are everywhere. The question is one of geology, simply to decide whether those re- covered at Trenton are ancient. Putnam and George Frederick Wright maintain that they are ancient, Alex. Francis Chamber- lain and Holmes that they are post-Glacial and comparatively recent (Am. Anihrop., N.S. i. pp. 107, 614). Elsewhere in the United States fossilized bones, crania of a low order, association of human remains with those of fossil animals are not necessarily evidence of vast antiquity. In South America the shell-heaps, of enormous size, are supposed to show that the animals have under- gone changes in size and that such vast masses require untold ages to accumulate. The first is a biological problem. As for the second, the elements of savage voracity and wastefulness, of uncertainty as to cubical contents on uneven surface, and of the number of mouths to fill, make it hazardous to construct a chrono' logical table on a shell-heap. Hudson's village sites in Patagonia contain pottery, and that brings them all into the territory of Indian archaeology. Ameghino refers deposits in Patagonia, from which undoubted human bones and relics have been exhumed, to the Miocene. The question is of the age of the sediments from which these were taken. The bones of other associated animalsy says John B. Hatcher, demonstrate the Pleistocene nature of the deposits, by which is not necessarily meant older Quaternary, for their horizons have not been differentiated and correlated in South America. Hatcher believes that " there is no good evidence in favour of a great antiquity for man in Patagonia." In a cave near Consuelo Cove, southern Patagonia, have been found frag- ments of the skin and bones of a large ground-sloth, Grypotherium (N eomylodon) listai, associated with human remains. Ameghino argues that this creature is still living, while Dr Moreno advances the theory that the animal has been extinct for a long period, and that it was domesticated by a people of great antiquity, who dwelt there prior to the Indians. Rodolfo Hauthal, Walter E. Roth and Dr R. Lehmann Nitsche review their work with the conclusion, not unanimously held by them, that man co-existed here with all the other animals whose remains were found during an inter- Glacial period. Arthur Smith Woodward sums up the question in Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, closing with this sentence: "If we accept the confirmatory evidence afforded by Mr Spencer Moore, we can hardly refuse to believe that this ground-sloth was kept and fed by an early race of men.", These are individual opinions, subject to revision by that court of appeals, the institutional, judgment. (Summary in H. Hesketh Prichard, Through the Heart of Patagonia (1902), Appendix A.) Authorities. — A valuable endowment of research in specimens, literature and pictures^ deposited in libraries, museums and galleries since 1880, will keep ethnologists and archaeologists employed for many years to come. The scientific inquirer will find a mass of material in the papers and reports contributed to the numerous societies and institutions which are devoted to anthropological research. Museums of aboriginal culture are without number; in Washington the Smithsonian Institution, the National Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology and the American Anthropologist issue publications on every division of the subject, lists of their publications and general bibliographies. Also the Peabody Museum, Cambridge; the American Museum of Natural History, New York; the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia ; the Field Museum, Chicago; the California Academy and the California University, San trancisco; and the Canadian Institute, Toronto, publish monographs and lists. The most comprehensive work on North America is the Handbook of American Indians (prepared by the Bureau of American Ethnology, under W. H. Holmes, and edited by F. Webb Hodge). The following represent a select list of works on the American aborigines: — H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States oj North America, vols. i.-v. (1874-1876); A. F. Bandelier, Papers on the Sedentary Indians of New Mexico (see Papers of the Archaeo- logical Institute of America, 1881, 1890, 1892); also 10th, nth, 1 2th Reports Peabody Museum; Franz Boas, The Central Eskimo (6th Rep. Bur. Am. Ethnol., 1888) ; also Bulls. 20, 26, 27 and Reports Brit. Assoc. 1885-1898; Charles P. Bowditch, Mexican and Central American Antiquities; Bull. 28, Bur. Am. Ethnol:; also The Temples of the Cross and Mayan Nomenclature (Cambridge, Mass.-, 1906) ; David Boyle, Reports of the Provincial Museum of Toronto; on Archaeology and Ethnology of Canada; D. G. Brinton, Library of Aboriginal American Literature, vols, i.-viii. (Philadelphia, 182'2-i 890) ; The American Race (New York, 1891); Gustav Bruhl, Die Cultur- volker Amerikas (Cincinnati, 1889); Desire Charnay, The Ancient Cities of the New World (New York, 1887) ; Frank Cushing, Zufii Folk Tales (New York, 1901); William H. Dall, Alaska and its Resources (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1870) (also papers by Bur. Am. Ethnol.) ; J. Deniker, The Races of Man (London, 1900) ; Roland B. Dixon, The Northern Maidu, Cal., Bull. 17, Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. (New York, 1905) ; Paul Ehrenreich, Die Volkerstdmme Brasiliens (Berlin, 1 892) ; A nthropologische Studien ilber die Urbewohner Brasiliens (Berlin, 1897) ; Livingston Farrand, The American Nation: A History, 8i8 AMERICA ISLANDS— AMERICAN CIVIL WAR vol. ii. (New York, 1904), with copious references; J. W. Fewkes, A Journal of American Ethnology and Archaeology, vols, i.-iv. (Boston, 1891-1894); Pliny Earle Goddard, Life and Culture of the Hupa, Univ. of Cal., vol. i. (1903) ; papers by F. W. Hodge, List of Publica- tions of the Bur. Am. Ethnol., Bull. 31 (1906); W. H. Holmes, Handbook of the Indians North of Mexico ; Alice C. Fletcher, Francis la Flesche and John Comfort Fillmore, " A Study of Omaha Indian Music," Peabody Museum Archaeological and Ethnological Papers, i. (1893); George Byron Gordon, " Researches in Central America," Memoirs of the Peabody Museum, vol. i. Nos. 1, 4, 5, 6; and Proc. Mus. Univ. of Pa. ; William H. Holmes, Archaeological Studies among the Ancient Cities of Mexico (Chicago, 1895); Walter Hough, Archaeological Field Work in N.-E. Arizona, Museum-Gates Expedi- tion of 1901 ; Report U.S. National Museum, 1901 ; Ales. Hrdlicka, "The Chichimecs," Am. Anthropologist, 1903, pp. 385-440; also papers on physical anthropology in the Handbook and Pubs, of the National Museum and the American Museum; Archer Butler Hulbert, Historic Highways of America, 16 vols. (Cleveland, O.) ; E. F. Im Thurn, Among the Indians of British Guiana (London, 1883); A. H. Keane, Ethnology (Cambridge, 1896); and Man, Past and Present (Cambridge, 1899); A. L. Kroeber, Papers on Eskimo, Arapaho, Languages and Culture of California Tribes, in Pubs, of California University and the American Museum of Natural History, N. Y.; Albert Buell Lewis, " Tribes of the Columbia Valley," Mem. Anthrop. Assoc, vol. i. (1906), with bibliography; Joseph D. McGuire, " The Stone Hammer and its Various Uses," Am. Anthro- pologist, iv. (1891); Teobert Maler, " Researches in Usumatsintla Valley" (1901-1903), Peabody Museum Mem. ii.; Clements R. Markham, Cuzco (London, 1856, and Hakluyt Soc, 1859); Marquis de Nadaillac, V Amerique prehistorique (Paris, 1883); H. J. Nieboer, Slavery as an Industrial System (The Hague, 1900) ; G. Nordenskjold, Tlie Cliff Dwellers of the Mesa Verde, Colorado (Stockholm, 1893) ; Zelia Nuttall, The Book of the Life of the Ancient Mexicans (Univ. of Cal., 1903); An Ancient Mexican Codex, special publications of the Peabody Museum (Cambridge, Mass., 1902); Edward John Payne, History of the New World called America (vol. i. 1892, vol. ii. 1899, Ox- ford) ; Antonio Penafiel, Monumentos del Arte Mexicano antiguo(Berlin, 1890); James C. Pilling, "Bibliographies of Indian Languages," Bulls. Bur. Am. Ethnol. 5-19; J. W. Powell, " Indian Linguistic Families," 7th Report Bureau of American Ethnology (1891); H. Hesketh Prichard, Through the Heart of Patagonia (New York, 1902) (appendix on the co-existence of mylodon and man) ; F. W. Putnam, " Archaeology and Ethnology," vol. vii., Wheeler Surveys, &c. (Washington, 1879); Charles Rau, The Palenque Tablet, Smithsonian Contributions, Washington; Caecilie Seler, Auf alien Wegen in Mexico und Guatemala (Berlin, 1900) ; Harlan I. Smith, " Archaeo- logical Discoveries in North-Western America," Bull. Am. Geo- graphical Society (May 1906); also Mem. Am, Mus. Nat. History (New York) ; Karl von den Steinen, Unter den Naturvolkern Zentral- Brasiliens (Berlin, 1884) ; E. H. Thompson, " Explorations in Loltun and Labna," Memoirs Peabody Museum of Archaeol. and Ethnol. i. (1897); Max Uhle, " Explorations in Peru," Memoir Univ. of Cal. i.; Washington Matthews, Navaho Legends (Cambridge, Mass.); Anne Cary Maudslay and Alfred Percival Maudslay, A Glimpse at Guatemala (London, 1899) (Maudslay's whole series in Biologia Centrali Americana, 1889-1902, are valuable); H. C. Mercer, The Hill Caves of Yucatan (Philadelphia, 1896); Clarence B. Moore, papers on archaeology of Florida and neighbouring states, Journal Acad. Nat. Sc. (Philadelphia, vol. xiii., 1905); Lewis H. Morgan, Smithsonian Contributions, xvii., 1869; and Ancient Society, New York. (O. T. M.) AMERICA ISLANDS, a name given to Christmas, Fanning, Palmyra and attendant islets, belonging to Great Britain, in the Central Pacific Ocean, between the equator and 6° N., and about 160 W. They are so named because frequented for their guano by traders from the United States. Christmas Island is probably the largest atoll in the Pacific (it is about 90 m. in circuit), and was discovered by Captain Cook in 1777. The islands were annexed by Great Britain in 1888 in view of the laying of the Pacific cable, of which Fanning Island is a station. Guano and mother-of-pearl shells are the principal articles of export; the population of the islands is about 300. AMERICAN CIVIL WAR (1861-1865). i- The "Civil War between the northern and southern sections of the United States, which began with the bombardment of Fort Sumter on the 12th of April 1861, and came to an end, in the last days of April 1865, with the surrender of the Confederates, was in its scope one of the greatest struggles known to history. Its operations were spread over thousands of miles, vast numbers of men were employed, and both sides fought with an even more relentless determination than is usual when " armed nations " meet in battle. The duration of the war was due to the nature of the country and the enormous distances to be traversed, not to any want of energy, for the armies were in deadly earnest and their battles and combats (of which two thousand four hundred can be named) sterner than those of almost any war in modern history. The political history of the war, its antecedents and its consequences, are dealt with in the articles United States {History) and Confederate States. For the purposes of the military narrative it is sufficient to say that eleven southern states seceded from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America. Jefferson Davis was chosen president of this confederacy, and an energetic government prepared to repel the expected attack of the " Union " states. The " resumption " by the seceding states of the coast defences (built on land ceded by the various states to the Federal government, and, it was argued, withdrawn therefore by the act of secession) brought on the war. 2. Bombardment of Fort Sumter. — South Carolina, finding other means of seizing or regaining Fort Sumter at Charleston ineffectual, ushered in the great struggle by the bombardment of the 12th of April 1861. Against overwhelming odds the United States troops held out until honour was satisfied; they then surrendered the ruins of the fort and were conveyed by warships to the north. At once the war spirit was aroused. President Lincoln called out 75,000 men. The few southern states which had not yet seceded, refused their contingents and promptly- joined the " rebels," but there was no hesitation in the people of the North, and the state troops volunteered in far greater numbers than had been demanded. Nearly the whole of the nation had now definitely taken sides in the quarrel. The Confederacy con- sisted of eleven states (Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas and Tennessee). All the remaining states and terri- tories stood by the Union, except Missouri, Kentucky and Maryland, in which public opinion was divided. But the first operations of the war brought about the willing or unwilling adhesion of these border states to the Federal cause. Citizens of these states served on either side in the war. The small, but highly efficient, regular army stood by the president, though large numbers of the officers, amongst them many of the best in the service, left it when their states seceded. The navy likewise remained national, and of its officers very few went with their states, for the foreign relations of the navy tended to produce a sentiment wider than local. But the Federal armaments were not on such a scale as to enable the government to cope with a " nation in arms," and the first call for volunteers was followed by more and more, until in the end the Federals had more than a million men under arms. At first the troops on both sides were volun- tarily enlisted, but the South quickly, the North later, put in force conscription acts. Reducing the figures to a three years' average, the North furnished about 45 % of her military popula- tion, the South not less than 90 % for that term. Even so the Confederacy was numerically, as in every other respect, far weaker, and rarely, after the second year, opposed equal numbers to the troops of the Union. Throughout the critical period of the war, that is, from the beginning of 1862 up to the day of Chattanooga, three distinct campaigns were always in progress. Virginia, separating the two hostile capitals, Richmond and Washington, was the theatre of the great campaigns of the east, where the flower of both armies fought. In the centre, the valleys of the Ohio, the Cumberland and the Tennessee were the battle-ground of large armies attacking and defending the south and south-eastern states of the Confederacy, while on and beyond the great waterway of the Mississippi was carried on the struggle for those interests, vital to either party, which depended on the mighty river and its affluents. Until the end of 1863 the events in these three regions remain distinct episodes; after that the whole theatre of war is comprised in the " anaconda policy," which concentrated irresistible masses of troops from all sides on the heroic remnants of the Confederacy. In Virginia and the east, Washington, situated on the outpost line of the Union, and separated by the " border " state of Maryland from Penn- sylvania and the North, was for some time in great peril. Virginia, and with it the Federal navy yard at Norfolk and the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, was controlled by the rebels. Baltimore was the scene of a bloody riot as the first Northern regiment AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 8iq (6th Mass.) passed through on its way to Washington on the 19th of April, and, until troops could be spared to protect the railway through Maryland, all reinforcements for the national capital had to be brought up to Annapolis by sea. When that state was reduced to order, the Potomac became the front, and, later, the base, of the Northern armies. 3. Missouri andWest Virginia. — Missouri, at the other flank of the line, contained an even stronger Confederate element, and it was not without a severe struggle that the energy of Mr (after- wards General) F. P. Blair, and of Nathaniel Lyon, the Unionist military commander, prevailed over the party of secession. In Kentucky the Unionist victory was secured almost without a blow, and, even at the end of 186 1, the Confederate outposts west of the Alleghenies lay no farther north than the line Columbus — Bowling Green — Cumberland Gap, though southern Missouri was still a contested ground. Between the Mississippi and the mountains the whole of the year was spent by both sides in pre- paring for the contest. In the east hostilities began in earnest in western Virginia. This part of the state, strongly Unionist, had striven to prevent secession, and soon became itself a state of the Union (1863). A force under General G. B. McClellan advanced from the Ohio in June and captured Philippi. This promptitude was not only dictated by the necessity of preserving West Virginia, but imposed by the necessity of holding the Baltimore & Ohio railway, which, as the great link between east and west, was essential to the Federal armies. A month later, an easy triumph was obtained by McClellan and Rosecrans against the Confederates of Virginia at Rich Mountain. 4. First Bull Run. — The opposing forces now in the field numbered 190,000 Unionists and half that number of Confeder- ates; sixty-nine warships flew the Stars and Stripes and a number of improvised ironclads and gunboats the rival "Stars and Bars. " On the 10th of June a Federal force was defeated at Big Bethel (near Fortress Monroe), and soon afterwards the main Virginian campaign began. On the Potomac the Unionist generals McDowell and Patterson commanded respectively the forces at Washington and Harper's Ferry, opposed by the Confederates under Generals J. E. Johnston and Beauregard at Winchester and at Manassas. The forces of these four commanders were raw but eager, and the people behind them clamoured for a decision. Much against his own judgment, Licutenant-General Winfield Scott, the Federal general-in-chief, a veteran of the second war with England and of the war with Mexico, felt constrained to order an advance against Beau- regard, while Patterson was to hold Johnston in check on the Shenandoah. On the 21st of July took place the first battle of Bull Run {q.v.) between McDowell and Beauregard, fought by the raw troops of both sides with an obstinacy that foreboded the desperate battles of subsequent campaigns. The arrival of Johnston on the previous evening and his lieutenant Kirby Smith at the crisis of the battle (for Patterson's part in the plan had completely failed), turned the scale, and the Federals, not yet disciplined to bear the strain of a great battle, broke and fled in wild rout. The equally raw Confederates were in no condition to pursue. A desultory duel between the forces of Rosecrans and Robert E. Lee in West Virginia, which ended in the withdrawal of the Confederates, and a few combats on the Potomac (Ball's Bluff or Leesburg, October 2 1 ; Dranesville, December 20) , brought to a close the first campaign in the east. 5. Close of the First Year. — In the end Bull Run did more harm to the victors than to the conquered. The Southerners undeniably rested on their laurels, and enabled McClellan, who was now called to the chief military command at Washington, to raise, organize and train the famous Army of the Potomac, which, in defeat and victory, won its reputation as one of the finest armies of modern history. Johnston meanwhile was similarly employed in fashioning the equally famous Army of northern Virginia, which for three years carried the Confederacy on its bayonets. It was not until the people was stung by the humiliation of Bull Run that the unorganized enthusiasm of the North settled down into an invincible determination to crush the rebellion at all costs. The men of the South were not less in earnest, and the most highly individualized people in the world was thus found ready to accept a rigorous discipline as the only way to success. In the autumn, a spirited attempt was made by the Arkansas Confederates to reoccupy Missouri. Fremont, the Federal commander, proved quite unable to deal with this, and the gallant Lyon was defeated and killed at Wilson's Creek (August 10). Soon afterwards, after a steady resistance, the Unionist garrison of Lexington surrendered to Sterling Price. But the work of Blair and' Lyon had not been in vain, and the mere menace of Fremont's advance sufficed to clear the state, while General John Pope, by vigorous action in the field and able civil administration, restored order and quiet in the northern part of the state. In the central theatre (Kentucky), the only event of importance was a daring reconnaissance of the Con- federate fort at Columbus on the Mississippi by a small force under Brigadier- General U. S. Grant (action of Belmont, November 7). 6. The Blockade. — Meanwhile the Federal navy had settled down to its fourfold task of blockading the enemy's coast against the export of cotton and the import of war material, protecting the Union commerce afloat, hindering the creation of a Con- federate navy and co-operating with the land forces. From the first months of the war the sea power of the Federals was practically unchallenged, and the whole length of the hostile coast-line was open to invasion. But the blockade of 3000* miles of coast was a far more formidable task, and international law required it to be effective in order to be respected. Nevertheless along the whole line some kind of surveillance was established long before the close of 1861, and, in proportion as the number of vessels available increased, the blockade became more and more stringent, until at last it was practically unbreakable at any point save by the fastest steamers working under unusually favourable conditions of wind and weather. As against the civilian enemy the navy strangled commerce; its military pre- ponderance nipped in the bud every successive attempt of the Confederates to create a fleet (for each new vessel as it emerged from the estuary or harbour in which it had been built, was destroyed or driven back), while at any given point a secure base was available for the far-ranging operations of the Union armies. Two hundred and twelve warships or converted merchantmen were in commission on the 1st of January 1862. There had been severalcoastal successes in 1 86 1 ,notably the occupation of Hatteras Inlet, North, Carolina, by Commodore S.H. Stringhamand General B. F. Butler (August 28-29, 1861), and the bombardment and capture of Forts Beauregard and Walker at Port Royal, South Carolina,by the fleet under Commodore S.F. duPont and the forces of General T. W. Sherman (November 7, 1861). Early in 1862: a large expedition under General A. E. Burnside and Commodore L. M. GoldsborOugh captured Roanoke Island, and the troops penetrated inland as far as Newbern (actions of February 8 and March 14). About the same time Fort Pulaski (the main de- fence of Savannah, Georgia) was invested and captured. But the greatest and most important enterprise was the capture of New Orleans (q.v.) by Flag-Officer D. G. Farragut and General Butler (April 18-25, 1862). This success opened up the lower Mississippi at the same time as the armies of the west began to move down that river under Grant, who was always accompanied by the gunboat flotilla which had been created on the upper waters in 1861. A slight campaign in New Mexico took place in February 1862, in which several brilliant tactical successes were won by the Texan forces, but no permanent foothold was secured by them. 7. Fort Donelson.— In the early months of 1862 preparations on a gigantic scale were made for the conquest of the South. McClellan and the Army of the Potomac faced Johnston, who with the Army of northern Virginia lay at Manassas, exercising and training his men with no less care than his opponent. Major- General D. C. Buell in Kentucky had likewise drilled his troops to a high state of efficiency and was preparing to move against the Confederate general Albert Sidney Johnston, whose reputation was that of being the foremost soldier on either side. Farther west the troops on both sides were by no means so well trained, #20 AMERICAN CIVIL WAR yet active operations began on the Tennessee. Here Fort Donelson on the Cumberland, Fort Henry on the Tennessee and Columbus on the Mississippi guarded the left of the Southern line, Sidney Johnston himself maintaining a precarious advanced position at Bowling Green, with his lieutenants, Zollicoffer and Crittenden, farther east at Mill Springs, and a small force under General Marshall in the mountains of eastern Kentucky. The last-named was soon defeated by General James A. Garfield at Prestonburg, and a few days later General G. H. Thomas won his first victory at Mill Springs (Logan's Cross Roads). Zollicoffer was killed and his army forced to make a disastrous retreat (January 10-20, 1862). The centre of Johnston's line (Forts Henry and Donelson) was next attacked by General Grant and Flag-Officer A. H. Foote. On the 6th of February Fort Henry fell to Foote's gunboat flotilla, and Grant then moved overland to Donelson. His troops were raw and possessed no decisive superiority in numbers, and sharp fighting took place when the garrison of Donelson tried to cut its way out. The attempt failed when almost on the point of success, and the Federals, under the excellent leadership of Generals C. F. Smith, Lew Wallace and McClernand, effected a lodgment in the works. The Con- federate commanders proved themselves quite unequal to the crisis, and 15,000 men surrendered with the fort on the 16th Of February. 8. Island No. 10 and Pea Ridge. — This very considerable success thrust back Johnston's whole line to New Madrid, Corinth and the Memphis & Charleston railway. The left flank, even after the evacuation of Columbus, was exposed, and the Missouri divisions under Pope quickly seized New Madrid. The adjoining river defences of Island No. 10 in the Mississippi proved more formidable. Foote's gunboats could, anddid, run the gauntlet, but a canal had to be cut right round the batteries for the transports, before the land forces could cross the river and attack the works in rear; when this was accomplished, by the skill and energy of all concerned, the place with its garrison of 7000 men surrendered at once (April 8, 1862). Meanwhile, in the Missouri theatre, the Federal general Curtis, outnumbered and outmanoeuvred by the forces of Price and Van Dorn, fought, and by his magnificent tenacity won, the battle of Pea Ridge (March 7-8), which put an end to the war in this quarter. On the whole, the first part of the western campaign was uniformly a brilliant success for the Federal arms. General H. W. Halleck, who was here in control of all the operations of the Federals, had meanwhile ordered Grant's force to ascend the Tennessee river and operate against Corinth; Buell's well-disciplined forces were to march overland from Nashville to join him, and General O. M. Mitchel with a division was sent straight southwards from the same place to cut the Memphis & Charleston line. The latter mission, brilliantly as it was executed, failed, through want of support, to secure a foothold. Had Halleck reinforced Mitchel, that officer might perhaps have forestalled the later victories of Grant and Sherman. As it was, the enterprise became a mere diversion. 9. Shiloh.— Meanwhile Grant was encamped at Pittsburg Landing on the Tennessee with an army of 45,000 men, and Buell with 37,000 men about two marches away. Early on the 6th of April A. S. Johnston and Beauregard completely surprised the camps of Grant's divisions. The battle of Shiloh (.q.v.) was a savage scuffle between two half -disciplined hosts, contested with a fury rare even in this war. On the 6th the Unionists, scattered and unable to combine, were driven from point to point, and at nightfall barely held their ground on the banks of the river. The losses were enormous on both sides, Johnston himself, being amongst the killed. The arrival of Buell enabled the Federals to take the offensive next morning along the whole line, and by sunset on the 7th, after another sanguinary battle, Beauregard was in full retreat. Some weeks afterwards, Halleck with the combined armies of Grant, Buell and Pope began the siege of Corinth, which Beauregard ultimately evacuated a month later. Thus the first campaign of the western armies, completed by the victory of the gunboat flotilla at Memphis (June 6), cleared the Mississippi as far down as Vicksburg, and compelled the Confederates to- evacuate the Cumberland and a large portion of the Tennessee basins. 10. The Peninsular-^Ma.ny schemes were discussed between McClellan and President Lincoln before the Army of the Potomac finally took the offensive in Virginia. It was eventually decided that General Banks was to oppose " Stonewall " Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley, Fremont to hold western Virginia against the same general's enterprise, and McDowell with a strong corps to advance overland to meet McClellan, who, with the main army, was to proceed by sea to Fortress Monroe and thence to advance on Richmond. The James river* afterwards so much used for the Federal operations, was not yet clear, and it was here, in Hampton Roads, that the famous fight took place between the ironclads "Merrimac" (or " Virginia ") and "Monitor" (March 8-9, 1862). McClellan's advance was opposed by a small force of Con- federates under General Magruder, which, gradually reinforced, held the historic position of Yorktown for a whole month, and only evacuatedit on the 3rd of May. Two days later McClellan's advanced troops fought a sharp combat at Williamsburg and the Army of the Potomac rendezvoused on the Chickahominy with its base at White House on the Pamunkey (May 7). J. E.Johnston had, long ere this, fallen back from Manassas towards Rich- mond, and the two armies were in touch when a serious check was given to McClellan by the brilliant successes of Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley. ■ 11. Jackson's V alley Campaign.— The "Valley of Virginia," called also the " Granary of the Confederacy," was cut into long parallel strips by ridges and rivers, across which passages were rare, and along which the Confederates could, with little fear of interruption from the east, debouch into Maryland and approach Washington itself. Here Stonewall Jackson lay with a small force, and in front of him at the outlet of the valley was Banks, while Fremont threatened him from West Virginia. Jackson had already fought a winter campaign which ended in his defeat at the hands of General Shields at Kernstown (March 23). Banks's main army, early in May, lay far down the Valley at Strasburg and Front Royal, Fremont at the town of McDowell. Jackson's first blow fell on part of Fremont's corps, which was sharply attacked and driven into the mountains (McDowell, May 8). The victor quickly turned upon Banks, destroyed his garrison of Front Royal and nearly surrounded his main body; barely esca'ping, Banks was again defeated at Winchester and driven back to the Maryland border (May 23-25). These rapid suc- cesses paralysed the Federal offensive. McDowell, instead of marching to join McClellan, was ordered to the Valley to assist in " trapping Jackson," an operation which, at one critical moment very near success, ended in the defeat of Fremont at Cross Keys and of McDowell's advanced troops at Port Republic (June 8-9) and the escape of the daring Confederates with trifling loss. McClellan, deprived of McDowell's corps, felt himself reduced to impotence, and three Federal armies were vainly marching up and down the Valley when Johnston fell with all his forces upon the Army of the Potomac. The Federals lay on both sides of the Chickahominy river, and at this moment Johnston heard that McDowell's arrival need not be feared. The course of the battle of Seven Pines or Fair Oaks (q.v.) bore some resemblance to that of Shiloh; a sharp attack found the Unionists unprepared, and only after severe losses and many partial defeats could McClellan check the rebel advance. Here also fortune was against the Confederates; J. E. Johnston fell severely wounded, and in the end a properly connected and combined advance of the Army of the Potomac drove back his successor. into the lines of Richmond (May 31-June 1). 12. The Seven Days.— Bad weather and skilful defence com- pletely checked the assailants for another three Weeks, and the situation was now materially altered. Jackson with the Valley troops hadstealtbily left Harrisonburg by rail on the 1 7 th of June, and was now at Ashland in McClellan's rear. General Lee, who had succeeded Johnston in the command of the Army of northern Virginia, proposed to attack the Federals in their line of com- munication with White House, and passed most of his forces round to the aid of Jackson. The Seven Days' Battle (q.v.) AMERICAN CIVIL WM 821 opened with the combat of Mechanicsville on the 26th of June, and the battle of Gaines' Mill on the 27th. Lee soon cut the communication with White House, but McClellan changed his base and retreated towards Harrison's Landing on the James river. It was some time before Lee realized this. In the end the Federals were sharply pursued, but McClellan had gained a long start and, fighting victoriously almost every day, at length placed himself in a secure position on the James, which was now patrolled by the Federal warships (June 26-July 1). But the second advance on Richmond was clearly a strategical failure. 13. The Campaign of Perry vttle. — After the capture of Corinth Halleck had suspended the Federal advance all along the line in the west, and many changes took place about this time. Halleck went to Washington as general-in-chief, Pope was transferred to Virginia, Grant, with his own Army of the Tennessee and Rose- crans's (lately Pope's) Army of the Mississippi, was entrusted with operations on the latter river, while Buell's Army of the Ohio was ordered to east Tennessee to relieve the inhabitants of that district, who, as Unionist sympathizers, were receiving harsh treatment from the Confederate and state authorities. Late in July Braxton Bragg, who had succeeded Beauregard in command of the Confederates, transferred his forces to the neighbourhood of Chattanooga. Tennessee was thenceforward to be the central theatre of war, and too late it was recognized that Mitchel should have been supported in the spring. The forces left south of Corinth were enough to occupy the attention of Grant and Rose- crans, and almost contemporaneously with Lee's advance on Washington (see below), Price and Bragg took the offensive against Grant and Buell respectively. The latter early in August lay near Murfreesboro, covering Nashville, but the Confederate general did not intend to threaten that place. The valleys and ridges of eastern Tennessee screened him as he rapidly marched on Louisville and Cincinnati. The whole of the Southern army in the west swung round on its left wing as the pivot, and Buell only just reached Louisville before his opponent. The Washington authorities, thoroughly dissatisfied, ordered him to turn over the command to General Thomas, but the latter magnanimously declined the offer, and Buell on the 8th of October fought the sanguinary and indecisive battle of Perryville, in consequence of which Bragg retired to Chattanooga. 14. The Western Campaign.— The Union leader was now ordered once more to east Tennessee, but he protested that want of supplies made such a move impossible. Rosecrans, the victor of Corinth and Iuka (see below), was thereupon ordered to replace him. Buell's failure to appreciate political considerations as a part of strategy justified his recall, but the value of his work, like that of McClellan, can hardly be measured by marches and victories. The disgraced general was not again employed, but the men of the Army of the Ohio retained throughout, as did those of the Army of the Potomac, the impress of their first general's discipline and training. Sterling Price in the meanwhile had been ordered forward against Grant and Rosecrans, and Van Dorn promised his assistance. Before the latter could come up, how- ever, Rosecrans defeated Price at Iuka (September 19). The Confederates, not dismayed thereby, effected their junction and moved on Corinth, which was defended by Rosecrans and 23,000 Federal troops. Grant's other forces were split up into detach- ments, and when Van Dorn, boldly marching right round Rose- crans, descended upon Corinth from the north, Grant could hardly stir to help his subordinate. Rosecrans, however, won the battle of Corinth (October 3-4), though on the evening of the 3rd he had been in a perilous position. The Confederates fell back to the southward, escaping Grant once more, and thus ended the Confederate advance in the West. 15. Pope's Campaign in Virginia. — The Army of Virginia under Pope was composed of the troops lately chasing Jackson in the Valley — Fremont's (now Sigel's), Banks's and McDowell's corps. Halleck (at the Washington headquarters) began by withdrawing McClellan from the James to assist Pope in central Virginia; Lee, thus released from any fear for the safety of Richmond, turned swiftly upon Pope. That officer desired to concentrate his command on Gordonsville, but Jackson was before him at that place, and he fell back on Culpeper. On the oth of August Banks and Jackson joined battle once more at Cedar Mountain (or Cedar Run) ; the Federals, though greatly inferior in numbers, attacked with much vigour. . Banks was eventually beaten, but he had come very near to success, and Jackson, soon retired across the Rapidan, where (the Army of the Potomac having now begun, to leave the James) Lee joined him (August 17) with the corps of Longstreet. Pope now fell back behind the Rappahannockwithout showing fight. Here Halleck's orders bade him cover both Washington and Aquia Creek (whence the Arrny of the Potomac was to join him), orders almost impossible of execution, as any serious change of position necessarily un- covered one of these lines. The leading troops of the Army of the Potomac were now landed, and set out to join Pope's army, which faced Longstreet and Jackson on the Rappahannock between Bealton and Waterloo. On the 24th of August Lee ordered Jackson to march round Pope's right wing and descend on his rear through Thoroughfare Gap on Manassas and the old battle-ground of 1861. Pope was at this. moment about to take the offensive, when a violent storm swelled the rivers and put an end to all movement. On the 26th of August the daring flank march of Jackson's corps . ended at Manassas Station (see Bull Run). Longstreet fqllowed, Jackson, and Lee's army was reunited on the battlefield, By the 1st of September the campaign of "Second Manassas" was over. Pope's army and such of the troops of the Army of the Potomac as had been involved in the catastrophe were driven, tired and disheartened, into the Washington lines. The Confederates were once more masters of eastern Virginia. 16. Antietanj,. — It was at this moment that Bragg was in the full tide of his temporary success in Tennessee and Kentucky, and, after his great victory of Second Bull Run, Lee naturally invaded Maryland, which, it was assumed, had not forgotten its Southern sympathies. But Lee received no real accession of strength, and:when McClellan with all available forces moved qut of Washington to encounter the Army of northern Virginia, the Confederates were still but a few marches from the point where they had crossed the Potomac. Lee had again divided his army. On the 13th of September Jackson was besieging 11,000 Federals in Harper's Ferry, Longstreet was at Hagerstown, Stuart's cavalry holding the passes of the South Mountain, while McClellan's whole army lay at Frederick. Here extraordinary good fortune, put into the enemy's hands a copy of Lee's orders, from which it was clear that the Confederates were dangerously dispersed. Had McClellan moved at once he could have seized the passes without difficulty, as he was aware that he had only cavalry to oppose him. But the 13th was spent in idleness, and stubborn infantry now held the passes. A serious and costly action had to be fought before the way was cleared (battle of South Mountain, September 14). On the following day Harper's Ferry capitulated after a Weak defence. Jackson therei upon swiftly rejoined Lee, leaving only a division to carry out the capitulation. On the 16th McClellan found Lee in position behind the Antietam Creek, and on the 17th was fought the sanguinary and obstinately contested battle of Antietam (q.v.) or Sharpsburg. At the price of enormous losses both sides escaped defeat in the field, but Lee's offensive was at an end and he retired into Virginia. Thenceforward the Confederacy was purely on the defensive. Only twice more did the forces, of the South strike out (Gettysburg, 1863; Nashville, 1864), and then the offensive was more of a counter-attack than an advance. 17. Vicksburg in 1862. — The Confederate failures of Corinth, Perryville and Antietam were followed by a general advance by the Federals. It is about this time that Vicksburg becomes a place of importance. Farragut from New Orleans, and the gun- boat flotilla from the upper waters, had engaged the flatteries in June and July, but had returned to their respective stations, while a Federal force under General Williams, which had appeared before the fortress, retired to Baton Rouge. Early in August, Van Dorn, now in command of the place, sent a force to attack Williams, and on the 5 th a hard : f ought action took place a.t Baton Rouge, in which Williams was killed but his troops held 822 AMERICAN CIVIL WAR their own. At this time the minor fortress of Port Hudson was established to guard the rear of Vicksburg. In November Grant, with 57,000 men, began to move down from the north against General J. C. Pemberton, who had superseded the talented Van Dorn. A converging movement made by Grant from Grand Junction, W. T. Sherman from Memphis, and a force from Helena on the Arkansas side, failed, owing to Pemberton's prompt retirement to Oxford, Mississippi, and complications brought about by the intrigues of an able but intractable sub- ordinate, McClernand, induced Grant to make a complete change of plan. Sherman was to proceed down the great river, and join the ships from the Gulf before Vicksburg, while Grant himself drove Pemberton southwards along the Mississippi Central railway. This double plan failed. Grant, as he pushed Pemberton before him to Granada, lengthened day by day his line of communication, and when Van Dorn, ever enterprising, raided the great Federal depot of Holly Springs the game was up. Grant retired hastily, for starvation was imminent, and Pember- ton, thus freed, turned upon Sherman, and inflicted a severe defeat on that general at Chickasaw Bayou near Vicksburg (December 29). McClernand now assumed command, and on the nth of January 1863 captured Fort Hindman near Arkansas Post. This was the solitary gain of the whole operation. Mean- while Vicksburg was steadily becoming stronger and more formidable. 18. Fredericksburg. — McClellan, after the battle of the Antietam, paused for some time to reorganize his forces, some of which had barely recovered from the effects of Pope's unlucky campaign. He then slowly moved down the east side of the Blue Ridge, while Lee retired up the Valley on the west side of the same range. On the 6th of November the Army of the Potomac was at Warrenton, Lee at Culpeper, and Jackson in the Valley. When on the point of resuming the offensive, McClellan was suddenly superseded by Burnside, one of his corps commanders. Like Buell, McClellan had tempered the tools with which others were to strike; he was not again employed, and in his fall was involved his most brilliant subordinate, Fitz John Porter (q.v.). Burnside was by no means the equal of his predecessor, though a capable subordinate, and indeed only accepted the chief command with reluctance. He began his campaign by cancelling McClellan's operation, and, his own plan being to strike at Richmond from Fredericksburg, he moved the now augmented army to Falmouth opposite that place, hoping to surprise the crossing of the Rappa- hannock. Delays and neglect, not only at the front, but on the part of the headquarters staff at Washington, permitted Lee to seize the heights of the southern bank in time. When Burnside fought his battle of Fredericksburg (q.v.) an appalling reverse was the result, the more terrible as it was absolutely useless (December 13). 19. Closing Operations of 1S62. — Chickasaw Bayou and Fredericksburg ended the Federal initiative in the west and the east ; the Army of the Cumberland under Rosecrans alone could claim a victory. Buell's successor retained the positions about Nashville, whilst a new Army of the Ohio prepared to operate in east Tennessee. Bragg lay at Murfreesboro (see Stone River), where Rosecrans attacked him on the 31st of December 1862. A very obstinate and bloody two days' battle ended in Bragg's retirement towards Chattanooga. During these campaigns the United States navy had not been idle. The part played by the gunboats on the upper Mississippi had been most conspicuous, as had been the operations of Farragut's heavier ships in the lower waters of the same river. The work of Du Pont and Goldsborough on the Atlantic coast has been alluded to above. Charleston was attacked without success in 1862, but from June to August 1863 it was besieged by General Gillmore and Admiral Dahlgren, and under great difficulties the Federals secured a lodgment, though it was not until Sherman appeared on the land side early In 1865 that the Confederate defence collapsed. Fort Fisher near Wilmington also underwent a memorable siege by land and sea. Certain incursions were from time to time made at different points along the whole sea-board. Minor operations moreover, especially in Arkansas and southern Missouri, were continually undertaken by both sides during 1862-1863, of which the battle of Prairie Grove, Arkansas (December 7, 1862), was the most notable incident. Meanwhile the blockade had become so stringent that few ordinary vessels could expect to break through, and a special type of steamer came into vogue for the purpose. 20. Capture of Vicksburg. — In 1863 the campaigns once more divided themselves accurately into those of east, centre and west. This year saw the greatest successes and the heaviest reverses of the Union army, Gettysburg and Vicksburg and Chattanooga against Chancellorsville and Chickamauga. Opera- tions began in the west with the second advance upon Vicksburg. One corps of the Army of the Tennessee was detached to cover the Memphis & Charleston railway. Grant, with the other three under Sherman, McClernand and McPherson, moved by water to the neighbourhood of the fortress. Many weeks passed without any success to the Union arms. Vicksburg and its long line of fortifications stood on high bluffs, all else was swampy lowland and intricate waterways. As Sherman in 1862, so now Grant was unable to obtain any foothold on the high ground, and no effective attack was possible until this had been gained. At last, after many trials and failures, Grant took a daring step. The troops with their supplies marched round through a network of lakes and streams to a point south of Vicksburg; Admiral Porter's gunboats and the transports along with them " ran " the batteries. At Bruinsburg, beyond Pemberton's reach, a landing was made on the eastern bank and, without any base of supplies or line of retreat, Grant embarked upon a campaign which made him in the end master of the prize. On the 4th of July Pemberton surrendered the fortress and 37,000 men. Grant's endurance and daring had won what was perhaps the greatest success of the war. General Joseph Johnston with a small relieving army had appeared at Jackson, Mississippi, but had been held in check by General F. P. Blair and a force from the Army of the Tennessee; when Vicksburg surrendered a larger force was at once sent against him, whereupon he retired. In the meanwhile Banks had moved upstream from New Orleans, and laid siege to Port Hudson. Operations were pressed with vigour, and the place surrendered four days after Vicksburg. A Con- federate attack on the post of Helena, Arkansas, was the last serious fight on the great river, and before the end of July the first merchant steamer from St Louis discharged her cargo at New Orleans. 21. Chancellorsville and Gettysburg.— hi Virginia Burnside had made, in January 1863, an attempt to gain by manoeuvre what he had missed in battle. The sudden swelling of rivers and down- pour of rain stopped all movement at once, and the " Mud March " came to an end. A Federal general could retain his hold on the men after a reverse, but not after a farce: Burnside was replaced by General Joseph Hooker, who had a splendid reputa- tion as a subordinate leader. The new commander displayed great energy in reorganizing the Army of the Potomac, the discipline of which had not come unscathed through a career of failure. Lee still held the battlefield of Fredericksburg and had not attempted the offensive, and in April he was much weakened by thedetachmentof Longstreet's corps to a minor theatre of opera- tions. Hooker's operations began well, Lee was outmanoeuvred and threatened in flank and rear, but the Federals were in the end involved in the confused and disastrous battle of Chancellors- ville (q.v.). Stonewall Jackson was mortally wounded, but his men and those of Longstreet's who had remained with Lee defeated Hooker and forced him to retire again beyond the Rappahannock, though he had double Lee's force. But Hooker could at least make himself obeyed, and when Lee initiated his second invasion of the North a month after the battle of Chancellorsville, the Army of the Potomac was as resolute as ever. On the 9th of June the cavalry combat of Brandy Station made it clear to the Federal staff that Lee was about to use the Valley once more to screen an invasion of Maryland. Longstreet, A. P. Hill and Ewell (who were now Lee's corps commanders) were at one time scattered from Strasburg in the Valley to Fredericksburg, and Hooker earnestly begged to be allowed to attack them in detail. Success was certain, but the scheme was AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 823 vetoed by the Federal headquarters and government, whose first and ruling idea was to keep the Army of the Potomac between Lee and Washington. Hooker was thus compelled to follow Lee's movements. Ewell's men were raiding unchecked as far north as the Susquehanna, while Hooker was compelled to inactivity before the forces of Hill and Longstreet. The Federal general, within his limitations, acted prudently and skilfully. The Army of the Potomac crossed that river only one day later than Lee, and concentrated at Frederick. But Hooker was no longer trusted by the Washington authorities, and his dispositions were interfered with. Not allowed to control the operations of his own men, the unfortunate general resigned his command on the 28th. He was succeeded by General G. G. Meade, who, besides steadi- ness and ability, possessed the confidence of Lincoln and Halleck which Hooker had lacked. Meade was thus able to move promptly, Lee was compelled to meet him, and the Army of the Potomac began to take up its position on Pipe Creek, screened by Generals Reynolds and Buford at Gettysburg (q.v.). On the 1st of July the heads of Lee's columns engaged Buford's cavalry out- posts, and the conflict began. All troops on both sides hurried to the unexpected battlefield, and after a great three days' battle, the Army of the Potomac emerged at last with a decisive victory. On the 4th, as Pemberton surrendered at Vicksburg, Lee drew off his shattered forces. One third of the Army of northern Virginia and one quarter of the Army of the Potomac remained on the field . Pursuit was not seriously undertaken, and the armies manoeuvred back to the old battle-grounds of the Rapidan and the Rappahannock. A war of manoeuvre followed, each side being reduced in turn by successive detachments sent to aid Rosecrans and Bragg in the struggle for Tennessee. In October Lee attempted a third Bull Run campaign on the same lines as the second, but Meade's steadiness foiled him, and he retired to the Rapidan again, where he in turn repulsed Meade's attempt to surprise him (Mine Run, November 26-28, 1863). 22. Chickamauga. — In the centre Rosecrans and Bragg spent the first six months of the year, as it were glaring at each other. Nothing was done by the main armies, but the far-ranging cavalry raids of the Confederates under J. H. Morgan and other leaders created much excitement, especially " Morgan's Raid " (June 27-July 26), through Indiana, Kentucky and Ohio, which states had hitherto little or no experience of the war on their own soil. At last the Army of the Cumberland advanced. Rosecrans manoeuvred his opponent out of one position after another until Bragg was driven back into Chattanooga. These operations were very skilfully conducted by Rosecrans and his second-in-command, Thomas, and, at a trifling cost, advanced the Union outposts to the borders of Georgia. Burnside and the new Army of the Ohio had now cleared east Tennessee and occupied Knoxville (September 2), and meanwhile Rosecrans by a brilliant movement, in which he displayed no less daring in execution than skill in planning, once more manoeuvred Bragg out of his position and occupied Chattanooga. But he had to fight-to maintain his prize, and in the desperate battle of Chickamauga (q.v.) on the 19th and 20th of September, Bragg, reinforced by Longstreet from Virginia, won a complete victory. Thomas's defence won him the popular title of the " Rock of Chicka- mauga " and enabled Rosecrans to draw off his men, but the critical position of the Army of the Cumberland in Chattanooga aroused great alarm. 23. Chattanooga. — Grant was now given supreme command in the west, and the Army of the Tennessee (now under Sherman) and two corps from Virginia under Hooker were hurried by rail to Tennessee. In spite of his good record Rosecrans was deprived of his command. But Thomas, his successor, was one of the greatest soldiers of the war, and Grant's three generals, all men of great ability, set to work promptly. Hooker defeated Longstreet at Wauhatchie and revictualled Chattanooga (q.v.), and on the 23rd, 24th and 25th of November the three armies attacked Bragg's position. On the left Sherman made little progress; on the right, however, Hooker and the men from the Potomac army fought and won the extraordinary " Battle above the Clouds " on Lookout Mountain, and on the 25th the Confederate centre on Missionary Ridge was brilliantly stormed by Thomas and the Army of the Cumberland. Grant's triumph was decisive of the war in the west, and with Burnside's victory over Longstreet at Knoxville, the struggle for Tennessee was over. Vicksburg, Gettysburg and Chattanooga ended the crisis of the war, which had been at its worst for the Union in this year. Henceforth the South was fighting a hopeless battle. 24. Plan of Campaign for 1864. — Grant, now the foremost soldier in the Federal army, was on the 9th of March 1864 com- missioned lieutenant-general and appointed general-in-chief. Halleck, Lincoln and Stanton, the intractable, if energetic, war secretary, now stood aside, and the efforts of the whole vast army were to be directed and co-ordinated by one supreme military authority. Sherman was to command in the west, Grant's headquarters accompanied Meade and the Army of the Potomac. The general plan was simple and comprehensive. Meade was to " hammer " Lee, and Sherman, at the head of the armies which had been engaged at Chattanooga and Knoxville, was to deal with the other great field army of Confederates under Johnston, and as far as possible gain ground for the Union in the south-east. Sherman's own plans went farther still, and in- cluded an eventual invasion of Virginia itself from the south, but this was not contemplated as part of the immediate programme. Butler with the new Arm}' of the James was to move up that river towards Richmond and Petersburg. Subsidiary forces were to operate on the sea-board, in the Shenandoah Valley and else- where. At this time took place the Red River Expedition, which was intended for the subjugation of western Louisiana. The troops of General Banks and the war vessels under Admiral Porter moved up the Red river, and on the 16th of March 1864 reached Alexandria. Skirmishing constantly with the Confeder- ates under Kirby Smith and Taylor, the Federals eventually on the 8th and 9th of April suffered serious reverses at Sabine Cross Roads and Pleasant Hill. Banks thereupon retreated, and, high water in the river having come to an end, the fleet was in the gravest danger of being cut off, until Colonel Bailey suggested, and rapidly carried out, the construction of a dam and weir over which the ships ran down to the lower waters. Eventually the various forces retired to the places whence they had come. 25. The Wilderness Campaign. — Virginia was now destined to be the scene of the bloodiest fighting of the whole war. Grant and Meade, reinforced by Burnside's IX. Corps to a strength of 120,000 men, crossed the Rapidan on the 4th of May with the intention of attacking Lee's inner flank, that nearer Richmond. With a bare 70,000 men the Confederate general struck at the flank of Grant's marching columns in that same Wilderness where Jackson had won his last battle twelve months before. The battle of the Wilderness (q.v.) went on for two days, with little advantage to either side. On his part Grant had lost 1 8,000 men. Lee had lost fewer, but could ill spare them, and Longstreet had been severely wounded (May 5-6). Grant, astonished perhaps, but here as always resolute, tried again to reach Lee's right wing, and on the 8th another desperate battle began at Spottsylvania (q.v.) Court House. The fighting on this field lasted ten days, at the end of which Grant had doubled his losses and was as far as ever from success. On the 21st of May, with extraordinary pertinacity, he sent Meade and Burnside once more against the inner flank of the Army of northern Virginia. The action of North Anna ended like the rest, though on this occasion the loss was small. A week later the Federals, again moving to their left, arrived upon the ground on which McCIeHan had fought two years before, and at Cold Harbor (Porter's battle- field of Gaines' Mill) the leading troops of the Army of the James joined the lieutenant-general. Meanwhile the minor armies had come to close quarters all along the line. The Army of the James moved towards Richmond on the same day on which the Army of the Potomac crossed the Rapidan. On the 16th of May Butler fought the indecisive battle of Drury's Bluff against Beauregard, in consequence of which he had to retire to Bermuda Hundred, whence most of his troops were sent to join Grant. At the same time the Union troops under Sigel in the Shenandoah Valley were defeated at New Market (May 15). General Hunter, who 824 AMERJCAfN CIVIL WAR replaced Sigel, won a combat at Piedmont, and marched oh: the 8th of June towards Lynchburg. The danger threatening this important point caused Lee to send thither General Early with the remnants of Jackson's old Valley troops. Hunter's assault (June 1 8) failed, and the Federals, unable to hold their ground, had to make a circuitous retreat to the Potomac by way of West Virginia. 26. Cold Harbor. — On the 3rd of June at Cold Harbor (q.v.) took place the last of Grant's " hammering " battles in the open fields. The attack of the Federals failed utterly; not even Fredericksburg was so disastrous a defeat. Six thousand men fell in one hour's fighting, and the total losses on this field, where skirmishing went on for many days, were 13,000. But Grant was as resolute as ever. His forces once more manoeuvred against Lee's inner flank, still found no weak spot, and eventually arrived upon the James. The river was crossed, Lee as usual conforming to the movement, and on the 15th of June the Federals appeared before the works of Petersburg (q.v.). Here, and in the narrow neck of land between the Appomattox and the James, was the ganglion of the Confederacy, and the struggle for its possession was perhaps the greatest of modern history. A first assault made at once (June 15-18) failed with a loss of 815a men. Two sharp combats followed on the 22nd of June and the 2nd of July, as Grant once more began to feel Lee's right. But the anniversary of Gettysburg saw Lee's works still intact, and 72,000 men of the Army of the Potomac and the Army of the James had fallen since ■ the campaign had opened two months before. History has few examples to show comparable to this terrible campaign in Virginia. The ruthless determination of the superior leaders had been answered splendidly by the devotion of the troops, but the men of Chancellorsville and Gettysburg were mostly dead or wounded, and the recruits attracted by bounties or compelled by the " draft," which had at last been enforced ia the North, proved far inferior soldiers to the gallant veterans whom they replaced. 27. Petersburg. — There was no formal siege of Lee's position. A vast network of fortifications covered the front of both armies, whose flank extended far to the south-west, Grant seeking to capture, Lee to defend, the Danville railway by which the Con- federates received their supplies. Richmond, though no longer of paramount importance, was no less firmly held than Peters- burg, and along the whole long line fighting went on with little interruption. On the 30th of July the Federal engineers exploded a mine under the hostile works, and Burnside's corps rushed to the assault. But the attempt ended in failure— the first defeat of the Army of the Potomac which could fairly be called. dis- creditable. Still, Lee was losing men, few it is true, but most precious, since it was impossible to replace them, while the North poured unlimited numbers into the Federal camps. The policy of " attrition " upon which Grant had embarked, and which he was carrying through regardless of his losses, was having its effect. About this time Early, freed from the opposition of Hunter's forces, made a bold stroke upon Washington. Crossing the' Potomac, he marched eastward, and, defeating a motley force (action of the Monocacy) which General Lew Wallace had collected to oppose him, appeared before the lines of Washington. The Federal capital was at the moment almost denuded of troops, and forces hastily despatched from the James only arrived just in time to save it. Thereupon the Confederates retired, narrowly escaping Hunter, and the brief campaign came to an end with an engagement at Kernstown. Early had been nearer to the immediate success than Lee had been in 1862 and 1863, but he had failed utterly to relax Grant's hold on Petersburg, which was becoming daily more crushing. On the decisive theatre the Federals made their way, little by little and at a heavy cost, to the Weldon railway, and beyond it to the westward. Lee's lines were becoming dangerously extended, but he could not allow the enemy to cut him off from the west. On the 25th of August there was a battle at Reams Station, in which the Federals were forced back, and the famous II. Corps under Hancock was for the first time routed. But Grant was tireless, and five davs later another battle was fought, at Peebles Farm, in which the lost ground.was regained. Butler and the Anny of; the James at the same time won some successes in front of the Richmond works. One more attempt to outflank Lee to the westward was made by Grant without success, before wintercame on, and the campaign closed with an expedition, under the .direction of General Warren, which destroyed the Weldon line. Grant had not reached Lee's flank at any point, and his casualties from first to last had been unprecedentedly heavy, but " hammering " was steadily prevailing where skill and valour had failed. 28. Sheridan's Valley Campaign. — In the closing months of the year Grant's brilliant cavalry commander Sheridan had been put in command of an army to operate against Early in the Valley. The Federals in this quarter had hitherto suffered from want of unity in the command (e.g. Banks, Fremont and McDowell in 1862). The Army of the Shenandoah would not be thus handicapped, for Sheridan was a leader of exceptional character. The first encounter took place on the Opequan near Winchester. Early was defeated, but not routed(September 19), and another battle took place near Strasburg (Fisher's Hill) on the 22nd. Always disposing of superior numbers, Sheridan on this occasion won an important victory without much loss. A combat which took place, at Mount Jackson, during the pursuit, again ended successfully, and the triumphant Federals retired down, the Valley, ruthlessly destroying everything which might be of the slightest value to the enemy. Early sharply followed them up, his men infuriated by the devastation of the " Granary of the Confederacy." At Cedar Creek (q.v.), during a momentary absence of the Federal commander, his camps were surprised by Early (October 19).. The Army of the Shenandoah was routed and driven towards the Poitomac. But the gallant stand of the old : Potomac troops of the VI. Corps checked the Confederates. Sheridan arrived on the scene to find a new battle in progress. He was at his best at such a moment, and the rallied Federals under his command swept all before them. The victory was decisive, and, the country being now bare of supplies, the Army of the Shenandoah was sent to reinforce Grant, while the remnant of Early's forces also went to Petersburg. Sheridan's campaign was a. famous episode of the war. It was conducted with skill, though, with twice the numbers of the enemy at his.command, Sheridan's victory was a foregone conclusion. But he had at least shown that he possessed to an unusual degree the real attribute of a great captain— power over men. 29. Sherman and Johnston.— rMeanvrhile Sherman had fought hia Atlanta campaign. General Johnston opposed him almost on the old Chickamauga battle-ground, where the Federal commander, after a brief campaign in Mississippi and Alabama, the result of which was to clear his right flank (February. 3-March 6, 1864)., collected his armies — the Army of the Tennessee under McPherson, the Army of the Cumberland underThomas (Hooker's troops had now become part of this army) and the Army of the Ohio under Schofield. In the celebrated campaign of Atlanta the highest manceuvring skill was displayed by both the famous commanders. Whilst Grant, with his avowed object of crushing Lee's army, lostno opportunity of fighting a battle coute que caftte, Sherman, intent rather on the conquest of territory, acted on different lines. Johnston, than whom there was no better soldier in the Confederate service when a careful defence was required, disposed of sensibly inferior forces, and it was to be: expected that the 18th-century methods of. making war by manceuvring and by combats, not battles, would receive a modern illustration in Georgia. Operations began early in May 1864, and five days of manceuvring and skirmishing about Resaca and Rocky Face ended in Johnston's retirement to Resaca. A fortnight later the same manoeuvres, combined with constant " tapping " at the Confederate defences, caused him to fall back again. At Adairs- ville the same process was gone through, and Johnston retired to Cassville, where he offered battle. Sherman was far too wary to be drawn into an action under unfavourable conditions. If each general had been able to obtain a great battle upon his own terms, each would have fought most willingly, for neither desired a use- less prolongation of the war. As it was, both declined to risk a AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 825 decision. Johnston's inferiority in numbers was now becoming lessened as Sherman had to detach more and more troops to his ever-lengthening communications with Chattanooga. Another manoeuvre brought about a heavy combat near Dallas (Pickett's Mills and New Hope Church, May 25-27). After a time Johnston fell back, and on the 6th of June the Federals appeared before Marietta (q.v.) . Hitherto neither leader had offered a weak spot to his opponent, though the constant skirmishing had caused a loss of 9000 men to Sherman and about two-thirds of that number to the Confederates. At this moment Sherman suddenly changed his policy and sent his troops straight against the hostile entrenchments. The neighbourhood of Marietta witnessed for the next fortnight very heavy fighting, notably at Pine Mountain on the 14th and Kenesaw on the 27th, both actions being frontal assaults gallantly pushed home and as gallantly repulsed. Sherman acted thus in order to teach his own men and the enemy that he was not " afraid," and the lesson was not valueless. He then resumed his manoeuvring, which was now facilitated by improved weather and better roads, 30. A tianta. — Johnston in due time evacuated the Marietta lines. On the 7th of July his fortifications on the Chattahoochee river were turned, and he fell back into the Atlanta (q.v.) position, which was carefully prepared, like all the others, beforehand. Here Johnston was deprived of his command. His campaign had not been unsuccessful, for Sherman had never succeeded in taking him at a disadvantage, but the whole of the South, including President Davis and his chief of staff General Bragg, clamoured for a more " energetic " policy, and General J. B. Hood was put in command on the understanding that he should " fight." The new general, whose bold and skilful leading had been conspicuous on most of the Virginia battlefields, promptly did so. At first successful, the Confederates had in the end to retire. A few days after this battle (called Peach Tree Creek) took place the battle of Atlanta, which was fiercely contested by the veterans of both sides, and in which McPherson, one of the best generals in the Union army, was killed. Still, Hood was again beaten. The Army of the Tennessee, under its new commander General O. O. Howard, fought and won the battle of Ezra Church on the 28th of July, and, Atlanta being now nearly surrounded, Hood was compelled to adopt the Fabian methods of his predecessor, and fell back to the southward. An attack on the Army of the Ohio near Jonesboro concluded the Atlanta campaign, which left Sherman in control of Atlanta, but hampered by the neces- sity of preserving his communications with Chattanooga and weakened by a total loss of 30,000 men. In this celebrated campaign the American generals rivalled if they did not excel the exploits of Marlborough, Eugene and Villars, under allied conditions. 31. The March to the Sea. — Although General Canby, with a Federal force in the south, had been ordered to capture Mobile early in the year — after which he was to operate towards Atlanta — Mobile still flew the Confederate flag, and Hood, about to resume the offensive, was thus able to base himself on Mont- gomery in order to attack Sherman in flank and rear. But the Federal commander was not to be shaken off from his prize. He held firmly to Atlanta, clearing the city of non-combat- ants and in other ways making ready for a stubborn defence. Thomas and the Army of the Cumberland were sent back to guard Tennessee. A heavy attack on the post of Allatoona (to the garrison of which Sherman sent the famous message, " Hold the fort, for I am coming ") was repulsed (October 5). The main armies quickly regained contact, each edging away norths westwards towards the Tennessee and. coming into' contact at Gaylesville, Alabama, and again at Decatur. General Slocum with Hooker's old Potomac troops garrisoned Atlanta, and every important post along the railway to Chattanooga was held in force. Sherman had now resolved to execute his plan of a march through Georgia to the sea and thence through the Carolinas towards Virginia, destroying everything of military value en route. With the provisos that if Lee turned upon Sherman, Grant must follow him up sharply, and that Thomas could be left to deal with Hood (both of which could be, and were, done), the scheme might well be decisive of the war. Preparations were carefully made. Fifty thousand picked men were to march through Georgia with Sherman, and Thomas was to be reinforced by all other forces available. There was no force to oppose the "March to the Sea." Hood was far away on the Tennessee, which he crossed on the 29th of October at Tuscumbia, making for Nashville. Want of supplies checked the Confederates after a few marches, while Schofield was pressing forward to meet them at Pulaski and Thomas was gathering, at Nashville, a motley army drawn from all parts of the west. It was at this same time that Sherman broke up his railway communication, destroying Atlanta as a place of arms, and set out on his adventurous expedition There was little in his path. Skirmishes at Macon and Milledge- ville alone varied the daily routine of railway-breaking and supply-finding, in which a belt of country 60 m. wide was absol- utely cleared. On the 10th of December the army, thoroughly invigorated by its march, appeared before the defences of Savannah. On the 13th of December a division stormed Fort McAllister, and communication was opened with the Federal fleet. The march concluded with the occupation of Savannah on the 20th. 32. Nashville.— Hood, at a loss to divine Sherman's purpose^ hastened on into Tennessee amidst weather which would have stopped most troops. Schofield met him on the Duck river, while Thomas was shaping his army in rear. Hood manoeuvred Schofield out of his lines and pushed on once more. < At Franklin Schofield hadto accept battle, and thirteen distinct assaults on his works were made, all pushed with extraordinary fury and lasting far into the night. Thomas ordered his lieutenant to retire on Nashville, Hood following him up, impressing recruits, transports and supplies, and generally repeating the scenes of Bragg's march of 1862. The civil authorities and the lieutenant-general also urgently demanded that Thomas should advance. Constancy of purpose was the salient feature of Thomas's military character. He would not fight till he was ready. But this last great counter- stroke of the Confederacy alarmed the whole North. So great was the tension that Grant finally sent General J. A. Logan to take command. But before Logan arrived, Thomas had on the 1.5th and 16th of December fought and won the battle of Nashville (q.v.), the most crushing victory of the whole war. Hood's army was absolutely ruined. Only a remnant of it reassembled beyond the Tennessee. 33. The Carolinas.— From Savannah, Sherman started on his final march through the Carolinas. Columbia, his first objective, was reached on the 17th of February 1865. As usual, all that could be of possible value to the enemy was destroyed and^ by some accident, the town itself was burned. Sherman, like Sheridan, was much criticized for his methods of reducing opposi- tion, but it does not seem that his " bummers " were guilty of wanton cruelty and;destructiveness, at least in> general,' though the cavalry naturally gave-more ground for the accusation than the main body of the army. And the methods of the Confeder- ates had on occasion been somewhat similar. The Confederate general Hardee managed to gather some force (chiefly from the evacuated coast towns) wherewith to oppose the onward progress of the Federals. As commander-in-chief, Lee now reappointed Johnston to command, and the latter soon attacked and very nearly defeated his old opponent at Bentonville (March 10-20). But the '< bummers K were no mere marauders,: but picked men from the armies that had won Vicksburg and Chatta- nooga, and, though surrounded, held their ground stoutly and successfully. Advancing once more, they were joined at Golds-* boro by the forces lately besieging Fort Fisher (see below), and nearly_ 90,000 men marched northward towards Virginia, pushing Johnston's weak army before them. Meanwhile the bulk of the forces at Nashville had been sent to the north-east to close Leefe escape to the mountains, and in March the final campaign had opened at Petersburg. - 34. The Final Campaign — At last Lee's men had lost heart in the unequal struggle. Sheridan raided the upper James and destroyed all supplies. Grant lay in front of the Armyiof northern Virginia with 125,000 men, and when active operation^ 826 AMERICAN CIVIL WAR began Lee had no resource but to try and escape to the south- west in order .to join Johnston. The western movement was covered by a furious sortie from the lines of Petersburg, which was repulsed with heavy loss. Grant felt that this was a mere feint to screen some other move, and instantly carried the Army of the Potomac to the westward, leaving a bare screen of troops in his lines. On the 29th of March the movement began, followed in rapid succession by the combats of White Oak Road and Din- widdie Court House and Sheridan's great victory of Five Forks. At the same time the VI. Corps at last carried the Petersburg lines by storm. Thereupon Lee and Longstreet evacuated the Peters- burg and Richmond lines and began their retreat. Their men were practically starving, though their rearguard showed a brave front. The remnant of Ewell's corps was cut off at Sailor's Creek, and when Sheridan got ahead of the Confederates while Grant furiously pressed them in the rear, surrender was inevitable (April 8). On the 9th the gallant remnant of the Army of northern Virginia laid down its arms at Appomattox Court House, and the Confederacy came to an end. Johnston surrendered to Sherman at Durham Station on the 26th , and soon afterwards all the remain- ing Confederate soldiers followed their example. So ended the gigantic struggle, as to the conduct of which it is only necessary to quote, with a more general application, the envoi of a Federal historian, " It has not seemed necessary to me to attempt a eulogy of the Army of the Potomac or the Army of northern Virginia." The general terms of surrender were that the Con- federates should give up all material, and sign a parole not to take up arms again. There were no manifestations of triumph or exultation on the part of the victors, the lot of the vanquished was made as easy as possible, and after a short time the armies melted into the mass of the people without disturbance or disorder. A general amnesty proclaimed by the president of the United States on the 29th of May was the formal ending of the Civil War. 35. Character of the War. — No undisciplined levies could have fought as did the armies on both sides. Grave faults the men had, from the regular's point of view. They required humouring, and their march discipline was very elastic. But in battle the " think- ing bayonets " resolutely obeyed orders, even though it were to attack a Marye's Hill, or a " Bloody Angle," for they had under- taken their task and would carry it through unflinchingly. So much may be said of both armies. The great advantage of the Confederate — an advantage which he had in a less degree as against the hardier and country-bred Federal of the west — was that he was a hunter and rider born and bred, an excellent shot, and still not infrequently settled his quarrels by the duel. The town-bred soldier of the eastern states was a thoughtful citizen who was determined to do his duty, but he had far less natural aptitude for war than his enemy from the Carolinas or his comrade from Illinois or Kansas. At the same time the more varied con- ditions of urban life made him more adaptable to changes of climate and of occupation than the " Southron." Irish brigades served on both sides and shot each other to pieces as at Fredericks- burg. They had the reputation of being excellent soldiers. The German divisions, on the other hand, were rarely as good as the rest. The leading of these men was in the hands, as a rule, of regular or ex-regular officers, who made many mistakes in their handling of large masses, but had been taught at West Point and on the Indian frontier to command men in danger, and administer them in camp. The volunteer officers rarely led more than a division. When given high command at once they usually failed, but the best of them rose gradually to the superior ranks; Logan, for instance, became an army commander, Sickles, Terry and others corps commanders. Cleburne, one of the best division commanders of the South, had been a corporal in the British army. Meagher, the leader of the " Irish brigade " at Fredericksburg, was the young orator of the " United Irishmen." But Lee, the Johnstons, McClellan, Grant and Sherman had all served in the old army. Most of them were young men in 1861. Stuart was twenty-eight, Sheridan thirty, Grant and Jackson under forty, while some of the subordinate generals were actually fresh from West Point. 36. Strategy and Tactics. — The roughness of much of the country gave a peculiar tone to the strategy of the combatants. Roads were untrustworthy, rivers swelled suddenly, advance and retreat were conditioned and compelled, especially in the case of the ill-equipped Confederates, by the exigencies of food supply. Long forward strides of the Napoleonic type were rarely attempted; " changes of base " were indeed made across country, and over considerable distances, as by Sherman in 1864, but ordinarily either the base and the objective were connected by rail or water, or else every forward step was, after the manner of Marlborough's time, organized as a separate campaign. Hence field fortifications played an unusually prominent part, time and material being available as a rule for works of solid construction. In isolated instances of more rapid campaigning — e.g. Antietam and Gettysburg — they were of subordinate importance. The attack and defence of these entrenchments led to tactical phenomena of unusual interest. Cavalry could not bring about the decision in such country, and sought a field for its restless activity elsewhere. Artillery had fallen, technically, far behind the infantry arm, and in face of long-range rifle fire could not annihilate the hostile line with case-shot fire as in the days of Napoleon. In a battle such as Chancellorsville or the Wilderness guns were almost valueless, since there was little open space in which they might be used. It thus fell to the infantry to attack and defend with its own weapons, and the defence was, locally, almost inexpugnable behind its tall breastworks. One line of works could be stormed, but there were almost always two or three retrenchments behind. The attacking infantry, who found it necessary to cross a fire-swept zone 1000 yds. broad, had to be used resolutely in masses, line following line, and each carrying forward the wrecks of its predecessor. Partial attacks were invariably costly failures. The use of masses was never put in practice more sternly than by Grant in 1864. At the same time, as has been said, the cavalry arm found plenty of work. The horses were not trained for European shock-tactics, nor did the country offer charging room, and though melees of mounted men engaging with sword and pistol were not infrequent, the usual method of fighting was dismounted fire action, which was prac- tised with uncommon skill by the troopers on both sides. The far-ranging strategic " raid " was a notable feature of the war; freely employed by both sides, it was sometimes harmful, more usually profitable, especially to the South, by reason of the captures in material, the information acquired and the alarm and confusion created. These raids, and the more ordinary screening work, were never executed more brilliantly than by Lee's great cavalry general, " Jeb " Stuart, in Virginia, but the Federal generals, Pleasonton and Sheridan, did excellent work in the east, as also Wheeler and Forrest on the Confederate, Wilson and Grierson on the Federal, side in the west. The technical services, in which the mechanical skill and ingenuity of the American had full play, developed remarkable efficiency. Whether it was desired to build a railway bridge, disable a locomotive or cut a canal, the engineers were always ready with some happy expedi- ent. On one occasion an infantry division of 8000 men repaired 102 miles of railway and built 182 bridges in 40 days, forging their own tools and using local resources. Many novelties, too, such as the field telegraph, balloons and signalling, were employed. 37. The Union and Confederate Navies. — The naval war had been likewise fruitful of lessons for the future. Though wooden ships were still largely employed, the ironclad even then had begun to take a commanding place, and the sailing ship at last disappeared from naval warfare. Mines, torpedoes and sub- marines were all employed, and with the " Monitor " may fairly be said to have begun the application of mechanical science to the uses of naval war. The Federal navy was enormously expanded. Three hundred and thirteen steamers were brought into the service. Sloops of an excellent type were built for work on the high seas, of which the celebrated " Kearsarge " was one. Gun- boats were constructed so fast that they were called " ninety-day gunboats." Special reversible paddle steamers (called double- enders) were designed for service in the inlets and estuaries, and sixty-six ironclads were built and employed during the four AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 827 years. Mississippi river steamers were armed with heavy guns and protected by armour, boiler-plates, cotton bales, &c, and some fast cruisers were constructed for ocean work, one of them actually reaching the high speed of 17-75 m - P er hour. The existing Federal navy of 1861 already included some large and powerful modern vessels, such as the " Minnesota " and " Powhatan." To oppose them the Confederates, limited as they were for means, managed to construct various ironclads, and to improvise a considerable fleet of minor vessels, and, though a fighting navy never assembled under a Confederate flag-officer, the Southern warships found another more damaging and more profitable scope for their activity. It has been said that the blockade of the Confederate coast became in the end practically impenetrable, and that every attempt of the Confederate naval forces to break out was checked at once by crushing numerical preponderance. The exciting and profitable occupation of blockade-running led to countless small fights off the various harbours, and sometimes the United States navy had to fight a more serious action when some new " rebel " ironclad emerged from her harbour, inlet or sound. 38. Fort Fisher. — Many of the greater combats in which the navy was engaged on the coast and inland have been referred to above, and thefighting before Charleston,NewOrleans,Mobileand Vicksburg is described in separate articles. One of the heaviest of the battles was fought at Fort Fisher in 1864. This place guarded the approaches to Wilmington, North Carolina. Troops under Butler and a large fleet under Admiral Porter were destined for this enterprise. An incendiary vessel was exploded close to the works without effect on the 23rd-24th of December, and the ships engaged on the 24th. The next day the troops were disembarked, only to be called off after a partial assault. B utler then withdrew, and Porter was informed on the 31st that " a competent force properly commanded " would be sent out. On the 8th of January 1865 General Terry arrived with the land forces, and the armada arrived off Fisher on the 12th. On the 13th, 6000 men were landed, covered by the guns of the fleet, and, after Porter had subjected the works to a terrific bombardment, Fisher was bril- liantly carried by storm on the 15th. Reinforcements arriving, the whole force then marched inland to meet Sherman. 39. Other Naval Actions. — Apart from this, and other actions referred to, two incidents of the coast war call for notice — the career of the " Albemarle " and the duel between the " Atlanta " and the " Weehawken." The ironclad ram " Albemarle," built at Edwards' Ferry on the Roanoke river, had done considerable damage to the Federal vessels which, since Burnside's expedition to Newberne, had cruised in Albemarle Sound, and in 1864 a force of double-enders and gunboats, under Captain Melancton Smith, U.S.N., was given the special task of destroying the rebel ram. A naval battle was fought on the 5th of May 1864, in which the double-ender " Sassacus " most gallantly rammed the " Albemarle " and was disabled alongside her, and Smith's vessel and others, unarmoured as they were, fought the ram at close quarters. After this the ironclad retired upstream, where she was eventually destroyed in the most daring manner by a boat's crew under Lieutenant W. B. Cushing. Making his way up the Roanoke as far as Plymouth he there sank the ironclad at her wharf by exploding a spar-torpedo (October 27). On the 17th of June 1863 after a brief action the monitor " Weehawken " captured the Confederate ironclad " Atlanta " in Wassaw Sound, South Carolina. This duel resembled in its attendant circumstances the famous fight of the " Chesapeake " and the " Shannon." Captain John Rodgers, like Broke, was one of the best officers, and the " Weehawken," like the "Shannon," was known as one of the smartest ships in the service. Five heavy accurate shots from the Federal's turret guns crushed the enemy in a few minutes. 40. The Commerce- Destroyers. — Letters of marque were issued to Confederate privateers as early as April 1861, and Federal commerce at once began to suffer. When, however, surveillance became blockade, prizes could only with difficulty be brought into port, and, since the parties interested gained nothing by burning merchantmen, privateering soon died out, and was replaced by commerce-destroying pure and simple, carried out by com- missioned vessels of the Confederate navy. Captain Raphael Semmes of the C.S.S. " Sumter" made a successful cruise on the high seas, and before she was abandoned at Gibraltar had made seventeen prizes. Unable to build at home, the Confederates sought warships abroad, evading the obligations of neutrality by various ingenious expedients. The " Florida " (built at Liverpool in 1861-1862) crossed the Atlantic, refitted at Mobile, escaped the blockaders, and fulfilled the instructions which, as her captain said, " left much to the discretion but more to the torch." She was captured by the U.S.S. " Wachusett " in the neutral harbour of Bahia (October 7, 1862). The most suc- cessful of the foreign-built cruisers was the famous " Alabama," commanded by Semmes and built at Liverpool. In the course of her career she burned or brought into port seventy prizes, fought and sank the U.S.S. " Hatteras " off Galveston, and was finally sunk by the U.S.S. " Kcarsarge," Captain Winslow, off Cherbourg (June 10, 1864). The career of another promising cruiser, the " Nashville," was summarily ended by the Federal monitor "Montauk" (February 28,1863). The "Shenandoah" was burning Union whalers in the Bering Sea when the war came to an end. None of the various " rams " built abroad for the " rebel " government ever came into action. The difficulties of coaling and the obligations of neutrality hampered these commerce-destroyers as much as the Federal vessels that were chasing them, but, in spite of drawbacks, the guerre de course was the most successful warlike operation undertaken by the Confederacy. The mercan- tile marine of the United States was almost driven off the high seas by the terror of these destructive cruisers. 41. Cost of the War. — The total loss of life in the Union forces during the four years of war was 359,528, and of the many thousands discharged from the services as disabled or otherwise unfit, a large number died in consequence of injuries or disease incurred in the army. The estimate of 500,000 in all may be taken as approximately correct. The same number is given as that of the Southern losses, which of course fell upon a much smaller population. The war expenditure of the Federal govern- ment has been estimated at $3,400,000,000; the very large sums devoted to the pensions of widows, disabled men, &c, are not included in this amount (Dodge). In 1879 an estimate made of all Federal war expenses up to that date, including pension charges, interest on loans, &c, showed a total of $6,190,000,000 (Dewey, Financial History of the United States). Bibliography. — The United Statesgovernment'sO$«W .Records 0/ the Union and Confederate Armies (70 vols., most of which are divided into two or three " parts," and atlas, 1880-1900) include every im- portant official document of either side that it was possible to obtain in the course of many years' work. A similar but less voluminous work is the Records of the Union and Confederate Navies (1894- ) ; The Rebellion Record (1862-1868), edited by F. W. Moore, a contem- porary collection, has been superseded to a great extent by the official records, but is still valuable as a collection of unofficial docu- ments of all kinds. Battles and Leaders of the Civil War (1887-1889) is a series of papers, covering the whole war, written by the prominent commanders of both sides. The sixteen volumes of the Campaigns of the Civil War (1881-1882) and the Navy in the Civil War (1883) (written by various authors) are of very unequal merit, but several of the volumes are indispensable to the study of the Civil War. Of general works the following are the best : — Comte de Paris, History of the Civil War in America, translated from the French (1875^1888) ; Horace Greeley, The American Conflict (1864-1866); J. Scheibert, Der Biirgerkrieg i. d. Nordam. Freistaaten (Berlin, 1874) ; Wood and Edmonds, Civil War in the United States (London, 1905) ; T. A. Dodge, Bird's Eye View of our Civil War (revised edition, 1887) ; E. A. Pollard, A Southern History of the War (1866). The con- temporary accounts mentioned should be studied with caution. Of critical works, J. C. Ropes, The Story of the Civil War (1894-1898); G. F. R. Henderson, Stonewall Jackson and the American Civil War (London, 1898) and The Science of War, chapters viii. and ix. (London, 1905) ; C. C. Chesney, 'Essays in Military Biography (1874) ; Freytag- Loringhoven, Studien ilber Kriegfiihrung, 1861-186^ (Berlin, 1901- 1903), are the most important. Publications of the Military Historical Society of Massachusetts (vols, i.-x., 1881 onwards) also comprise critical accounts of nearly all the important campaigns. A critical account of the Virginian operations and the Chickamauga campaign is Gen. E. P. Alexander's Military Memoirs of a Confederate (1906). C. R. Cooper, Chronological and Alphabetical Record of the Great Civil War (Milwaukee, 1904) may be mentioned as a work of reference. 828 AMERICAN LAW A fairly complete bibliography will be found in J. N. Lamed, Litera- ture of American History (Boston, 1902), and useful lists in Ropes, op. cit., and in the Cambridge Modern History, vol. vii. p. 812. For biographies, memoirs and general works, see the lists appended to the various biographical articles and to the articles United States and Confederate States. (C. F. A.) AMERICAN LAW. The laws of the various states and terri- tories of the United States rest at bottom on the same foundation as those of England, namely, the English common law as it existed at the beginning of the 17 th century. (See English Law.) The only exceptions worth noting are to be found in the state of Louisiana, the territory of New Mexico, and the acquisi- tions following the Spanish war of 1898. Those derive most of their law from France or Spain, and thus remotely from the principles of Roman jurisprudence. A part also, but compara- tively a small part , of the law of Texas, Missouri, Arizona and the Pacific states comes from similar sources. The United States as a whole has no common law, except so far as its courts have followed the rules of English common-law procedure in determin- ing their own. Most of the positive law of the United States comes from the several states. It is the right of each state to regulate at its pleasure the general relations of persons within its territory to each other, as well as all rights to property subject to its jurisdiction. Each state has also its own system of adjective law. The trial courts of the United States of original jurisdiction follow in general the practice of the state in which they sit as to procedure in cases of common-law character. As to that in equity, or what means the same thing, chancery causes, they follow in general the practice of the English court of chancery as it existed towards the close of the 18th century, when the original Judiciary Act of the United States was adopted. The public statutes of the United States are to be found in the Revised Statutes of 1875, and in the succeeding volumes of the Statutes at Large, enacted by each Congress. Those of each state and territory are printed annually or biennially as they are enacted by each legis- lature, and are commonly revised every fifteen or twenty years, the revision taking the place of all former public statutes, and being entitled Revised Statutes, General Statutes, or Public Laws. The private or special laws of each state, so far as such legislation is permitted by its constitution, are in some states published separately, and made the subject of similar compilations or revisions; in others they are printed with the public session laws. American courts are often given power by statute to make rules of procedure which have the force of laws. Municipal sub- divisions of a state generally have authority from the legislature to make ordinances or by-laws on certain subjects, having the character of a local law, with appropriate sanctions, commonly by fine or forfeiture. Law in the United States has been greatly affected by the results of the Civil War. During its course (1861-1865) the powers of the president of the United States may be said to Amend- ^ ave Deen re-defined by the courts. It was its first civil meat. war, and thus for the first time the exercise of the military authority of the United States within a state which had not sought its aid became frequent and necessary. Next followed the amendments of the Constitution of the United States having for their special purpose the securing beyond question of the permanent abolition of slavery and the civil and political rights of the coloured race. At the outset the Supreme Court of the United States was inclined to treat them as having a very limited operation in other directions. One of the provisions of the XIV th Amendment is that no state shall deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. The benefit of this guarantee was claimed by the butchers of New Orleans, in contending against a monopoly in respect of the slaughter of cattle granted by the state of Louisiana to a single corporation. Their suit was dismissed by (he Supreme Court in 1873, with the expression of a doubt whether any action of a state not directed by way of discrimination against the negroes as a class, o* on account of their race, would ever be held to come ■within the purview of the provision in question. 1 The chief justice and three of his associates dissented from the judgment, 1 The Slaughter-House Cases, 16 Wallace's Reports, 36, 81. holding that the XIV th Amendment did protect the citizens of the United States against the deprivation of their common rights by state legislation. 2 Public sentiment supported the view of the minority, and it was not long before changes in the personnel of the court, occurring in common course, led it to the same conclusions. The protection of the XIV th Amendment is now invoked before it more frequently than is that afforded by any other article of the Constitution. In one of its recent terms twenty-one cases of this nature were decided. 3 Very few of them related to the negro. Since the decision in the Slaughter-House Cases, the controversies as to the constitutional rights of the negro have been comparatively infrequent, but there has been a great and steadily increasing number in all the courts in the country, involving questions of discrimination in favour of or against particular individuals, or of changes affecting the rights of parties in the accustomed forms of judicial procedure. Down to 1868, when this amendment was adopted, it was, as to most matters, for the state alone to settle the civil rights and immunities of those subject to its jurisdiction. If they were to be free from arbitrary arrests, secure in liberty and property, equal in privilege and entitled to an impartial administration, it was because the constitution of the state so declared. Now they have the guarantee of the United States that the state shall never recede from these obligations. This has readjusted and reset the whole system of the Ameiican law of personal rights. 4 The Supreme Court of the United States has used the great power thus confided to it with moderation. Its general rules of decision are well stated in these words of Mr Justice Brown, found in one of its recent opinions: — " In passing upon the validity of legislation, attacked as contrary to the XlVth Amendment, it has not failed to recognize the fact that the law is, to a certain extent, a progressive science; that in some of the states methods of procedure, which at the time the constitution was adopted were deemed essential to the protection and safety of the people or to the liberty of, the citizen, have been found to be no longer necessary ; that restrictions which had formerly been laid upon the conduct of individuals, or of classes of individuals, had proved detrimental to their interests; while, upon the other hand, certain other classes of persons, particularly those engaged in dangerous or unhealthful employments, have been found to be in need of additional protection. Even before the adoption of the constitution, much had been done toward mitigating the severity of the common law, particularly in the administration of its criminal branch. The number of capital crimes, in this country at least, had been largely decreased. Trial by ordeal and by battle had never existed here, and had fallen into disuse in England. The earlier practice of the common law, which denied the benefit of witnesses to a person accused of felony, had been abolished by statute, though, so far as it deprived him of the assistance of counsel and compulsory process for the attendance of his witnesses, it had not been changed in England. But, to the credit of her American colonies, let it be said that so oppressive a doctrine had never obtained a foothold there. The 19th century originated legal reforms of no less importance. The whole fabric of special pleading, once thought to be necessary to the elimination of the real issue between the parties, has crumbled to pieces. The ancient tenures of real estate have been largely swept away, and land is now transferred almost as easily and cheaply as personal property. Married women have been emancipated from the control of their husbands, and placed upon a practical equality with them with respect to the acquisition, possession and trans- mission pi property. Imprisonment for debt has been abolished. Exemptions from executions have been largely added to, and in most of the states homesteads are rendered incapable of seizure and sale upon forced process. Witnesses are no longer incompetent by reason of interest, even though they be parties to the litigation. Indictments have been simplified, and an indictment for the most serious of crimes. is now the simplest of all. In several of the states grand juries, formerly the only safeguard against a malicious prosecu- tion, have been largely abolished, and in others the rule of unanimity, so far as applied to civil cases, has given way tp verdicts rendered, by a three-fourths majority. This case does not call for an expression of opinion as to the wisdom of these changes, or their validity under the XlVth Amendment,, although the substitution of prosecution by information in lieu of indictment was recognized as valid in Hurtado v. California, no U.S. 516. They are mentioned only for the purpose of calling attention to the probability that other changes of no less importance may be made in the future, and that while the cardinal principles of justice are immutable, the methods by which justice ! Ibid. 89, in, 129. 3 Guthrie on the Fourteenth Amendment, 27. 4 Baldwin's Modern Political Institutions, in, 112. AMERICAN LAW 829 is administered are subject to constant fluctuation, and that the Constitution of the United States, which is necessarily and to a large extent inflexible and exceedingly difficult of amendment, should not be so construed as to deprive the states of the power to amend their laws so as to make them conform to the wishes of the citizens as they may deem best for the public welfare without bringing them into conflict with the supreme law of the land. Of course, it is impossible to forecast the character or extent of these changes, but in view of the fact that from the day Magna Carta was signed to the present moment, amendments to the structure of the law have been made with increasing frequency, it is impossible to suppose that they will not continue, and the law be forced to adapt itself to new conditions of society, and particularly to the new relations between employers and employees, as they arise." 1 The Civil War deeply affected also the course of judicial decision in the southern states. During its progress it engaged the attention of a very large part of the population, and the business of the courts necessarily was greatly lessened. Upon its close political power passed, for a time, into new hands, and many from the northern and western states took prominent positions both at the bar and on the bench. The very basis of society was changed by the abolition of slavery. New state constitutions were adopted, inspired or dictated by the ideas of the North. The transport system was greatly extended, and commerce by land took to a large extent the place formerly filled by commerce by navigation. Manufacturing came in to supplement agricultural industry. Cities grew and assumed a new importance. Northern capital sought investment in every state. It was a natural con- sequence of all these things that the jurisprudence of the South should come to lose whatever had been its distinctive character. The unification of the nation inevitably tended to unify its law. An important contribution towards this result was made by the organization of the American Bar Association in 1878. Of the fourteen signers of the call for the preliminary Associit- conference, five were from the southern states. Its Uob. declared objects were " to advance the science of juris- prudence, promote the administration of justice and uniformity of legislation throughout the Union, uphold the honour of the profession of the law, and encourage cordial intercourse among the members of the American Bar." Largely through its efforts, the American law schools have taken on a new character. The course of study has been both broadened and prolonged, and the attendance of students has schools. increased in full proportion to the additions to the facilities for obtaining a more thorough training in the profession. When the association commenced its labours, those studying law in the offices of practising lawyers very largely out- numbered those found in the law school. The proportion is now reversed. During the year 1900, for instance, the state board of law examiners in New York examined 899 applicants for admission to the bar of that state. Of these all but 157 had received their legal education wholly or in part at a law school. 2 In 1878 few law schools had adopted any system of examination for those desiring to enter them. Such a requirement for admission is now common. In only one school were opportunities then afforded for advanced studies by graduate students with a view to attaining the doctorate in law. Courses of this description are now offered by several of the university schools. A more scientific character has thus been taken on by American law. It is noticeable both in legal text-books and in the opinions of the courts of last resort. In the latter precision of statement and method in discussion are invited by the uniform practice of preparing written opinions. The original practice of reading these from the bench has been generally discontinued. They are simply handed down to an official reporter for publication, which is done at the expense of the government by which the court is commissioned. With the judicial reports of each state the lawyers of that state are required to be familiar; and this is rendered possible, even in the larger ones, by state digests, prepared every few years by private enter- prise. Outside of the state their circulation is comparatively limited, though sets of all are generally found in each state library, 1 Holden v. Hardy, 169 United States Reports, 336, 385-387. 2 Columbia Law Review, i. 99. Reports. and of many in the Bar libraries at the principal county seats. The private libraries of lawyers in large practice also often cori^ tain the reports of adjoining and sometimes those of distant states as well as those of their own and of the Supreme Court of the United States. The decisions of one state, however, are now best known in others through unofficial reports. One large publishing concern prints every case decided in the courts of last resort. They are published in several distinct series, those, for instance, coming from the northern Atlantic states being grouped together as the Atlantic Reporter, and those from the states on the Pacific coast- as the Pacific Reporter. Another house has published a compilation professing to give all the leading American cases from the first to the latest volume of reports. Another makes a similar selection from the decisions of each year as they appear, and publishes them with critical annotations. There are also annual digests of a national character, comprehending sub- stantially all American cases and the leading English cases reported during the preceding year. These various publications are widely diffused, and so the American lawyer is enabled, in preparing for the argument of any cause involving questions of difficulty, to inform himself with" ease of such precedents'as may apply. A court in Texas is thus as likely to be made acquainted with a decision in Maine or Oregon as with one in any nearer state, and in the development of American law all American courts are brought in close touch with each other. This tendency has been advanced by the steady growth of codification. That is beginning also to serve to bring English and American law nearer together in certain directions. Englisn A Negotiable Instruments Act, promoted by the and American Bar Association, and prepared by a confer- American* ence of commissioners appointed by the several states ' to concert measures of uniform legislation, has been adopted in the leading commercial states. It is founded upon the English " Chalmers's Act," and the English decisions giving a construction to that have become of special importance. The acts of partial ment known as the Employers' Liability Act and the Railway and Canal Traffic Act have also served as the foundation of similar legislation in the United States, and with the same result. Modern English decisions are, however, cited less frequently in American courts than the older ones; and the older ones them- selves are cited far less frequently than they once were. In the development of their legislation, England and the United States have been in general harmony so far as matters of large com- mercial importance are concerned, but as to many others they have since 1850 drawn apart. Statutes, at one point or .another,* probably now affect the disposition of most litigated causes in both countries. Their application, therefore, must serve more or less to obscure or displace general principles, which might other- wise control the decision and make it a source of authority in foreign tribunals. The movement of the judicial mind in the United States, and also its modes and form of expression, have a different measure from that which characterizes what comes from the English bench. American judges are so numerous, and (except as to the Supreme Court of the United States) the extent of their territorial jurisdiction so limited, that they can give more time to the careful investigation of points of difficulty, and also to the methodical statement of their conclusions. Whatever they decide upon appeal being announced in writing, and destined to form part of the permanent published records of the state, they are expected and endeavour to study their words and frame opinions not only sound in law but unobjectionable as literary, compositions. The choice of American judges, particularly in the older states, has been not uninfluenced by these considerations. Marshall, Bushrod Washington, Story, Kent, Ware, Bradley, and many of their contemporaries and successors, were put upon the bench in part because of their legal scholarship and their power of felicitous expression. Hence the better American opinions have more elaboration and finish than many which come from the English courts, and are more readily accepted as authorities by American judges. But the great multiplication of reports haS 8;o AMERICAN LAW so widened the field of citation as in effect to reduce it. Each of the larger and older states has now a settled body of legal precedent of its own, beyond which its judges in most cases do not look. If a prior decision applies, it is controlling. If there be none, they prefer to decide the case, if possible, on principle rather than authority. While the state courts are bound to accept the construction placed upon the Constitution and laws of the United States by the Supreme Court of the United States, and thus uniformity of decision is secured in that regard, the courts of the United States, on the other hand, are as a rule obliged to accept in all other particulars the construction placed by the courts of each state on its constitution and laws. This often gives a seeming incon- gruity to the decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States. A point in a case coming up from one judicial circuit may be determined in a way wholly different from that followed in a previous judgment in a cause turning upon the same point, but appealed from another circuit, because of a departure from the common law in one state which has not been made in another. In view of this, a doctrine originally proposed by Mr Justice Story in 1842 l has not been infrequently invoked of late years, which rests upon the assumed existence of a distinctive federal jurisprudence of paramount authority as to certain matters of general concern, as for example those intimately affecting commerce between the states or with foreign nations. The consequence is that a case involving such questions may be differently adjudged, according as it is brought in a state or in a federal court. 2 The divergences now most noticeable between English and American law are in respect of public control over personal liberty and private property, criminal procedure and the scope of the powers of municipal corporations. Under the constitutional provision that no one shall be deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of law, American courts frequently declare void statutes which in England would be within the acknowledged powers of parliament. These provisions are liberally expounded in favour of the individual, and liberty is held to include liberty of contract as well as of person. Criminal procedure is hedged about with more refinements and safeguards to the accused than are found in England, and on the other hand, prosecutions are more certain to follow the offence, because they are universally brought by a public officer at public expense. The artificiality of the proceed- ings is fostered by a general right of appeal on points of law to the court of last resort. It is in criminal causes involving questions of common-law liability and procedure 3 that English law-books and reports are now most frequently cited. American municipal corporations are confined within much narrower limits than those of England, and their powers more strictly construed. Trial by jury in civil causes seems to be declining in public esteem. The expenses necessarily incident to it are naturally th lb increasing, and the delays are greater also from a lury. general tendency, especially in cities, where most judicial business is transacted, to reduce the number of hours a day during which the court is in session. The require- ment of unanimity is dispensed with in a few states, and it has been thus left without what many deem one of its essential features. The judge interposes his authority to direct and expedite the progress of the trial less frequently and less per- 1 Swift v. Tyson, 16 Peter?' Reports, 1, 19. * See Forepaugh v. Delaware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad Company, 128 Pennsylvania State Reports, 267; Faulkner v. Hart, 82 New York Reports, 313; and Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railway Company v. Prentice, 147 United States Reports, 101. 3 See, as examples, Commonwealth v. Rubin, 165 Massachusetts Reports, 453, in which Holmes, CJ., traces the rule that, if a man abuse an authority given him by the law, he becomes a trespasser ab initio, back to the Year Books; and Commonwealth v. Cleary, 172 Massachusetts Reports, 175, in which the same judge refers to Glan- ville and Fleta as authority for the proposition that the admission in evidence, in cases of rape, of complaints made by the woman soon after the commission of the offence is a perverted survival of the old rule that she could not bring an appeal unless she had made prompt hue and cry. emptorily than in England. A jury is waived more often than formerly, and there is a growing conviction that, with a capable and independent judiciary, justice can be looked for more confidently from one man than from thirteen. The United States entered on the work of simplifying the forms of pleading earlier than England, but has not carried it so far. Demurrers have not been abandoned, and in some states little has been done except to replace one system of formality by another hardly less rigid. The general plan has been to codify the laws of pleading by statute. In a few states they have proceeded more nearly in accordance with the principles of the English Judicature Act, and left details to be worked out by the judges, through rules of court. 4 Most of the state constitutions assume that the powers of government can be divided into three distinct departments, executive, legislative and judicial; and direct such a distribution. In thus ignoring the administrative tatunfaad functions of the state, they have left a difficult que-itxn the courts. for the courts, upon which the legislature often seeks in part to cast them. The general tendency has been to construe, in such circumstances, the judicial power broadly, and hold that it may thus be extended over much which is rather to be called quasi-judicial. 6 A distinction is taken between entrusting juris- diction of this character to the courts, and imposing it upon them. Where the statute can be construed as simply permissive, the authority may be exercised as a matter of grace, when it would be peremptorily declined, were the meaning of the legislature that it must be accepted. 6 The courts, for similar reasons, have generally declined (in the absence of any constitutional require- ment to that effect) to advise the legislature, at its request, whether a proposed statute, if enacted, would be valid. While its validity, were it to be enacted, might become the subject of a judicial decision, it is thought for that reason, if for no other, to be improper to prejudge the point, without a hearing of parties interested. The constitutions of several states provide for such a proceeding, and in these the Supreme Court is not infrequently called upon in this way, and gives responses which are always considered decisive of legislative action, but would not be treated as conclusive in any subsequent litigation that might arise. The general trend of opinion in the Supreme Court of the United States since 1870, upon questions other than those arising under the XlVth Amendment, has been towards recog- nizing the police power of the several states as entitled power to a broad scope. Even, for instance, in such a matter of states. as the regulation of commerce between different states, it has been upheld as justifying a prohibition against running any goods trains on a Sunday, and a requirement that all railway cars must be heated by steam. 7 In the " Granger Cases," 8 the right of the state to fix the rate of charges for the use of a grain elevator for railway purposes, and for general railway services of trans- portation, was supported, and although the second of these was afterwards overruled, 9 the principle upon which it was originally rested was not shaken. On the other hand, reasons of practical convenience have necessarily favoured the substantial obliteration of state lines as to the enforcement of statutory private rights. Massachusetts in 1840, six years before the passage of Lord Campbell's Act, provided a remedy by indictment for the negligent killing of a man by a railway company, a pecuniary penalty being fixed which the state was to collect for the benefit of his family. In most of the other states by later statutes a similar result has been reached through a civil action brought by the executor or administrator 4 This has been carried furthest in Connecticut. See Botsford v. Wallace, 72 Connecticut Reports, 195. 5 Norwalk Street Railway Company's Appeal, 69 Connecticut Reports, 576; 38 Atlantic Reporter, 708. 6 Zanesville v. Zanesville Telephone Company, 63 Ohio State Re- ports, 442; 59 North-Eastern Reporter, 109. 7 New York Railroad v. New York, 165 United States Reports, 628. 8 Munn v. Illinois, 94 United States Reports, 1 13; Chicago Railroad Company v. Iowa, ibid. 155. - 9 Wabash Railway Company v. Illinois, 118 United States Reports, 557 ; Reagan v. Farmers' Loan and Trust Company, 154 Un't^ States Reports, 362. AMERICAN LITERATURE 831 Begin- nings. as an agent of the law. In some, however, the state must be the plaintiff; in others the widow, if any there be. The accident resulting in death often occurs in a state where the man who was killed does not reside, or in which the railway company does not have its principal seat. It may therefore be desirable to sue in one state for an injury in another. Notwithstanding such an action is unknown to the common law, and rests solely on a local statute, the American courts uniformly hold that, when civil in form, it can be brought under such statutes in any state the public policy of which is not clearly opposed to such a remedy. In like manner, the responsibilities of stockholders and directors of a moneyed corporation, under the laws of the state from which the charter is derived, are enforced in any other states in which they may be found. Thus a double liability of stockholders to creditors, in case of the insolvency of the company, or a full liability to creditors of directors who have made false reports or certificates regarding its financial condition, is treated as of a contractual nature, and not penal in the international sense of that term. 1 As a judgment of one state has equal force in another, so far as the principle of res adjudicata is concerned, the orders of a court in a state to which a corporation owes its charter, made in proceedings for winding it up, may be enforced to a large extent in any other. The shareholders are regarded as parties by representation to the winding-up proceedings, and so bound by decrees which are incidental to it. 2 The provisions of the United States law on different subjects and the literature concerning them are given in the separate articles. See the bibliography to the article Law; also Cooley on The Con- stitutional Limitations which rest upon the Legislative Power of the Stales of the American Union; Andrews on American Law; and Russell on The Police Power of the State, and Decisions thereon as illustrating the Development and Value of Case Law. (S. E. B.) AMERICAN LITERATURE. The earliest books which are commonly described as the beginnings of American literature were written by men born and bred in England; they were published there; they were, in fact, an undivided part of English literature, belonging to the province of exploration and geographical description and entirely similar in matter and style to other works of voyagers and colonizers that illustrate the expansion of England. They contain the materials of history in a form of good Elizabethan narrative, always vigorous in language, often vivid and pictur- esque. John Smith (1579-1631) wrote the first of these, A True Relation of such Occurrences and Accidents of Note as hath happened in Virginia (1608), and he later added other accounts of the country to the north. William Strachey, a Virginian official of whom little is known biographically, described (1610) the ship- wreck of Sir Thomas Gates on the Bermudas, which is believed to have yielded Shakespeare suggestions for The Tempest. Colonel Henry Norwood (d. 1689), hitherto unidentified, of Leck- hampton, Gloucestershire, a person eminent for loyalty in the reign of Charles I. and distinguished in the civil wars, later governor of Tangiers and a member of parliament for Gloucester, wrote an account of his voyage to Virginia as an adventurer, in 1649. These are characteristic works of the earliest period, and illustrate variously the literature of exploration which exists in numerous examples and is preserved for historical reasons. The settlement of the colonies was, in general, attended by such narratives of adventure or by accounts of the state of the country or by documentary record of events. Thus George Alsop (b. 1 638) wrote the Character of the Province of Maryland (1666), and Daniel Denton a Brief Description of New York (1670), and in Virginia the progress of affairs was dealt with by William Stith (1680-1755), Robert Beverly (f. 1700), and William Byrd (1674- 1744). Each settlement in turn, as it came into prominence or provoked curiosity, found its geographer and annalist, and here and there sporadic pens essayed some practical topic. The product, however, is now an indistinguishable mass, and titles and authors alike are found only in antiquarian lore. The 1 Huntington v. Altrill, 146 United States Reports, 657. 2 Great Western Telegraph Company v. Purdy, 162 United States Reports, 329; Fish v. Smith, 73 Connecticut Reports, 377; 47 Atlantic Reporter, 710. distribution of literary activity was very uneven along the sea-board; it was naturally greatest in the more thriving and important colonies, and bore some relation to their commercial prosperity and political activity and to the closeness of the con- nexion with the home culture of England. From the beginning New England, owing to the character of its people and its ecclesiastical rule, was the chief seat of the early literature, and held a position apart from the other colonies as a community characterized by an intellectual life. There the first printing press was set up, the first college founded, and an abundant literature was produced. The characteristic fact in the Puritan colonies is that literature there was in the hands of its leading citizens and was a chief concern in their minds. There were books of exploration and description as in the other colonies, such as William Wood's (d. 1639) New England's Prospect (1634), and John Jos'selin's New England's Rarities (1672), and talcs of adventure in the wilderness and on the sea, most commonly described as " re- markable providences," in the vigorous Elizabethan narrative; but besides all this the magistracy and the clergy normally set themselves to the labour of history, controversy and counsel, and especially to the care of religion. The governors, beginning with William Bradford (1590-1657) of Plymouth, and John Winthrop (1 588-1649) of Massachusetts Bay, wrote the annals of their times, and the line of historians was continued by Winslow, Nathaniel Morton, Prince, Hubbard and Hutchinson. The clergy, headed by John Cotton (1585-1652), Thomas Hooker (i586?-i647), Nathaniel Ward (i579?-i652), Roger Williams (1600-1683), Richard Mather (1596-1669), John Eliot (1604- 1690), produced sermons, platforms, catechisms, theological dissertations, tracts of all sorts, and their line also was continued by Shepard, Norton, Wise, the later Mathers and scores of other ministers. The older clergy were not inferior in power or learning to the leaders of their own communion in England, and they commanded the same prose that characterizes the Puritan tracts of the mother country; nor did the kind of writing deteriorate in their successors. This body of divines.in successive generations gave to early New England literature its overwhelming ecclesi- astical character; it was in the main a church literature, and its secular books also were controlled and coloured by the Puritan spirit. The pervasiveness of religion is well illustrated by the three books which formed through the entire colonial period the most popular domestic reading of the Puritan home. These were The Bay Psalm Book (1640), which was the first book published in America; Michael Wigglesworth's (1631-1705) Dtiy of Doom (1662), a doggerel poem; and the New England Primer (c. 1690), called " the Little Bible." The sole voice heard in opposition was Thomas Morton's satirical New English Canaan (1637), whose author was sent out of the colony for the scandal of Merrymount, but satire itself remained religious in Ward's Simple Cobbler of Agawam (1647). Poetry was represented in Anne Bradstreet's (1612-1672) The Tenth Muse lately sprung up in America (1650), and was continued by a succession of doggerel writers, mostly ministers or schoolmasters, Noyes, Oakes, Folger, Tompson, Byles and others. The world of books also included a good proportion of Indian war narratives and treatises relating to the aborigines. The close of the 17 th century shows literature, however, still unchanged in its main position as the special concern of the leaders of the state. It is Chief-Justice Samuel Sewall's (1652-1730) Diary (which remained in manuscript until 1878) that affords the most intimate view of the culture and habits of the community; and he was known to his contempor- aries by several publications, one of which, The Selling of Joseph (1700), was the first American anti-slavery tract. The literature of the first century, exemplified by these few titles, is considerable in bulk, and like colonial literature else- where is preserved for historical reasons. In general, PaHt - it records the political progress and social conditions fc|n> of the Puritan state, and the contents of the Puritan mind. The development of the original settlement took place without any violent check. Though the colony was continually recruited by fresh immigration, the original 20,000 who 8 3 2 AMERI(DANll,ITERATURE arrived before 1640 bad established the . principles of the state, and their will and ideas remained dominant after the Restoration as before. It was a theocratic state controlled by the clergy, and yet containing the principle of liberty. The second and third generations born on the soil, nevertheless, showed some decadence; notwithstanding the effort to provide against intellectual isolation and mental poverty by the foundation of Harvard College, they felt the effects of their situation across the sea and on the borders of a wilderness. The people were a hard- faring folk and engaged in a material struggle to establish the plantations and develop commerce on the sea; their other life was in religion soberly practised and intensely felt. They were a people of one book, in the true sense, — the Bible; it was the organ of their mental life as well as of their spiritual feelings. For them, it was in the place of the higher literature. But long resident there in the strip between the sea and the forest, cut off from the world and consigned to hard labour and to spiritual ardours, they developed a fanatical temper; their religious life hardened and darkened; intolerance and superstition grew. Time, nevertheless, ripened new changes, and the colony was to be brought back from its religious seclusion into the normal paths of modern development. ■ The sign was contained, perhaps, most clearly in the change effected in the new charter granted by King William which made property the basis of the franchise in place of church-membership, and thus set the state Upon an economic instead of a religious foundation. It is rather by; men than by books that these times are remembered, but it is by the men who were writers of books. In general, the career of the three Mathers coincides with the history of the older Puritanism, and their personal characteristics reflect its stages as their writings contain its successive traits. Richard Mather,: the emigrant, had been joint author m the composition of The Bay Psalm Book, and served the colony among the first of its leaders. It was in his son, Increase Mather (1630-1723), that the theocracy, properly speaking, culminated. He was not only a divine, president of Harvard College and a prolific writer; but he was dominant in the state, the chief man of affairs. It was he who, sent to repre- sent the colony in England, received from King William the new charter. His son, Cotton Mather (1663-17 28), succeeded to his father's distinction ; but the changed condition is reflected in his non-participation in affairs; he was a man of the study and led there a narrower life than his father's had been. He was, never- theless, the most broadly characteristic figure of the Puritan of his time. He was able and learned, abnormally laborious, leaving over 400 titles attributed to him; and at the same time he was an ascetic and visionary. The work by which he is best remembered, the Magnolia Christi Americana, or the Ecclesiastical History of New England from its First Planting in the Year 1620, unto the Year of our Lord i6g8 (1702), is the chief historical monument of the period, and the most considerable literary work done in America up to that time. It is encyclopaedic in scope, and contains an immense accumulation of materials relating to life and events in the colony. There the New England of the 1 7th century is displayed. His numerous other works still further amplify the period, and taken all together his writings best illus- trate the contents of Puritanism in New Englarid. The power of the clergy was waning, but even in the political sphere it was far from extinction, and it continued under its scheme of church government to guard jealously the principles of liberty. In John Wise's (1652-1725) Vindication of the Government of New England Churches (171 7) a precursor of the Revolution is felt. It was in another sphere, however, that Puritanism in New England was to reach its height, intellectually and spiritually alike, in the brilliant personality of Jonathan Edwards (1763-1758), its last great product. He was free of affairs, and lived essentially the private life of a thinker. He displayed in youth extraordinary precocity and varied intellectual curiosity, and showed at the same early time a temperament of spirtual sensitiveness and religious ideality which suggests the youth of a poet rather than of a logician. It was not without a struggle that he embraced sincerely the Calvinistic scheme of divine rule, but he was able to reconcile the doctrine in its most fearful forms with the serenity and warmth of; his own spirit; for his soul at all times seems as lucid as his mind; and his affections' were singularly tender and refined. He served as minister to the church at Northampton; and, driven from that post, he was for eight years a, missionary to the Indians at Stockb ridge; finally he was made president of Princeton College, where after a few weeks' incumbency he died. The works upon which his fame is founded are Treatise concerning the Religious Affections (ij 46) < On the Freedom. of the Will (1754), Treatise an Original, Sin (1758). They exhibit extraordinary reasoning powers and place him among the most eminent theo- logians. He contributed by his preaching great inspiring force to the revival, known as " the Great Awakening," which swept over the dry and formal Puritanism of the age and was its last great flame. In him New England idealism had come to the birth. He illustrates, better than all others, the power of Puritanism as a spiritual force; and in him only did that power reach intellectual expression in a memorable way for the larger world. The ecclesiastical literature of Puritanism, abundant as it was, produced no other work of power; nor did the Puritan patronage of literature prove fruitful in other fields. If Puritan- ism was thus infertile, it nevertheless prepared the soil. It impressed upon New England the stamp of the mind; the entire community was by its means intellectually as well as morally bred; and to its training and the predisposition it established in the genius of the people may be ascribed the respect for the book which has always characterized that section, the serious temper and elevation of its later literature and the spiritual quality of the imagination which is so marked a quality of its authors. The secularization of life in New England, which went on concurrently with the decline of the clergy in social power, was incidental to colonial growth. The practical force of pra B iaia. the people had always been strong; material pros.-:..,., perity increased and a powerful class of merchants grew up; public questions multiplied in variety and gained in importance. The affairs of the world had definitely obtained the upper hand. The new spirit found its representative in the great figure of Benjamin Franklin (1 706-1 790), who, born in Boston, early emigrated to Philadelphia, an act which in itself may be thought to forecast the transfer of the centre of interest to the west and south and specifically to that city where the congress was to sit. Franklin was a printer, and the books he circulated are an index to the uses of reading in his generation. Practical works, such as almanacs, were plentiful, and it is characteristic that Franklin's name is, in literature, first associated with Poor Richard's Almanack (1732), The literature of the 18th century outside of New England continued to be constituted of works of exploration, description, colonial affairs, with some sprinkling of crude science and doctrines of wealth; but it yields no distinguished names or remembered titles. Franklin's character subsumes the spirit of it. In him thrift and benevolence were main constituents; scientific curiosity of a useful sort and invention distinguished him; after he had secured a competence, public interests filled his mature years. In him was the focus of the federating impulses of the time, and as the representative of the colonies in England and during the Revolution in France, he was in his proper place as the greatest citizen of his country. He was, first of men,broadly interested in all the colonies, and in his mind the future began to be comprehended in its true perspective and scale; and for these reasons to him properly belongs the title of " the first American." The type of his character set forth in the Autobiography (181 7) was profoundly American and prophetic of the plain people's ideal of success in a democracy. It is by his character and career rather than by his works or even by his great public services that he is remembered; he is a type of the citizen- man. Older than his companions, and plain while they were of an aristocratic stamp, hegreatens over them in the popular mind as age greatens over youth; but it was these companions who were to lay the foundations of the political literature of America. With the increasing political life lawyers as a class had naturally come into prominence as spokesmen and debaters. A young generation of orators sprang up, of whom James Otis (17 25-1 783) in the north, and Patrick Henry (1736-1799) in the south, were AMERICAN LITERATURE «33 the most brilliant; and a group of statesmen, of whom the most notable were Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), James Madison (1751-1836), and Alexander Hamilton (1757-1804), held the political direction of the times; in the speeches and state-papers of these orators and statesmen and their fellows the political literature of the colonies came to hold the first place. The chief memorials of this literature are The Declaration of Independence (1776), The Federalist (1788), a treatise on the principles- of free government, and Washington's Addresses (1789-1793-1796). Thus politics became, in succession to exploration and religion, the most important literary element in the latter half of the 18th century. The more refined forms of literature also began to receive intelligent attention towards the close of the period. The Revolur fsth-cen- tion in passing struck out some sparks of balladry and tury poetry song, but the inspiration of the spirit of nationality aad was first felt in poetry by Philip Freneau (1752-1832), nctJ '"'- whose Poems (1786) marked the best poetical achieve- ment up to his time. Patriotism was also a ruling motive in the works of the three poets associated with Yale College, John Trumbull (1750-1831), Timothy Dwight (1752-1817), and Joel Barlow (1754-1812), authors respectively of McFingal (1782), a Hudibrastic satire of the Revolution, The Conquest of Canaan (1785), an epic, and The Vision of Columbus (1787), later remade into The Columbiad, also an epic. These poets gathered about them a less talented company, and all were denominated in common the " Hartford Wits," by which name rather than by their works they are remembered. The national hymn, " Hail Columbia," was composed by Joseph Hopkinson (1770-1842) in 1708/ Fiction, in turn, was first cultivated by Charles Brockden Brown (r77i-i8io), a Philadelphian, who wrote six romantic novels (1798-1801) after the style of Godwin, but set in the con- ditions of the new world and mixing local description and obser- vation with the material of mystery and terror. Fiction had been earlier attempted by Mrs Susanna Haswell Rowson, whose Charlotte Temple (1700) is remembered, and contemporaneously by Mrs Hannah Webster Foster in The Coquette (1797) and by Royall Tyler (1758-1826) in The Algerian Captive (1799); but to Brown properly belongs the title of the first American novelist, nor are his works without invention and intensity and a certain distinction that secure for them permanent remembrance. The drama formally began its career on a regular stage and with an established company, in 1786 at New York, with the acting of Royall Tyler's comedy The Contrast; but the earliest American play was Thomas Godfrey's (1 736-1 763) tragedy, The Prince of Parthia, acted in Philadelphia in 1767. William Dunlap (1766- 1839) is, however, credited with being the father of the American theatre on the New York stage, where his plays were produced. One other earlier book deserves mention, John Woolman's (1720-1772) Journal (1775), an autobiography with much charm. With these various attempts the 18 th century was brought to an end. In 200 years no literary classic had been produced in America. The new nation, which with the 19th century began its integral career, still retained the great disparities which originally existed between the diverse colonies. Political unity, the simplest of the social unities, had been achieved; " a more perfect union," in the language of the founders, had been formed; but even in the political sphere the new state bore in its bosom disuniting forces which again and again threatened to rive it apart until they were dissipated in the Civil War; and in the other spheres of its existence, intellectually^ morally, socially, its unity was far from being accomplished. The expansion of its territory over the continental area brought new local diversity and prolonged the contrasts of border con- ditions with those of the long-settled communities. This state of affairs was reflected in the capital fact that there was no metro- politan centre in which the tradition and forces of the nation were concentrated. Washington was a centre of political administration; but that was all. The nation grew slowly, indeed, into consciousness of its own existence; but it was with- out united history, without national traditions of civilization and I. «7 The new nation. culture, and it was committed to the untried idea of democracy. It was founded in a new faith; yet at the moment that it pro- claimed the equality of men, its own social structure and habit north and south contradicted the declaration, not merely by the fact of slavery, but by the life of its classes. The south long remained oligarchic; in the north aristocracy slowly melted away. The coincidence of an economic opportunity, with a philosophic principle is the secret of the career of American democracy in its first century. The vast resources of. an un- developed country gave this opportunity to the individual, while the nation was pledged by its fundamental idea to material prosperity for the masses, popular education and the common welfare, as the supreme test of government. In this labour, subduing the new world to agriculture, trade and manufactures, the forces of the nation were spent, under the complication of maintaining the will of the people as the directing power; the subjugation of the soil and experience in popular government are the main facts of American history. In the course of this task the practice of the fine arts was hardly more than an incident. When anyone thinks of Greece, he thinks first of her arts; when anyone thinks of America, he thinks of her arts last. Literature, in the sense of the printed word, has had a great career in America; as the vehicle of use, books, journals, literary communication, educational works and libraries have filled the land; nowhere has the power of the printed word ever been so great, nowhere has the man of literary genius ever had so broad an opportunity to affect the minds of men contemporaneously. But, in the artistic sense, literature, at most, has been locally illustrated by a few eminent names. The most obvious fact with regard to this literature is that— to adopt a convenient word— it has been regional. It has flourished in parts of the country, very distinctly marked, and is in each case affected by its environment and local culture; if it incorpor- ates; national elements at times, it seems to graft them on itSiOwn stock. The growth of literature in these favoured soils was slow and humble. There was no outburst of genius, no sudden move- ment, no renaissance; but very gradually a step was taken in advance of the last generation, as that had advanced upon its forefathers. The first books of true excellence were experiments ; they seem almost accidents. The cities of Boston, New York and Philadelphia were lettered communities; they possessed imported books, professional classes, men of education and taste; The tradition of literature was strong, especially in New England; there were readers used to the polite letters of the past. It was, however, in the main the past of Puritanism, both in England and at home, and of the 18th century in general, on which they were bred, with a touch ever growing stronger of the new European romanticism. All the philosophic ideas of the 18th century were current. What was most lacking was a standard self -applied by original writers; and in the absence of a great national centre of standards and traditions, and amid the poverty of such small local centres as the writers were bred in, they sought what they desired, not in England, not in any one country nor in any one literature, but in the solidarity of literature itself, in the republic of letters,the world-state itself, — the master-works of all European lands; they became either actual pilgrims on foreign soil or pilgrims of the mind in fireside travels. The foreign influences that thus entered into American literature are obvious and make a large part of its history; but the fact here brought out is that European literature and experience stood to American writers in lieu of a national centre; it was there that both standard and tradition were found. American literature first began to exist for the larger world in the persons of Washington Irving (1785-1859) and James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851).. Their recognition was EarJy almost contemporaneous. The Sketch Book ( 1 8 1 9) was l9th-cen- the first American book to win a great reputation in <«or England, and The Spy (182a:) was the first to obtain a <*«"**■ similar vogue on the continent. The fame of both authors is associated with New York, and that city took the first place as the centre of the Literature of the period. It was not that New York was more intellectual than other parts of the country; but 11 834 AMERICAN LITERATURE Irving. it was a highly prosperous community, where a mercantile society flourished and consequently a certain degree of culture obtained. The first American literature was not the product of a raw democracy nor of the new nationality in any sense; there was nothing sudden or vehement in its generation; but, as always, it was the product of older elements in the society where it arose and flourished under the conditions of precedent culture. The family of Irving were in trade. Cooper's father was in the law. A third writer, William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878), is associated with them, and though he announced his poetic talent precociously by Thanatopsis (1807), his Poems (1832), immedi- ately republished in London, were the basis of his true fame. Born in Massachusetts, he lived his long life in New York, and was there a distinguished citizen. His father was a physician. All three men were not supremely endowed; they do not show the passion of genius for its work which marks the great writers; they were, like most American writers, men with the literary temperament, characteristically gentlemen, who essayed literature with varying power. If the quality of this early literature is to be appreciated truly, the fact of its provenance from a society whose cultivation was simple and normal, a provincial bourgeois society of a prosperous democracy, must be borne in mind. It came, not from the people, but from the best classes developed under preceding conditions. Irving all his life was in the eyes of his countrymen, whatever their pride might be in him, more a travelled gentleman than one of themselves. He had come home to end his days at Sunnyside by the Hudson, but he had won his fame in foreign fields. In his youth the beginnings of his literary work were most humble — light contributions to the press. He was of a most social nature, warm, refined, humorous, a man belonging to the town. He was not seriously disposed, idled much, and surprised his fellow-citizens suddenly by a grotesque History of New York (1809), an extravaganza satirizing the Dutch element of the province. He discovered in writing this work his talent for humour and also one part of his literary theme, the Dutch tradition; but he did not so convince himself of his powers as to continue, and it was only after the failure of his commercial interests that, being thrown on himself for support, he published in London ten years later, at the age of thirty-six, the volume of sketches which by its success committed: him to a literary career. In that work he found himself; sentiment and distinction of style characterized it, and these were his main traits. He remained abroad, always favoured in society and living in diplomatic posts in Spain and England, for seventeen years, and he later spent four years in Spain as minister. Spain gave him a larger opportunity than England for the cultivation of romantic sentiment, and he found there his best themes in Moorish legend and history. On his return to America he added to his subjects the exploration of the west; and he wrote, besides, biographies of Goldsmith and Washington. He was, as it turned out, a voluminous writer; yet his books successively seem the accident of his situation. The excellence of his work lies rather in the treatment than the substance; primarily, there is the pellucid style, which he drew from his love of Goldsmith, and the charm of his personality shown in his romantic interest, his pathos 1 and humour ever growing in delicacy, and his familiar touch with humanity. He made his name American mainly by creating the legend of the Hudson, and he alone has linked his memory locally with his country so that it hangs over the landscape and blends with it for ever; he owned his nativity, too, by his pictures of the prairie and the fur-trade and by his life of Washington, who had laid his hand upon his head; but he had spent half his life abroad, in the temperamental enjoyment of the romantic sugges- tion of the old world, and by his writings he gave this expansion of sympathy and sentiment to his countrymen. If his tempera- ment was native-born and his literary taste home-bred, and if his affections gave a legend to the countryside and his feelings expanded with the view of prairie and wilderness, and if he sought to honour with his pen the historic associations and memory of the land which had honoured him, it was, nevertheless, the trans-. Atlantic touch that had loosed his genius and mainly fed it, and this fact was prophetic of the immediate course of American literature and the most significant in his career. Cooper's initiation into literature was similar to that of Irving. He had received, perhaps, something more of scanty formal education, since he attended Yale College for a season, Cooper. but he early took to the sea and was a midshipman. He was thirty years old before he began to write, and it was almost >an accident that after the failure of his first novel he finished The Spy, so deterring was the prejudice that[no American book cculd succeed. He was, however, a man of great energy of life, great force of will; it was his nature to persist. The way once opened, he wrote voluminously and with great unevenness. His literary defects, both of surface and construction, are patent. It was not by style nor by any detail of plot or character that he excelled; but whatever imperfections there might be, his work was alive; it had body, motion, fire. He chose his subjects from aspects of life familiar to him in the woods or on the sea or from patriotic memories near to him in the fields of the Revolution. He thus established a vital connexion with his own country, and in so far he is the most national by his themes of any of the American writers. What he gave was the scene of the new world, both in the forest and by the fires of the Revolution and on the swift and daring American ships; but it was especially by his power to give the sense of the primitive wilderness and the ocean weather, and adventure there, that he won success. In France, where he was popular, this came as an echo out of the real world of the west to the dream of nature that had lately grown up in French literature; and, besides, of all the springs of interest native to men in every land adventure in the wild is, perhaps, the easiest to touch, the quickest and most inflaming to respond. Cooper stood for a true element in American experience and con- ditions, for the romance in the mere presence of primeval things of nature newly found by man and opening to his coming; this was an imaginative moment, and Cooper seized it by his imagina- tion. He especially did so in the Indian elements of his tale, and gave permanent ideality to the Indian type. The trait of lofti- ness which he thus incorporated belongs with the impression of the virgin forest and prairie, the breadth, the silence and the music of universal nature. The distinction of his work is to open so great a scene worthily, to give it human dignity in rough and primitive characters seen in the simplicity of their being, and to fill it with peril, resourcefulness and hardihood. It is the only brave picture of life in the broad from an American pen. Scott, in inventing the romantic treatment of history in fiction, was the leader of the historical novel; but Cooper, except in so far as he employed the form, was not in a true sense an imitator of Scott; he did not create, nor think, nor feel, in Scott's way, and he came far short of the deep human power of Scott's genius. He was not great in character; but he was great in adventure, manly spirit and the atmosphere of the natural world, an Odysseyan writer, who caught the moment of the American planting in vivid and characteristic traits. This same spirit, but limited to nature in her most elemental forms and having the simplest generic relations to human life, characterizes Bryant. He, too, had slender academic Bryaat. training, and came from the same social origins as Irving and Cooper; but, owing to his extraordinary boyish precocity, the family influences upon him and the kind of home he was bred in are more clearly seen. He framed his art in his boyhood on the model of 18th-century verse, and though he felt the liberalizing influences of Wordsworth later there always re- mained in his verse a sense of form that suggests a severer school than that of his English contemporaries. He lived the life of a journalist and public man in New York, but the poet in him was a man apart and he jealously guarded his talent in seclusion. Though he was at times abroad, he resembled Cooper in being unaffected by foreign residence; he remained home-bred. He wrote a considerable quantity of verse; but it is by a quality in it rather than by its contents that his poetry is recalled, and this quality exists most highly in the few pieces that are well known. To no verse is the phrase "native wood-notes wild " more properly applied. His poetry gives this deep impression of AMERICAN LITERATURE &35 privacy; high, clear, brief in voice, and yet, as it were, as of something hidden in the sky or grove or brook, or as if the rock spoke, it is nature in her haunts; it is the voice of the peak, the forests, the cataracts, the smile of the blue gentian, the distant rosy flight of the water-fowl, — with no human element less simple than piety, death or the secular changes of time. It is, too, an expression of something so purely American that it seems that it must be as uncomprehended by one not familiar with the scene as the beauty of Greece or Italian glows; it is poetry locked in its own land. This presence of the pure, the pristine, the virginal in the verse, this luminousness, spaciousness, serenity in the land, this immemorialness of natural things, is the body and spirit of the true wild, such as Bryant's eyes had seen it and as it had possessed his soul. In no other American poet is there this near- ness to original awe in the presence of nature; nowhere is nature so slightly humanized, so cosmically felt, and yet poetized. Poetry of this sort must be small in amount; a few hundred lines contain it all; but they alone shrine the original grandeur, not so much of the American landscape, as of wild nature when first felt in the primitive American world. American romanticism thus. began with these three writers, who gave it characterization after all by only a few simple traits. There was in it no profound passion nor philosophy nor revolt; especially there was no morbidness. It was sprung from a new soil. The breath of the early American world was in Bryant's poetry; he had freed from the landscape a Druidical nature- worship of singular purity, simple and grand, unbound by any conventional formulas of thought or feeling but deeply spiritual. The new life of the land filled the scene of Cooper; prairie, forest and sea, Indians, backwoodsmen and sailors, the human struggle of all kinds, gave it diversity and detail; but its life was the American spirit, the epic action of a people taking primitive possession, battling with its various foes, making its world. Irving, more brooding and reminiscent, gave legend to the land- scape, transformed rudeness with humour and brought elements of picturesqueness into play; and in him, in whom the new race was more mature, was first shown that nostalgia for the past, which is everywhere a romantic trait but was peculiarly strong under American conditions. He was consequently more free in imagination than the others, and first dealt with other than American subjects, emancipating literature from provinciality of theme, while the modes of his romantic treatment, the way he felt about his subjects, still owed much to his American birth. In all this literature by the three writers there was little complexity, and there was no strangeness in their personalities. Irving was more genially human, Cooper more vitally intense; Bryant was the more careful artist in the severe limits of his art, which was simple and plain. Simplicity and plainness characterize all three; they were, in truth, simple American gentlemen, of the breeding and tastes that a plain democracy produced as its best, who, giving themselves to literature for a. career, developed a native romanticism, which, however obvious and uncomplicated with philosophy, passion or moods, represented the first stage of American life with freshness of power, an element of ideal loftiness and much literary charm. Though Irving, Cooper and Bryant were associated with New York, there was something sporadic in their germination. They have no common source; they stood apart; and their work neither overlapped nor blended, but General progress. remained self-isolated. None of them can be said to have founded a school, but Irving left a literary tradition and Cooper had followers in the field of historical fiction. The \iterary product up to the middle of the century presents gener- ally from its early years the appearance of an indistinguishable mass, as in colonial days, in which neither titles nor authors are eminent. The association of American literature with the periodical press is, perhaps, the most important trait to be observed. New York and Philadelphia were book -markets, and local presses had long been at work issuing many reprints. Magazines in various degrees of importance sprang up in succes- sion to the earlier imitations of English 18th-century periodicals, which abounded at the beginning of the century; and as time went on these were accompanied by a host of annuals of the English Keepsake variety. Philadelphia was especially dis- tinguished by an early fertility in magazines, which later reached a great circulation, as in the case of Godey's and Graham's; the Knickerbocker became prominent in New York from 1833, when it was founded; Richmond had in The Southern Literary Messenger the chief patron of southern writers from 1834, and there were abortive ventures still farther south in Charleston. These various periodicals and like publications were the literary arena, the place of ambition for young and old, for known and unknown, and there literary fame and what little money came of its pursuit were found. Minor poetry flourished in it; sketches, tales, essays, every sort of writing in prose multiplied there. A change in the atmosphere of letters is also to be noted. The 18th century was fairly left behind. The Philadelphian reprint of Galignani's Paris edition of Keats, Shelley and Coleridge had brought in the new romantic poetry with wide effect; and Disraeli, Bulwer and, later, Dickens are felt in the prose; in verse, especially by women, Mrs Hemans and Mrs Browning ruled the moment. The product was large. In poetry it was displayed on the most comprehensive scale in Rufus Wilmot Griswold's (1815-1857) collections of American verse, made in the middle of the century. Mrs Lydia Sigourney (1791-1865), a prolific writer, and Mrs Maria GowanBrooks (1795-1845), known as Southey's " Maria del Occidente," a more ambitious aspirant, the "Davidson sisters" (1808-1825 : 1823-1838), and Alice (1820-1871) and Phoebe Cary (1824-1871) illustrate the work of the women ; and Richard Henry Wilde (1789-1847), George Pope Morris (1802-1864), Charles Fenno Hoffman (1806-1884) and Willis Gaylord Clark (1810-1841) may serve forthat of men. In this verse, and in the abundant prose as well, the sentimentality of the period is strongly marked; it continued to the times of the Civil War. Two poets of a better type, Joseph Rodman Drake (1795-1820), distinguished by delicacy of fancy, and Fitz-Greene Halleck (1790-1867), who showed ardour and a real power of phrase, are remembered from an earlier time for their brother- hood in verse, but Drake died young and Halleck was soon sterilized, so that the talents of both proved abortive. The characteristic figure that really exemplifies this secondary literature at its best is Nathaniel Parker Willis (1806-1867) who, though born in Portland, Maine, was the chief litterateur of the Knickerbocker period. He wrote abundantly in both verse and prose, and was the first of the journalist type of authors, a social adventurer with facile powers of literary entertainment, a man of the town and immensely popular. He was the sentimentalist by profession, and his work, transitory as it proved, was typical of a large share of the taste, talent and ambition of the contemporary crowd of writers. Neighbouring him in time and place are the authors of various stripe, known as " the Literati," whom Poe described in his critical papers, which, in connexion with Gris- wold's collections mentioned above, are the principal current source of information concerning the bulk of American literature in that period. This world of the magazines, the Literati and sentimentalism, was the true milieu of Edgar Allan Poe (1 809-1 849). Born in Boston,. his mother a pleasing English actress and his father a dissipated stage-struck youth of a Baltimore family, left an orphan in childhood, he was reared in the Virginian home of John Allan, a merchant of Scottish extraction; he received there the stamp of southern character. He was all his life characteristically a southerner, with southern ideals of character and conduct, southern manners towards both men and women and southern passions. He showed precocity in verse, but made his real dibut in prose as editor of The Southern Literary Messenger at Richmond in 1835. He was by his talents com- mitted to a literary career, and being usually without definite means of support he followed the literary market, first to Phil- adelphia and later to New York. He was continuously associated with magazines as editor, reviewer or contributor; they were his means of sustenance; and, whether as cause or effect, this mode of life fell in with the nature of his mind, which was a contempor- ary mind. He was perhaps better acquainted with contemporary 8 3 6 AMERICAN LITERATURE work in literature than any of his associates; he took his first cues from Disraeli and Bulwer and Moore, and he was earliest to recognize Tennyson and Mrs Browning; his principal reading was always in the magazines. He was, however, more than a man of literary temperament like Irving and Cooper; he was a child of genius. As in their case, there was something sporadic in his appearance on the scene. He had no American origins, but only American conditions of life. In fact he bore little relation to his period, and so far as he was influenced, it was for the worse; he transcended the period, essentially, in all his creative work. He chose for a form of expression the sketch, tale or short itory, and he developed it in various ways. From the start there was a melodramatic element in him, itself a southern trait and developed by the literary influence of Disraeli and Bulwer on his mind. He took the tale of mystery as his special province; and receiving it as a mystery that was to be explained, after the recent masters of it, he saw its fruitful lines of development in the fact that science had succeeded to superstition as the source of wonder, and also in the use of ratiocination as a mode of dis- entanglement in the detective story. Brilliant as his success was in these lines, his great power lay in the tale of psychological states as a mode of impressing the mind with the thrill of terror, the thrall of fascination, the sense of mystery.- It is by his tales in these several sorts that he won, more slowly than Irving or Cooper and effectually only after his death, continental repu- tation; at present no American author is so securely settled in the recognition of the world at large, and he owes this, similarly to Cooper, to the power of mystery over the human mind uni- versally; that' is, he owes it to his theme, seconded by a marvel- lous power to develop it by the methods of art. He thus added new traits to American romanticism, but as in the case of Irving's Spanish studies there is no American element in the theme; he is detached from his local world, and works in the sphere of universal human nature, nor in his treatment is there any trace of his American birth. He is a world author more purely than any other American writer. Though it is on his tales that his continental reputation necessarily rests, his temperament is more subtly expressed in his verse, in which that fond of which his tales are the logical and intelligible growth gives out images and rhythms, the issue of morbid states, which affect the mind rather as a form of music than of thought. Emotion was, in art, his constant aim, though it might be only so simple a thing as the emotion of colour as in his landscape studies; and in bis verse, by an unconscious integration and flow of elements within him it must be thought, he obtained emotional effects by images which have no intellectual value, and which float in rhythms so as to act musically on the mind and arouse pure moods of feeling absolutely free of any other contents. Such poems must be an enigma to most men, but others are accessible to them, and derive from them an original and unique pleasure; they belong outside of the intellectual sphere. It is by virtue of this musical quality and immediacy that his poetry is characterized by genius; in proportion as it has meaning of an intelligible sort it begins to fade and lower; so far as " Lenore " and " Annie " and " Annabel Lee " are human, they are feeble ghosts of that sentimentality which was so rife in Poe's time and so maudlin in his own personal relations; and except for a half-dozen pieces, in which his quality of rhythmical fascination is supreme, his verse as a whole is inferior to the point of being commonplace. Small as the quantity of his true verse is, it more sustains his peculiar genius in American eyes than does his prose; and this is because it is so unique. He stands absolutely alone as a poet with none like him; in his tales, as an artist, he is hardly less solitary, but he has some ties of connexion or likeness with the other masters of mystery. Poe lived in poverty and died in misery; but with- out him romanticism in America would lose its most romantic figure, and American literature the artist who, most of all its writers, had the passion of genius for its work. Poe left even less trace of himself in the work of others than' did Irving, Cooper and Bryant. He stands in succession to them, and closed the period so far as it contributed to American romanticism anything distinguished, original or permanent. The ways already opened had, however, been trod, and most notably in fiction. The treatment of manners and customs, essentially in Irving's vein, was pleasingly cultivated in Maryland by John Pendleton Kennedy (1795-1870) inSwallbw Barn (1832) and similar tales of Old Dominion life. In Virginia, Beverly Tucker (1784-185.1) in The Partisan Leader (1836), noticeable for its prophecy of secession, arid John Esten Cooke (1830-1886) in The Virginia Comedians (1854), also won a passing reputation. The champion in the south, however, was William Gilmore Simms (1806-1870), born in Charleston, a voluminous writer of both prose and verse, who undertook to depict, on the same scale as Cooper and in his manner, the settlement of the southern territory and its Indian and revolutionary history; but of his many novels, of which the characteristic examples are The Yemassee (1835), The Partisan (1835) and Beauchampe (1842), none attained literary distinction. The sea-novel was developed by Herman Melville (1810-1891) in Typee (1846) and its successors, but these tales, in spite of their being highly commended by lovers of adventure, have taken no more hold than the work of Simms. Single novels of wide popularity appeared from time to time, of which a typical instance was The Wide, Wide World (1850) by Susan Warner (1810-1885). The grade of excellence was best illustrated, perhaps, for the best current fiction which was not to be incorporated in literature, by the novels of Catharine Maria Sedgwick (1 789-1867), of a western Massa- chusetts family, in Hope Leslie (1827) and its successors. The distinct Knickerbocker strain was best preserved by James Kirke Paulding (17.78-1860) . among the direct imitators of Irving; but the better part of the Irving tradition, its sentiment, social grace and literary flavour, was not noticeable until it awoke in George William Curtis (1824-1892), born a New Englander but, like Bryant, a journalist and public man of New York, whose novels, notes of travel and casual brief social essays brought that urbane style to an end, as in Donald Grant Mitchell (born 1822) the school of sentiment, descended from the same source, died not unbecomingly in the Reveries of a Bachelor (1850) and Dream Life (1851). Two poets, just subsequent to Poe, George Henry Boker (1823-1890) and Thomas Buchanan Read (1822-1872), won a certain distinction, the former especially in the drama, in the Philadelphia group. The single popular songs, " The Star- Spangled Banner " (1813), by Francis Scott Key (1779-1843) of Maryland, " America " (1832) by Samuel Francis Smith (1808- 1895) of Massachusetts, and " Home, Sweet Home " (1823) by John Howard Payne (1792-1852) of New York, may also be appropriately recorded here. The last distinct literary person- ality to emerge from the miscellany of talent in the middle of the century, in the middle Atlantic states, was James Bayard Taylor (1825-1878), who, characteristically a journalist, gained reputa- tion by his travels, poems and novels, but in spite of brilliant Versatility and a high ambition failed to obtain permanent distinction. His translation of Faust (1870) is his chief title to remembrance; but the later cultivation of the oriental motive in American lyrical poetry owes something to his example. In New England, which succeeded to New York as the chief source of literature of high distinction, the progress of culture in the post- Revolutionary period was as normal and New gradual as elsewhere in the country; there was no England violence of development, no sudden break, but the scholar- growth of knowledge and taste went slowly on in con- ' *' junction with the softening of the Puritan foundation of thought, belief and practice. What most distinguished literature in New England from that to the west and south was its connexion with religion and scholarship, neither of which elements was strong in the literature that has been described. The neighbourhood of Harvard College to Boston was a powerful influence in the field of knowledge and critical culture. The most significant fact in respect to scholarship, however, was the residence abroad of George Ticknor (1791-1871), author of The History of Spanish Literature (1849), of Edward Everett(i794-i86s), the orator, and of George Bancroft (1800T-1891), author of the History of the United States (1834-1874), who as young men brought back new ideals of learning. The social connexion of Boston, not only with AMERICAN LITERATURE 837 England but with the continent, was more constant, varied and intimate than fell to the fortune of any other city, and owing ' to the serious temper of the community the intellectual com- merce with the outer world through bodks was more profound. Coleridge was early deeply influential on the thought of the cultivated class, and to him Carlyle, who found his first sincere welcome and effectual power there, succeeded. The influence of both combined to introduce, and to secure attention for, German writers. Translation, as time went on, followed, and German thought was also further sustained and advanced in the com- munity by Frederick Henry Hedge (1805-1890), a philosophical theologian, who conducted a propaganda of German ideas. The activity of the group about him is significantly marked by the issue of the series of Specimens of Foreign Standard Literature (1838), edited by George Ripley (1802-1880), the critic, which was the first of its kind in America. French ideas, as time went on, were also current, and the field of research extended to the Orient, the writings of which were brought forward especially in connexion with the Transcendental Movement to which all these foreign studies contributed. In New England, in other words, a close, serious and vital connexion was made, for the first time, with the philosophic thought of the world and with its tradition even in the remote past. Unitarianism, which was the form in which the old Puritanism dissolved in the cultivated class, came in with the beginning of the century, and found its representative in the gentle character, refined intelligence and liberal humanity of William Ellery Channing (1780-1842), who has remained its chief apostle. It was the expression of a moral maturing and intellectual enlightenment that took place with as little dis- turbance as ever marked religious evolution in any community. The people at large remained evangelical, but they also felt in a less degree the softening and liberalizing tendency; neverthe^ less it was mainly in the field of Unitarianism that literature flourished, as was natural, and Transcendentalism was a phe- nomenon that grew out of Unitarianism, being indeed the excess of the movement of enlightenment and the extreme limit of intuitionalism, individualism and private judgment. These two factors, religion and scholarship, gave to New England literature its serious stamp and academic quality; but the preparatory stage being longer, it was slower to emerge than the literature of the rest of the country. The first stirrings of romanticism in New England were felt, as in the country to the south, by men of literary temperament in a sympathetic enjoyment and feeble imitation of the contemporary English romantic school of fiction exemplified by Mrs Radcliffe, Lewis and Godwin. Washington Allston (1779-1843), the painter, born in South Carolina but by education and adoption a citizen of Cambridge, showed the taste in Monaldi (1841), and Richard Henry Dana (1787-1879) in Paul Felton (1833); in his poem of the same date, " The Buccaneer,"" the pseudo-Byronic element, which belongs to the conception of character and passion in this school of fiction, appears. These elder writers illustrate rather the stage of imaginative culture at the period, and show by their other works also — Allston by his poems " The Sylphs of the Seasons" (1813), and Dana by his abortive periodical The Idle Man (182^) issued at New York — their essential sympathy with the literary conditions reigning before the time of Irving. They both were post-Revolutionary, and advanced American culture in other fields rather than imagina- tion, Allston in art and Dana in criticism, as editor of The North American Review, which was founded in 181 5, and was long the chief organ of serious thought and critical learning, influential in the dissemination of ideas and in the maintenance of the intel- lectual life. The influence of their personality in the community, like that of Channing, with whom they were closely connected, was of more importance than any of their works. The definite moment of the appearance of New England in literature in the true sense was marked by Ralph Waldo Emerson's (i8o3-r882) Nature (1836), Nathaniel Hawthorne's (1804-1864) Twice-Told Tales (1837) and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's (1807-1882) Voices of the Night (1839). Of this group of men Longfellow is the most national figure, and from the point of view of literary history the most significant by virtue of what he contributed to American romanticism in the large. He felt the conscious desire of the people for Emerson: an American literature, and he obeyed it in the choice Hsw- of his subjects. He took national themes, and his work thorne: is in this respect the counterpart in poetry to that of ^Jto*^ Cooper in prose. In Hiawatha (1855) he poetized the Indian life; and, though the scene and figures of the poem are no more localized than the happy hunting-grounds, the ideal of the life of the aborigines in the wilderness is given with freshness and primitive charm and with effect on the imagination. It is the sole survivor of many poetic attempts to naturalize the Indian in liter- ature, and will remain the classic Indian poem. In Evangeline (1847), The Courtship of Miles Standish (1858) and The New England Tragedies (1868), he depicted colonial Hfe. Ashe thus em- bodied national tradition in one portion of his work, he rendered national character in another, and with more spontaneity, in those domestic poems of childhood and the affections, simple moods of the heart in the common lot, which most endeared him as the poet of the household. These are American poems as truly as his historical verse, though they are also universal for the English race. In another large portion of his work he brought back from the romantic tradition of Europe, after Irving's manner, motives which he treated for their pure poetic quality, detached from anything American, and he also translated much foreign verse from the north and the south of Europe, including Dante's Divine Comedy (1867). He has, more than any other single writer, reunited America with the poetic past of Europe, particularly in its romance. The same serenity of disposition that marked Irving and Bryant characterized his life; and his art, more varied than Bryant's or Irving's, has the same refine- ment, being simple and so limpid as to deceive the reader into an oblivion of its quality and sometimes into an unwitting disparage- ment of what seems so plain and natural as to be commonplace. In Longfellow, as in Irving, one is struck by that quietude, which is so prevailing a characteristic of American literature, and which proceeds from its steady and even flow from sources that never knew any disturbance or perturbation. The life, the art, the moods are all calm; deep passion is absent. Hawthorne was endowed with a soul of more intense brooding, but he remained within the circle of this peace. He developed in solitude exquisite grace of language, and in other respects was an artist, the mate of Poe in the tale and exceeding Poe in signifi- cance since he used symbolism for effects of truth. He, like Longfellow, embodied the national tradition, in this case the Puritan past; but he seized the subject, not in its historical aspects and diversity of character and event, but psychologically in its moral passion in The Scarlet Letter (1850) , and less abstractly, more picturesquely, more humanly, in its blood tradition, in The House of the Seven Gables: In his earlier work, as an artist, he shows the paucity of the materials in the environment, especially in his tales; but when his residence in Italy and England gave into his hands larger opportunity, he did not succeed so well in welding Italy with America in The Marble Faun (i860), or England with America in his experimental attempts at the work which he left uncompleted, as he had done in the Puritan romances. He had, however, added a new domain to American romanticism; and, most of all these writers, he blended moral truth with fiction; he, indeed, spiritualized romance, and with- out loss of human reality,— a rare thing in any literature. Both Longfellow and Hawthorne were happy in reconciling their art with their country: both, not less than Poe, were universal artists, but they incorporated the national past in their art and were thereby more profoundly American. Emerson, whose work lay in the religious sphere, not unlike Jonathan Edwards at an earlier time of climax but in a different way, marked the issue of Puritanism in pure idealism, and was more contemporaneously associated with life in the times than were the purely imaginative writers. He was the central figure of Transcendentalism, and apart from his specific teachings stood for the American spirit, disengaged from authority, independent, personal, responsible only to himself. He reached a revolutionary 838 AMERICAN LITERATURE extreme, but he had not arrived at it by revolutionary means; without storm or stress, with characteristic peacefulness, he came to the great denials, and without much concerning himself with them turned to his own affirmations of spiritual reality, methods of life and personal results. Serenity was his peculiar trait; amid all the agitation about him he was entirely unmoved, lived calmly and wrote with placid power, concentrating into the slowly'wrought sentences of his Essays (1841-1875) the spiritual essence and moral metal of a life lived to God, to himself and to his fellow-men. He, more than any other single writer, reunited American thought with the philosophy of the world; more than all others, he opened the ways of liberalism, wherever they may lead. He was an emancipator of the mind. Inhis Poems (1847- 1867), though the abstract and the concrete often find themselves awkward mates, his philosophic ideas are put forth under forms of imagination and his personal life is expressed with nobility; his poetic originality, though so different in kind, is as unique as Poe's, and reaches a height of imaginative faculty not elsewhere found in American verse. His poetry belongs more peculiarly to universal art, so pure in general is its philosophic content and so free from any temporal trait is the style; but it is as dis- tinguished for the laconic expression of American ideas, minted with one blow, as his prose is for the constant breathing of the American spirit. It is the less possible to define the American traits in Emerson, because they constituted the man. He was as purely an American type as Lincoln. The grain of the man is in his work also; and the best that his prose and verse contain is his personal force. In him alone is genius felt as power; in the others it impresses one primarily as culture, modes of artistic faculty, phases of temperament. In this, too, he brings to mind Jonathan Edwards, the other climax of the religious spirit in New England; in Edwards it was intellectual power, in Emerson it was moral power; in both it was indigenous, power springing from what was most profound in the historic life of the community. Three other names, John Greenleaf Whittier (1807-1892), Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809-1894), James Russell Lowell (1819-1891), complete the group of the greater writers Ho/roes" °^ ^ ew England. Holmes was a more local figure, by Lowell.' his humour and wit and his mental acuteness a Yankee and having the flavour of race, but neither in his verse nor his novels reaching a high degree of excellence and best known by The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table (1858) , which is the Yankee prose classic. His contemporary reputation was largely social and owed much to the length of his life, but his actual hold on literature already seems slight and his work of little permanent value. Whittier stands somewhat apart as the poet of the soil and also because of his Quakerism; he was first eminent as the poet of the anti-slavery movement, to which he contributed much stirring verse, and later secured a broader fame by Snowbound (1866) and his religious poems of simple piety, welcome to every faith; he was also a balladist of local legends. In general he is the voice of the plain people without the medium of academic culture, and his verse though of low flight is near to their life and faith. Lowell first won distinction by The Biglow Papers (1848), which with the second series (1886) is the Yankee classic in verse, and is second only to his patriotic odes in maintaining his poetic reputation; his other verse, variously romantic in theme and feeling, and latterly more kindred to English classic style, shows little originality and was never popularly received; it is rather the fruit of great talent working in close literary sympathy with other poets whom frOm time to time he valued. His prose consists in the main of literary studies in criticism, a field in which he held the first rank. Together with Holmes and Whittier he gives greater body, diversity and illustration to the literature of New England; but in the work of none of these is there the initiative or the presence of single genius that characterize Emerson, Hawthorne and Longfellow. Lowell was a scholar with academic ties, a patriot above party, master of prose and verse highly developed and finished, and at times of a lofty strain owing to his moral enthusiasm; Whittier was a Quaker priest, vigorous in a great cause of humanity, with fluent power to express in poetry the life of the farm, the roadside and the legends that were like folklore in the memory of the settlement; Holmes was a town wit and master of occasional verse, with notes here and there of a higher strain in single rare poems. The secondary literature that accompanied the work of these writers was abundant. .It was largely the product of Trans- cendentalism and much of it gathered about Emerson. In The Dial (1840), the organ of Transcendentalism, he aentalism. introduced to the public his young friend, Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862), author of Walden (1854) and the father of the nature-writers, who as a hermit-type has had some European vogue and shows an increasing hold as an exception among men, but whose work has little literary distinction; and together with him, his companion, William Ellery Channing (1818-1901), a poet who has significance only in the transcendentalist group. With them should be named Emerson's coeval, Amos Bronson Alcott (1790-1888), the patriarch of the so-called Concord philosophers, better esteemed for his powers of monologue than as a writer in either prose or verse. Emerson's associate-editor in The Dial was Sarah Margaret Fuller, afterwards Marchioness d'Ossoli (r8io-i85o), a woman of extraordinary qualities and much usefulness, who is best remembered by her Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1844), but contributed no permanent work to literature. She was a leading figure at Brook Farm, the socialistic community founded by members of the group, and especially by Ripley, who like her afterwards emigrated to New York and together with her began a distinguished critical career in connexion with The New York Tribune. Transcendentalism produced also its peculiar poet in Jones Very (1813-1881), whose Poems (1839) have original quality though slight merit, and its novelist in Sylvester Judd (1813-1853), whose Margaret (1845) is a unique work in American fiction. Other transcendentalist poets were Christopher Pearse Cranch (1813-1892), and Charles Timothy Brooks (1813-1883), who translated Faust (1856), besides a score of minor names. Outside of this group Thomas William Parsons (1819-1892), who translated Dante's Inferno (1843), was a poet of greater distinction, but his product was slight. The prose of the movement, though abundant, yielded nothing that is remembered. The literary life of Boston was, however, by no means confined within this circle of thought. It was most distinguished in the field of history, where indeed the writers rivalled the History. imaginative authors in public fame. They were, besides George Bancroft already mentioned, John Gorham Palf rey ( 1 7 96- 1 88 1 ) , author of The History of New England{ r 8 58) , William Hickling Prescott (1796-1859), whose field was Spanish and Spanish-American history, John Lothrop Motley (1814- 1877), whose attention was given to Dutch history, and Jared Sparks (1789-1866), whose work lay in biography. In the writings of Prescott and Motley the romanticism of the period is clearly felt, and th'ey attained the highest distinction in the literary school of history of the period. Oratory also flourished in Daniel Webster (1782-1852), Edward Everett (1794-1865), RufusChoate(i799-i859), Wendell Phillips (1811-1884), Charles Sumner (i8n-r874),and Robert Charles Winthrop (1809-1894), the last survivor of a long line of fiery or classic oratory in which New England was especially distinguished and had oratory. rivalry only from Henry Clay (1777-1852) of Virginia, and John Caldwell Calhoun (1 782-1850) of South Carolina. The church also produced two powerful speakers in Theodore Parker (1810-1860), the protagonist of the liberals in Boston, and Henry Ward Beecher, (1813-1887), who sustained a liberal form of New England Congregationalism in Brooklyn, New York, where he made Plymouth Church a national pulpit. The single memorable novel of the period was Mrs Harriet Beecher Stowe's (1811-1896) Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852), which had a world-wide vogue; it is the chief contribution of the anti-slavery movement to American literature and stands for plantation life in the old south. Another female writer, Mrs Lydia Maria Child (1802-1880), remembered by her ' Philothea (1836), deserves mention in the line of notable American women who served their generation in literary ways and by devotion to public causes. Criticism was served excellently by Edwin Percy Whipple (1819" Fiction. AMERICAN LITERATURE 839 1885), and less eminently by Henry Theodore Tuckerman (1813- 187 1), who emigrated to New York; but scholarship in general flourished under the protection of Harvard College, i/jfa where Ticknor, Longfellow and Lowell maintained a high ideal of literary knowledge and judgment in the chair they successively filled, and were accompanied in English by Francis James Child (1825-1896), whose English and Scottish Ballads, first issued in 1858, was brought to its final and monu-* mental form in 1892. Cornelius Conway Felton (1807-1862), president of Harvard College, stood for Greek culture, but the classical influence was little in evidence. Elsewhere in New England George Perkins Marsh (1801-1882) of Vermont, long minister to Italy, and William Dwight Whitney (1827-1894) of Yale, were linguistic scholars of high distinction. The develop- ment of the colleges into universities was already prophesied in the presence and work of these men. Outside of New England scholarship had been illustrated in New York by Charles Anthon (1797-1867), the classical editor, by the Duyckincks, Evert Augustus (1816-1878) and George Long (1823-1863), editors of the Cyclopaedia of American Literature (1855), and by Giulian Crommelin Verplanck (1786-1870), editor of Shakespeare (1846). New England thus, standing somewhat apart, produced a characteristic literature, more deeply rooted in. the community Character- i ^- in was tne case elsewhere; and this literature, blend- istics ing with what was produced to the south and west, of New became a predominant share of what has been nation- England a iiy accepted as standard American literature. It is also the more profound and scholarly share; and if quantity as well as quality be counted, and, as is proper, Bryant be included as the product of Puritan culture, it is the more artistic share. American standard literature, so constituted, belongs to romanticism, and is a phase of the romanticism which was then the general mood of literature; but it is a native product, with traits of its own and inward development from local conditions, not only apparent by its themes, but by its distinct evolution. Though it owed much to contact with Europe through its travelled scholars and its intellectual commerce by means of translations and imported books, and often dealt with matter detached from America both in prose and poetry, it was essentially self-contained. It was, in a marked way, free from the passions whose source was the French Revolution and its after-throes from 1789 to 1848; it is by this fact that it differs most from European romanticism. Just as the Puritan Rebellion in England left the colonies untouched to their own development, the political revolutions in Europe left the new nation unaffected to its normal evolution. There was never any revolution, in the French sense, in America, whether social, political, religious or literary; its great historical changes, such as the termination of English rule, the passing away of Puritan- ism, the abolition of slavery with the consequent destruction of the old South, were in a true sense conservative changes, normal phases of new life. In literature this state of things is reflected in the absence in it of any disturbance, its serenity of mood, its air of quiet studies. It is shown especially in its lack of passion. The only ardours displayed by its writers are moral, patriotic or religious, and in none of them is there any sense of conflict. The life which they knew was wholesome, regular, still free from urban corruption, the experience of a plain, prosperous and law- abiding people. None of these writers, though like Hawthorne they might deal with sin or like Poe with horror and a lover's despair at death, struck any tragic note. No tragedy was written, no love-poetry, no novel of passion. No literature is so maiden-pure. It is by refinement rather than power that it is most distinguished, by taste and cultivation, by conscientiousness in art, in poetic and stylistic craft; it is romance retrospectively seen in the national past, or conjured out of foreign lands by reminiscent imagination, or symbolically created out of fantasy; and this is supplemented by poetry of the domestic affections, the simple sorrows, all " that has been and may be again" in daily human lives, and by prose similarly related to a well- ordered life. If it is undistinguished by any work of supreme genius, it reflects broadly and happily and in enduring forms the national tradition and character of the land in its dawning century. The original impulse of this literature had spent its force by 1 86 1 — that is, before the Civil War. The greater writers had, in general, already done their characteristic work, and though the survivors continued to produce till toward the close of the century, their works contained no new element and were at most mellow fruits of age. The war itself, like the Revolution, left little trace in literature beyond a few popular songs and those occasional poems which the older poets wrote in the course of the conflict. Their attitude toward it and (with the exception of Whittier and Lowell) toward the anti-slavery movement which led up to it was rather that of citizens than of poets, though in the verse of Longfellow and Emerson there is the noble stamp of the hour, the impress of liberty, bravery and sorrow. Lowell is the exception; he found in the Commemoration Ode (1865) his loftiest subject and most enduring fame. The work began to fall into new hands, and a literature since the war grew up, which was, however, especially in poetry, a continuation of romanticism and contained its declining force. It was contributed to from all parts of the older country, and also from the west, and a genera- tion has now added its completed work to the sum. No author, in this late period, has received the national welcome to the same degree as the men of the elder time; none has had such personal distinction, eminence or public affection; and none has found such . honourable favour abroad, either in England or on the continent. Poetry has felt the presence of the art of Tennyson, which has maintained an extreme sensitiveness among the poets to artistic requirements of both material and technique; and it also has taken colour from the later English schools. It has, however, yielded its pre-eminent position to prose. The novel has displaced romance as the highest form of fiction, and the essay has succeeded the review as the form of criticism. The older colleges have grown into universities, and public libraries have multiplied throughout the north and west. The literature of information, meant for the popularization of knowledge of all kinds, has been put forth in great quantity, and the annual increase in the production of books keeps pace with the general growth of the country. Literature of distinction, however, makes but a small part of this large mass. In poetry the literary tradition was continued in Boston by Thomas Bailey Aldrich (1836-1907), essentially a stylist in verse, brief , definite, delicate, who carried the lighter graces of the art, refinement, wit, polish, to a high point of excel- writers. lence. His artistic consanguinity is with Herrick and Landor, and he takes motive and colour for his verse from every land, as his predecessors had done, but with effects less rich. He divided attention between drama and lyric, but as his dramas look strictly to the stage, it is on the lyrics that his reputation rests. He was master also of an excellent prose and wrote novels, sketches of travel, and especially stories, strongly marked by humour, surprise and literary distinction. In New York, Edmund Clarence Stedman (1833-1908) became the chief repre- sentative of the literary profession. He was both poet and critic, and won reputation in the former and the first rank in the latter field. His Victorian Poets (1875) and Poets of America (1885), followed by comprehensive anthologies (1894-1900), together with The Nature and Elements of Poetry (1892), are the principal critical work of his generation, and indeed the sole work that is eminent. His verse, less practised as time went on, was well wrought and often distinguished by flashes of spirited song and balladry. With him is associated his elder friend, Richard Henry Stoddard (1825-1903), who made his appearance before the Civil War, and whose verse belongs in general character to the style of that earlier period and is as rapidly forgotten. Both Stedman and Stoddard were of New England birth, as was also the third to be mentioned, William Winter (born 1836), better known as the lifelong dramatic critic of the metropolis. The last of the New York poets of established reputation, Richard Watson Gilder (b. 1 844 in New Jersey ; d. 1 909) , was at first affiliated with the school of Rossetti, and his work in general, Five Books of Song (1894), strongly marked by artistic susceptibility, is in a high degree 840 AMERICAN LITERATURE refined and delicate. In the country at large popular success, in England as well as in America, was won by Charles Godfrey Leland (1824-1903), in Hans Breitmann's Ballads (1871), humorous poems in the Pennsylvania Dutch dialect. Born in Philadelphia, he spent the greater part of his mature life abroad and wrote numerous works on diverse topics, but his reputation is chiefly connected with his books on gypsy life and lore. Another foreign resident who deserves mention was William Wetmore Story (1819-1895), the sculptor, of Massachusetts, connected with the Boston group, whose verse and prose gave him the rank of a litterateur. The South again entered into literature with the work of Sidney Lanier (1842-1881), in succes- sion to Henry Timrod (1829-1867) and Paul Hamilton Hayne (1830-1886), who find a place rather by the affection in which they are held at the South than by positive merit. Lanier showed originality and a true poetic gift, but his talents were little effectual. From the West humorous poetry was produced by Francis Bret Harte (1 839-1 902), born in Albany, in The Heathen Chinee (1870) and similar verse, but he is better remembered as the artistic narrator of western mining life in his numerous stories and novels. Verse of a similar kind also first brought into literary notice John Hay (1838-1905), in Pike County Ballads (187 1), who also wrote in prose; but his reputation was rather won as a statesman in the closing years of his life. Minor poets of less distinction but with a vein superior to that of the earlier period, more excellent in workmanship and more coloured with imagination and mood, arose in all parts, of whom the most notable are Julia Ward Howe (born 1819), in Boston, the vener- able friend of many good causes, Henry Howard Brownell (1820- 1872) of Rhode Island, author of the most vigorous and realistic poetry of the Civil War, War Lyrics (1866), Edward Rowland Sill (1841-1887), born in Connecticut but associated with California, Henry Van Dyke (born 1852), in New York, better known by his prose in tale and essay, Silas Weir Mitchell (born 1830), in Philadelphia, whose repute as a novelist has overshadowed his admirable verse, Eugene Field (1850-1895) of Chicago, James VVhitcomb Riley (born 1853) of Indiana, both distinguished for their humorous and childhood verse, and Joaquin Miller (born 1841) of Oregon, whose first work, Songs of the Sierras (1871), had in it much of the spirit of the wild land, the colour of the desert, the free, adventurous character of the filibuster, all strangely mixed with pseudo-Byronic passions. Apart from all these, whether minor or major poets, stands Walt Whitman (1 819-1892), whose Leaves of Grass (1855) first appeared before the war, but whose fame is associated rather with its successive editions and its companion volumes, and definitely dated, perhaps, from 1867. He received attention in England, as did Miller, on an assumption that his works expressed the new and original America, the unknown demo- cracy, and he has had some vogue in Germany iriainly owing to his naturalism. His own countrymen, however, steadily refuse to accept him as representative of themselves, and his naturalism is uninteresting to them, while on the other hand a group appar- ently increasing in critical authority treat his work as significant. It is, in general, only by those few fine lyrics which have found a place in all anthologies of American verse that he is well known and highly valued in his own land. The chief field of literary activity has been found in the novel, and nowhere has the change been so marked as here. The romantictreatmentofthenovelpractically disappeared, and in its place came the realistic or analytic treatment, rendering manners by minute strokes of observation or dissecting motives psychologically. This amounted to a substitu- tion of the French art of fiction, in some of its forms, for the English tradition of broad ideality and historical picturesqueness. The protagonist of the reform was William Dean Howells (born 1837), a cultivated literary scholar,and avarious writer of essays, travel sketches, poetry and plays, editor of many magazines and books, whose career in letters has been more laborious and mis- cellaneous than any other contemporary, but whose main work has been the long series of novels that he has put forth almost annually throughout the period. He not only wrote fiction, but Whitman. The later novel. he endeavoured to make known to Americans fictiari as it was practised in other lands, Russia, Italy, Spain, and to bring the art that was dearest to him into line with the standard of the European world. He was an apostle of the realistic school, and directed his teaching to the advocacy of the novel of observation, which records life in its conditions and attempts to realize what is in the daily lives and experience of man rather than what belongs to adventure, imagination or the dreaming part of life. Of his works, The Lady of tlie Aroostook (1879), The Rise of Silas Laphatn (1885), A Hazard of New Fortunes (1889), are character- istic examples. He won a popular vogue, and if it is now less than it was, it is because after a score of years tastes and fashions change. The conscientiousness of his art continues the tradition of American writers in that respect, and he is master of an affable style. His work, including all its phases, is the most important body of work done in his generation. Henry James (born 1843), who mainly resided abroad, is his compeer, and in a similar way has followed French initiative. He also has been a various writer of criticism and travel and the occasional essay; but his equally long series of novels sustains his reputation. He has developed the psychological treatment of fiction, and of his work The Portrait of a Lady (i88i)> The Princess Casamassima (1886) and The Tragic Muse ( 1 890) are ch aracteristic. He has had less vogue owing to both matter and style, but in certain respects his power, more intellectual than that of Howells, has greater artistic elements, while the society with which he deals is more complex. He is really a cosmopolitan writer and has no other connexion with America than the accident of birth. A third novelist, also a foreign resident, Francis Marion Crawford (1854-1909), f a ]| s i n to the same category. A prolific novelist, in the beaten track of story-telling, he has always a story to tell and excellent narrative power. The work regarded as most important from his hand is Saracinesca (1887) and its sequels; but his subjects are cosmo- politan, his talent is personal, and he has no effectual con- nexion with his own country. The romantic tradition of the older time was continued by Lew Wallace (1827-1905) of Indiana, a distinguished general and diplomat, in his Mexican tale, The Fair God (1873), and his oriental romances, Ben Hitr (1880), one of the most widely circulated of American books, and The Prince of India (1893). A mode of the novel which was wholly unique was practised by Francis Richard Stockton (1834-1902) in his droll tales, of which Rudder Grange (1879) is the best known. The principal minor product of the novel lay in the provincial tale. The new methods easily lent themselves to the portraiture of local conditions, types and colour. Every part of the country had its writers who recorded its traits in this way. For New England Mrs Harriet Beecher Stowe described the older life in Old Town Folks (1869),. and was succeeded by Sarah Orne Jewett (1849-1909) and Mary Eleanor Wilkiris (born 1862). The West was notably treated by Edward Eggleston (1837-1902) in The Hoosier School Master (1871), Mary Hallock Foote (born 1847) in Led-Horse Claim (1883) and Hamlin Garland (born i860) in Main Travelled Roads (1891). The. South was represented by Mary Noailles Murfree [" Charles Egbert Craddock"] (born 1850) in In the Tennessee Mountains (1884) and its successors, by Thomas Nelson Page (born 1853) in Marse Chan (1887) and other tales of the reconstruction in Virginia, and with most literary grace by George Washington Cable (born 1844), whose novels of Louisiana are remarkable for their poetic charm. The list is sufficiently illustrative of the general movement, which made what was called the dialect novel supreme for the season. This was succeeded by a revival of the historical novel in local fields, of which Winston Churchill (born 1871) in Richard Carvel (1899) is the leading exponent, and together with it the sword and dagger tale of the Dumas type, the special contemporary plot invented by Anthony Hope, and romance in its utmost forms of adventure and extravagance, came in like a flood at the close of the Spanish War. There were during the period from 1870 to 1900 many other writers of fiction, who often proceeded in con- ventional and time-honoured ways to tell their tale, but none of them is especially significant for the general view or as showing any tendencies of an original sort. The pietistic novel, for AMERICAN lilTERATURE 841 example, was. produced with immense popularity by Edward Payson Roe (1838-1888), who shared the same vogue as Josiah Gilbert Holland (18 10-188 1), and both fell heir to the same audience which in the earlier period had welcomed The Wide, Wide World with the same broad acceptance. The essay, and the miscellaneous work which may be classed with it, was cultivated with most distinction by Thomas Went- Essayists. wortn Higginson (born 1823), one of the Boston group, a writer of the greatest versatility, as in his life he followed many employments, from that of preaching in a Uni- tarian pulpit to that of commanding a negro regiment in the Civil War. He has written good verse and excellent prose, and his familiar style, often brilliant with life and wit, especially becomes the social essay or reminiscent paper in which he excelled, and gives agreeableness to his writings in every form. Atlantic Essays (1871) is a characteristic book; and, in general, in his volumes is to be found a valuable fund of reminiscence about the literature and the times of his long life, not elsewhere so abundant or entertaining. Charles Dudley Warner ( 1 829-1900) of Hartford, also in close touch in the later years with the Boston group, was more gifted with gentle humour and of a literary temperament that made the social essay his natural expression. He won popularity by My Summer in a Garden (1870), and was the author of many volumes of travel and several hovels, but the familiar essay, lighted with humour and touched with a reminis- cence of the Irving quality in sentiment, was his distinctive work. The long life of Edward Everett Hale (1822-1909), minister at Boston, was fruitful in many miscellaneous volumes, including fiction of note, The Man Without a Country (1868), but the most useful writing from his pen falls into prose resembling the essay in its form and manner of address, though cousin, too, to the sermon. John Burroughs (b. 1837) of New York carried on in essay form the nature tradition of Thoreau, touched with Emersonianism in the thought, and after his example books of mingled observation, sentiment and literary quality, with an out-of-door atmosphere, have multiplied. American humour often cultivates a form akin to the essay, but it also falls into the mould of the tale or scene from life. In Humour. tne P el "i°d before the Civil War, to sum up the whole subject in this place, it had the traits which it has since maintained, as its local tang, of burlesque, extravaganza, violence, but it recorded better an actual state of manners and scene of life in raw aspects. Its noteworthy writers were Seba Smith (1792-1868) of Maine, author of the Letters of Major Jack Downing, which began to appear in the press in 1830; Augustus Baldwin Longstreet of Georgia in Georgia Scenes (1835) ; William Tappan Thompson (1812-1882), born in Ohio but associated with the South by descent and residence, in Major Jones' Courtship (1840), a Georgian publication; Joseph G. Baldwin (1815-1864) in Flush Times in Alabama and Mississippi (1853); and Benjamin Penhallow Shillaber (1814-1890) in Life and Sayings of Mrs Partington (1854). A fresh form, attended by whimsicality, appears in George Horatio Derby's (1823-1861) Phoenixiana (1855). In the war-times Robert Henry Newell (1836-1901) and David Ross Locke (1833-1888), respectively known as " Orpheus C. Kerr " and " Petroleum V, Nasby " cultivated grotesque orthography in a characteristic vein of wit; and with more quaintness and drollery Henry Wheeler Shaw (1818-1885) and Charles Farrar Browne (1834-1867), known as " Josh Billings " and " Artemus Ward," won immense popularity which extended to England. These latter writers were men of Northern birth, but of Western and wandering journalistic experience as a rule. Their works make up a body of what is known as " American humour," a characteristic native product of social conditions and home talent. One poet, John Godfrey Saxe (1816-1887) of Vermont, attempted something similar in literary verse after the style of Tom Hood. The heir to this tradition of farce, drollery and joke was Samuel Langhorne Clemens (1835-1910), known as "Mark Twain," born in Missouri, who raised it to an extraordinary height of success and won world-wide reputation as a great and original humorist. His works, however, include a broader compass of fiction; greater humanity and reality, and ally him to the masters- of humorous creation. Joel Chandler Harris (1848-5 1908) of Georgia introduced a new variety in Nights with Uncle Remus (1883), which is literary negro folklore, and Finley Peter Dunne (born 1857) of Chicago, the creator of " Mr Dooley," continues the older American style in its original traits. History was represented in this period with a distinction not inferior to that of the elder group by Francis Parkman (1823- 1893) of Boston, who, however, really belongs with Hl&toiy the preceding age by his affiliations; his series of histories fell after the Civil War by their dates of publication, but they began with History of the Conspiracy of Pontiac (1851); he was the contemporary of Lowell and differed from the other members of the elder group, who survived, only by the fact of the later maturing of his work. He was not less eminent than Motley and Prescott and his history is of a more modern type. In the next generation the field of American history was cultivated by many scholars, and a large part of local history and of national biography was for the first time recorded. James Ford Rhodes's (1848) History of the United States (1892) holds standard rank ;, the various writings of John Fiske (1842-1901), distinguished also as a philosophical writer, in the colonial and revolutionary periods are valued both for scholarship and for excellent literary style; and Theodore Roosevelt's (born 1858) The Winning of the West (1889) and his several biographical studies deserve mention by their merit as well as for his eminent position. The historians, how- ever, have seldom sought literary excellence, and their works belong rather to learning than to literature. The same state- ment is true of the scholarship of the universities in general, where the spirit of literary study has changed. In the department of scholarship little requires mention beyond Horace Howard Furness's (born 1833) lifelong work on his Variorum Edition of Shakespeare, the Shakespearian labours of Henry Norman Hudson (1814-1886) and Richard Grant White (1821-1885), the Chaucerian studies of Thomas Raynesfof d Lounsbury (born 1838) of Yale, and the translations of Dante (1867, 1892) by Charles Eliot Norton (1827-1908) of Harvard. The period has been one of great literary activity, effort and ambition, but it affects one by its mass rather than its details; it presents few eminent names. The romantic motives fixed in early colonizing history as a taking possession of ueas!'" the land by a race of Puritans, pioneers, river-voyagers, backwoodsmen, argonauts, have been exhausted; and no new motives have been found. The national tradition has been absorbed and incorporated, so far as literature was able to accomplish this. The national character on the other hand has been expressed rather in local types, the colour of isolated com- munities and provincial conditions for their picturesque value and human truth, and in commonplace characters of average life; but no broadly ideal types of the old English tradition have been created, and the great scene of life has not been staged after the manner of the imaginative masters of the past. There has been no product of ideas since Emerson; he was, indeed, the sole author who received and fertilized ideas as such, and he has had no successor. America is, in truth, perhaps intellectually more remote from Europe than in its earlier days. The contact of its romanticism with that of Europe was, as has been seen, imperfect, but its touch with the later developments and reactions of the movement in Europe is far more imperfect. With Tolstoy, Ibsen, d'Annunzio, Zola, Nietzsche, Maeterlinck, Sudermann, the American people can have no effectual touch; their social tradition and culture make them impenetrable to the present ideas of Europe as they are current in literary forms. Nor has anything been developed from within that is fertile in literature. The political unity of the nation is achieved, but it is not an integral people in other respects. It has not the unity of England or France or even of the general European mind; it rather contains such disparate elements as characterize the Roman or the Turkish empire. It is cleft by political tradition and in social moral conviction, north and south, and by intellectual strata of culture east and west; it is still a people in the making. Its literature has been regional^ as was said, centred in New England, New York, Philadelphia, contributed to sporadically from the 8 4 2 AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE South, growing up in Western districts like Indiana or germinating in Louisville in Kentucky, abundant in California, but always much dependent on the culture of its localities; it blends to some extent in the mind of the national reading public, but not very perfectly. The universities have not, on the whole, been its sources or fosterers, and they are now filled with research, useful for learning but impotent for literature. The intellectual life is now rather to be found in social, political and natural science than elsewhere; the imaginative life is feeble, and when felt is crude; the poetic pulse is imperceptible. Bibliography. — The best general histories of American literature are by Barrett Wendell (1900) and William P. Trent (1903). Histories of particular periods or topics, most serviceable, are M. C. Tyler's History of American Literature during the Colonial Time (2 vols., 1878), Literary History of the American Revolution (2 vols., l %9l)'< J- F. Jameson, History of Historical Writing in America (1891); D. D. Addison, The Clergy in American Life and Letters (1900); W. H. Venable, Beginnings of Literary Culture in the Ohio Valley (1891); M. Nicholson, The Hoosiers (1900); A. H. Smith, Philadelphia Magazines and their Contributors, 1741-1850 (1892) ; W. B. Cairns, Development of American Literature, 1815-1833 (1898) ; O. B. Frothingham, Transcendentalism in New England (1876); L. Swift, Brook Farm (1900) ; T. W. Higginson, Old Cambridge ( 1 900) . The entire field is covered encyclopaedically by Stedman and Hutchinson, Library of American Literature (11 vols., i888-l89o)and the Duyckincks, Cyclopaedia (3rd ed., 1875), and portions of it in R. W. Griswold's successive collections, Poets and Poetry of America (1842), Prose Writers of America (1847), Female Poets of America (1848); Trent and Wells, Colonial Prose and Poetry (3 vols., 1901); Louise Manly, Southern Literature (1900), and E. C. Stedman, American Anthology (1900). The American Men of Letters series (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston) and the English Men of Letters, American Series (Macmillan, New York), present the biographical and critical view in general, to which may be added E. C. Stedman, Poets of America (1885); W. C. Lawton, The New England Poets (1898), and G. E. VVoodberry, America in Literature (1903). Detailed and admirable bibliographies for all aspects of the subject are to be found in Wendell's and Trent's Histories, and abundant and minute biographical detail in Stedman's indexes of authors.in his collections. See also the separate bibliographies to the articles in this work on each individual writer. (G. E. W.) AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE (1775-1781). This war, by which the United States definitely separated themselves from the British connexion, began with the affair of Lexington in Massachusetts, on the 1 9th of April 1775, and was virtually ended by the capitulation of Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia, on the 19th of October 1781. In this article the progress of the war itself is alone considered, its political side being treated under United States : History. From a military standpoint as well as politically it was a conspicuous and instructive conflict, — conspicuous, or even unique, as being the most famous struggle in history where colonial dependencies defeated their powerful parent state, and instructive as presenting exceptional conditions and consequent errors in the attempt to break down the revolt. The reasons for Great Britain's failure appear in the progress of the war, which assumed two distinct stages, operations in the north followed by operations in the south. In point of time and energy military activity was about equally divided between these two fields. As the naval operations in connexion with the war have a European interest as well, they are dealt with in a separate section. To strike at the rebellion first in the north was natural and inevitable. To King George and his ministry, Massachusetts was the hotbed of disloyalty, the head and front of opposi- mtioas. t ' on t0 tne i r colonial policy, and there coercion should begin. It was also a convenient point for a prompt display of authority, as the town of Boston was the headquarters of General Gage, recently appointed royal governor of Massa- chusetts and commander of the king's troops in North America. He had with him four regiments of regulars, the initial force with which to overawe the restless and defiant population in his vicinity. While Gage is to be credited with advising his govern- ment that not less than 20,000 men would be necessary for the work in hand, he proceeded at once to suppress demon- strations around Boston. His principal expedition brought about the skirmish of the 19th of April 1775 (see Lexington), in which a detachment sent to seize some military stores collected at Concord suffered heavily at Lexington, Concord and other places, at the hands of the surrounding militia. This encounter roused the New England colonies, and in a few days some 16,000 of their townsmen marched in small bands upon Boston to protest against and resist further similar incursions; and in this irregular body we have the nucleus of the colonial forces which carried the war through. A noteworthy incident of the Concord affair, and characteristic of the attitude which the provincials had maintained and continued to maintain for another year, was the official representation to the king by the Massachusetts people that the regulars were the first to fire upon them, and that they returned the fire and fought through the day in strict defence of their rights and homes as Englishmen. They repeated their professions of loyalty to his majesty and the principles of the English Constitution. Conscious, nevertheless, that a struggle impended, they instantly sent word to all the other colonies, whose whig elements sympathetically responded to the alarm. The war had opened. The home government extended its precautions and prepara- tions. General (Sir) William Howe, who succeeded Gage in the chief command in October, and Generals (Sir) Henry Clinton and John Burgoyne were sent out at once with reinforcements. Cornwallis followed a year later. These four generals were identified with the conduct of the principal operations on the side of the British. The force at Boston was increased to xo,ooc men. The American Congress at Philadelphia, acting for all the thirteen colonies, voted general defensive measures, called out troops and appointed George Washington of Virginia com- mander-in-chief. Before he reached the camp forming around Boston, a second and more important collision took place. On the 17th of June 1775 occurred the battle of Bunker Hill (q.v.), in which, although victorious, the British m U- suffered heavily, losing one-third of their force in storm- ing the hastily constructed lines of the " rebels." The latter's most serious loss was that of General Joseph Warren, one of the prominent leaders of the revolutionary movement in Massa- chusetts. In moral effect the battle proved anything but a defeat to the Americans, who now drew a cordon of works around Boston, hemming Howe's army in a contracted, and, as it proved, untenable, position. On the 3rd of July Washington took command of the American army at Cambridge and proceeded with what is known as the " siege of Boston," which was marked by no special incident, and closed with the evacuation of the towr> by the British on the 17th of March 1776, Howe sailing away to Halifax, Nova Scotia. While the main interest centred at this point, the year 1775 was marked by two enterprises elsewhere. Fort Ticonderoga, the key to the passage of Lakes George and Champlain to Canada, was surprised and taken on the 10th of May by a small band under Colonel Ethan Allen, while Colonel Benedict Arnold headed an expedition through the Maine woods to effect the capture of Quebec, where Sir Guy Carleton com- manded. Arnold joined General Richard Montgomery, who was already near the city, and the combined force assaulted Quebec on the 31st of December, only to meet with complete defeat. Montgomery was killed and many of his men taken prisoners. Demonstrations against Canada were soon discontinued, Arnold drawing off the remnant of his army in May 1776. The events of 1775, though favourable to America, were but a prelude to the real struggle to come. For the campaign of 1776 both sides made extensive preparations. To the home govern- ment the purely military problem, although assuming larger dimensions and more difficulties, still seemed to admit of a simple solution, namely, to strike hard where the rebellion was most active and capable of the longest resistance. Defeated there, it would quickly dissipate in all quarters. As much more than one-half of the population and resources of the colonists lay north of Chesapeake Bay — New England alone having an estimated population of over 700,000 persons — it was only a question as to what point in this area should be made the future base of operations. Largely upon the representations of Howe, Burgoyne and others, it was determined to shift the field from Boston to New York city, from there to hold the line of the Hudson river in co-operation with a force to move AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 843 Long Island do* from Canada under Carleton and Burgoyne, and thus effectually to isolate New England. Upon this plan the new campaign opened in June 1 7 76. Howe, heavily reinforced from home, sailed on the 10th from Halifax to New York and on the 5th of July encamped on Staten Island. Washington, anticipating this move, had already marched from Boston and fortified the city. His left flank was thrown across the East river beyond the village of Brooklyn, while his front and right on the harbour and North or Hudson river were open to a combined naval and military attack. The position proved untenable. Howe drove Washington out of it, and forced the abandonment of the whole of Manhattan Island by three well- directed movements upon the American left. On the 22nd of August he crossed the Narrows to the Long Island shore with 15,000 troops, increasing the number to 20,000 on the 25th, and on the 27 th surprised the Americans, driving them into their Brooklyn works and inflicting a loss of about 1400 men. Among the prisoners were Generals J. Sullivan and W. Alexander, soi-disant earl of Stirling. (See Long Island.) Howe has been criticized, rightly or wrongly, for failing to make full use of his victory. Washington skilfully evacuated his Brooklyn lines on the night of the 29th, and in a measure relieved the depression which the defeat had produced in his army. On the 15th of September Howe crossed the East river above the city, captured 300 of the militia defending the lines and occupied the city. Washington had withdrawn his main army to the upper part of the island. A skirmish, fought the next day, opposite the west front of the present Columbia University, and known as the affair of Harlem Heights, cost the British a loss of seventy of their light infantry. Delaying until the 12th of October, Howe again moved forward by water into Westchester county, and marching toward White Plains forced another retreat on Washington. In the fight on Chatterton Hill at the Plains, on the 28th of October, an American brigade was defeated. Instead of pressing Washington further, Howe then returned to Manhattan £° rt . . Island, and on the 16th of November captured Fort Washing- ,,,,.' . , , . m ■ too. Washington with nearly 3000 prisoners. 1ms was the heaviest blow to the Americans throughout the war in the north. The British then pushed down through New Jersey with designs on Philadelphia. Washington, still retreating with a constantly diminishing force, suddenly turned upon Lieutenant-Colonel Rail's advanced corps of Hessians at Trenton on the 26th of December and captured nearly 1000 prisoners. This brilliant exploit was followed by another on the 3rd of January, when Washington, again crossing the Delaware, outmarched Cornwallis at Trenton, and marching to his rear defeated three British regiments and three companies of light cavalry at Princeton, New Jersey. Marching on to Morristown, Washington encamped there on the flank of the British advance in New Jersey, thus ending the first campaign fought on the new issue of American Independence, which had been declared on the 4th of July 1776. While these closing successes inspirited the Americans, it was undeniable that the campaign had gone heavily against them. Having raised a permanent force for the war called the Conti- nental Line, they awaited further operations of the enemy. Following up the occupation of New York, Howe proceeded in 1777 to capture Philadelphia. Complete success again crowned his movements. Taking his army by sea from New York to the head of the Chesapeake, he marched up into Pennsylvania, whither Washington had repaired to watch him, and on the 26th of September entered the city. The Americans attempted to check the advance of the British at the river Brandy- wio', wine, where an action occurred on the nth, resulting in their defeat (see Brandywine); and on the 4th of October Washington directed a well-planned attack upon the enemy's camp at Germantown on the outskirts of the city, but failed of success. (See Germantown.) Howe's victorious progress in Pennsylvania was neutralized by disasters farther north. Burgoyne marched from Canada in June 1777, with a strong expeditionary force, to occupy Albany and put himself in touch with Howe at the other end of the Hudson. Driving the Americans under General Arthur St Clair out of Ticonderoga, and making his way through the deep woods with difficulty, he reached the Hudson at Fort Edward on the 30th of July. General Philip Schuyler, commanding the Americans in that quarter, retreated to Stillwater, 30 m. above Albany, barricading the roads and impeding Burgoyne's progress. Dis- satisfaction with his conduct led Congress to replace him in command by General Gates. On the 13th of August Burgoyne despatched a force to Bennington, Vermont, under the German colonel Friedrich Baum, to capture stores and overawe the country. On the 1 6th Baum was attacked by General John Stark with the militia from the surrounding country, and was overwhelmed. Colonel Breyman, marching to his relief, was also routed. The misfortune cost the British 1000 men. Equally unfortunate was the fate of an expedition sent Saratoga. under Colonel Barry St Leger to co-operate with Burgoyne by way of the Mohawk Valley. On the 6th of August he was met at Oriskany by General Nicholas Herkimer and forced to retreat. Despite these disasters Burgoyne pushed south to Stillwater, where he was defeated by Gates's improvised army of continentals and militia in two battles on the 19th of September (Freeman's Farm) and the 7th of October (Bemis's Height). On the 1 7th he was forced to surrender. (See Saratoga, Battle or.) This disaster was followed by the alliance between America and France in 1778, and later by the addition of Spain to England's enemies- — events of far-reaching importance. A movement of importance, in 1778-79, was the expedition of George Rogers Clark, under the authority of the state of Virginia, against the British posts in the north-west. With a company of volunteers Clark captured Kaskaskia, the chief post in the Illinois country, on the 4th of July 1778, and later secured the submission of Vincennes, which, however, was recaptured by General Henry Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit. In the spring of 1779 Clark raised another force, and recaptured Vincennes from Hamilton. This expedition did much to free the frontier from Indian raids, gave the Americans a hold upon the north-west, of which their diplomats duly took advantage in the peace negotiations, and later, by giving the states a community of interest in the western lands, greatly promoted the idea of union. In 1778 Sir Henry Clinton succeeded Howe in the chief com- mand in America. With fewer resources than his predecessor had disposed of, he could accomplish practically nothing in the north. In June 1778 he evacuated Philadelphia, with the intention of concentrating his force at New York. Washington, who had passed the winter at Valley Forge, overtook him at Monmouth, N.J., and in an action on the 28th of June both armies suffered about equal loss. Thereafter (except in the winter cf 1779, at Morristown) Washington made West Point on the Hudson the headquarters of his army, but Clinton avowed himself too weak to attack him there. In 1779 he attempted to draw Washington out of the Highlands, with the result that in the manoeuvres he lost the garrison at Stony Point, 700 strong, the position being stormed by Wayne with the American light infantry on the 16th of July. During the summer General John Sullivan marched with a large force against the Indians (all the Iroquois tribes except the Oneidas and part of the Tuscaroras siding with the British during the war) and against the Loyalists of western New York, who had been committing great depreda- tions along the frontier; and on the 29th of August he inflicted a crushing defeat upon them at Newtown, on the site of the present Elmira. In addition several Indian villages and the crops of the Indians were destroyed in the lake region of western New York. Meanwhile the co-operation of the French became active. In July Count Rochambeau arrived at Newport, Rhode Island. That place had been occupied by the British from 1776 to the close of 1779. An unsuccessful attempt was made to drive them out in 1778 by the Americans assisted by the French admiral d'Estaing and a French corps. The year 1780 is also marked by the treason of General Benedict Arnold (q.v.), and the consequent 844 AMERICAN ! WAR OF INDEPENDENCE execution of Major Andre. Minor battles and skirmishes occurred until in August 1781 Washington conceived the pro- ject of a combined American^French attack On Cornwallis at Yorktown. Va., the success of which was decisive of the war (see below). The inadequate results of the British campaigns against the northern colonies in 1776 and 1777 led the home government to turn its attention to the weaker colonies in the south. in'aeonia. Operations in the north were not to cease, but a power- ful diversion was now to be undertaken in the south ivith a view to the complete conquest of that section. Success there would facilitate further movements in the- north. An isolated attack on Charleston, South Carolina, had been made by Sir Henry Clinton and Sir Peter Parker as earry as June 1776, but this was foiled by the spirited resistance of General William Moultrie; after 1778 the southern attempts, stimulated in part by the activity of the French in the West Indies, were vigor- ously sustained. On the 29th of December of this year Colonel Archibald Campbell (1730-1701) with an expeditionary corps of 3500 men from Clinton's army in New York, captured Savannah; Georgia, defeating the American force under General Robert Howe. In the following month he pushed into the interior and occupied Augusta. General Benjamin Lincoln,succeeding Howe, undertook to drive the British out of Georgia, but General Augustine Prevost, who had commanded in Florida, moved up and compelled Lincoln to retire to Charleston. Prevost, making Savannah his headquarters, controlled Georgia. In September 1779 he was besieged by Lincoln in conjunction with a French naval and military force under Admiral d'Estaing, but Success- fully repelled an assault (October 9), and Lincoln again fell back to Charleston. In this assault Count Casimir Pulaski, on the American side, was mortally wounded. The prestige thus won by the British in the south in 1779 was immensely increased in the following year, when they victoriously swept up through South and North Carolina. Failing, as stated, to achieve any advantage in the north in 1779, Sir Henry Clinton, under instructions from government, himself headed a combined military and naval expedition southward. He < evacuated New- port, R.I. (October 25), left New York in command of the German general Wilhelrh von Knyphausen, and in December sailed with 8500 men to join Prevost at Savannah. Cornwallis accompanied him, and later Lord Rawdbn joined him with an ■ additional force. Marching upon Charleston, Clinton ton. cut °^ tne " tv lrom relief, and after a brief siege compelled Lincoln to surrender on the 12th of May. (See Charleston.) The loss of this place and of the 5000 troops included in the surrender was a serious blow to the American cause. The apparent submission of South Carolina followed. In June Clinton returned to New York, leaving Cornwallis in command, with instructions to reduce North Carolina also. Meanwhile an active and bitter partisan warfare opened. The British advance had been marked by more than the usual destruction of war; the Loyalists rose to arms; the whig population scattered and without much organization formed groups of riflemen and mounted troopers to harass the enemy. Little mercy was shown on either side. The dashing rider, Colonel Banastre Tarleton, cut to pieces (April 14, 1780) a detachment of Lincoln's cavalry, and followed it up by practi- cally destroying Buford's Virginia regiment near the North Carolina border. On the other hand, daring and skilful leaders such as Francis Marion and Thomas Sumter kept the spirit of resistance alive by their sudden attacks and surprises of British outposts. Hanging Rock, Ninety-Six, Rocky Mount and other affairs brought their prowess and devotion into notice. By the month of August 1780, with the main British force encamped near the North Carolina line, the field seemed clear for the next advance. The threatening situation in the Carolinas alarmed Congress and Washington and measures were taken to protect the dis- tressed section. Before Cornwallis could be brought to bay he was faced successively by four antagonists— Generals Gates, Greene, Lafayette and Washington. They found in him the Camden. most capable and dangerous opponent of the war. Greene called him " the modern Hannibal." With Lincoln's surrender of nearly all the continental soldiers in the south, a new force had to be supplied to meet the British veterans. Two thousand men, mainly the Maryland line, were hurried down from Washington's camp under Johann de Kalb; Virginia and North Carolina put ; new men into the field, and the entire force was placed under command of General Gates. Gates marched towards Camden, S.C., and on the 1 6th of August encountered Cornwallis near that place. Each army by a night march attempted a surprise of the other, but the British tactics prevailed, and Gates was utterly routed. The reputation he had won at Saratoga was ruined on the occasion by over-confidence and- incompetence. De Kalb was killed in the action. General Greene, standing next to Washington as the ablest and most trusted officer of the Revolution, succeeded Gates. Cornwallis marched leisurely into North Carolina, but before meeting Greene some months later he suffered the loss of two detachments sent at intervals to disperse various partisan corps of the Americans; On the 7th of October 1780 a force of 1100 men under Major Patrick Ferguson was surrounded at King's Mountain, S. C.,near the North Carolina line, by bands of riflemen under Colonels Isaac Shelby, James Williams, William Campbell and others, and after a desperate fight on the wooded and rocky slopes, surrendered. Ferguson himself was killed. On the 17th of January 1781 General Daniel Morgan was attacked at Cowpens, south-west of King's Mountain, by Colonel Tarleton with his legion. Both were leaders of repute, and a most stirring action occurred in which Morgan, with Colonel William Washington leading his cavalry, practically destroyed Tarleton's corps. Despite the weakening his army suffered by these losses, Corn- wallis marched rapidly through North Carolina, giving Greene a hard chase nearly to the Virginia line. On the 15th of March the two armies met at Guilford Court House (near the present Greensboro, N.C.), and a virtually drawn c" urt battle was fought. The British, by holding their House. ground with their accustomed tenacity when engaged with superior numbers, were tactically victors, but were further weakened by a loss of nearly 600 men; Greene, cautiously avoiding another Camden, retreated with his forces intact. With his small' army,, less than 2000 strong, Cornwallis declined to follow Greene into the back country, and retiring to Hills- borough, N.C., raised the royal standard, offered protection to the inhabitants, and for the moment appeared to be master of Georgia and the two Carolinas. In a few weeks, however, he abandoned the heart of the state and marched to the coast at Wilmington, N.C., to recruit and refit his command. At Wilmington the British general faced a serious problem, the solution of which upon his own responsibility unexpectedly led to the close of the war within seven months. Instead of remain- ing in Carolina he determined to march into Virginia, justifying the move on the ground that until Virginia was reduced he could not firmly hold the more southern states he had just overrun; This decision was subsequently sharply criticized by Clinton as unmilitary, and as having been made contrary to his instructions. To Cornwallis he wrote in May: " Had you intimated the proba- bility of your intention, I should certainly have endeavoured to stop you,as I did then as well as now consider such a move likely to be dangerous to our interests in the Southern Colonies." The danger lay in the suddenly changed situation in that direction; as General Greene, instead of following Cornwallis to the coast, boldly pushed down towards Camden and Charleston, S.C.,'with a view to drawing his antagonist after him to the points where he was the year before, as' well as to driving back Lord Rawdon, whom Cornwallis had left in that field. In his main object, the recovery of the southern states, Greene succeeded by the close of the year; but not without hard fighting and repeated reverses; " We fight, get beaten, and fight again," were his words. On the 25th of April 1 781 he was surprised in his camp at Hobkirk's Hill, near Camden, by Lord Rawdon and defeated, both sides suffering about an equal loss. On the 22nd of May he attempted to storm the 'strong British post at Ninety-Six but was repulsed; AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 845 and finally on the 8th of September he fought the last battle of the war in the lower southern states at Eutaw Springs, S.C. In the first part of the action Greene was successful Butaiv Springs. after a desperate conflict; in the pursuit, • however, the Americans failed to dislodge the British from a stone house which they held, and their severe loss in both engagements was over 500 men. The British lost about 1000, one-half of whom were prisoners. Better success attended the American partisan operations directed by Greene and conducted by Marion, Sumter, Andrew Pickens, Henry Lee and William Washington. They fell upon isolated British posts established to protect the Loyalist population, and generally captured or broke them up. Rawdon found himself unable with his diminish- ing force to cover the country beyond Charleston; and he fell back to that place, leaving the situation in the south as it had been in the early part of 1780. On the American side, Greene was hailed as the deliverer of that section. Cornwallis, meantime, pursued his Virginia project. Leaving Wilmington, N.C., on the 25th of April 1781, he reached Peters- burg on the 20th of May. There he found British campaign, detachments, 2000 strong, composed of troops whom Clinton had sent down separately under Generals Benedict Arnold and William Phillips to establish a base in the Chesapeake, as a diversion in favour of the operations of Corn- wallis in the Carolinas. Virginia at the moment presented a clear field to the British, and they overran the state as far north as Fredericksburg and west to Charlottesville. At the latter place Jefferson, governor of the state, barely escaped capture by Tarleton's men. A small American force under Lafayette, whom Wayne reinforced during the summer, partially checked the enemy. At Green Spring, near Jamestown Island, Lafayette boldly attacked his antagonist on the 6th of July, but had to save himself by a hasty retreat. Early in August Cornwallis retired to York town to rest and await developments. There he fortified himself, and remained until the American-French military and naval combination, referred to above, appeared and compelled his surrender. (See Yorktown.) With this event war operations ceased. Preliminary articles of peace, signed on the 30th of November 1782, were followed by a definitive treaty concluded on the 3rd of September 1783. Charleston, S.C, was evacuated late in 1782; New York on the 25th of November 1783. The reasons of Great Britain's mis- 1 fortunes and failure may be summarized as follows: — Miscon- ception by the home government of the temper and reserve strength of her colonists, a population mainly of good English blood and instincts; disbelief at the outset in the probability of a protracted struggle covering the immense territory in America; consequent failure to despatch sufficient forces to the field; the safe and Fabian generalship of Washington; and finally, the French alliance and European combinations by which at the close of the conflict England was without a friend or ally on the continent. Bibliography. — The most exhaustive reference work for this period is vol. vi. of Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of America (Boston, 1887). Its nine chapters, prepared by different writers, give a complete review of the struggle, both military and naval, and each closes with numerous illustrative notes, editorial criticisms and a full list of authorities. The volume is interspersed, far more extensively and richly than any other treatise on the war, with reproductions of contemporary plans, maps, documents, portraits and prints. Supple- menting Winsor and bringing the material down to recent date is Prof. C. H. Van Tyne's American Revolution (Harper's " Am. Nation " Series, New York, 190$), chap, xviii., on bibliographical aids and authorities. General histories of the war are mainly of American authorship, such as: George Bancroft's History of the United States (Boston, 1883-1885) which, in spite of minor errors of fact and judgment, will remain standard ; J. Fiske's American Revolu- tion (2 vols., Boston, 1891); Carrington's Battles of the American Revolution (New York, 1876) is a critical study by a military officer; B. J. Lossing's Pictorial Field Book of the Revolution (2 vols., New York, 1850-1859), not always accurate, but preserves local traditions and details. Monographs on single events or campaigns abound: Dawson's papers on Ticonderoga, "Storming of Stony Point," &c. (New York, 1866- ); Johnston's "Campaign of 1776 around New York " (L. I. Hist. Soc, 1877), " Yorktown Campaign " (New York, 1881), &c. ; Sargent's Life of Major John Andre (Boston, J861), one of the best of Revolutionary biographies; Gen. William Stryker's Battles of Trenton and Princeton (Boston, 1898) ; and others mentioned in Winsor and Van Tyne. English works of importance are Lord Mahon's History of England, vol. vi. ; Sir George O. Trevelyan's American Revolution (New York and London; vol. i., 1899; 4 vols, published, 1908), a new study of cabinet and parliamentary politics of the period, with review of the military events; Hon. J. W. Fortescue, History of the British Army, vol. iii. (1902); Stedman's American War (2 vols., 1794); Col. Tarleton's Southern Campaigns, 1 780-1 781 (London, 1787) ; the pamphlet controversy between Sir Henry Clinton and Lord Corn- wallis (1783), see Winsor, vi., p. 516, n. ; Burgoyne's State of the Expedition from Canada in 1777 (London, 1780). (H. P. J.*) The naval operations of the War of Independence divide them- selves naturally into two periods. (1) From 1775 till the summer of 1778 the British navy was engaged in co-operating „.. with the troops employed against the insurgents, on sea . power , the coasts, rivers and lakes of North America, or in ~ endeavouring to protect British commerce against the enterprise of American privateers. (2) During the second period the successive interventions .of France, Spain and Holland extended the naval war till it ranged from the West Indies to the Bay of Bengal. This second period lasted from the summer of 1778 to the middle of 1783, and it included both such operations as had already been in progress in America, or for the protection of commerce, and naval campaigns on a great scale carried out by the fleets of the maritime powers. First Period.— The history of the naval war from 1775 to 1778 was made up of many small operations. The naval force at the disposal of the admirals commanding on the station, who until Lord! Howe took up the command on the 12th of July 1776 were Samuel Graves and Molyneux Shuldham, was insufficient to patrol the long line of coast. A large part of such squadrons as there were was necessarily limited to aiding General Gage and Sir W. Howe at Boston, in seeking stores for the army and in supplying naval brigades. At other points of the coast the British navy was employed in punitive expeditions against the coast towns — as for example the burning of Falmouth (now Portland, Maine) in October 1775- — which served to exasperate, rather than to weaken the enemy, or the unsuccessful attack on Charleston, S.C, in June 1776, It was wholly unequal to the task of blockading the many towns from which privateers could be fitted out. British commerce therefore suffered severely, even as far off as the Irish coasts, where it was found necessary to supply convoy to the Belfast linen trade. The Americans were not yet in a position to provide a fleet. On the 23rd of March 1776 Congress did indeed issue letters of marque and reprisal, and efforts were made to fit out a national force. But the so-called " continental " vessels which sailed with the commission of the Congress hardly differed in character, or in the nature of their operations, from the privateers. The British navy was able to cover the retreat of the army from Boston to Halifax in April 1776, and to convey it to New York in June. It assisted in the expedition to Philadelphia in July 1777. On the St Lawrence and the Lakes it was able to play a more aggressive part. The relief of Quebec by Captain — afterwards Sir Charles — Douglas in May 1776 forced the American general Arnold to retreat. The destruction of his squadron on Lake Champlain in October covered the frontier of Canada, and supplied a basis for the march of General Burgoyne in 1777 which ended in the surrender at Saratoga. Second Period. — The disaster at Saratoga was followed in 1778 by war with France, which had already given much private help to the American privateers and to their forces in the field. The rupture came in March when the British ambassador, Lord Stormont, was recalled from Paris, but as neither fleet was ready for service, actual conflict did not take place till July. The French government was somewhat more ready than the British. On the r3th of April it despatched a squadron of twelve sail of the line and four frigates from Toulon to America under the command of the Count d'Estaing. As no attempt was made to stop him in the Straits of Gibraltar, he passed them on the 16th of May, and though the rawness of his 8 4 6 AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE crews and his own error in wasting time in pursuit of prizes delayed his passage, he reached the mouth of the Delaware on the 8th of July unopposed. The French government, which by the fault of the British administration was allowed to take the offensive, had three objects in view — to help the Americans, to expel the British from the West Indies and to occupy the main strength of the naval forces of Great Britain in the Channel. Therefore a second and more powerful fleet was fitted out at Brest under the command of the Count d'Orvilliers. The British government, having neglected to occupy the Straits of Gibraltar in time, despatched Admiral Byron from Plymouth on the 9th of June with thirteen sail of the line to join Admiral (Lord) Howe, Sir William's brother, in America, and collected a strong force at home, called the Western Squadron, under Viscount Keppel. Keppel, after a preliminary cruise in June, brought d'Orvilliers to action off Brest on the 27th of July. The fleets were equal and the action was indecisive, — as the two forces merely passed one another, cannonading. A violent quarrel exacerbated by political differences broke out among the British commands, which led to two courts-martial and to the resignation of Keppel, and did great injury to the discipline of the navy. No further event of note occurred in European waters. On the coast of America the news of the approach of d'Estaing com- pelled the British commanders to evacuate Philadelphia on the 1 8th of June. Howe then concentrated his force of nine small line-of-battle ships at Sandy Hook on the 29th of June, and on the nth of July he learnt that d'Estaing was approaching. The French admiral did not venture to make an attack, and on the 22nd of July sailed to co-operate with the Americans in an endeavour to expel the British garrison from Rhode Island. Howe, who had received a small reinforcement, followed; The French admiral, who had anchored above Newport, R.I., came to sea to meet him, but both fleets were scattered by storms. D'Estaing sailed to Boston on the 21st of August. Howe received no help from Byron, whose badly appointed fleet was damaged and scattered by a gale on the 3rd of July in mid- Atlantic. His ships dropped in by degrees during September. Howe resigned on the 25th of that month, and was succeeded by Byron. The approach of winter made a naval campaign on the coast of North America dangerous. The operations of naval forces in the New World were largely dictated by the facts that from June to October are the hurricane months in the West Indies, while from October to June includes the stormy winter of the northern coast. On the 4th of November d'Estaing sailed for the West Indies, on the very day that Commodore William Hotham was despatched from New York to reinforce the British fleet in those waters. On the 7th of September the French governor of Martinique, the marquis de Bouille, had surprised the British island of Dominica. Admiral Samuel Barrington, the British admiral in the Leeward Islands, had retaliated by seizing Santa Lucia on the 13th and 14th of December after the arrival of Hotham from North America. D'Estaing, who followed Hotham closely, was beaten off in two feeble attacks on Barring- ton at the Cul-de-Sac of Santa Lucia on 'the 15th of December. On the 6th of January 1779 Admiral Byron reached the West Indies. During the early part of this year the naval forces in the West Indies were mainly employed in watching one another. But in June, while Byron had gone to Antigua to guard the trade convoy on its way home, d'Estaing first captured St Vincent, and then on the 4th of July Grenada. Admiral Byron, who had returned, sailed in hopes of saving the island, but arrived too late. An indecisive action was fought off Grenada on the 6th of July. The war now died down in the West Indies. Byron returned home in August. D'Estaing, after co-operating un- successfully with the Americans in an attack on Savannah, in September also returned to Europe. In European waters the Channel had been invaded by a combined French and Spanish fleet of sixty-six sail of the line, Spain having now joined the coa ? lition against Great Britain. Only thirty-five sail of the line could be collected against them under the command of Sir Charles Hardy. But they came late and did nothing. The allies retired early in Sc~t°mber and were not even able to molest the British trade convoys. In the meantime the Spaniards had formed the siege of Gibraltar. So far the British navy had stood on the defensive, without material loss except in the West Indies, but without triumph. The operations of 1 780 went on much the same lines. The British government, not feeling strong enough to blockade Brest and the Spanish ports, was compelled to regulate its movements by those of its opponents. In the Channel it was saved from disaster by the ineptitude of the French and Spanish fleets. The only real success achieved by this numerically imposing force was the capture on the 8th and 9th of August of a large British convoy of ships bound for the East and West Indies carrying troops. But on the American coast and in the West Indies more vigour was displayed. Early in the year Admiral Marriot Arbuthnot was sent to take command in North America. On the French side the count de Guichen was sent with reinforcements to the West Indies to take command of the ships left in the previous year by d'Estaing. He arrived in March, and was able to confine the small British force under Sir Hyde Parker at Gros Islet Bay in Santa Lucia. In May M. d'Arzac de Ternay was sent from Brest with seven line-of-battle ships, and a convoy carrying 6060 French troops to act with the Americans. He had a brush with a small British force under Cornwallis near Bermuda on the 20th of June, and reached Rhode Island on the nth of July. During the rest of the year, and part of the next, the British and French naval forces in North American waters remained at their respective headquarters, New York and Newport, watching one another. The West Indies was again the scene of the most important operations of the year. In February and March a Spanish force from New Orleans, under Don Bernardo de Galvez, invaded West Florida with success. But the allies made no further progress. At the close of 1779 Sir George Rodney had been appointed to command a large naval force which was to relieve Gibraltar, then closely blockaded, and send stores to Minorca. Rodney was to go on to the West Indies with part of the fleet. He sailed on the 29th of December 1779 with the trade for the West Indies under his protection, captured a Spanish convoy on his way off Finisterre on the 8th of January, defeated a smaller Spanish force near Cape St Vincent on the 16th, relieved Gibraltar on the 19th, and left for the West Indies on the 13th of February. On the 27th of March he joined Sir Hyde Parker at Santa Lucia, and Guichen retired to Fort Royal in Martinique. Until July the fleets of Rodney and Guichen, of equal strength, were engaged in operations round the island of Martinique. The British admiral endeavoured to force on a close engagement. But in the first encounter on the 17th of April to leeward of the island, Rodney's orders were not executed by his 1 captains, and the action was indecisive. He wished to concen- trate on the rear of the enemy's line, but his captains scattered themselves along the French formation. In two subsequent actions, on the 15 th and 19th of May, to windward of Martinique, the French admiral would not be brought to close action. The arrival of a Spanish squadron of twelve ships of the line in June gave a great numerical superiority to the allies, and Rodney retired to Gros Islet Bay in Santa Lucia. But nothing decisive occurred. The Spanish fleet was in bad health, the French much worn-out. The first went on to Havana, the second to San Domingo. In July, on the approach of the dangerous hurricane season, Rodney sailed for North America, reaching New York on the 14th of September. Guichen returned home with the most worn-out of his ships. On the 6th of December Rodney was back at Barbadoes from the North American station, where he was not able to effect anything against the French in Narragansett Bay. The rambling operations of the naval war till the close of 1780 — directed by the allies to such secondary objects as the capture of West Indian islands, or of Minorca and Gibraltar, and by Great Britain to defensive movements — began to assume a degree of coherence in 1781. Holland having now joined the allies, the British government was compelled to withdraw part of its fleet from other purposes to protect the North Sea trade. A desperate battle was fought on the Dogger Bank on the 5th AMERICAN WAR OF 1812 847 of August between Sir Hyde Parker and the Dutch admiral Zoutman, both being engaged in protecting trade; but Holland did not affect the general course of the war. The allies again failed to make a vigorous attack on the British forces in the Channel. They could not even prevent Admiral George Darby from relieving Gibraltar and Minorca in April. The second of these places was closely invested later on, and was compelled to surrender on the 5th of February 1782. But a vigorous policy was carried out by France in the West Indies and America, while she' began a most resolute attack on the British position in the East Indies. In the West Indies Rodney, having received news of the breach with Holland early in the year, took the island of St Eustatius, which had been a great depot of contraband of war, on the 3rd of February. The British admiral was accused of applying himself so entirely to seizing and selling his booty that he would not allow his second in command, Sir Samuel Hood, who had recently joined him, to take proper measures to impede the arrival of French forces known to be on their way to Martin- ique. The French admiral, the count de Grasse, reached the island with reinforcements in April. Until July he was engaged in a series of skilful operations directed to menacing the British islands while he avoided being brought to battle by Rodney. In July he sailed for the coast of North America, whither he was followed in August by Sir S. Hood, Rodney having been compelled to return home in ill-health. On the coast of North America the war came to its crisis. In the earlier part of the year the British at New York and the French at Newport continued to watch one another. In April the British admiral Arbuthnot did indeed succeed in baffling an attempt of the French to carry reinforcements to the American cause in Virginia. The action he fought off the capes of Virginia on the 16th of April was ill conducted, but his main purpose was achieved. Washington, who was wisely anxious to concentrate attack on one or other of the centres of British power in Virginia or New York, had to wait till the arrival of Grasse before he could see his ideas applied. The French admiral gave the allies a superiority of naval strength on the coast of Virginia, and Lord Cornwallis, the British commander, was beleaguered in Yorktown. Admiral Thomas Graves, Arbuthnot's successor, who had been joined by Hood from the West Indies, endeavoured to drive off the French fleet. But the feeble battle he fought on the 5th of September failed to shake the French hold on the Chesapeake, and Grasse having been reinforced, Graves sailed away. Yorktown fell on the 19th of October, and the war was settled as far as the coast of North America was concerned. The French admiral, having rendered this vital service to his ally, now returned to the West Indies, whither he was followed by Hood, and resumed the attacks on the British islands. In January and February 1782 he conquered St Christopher, in spite of the most determined opposition of Hood, who with a much inferior force first drove him from his anchorage at Basseterre, and then repulsed his repeated attacks. The next purpose of the French was to combine with the Spaniards for an attack on Jamaica. Sir George Rodney, having returned to his command with reinforcements, baffled this plan by the series of operations which culminated in the battle of the 12th of April 1782. (See Saints, Battle of.) No further operations of note occurred in the West Indies. At home Howe relieved Gibraltar for the last time in September and October 1782. The war in the East Indies formed a separate series of episodes. In 1778 the British authorities had little difficulty in seizing the French settlement of Pondicherry. A naval engagement of a very feeble kind took place on the 10th of August in the Bay of Bengal, between the British naval officer in command and M. de Tronjoly. But the French were too weak in these seas for offensive movements, and therefore remained quiescent at Bourbon and Mauritius till the beginning of 1782. In the spring of 1 78 1 the bailli de Suffren was sent to the East with a small squadron ; on his way he fell upon a British force which had been sent to take the Cape from the Dutch, and which he found in the Portuguese anchorage of Porto Praya, on the 16th of April. Having provided for the security of the Cape, Suffren went on to the French islands. He sailed from them early in 1782 to carry out a vehement attack on the British forces in the Bay of Bengal. From the 17th of February 1782 to the 20th of June 1783 he fought a series of fine actions against Sir Edward Hughes, by which he secured a marked superiority on the water. Though he had no port in which to refit and no ally save Hyder AJi, he kept the sea and did not even return to the French islands during the north-easterly monsoon. Suffren failed in his main purpose, which was to make such a capture as would put his government in a strong position during the negotiations for peace. But his capture of Trincomalee in July 1782 in spite of Sir Edward Hughes, and the heavy loss he inflicted on the British fleet in several of the actions he fought, consti- tute the most honourable part of the French naval operations in the war. , Authorities.— The Influence of Sea Power upon History, by Captain Mahan, gives the best critical examination of the naval aspects of the war. The French side will be found in the Histoire de la marine francaise pendant la Guerre de V Independence americaine (Paris, 1877), by Captain Chevalier. For accounts of the American navy see C. O. Paullin, The Navy of the American Revolution (Chicago, 1906) ; E. S. Maclay, History of the U.S. Navy, vol. i. (New York, 1897) ; C. H. Lincoln, Naval Records of the American Revolution (Washington, 1906) ; and Edward Field, Esek Hopkins, Commander-in-chief of the Continental Navy during the American Revolution (Providence, R.I., 1898). For details of actions the reader may be referred to Beatson's Naval and Military Memoirs of Great Britain from 1727 to 1781 (London, 1804), and to Sir W. Laird Clowes's The Royal Navy: A History (London, 1897, &c). (D. H.) AMERICAN WAR OF 1812. The war between the United States and Great Britain, commonly known as "of 1812," began by the American declaration of war on the 18th of June of that year, and lasted till the beginning of 1815. The treaty of peace signed at Ghent on the 24th of December 1814 was ratified by the president of the United States on the 17th of February 1815. These two years and a half of conflict were filled with isolated encounters which can hardly be reduced to coherent and ordered operations. Although the outbreak of war had been preceded by years of angry diplomatic dispute, the United States were absolutely unready, while Great Britain was still hard pressed by the hostility of Napoleon, and was compelled to re- tain the greater part of her forces and her best crews in European waters, till the ruin of the Grande Armee in Russia and the rising of Germany left her free to send an overwhelming force of ships to American waters. The forces actually available on the American side when the war began consisted of a small squadron of very fine frigates and sloops in an efficient state. Twenty-two was the extreme limit of the naval force the States were able to commission. The paper strength of the army was 35,000, but the service was voluntary and unpopular, while there was an almost total want of trained and experienced officers. The available strength was a bare third of the nominal. The militia, called in to aid the regulars, proved untrustworthy. They objected to serve beyond the limits of their states, were not amenable to discipline, and behaved as a rule very ill in the presence of the enemy. On the British side, the naval force in American waters under Sir John Borlase Warren, who took up the general command on the 26th of September 1812, consisted of ninety-seven vessels in all, of which eleven were of the line and thirty-four were frigates, a power much greater than the national navy of America, but in- adequate to the blockade of the long coast from New Brunswick to Florida. The total number of British troops present in Canada in July 181 2 was officially stated to be 5004, consisting in part of Canadians. The scene of operations naturally divided into three sections : — (1) the ocean; (2) the Canadian frontier, from Lake Huron, by Lakes Erie and Ontario, the course of the St Lawrence and Lake Champlain ; (3) the coast of the United States. As the opera- tions on these three fields had little interaction on one another, it will be more convenient to take them separately than to follow the confusing chronological order. 8 4 8 AMERICAN WAR OF i8'is> Operations on the Ocean. — These cover all cruises of sea-going ships, even when they did not go far from the coast. They again subdivide into the actions of national vessels, and the raids of the privateers. The first gave to the United States the most brilliant successes of the war. When it began two small squadrons were getting ready for sea at New York; the frigate " President " (44) and sloop " Hornet " (18), under Commodore John Rodgers, who had also the general command; and the frigates " United States" (44) and " Congress " (38), with the brig " Argus " (16) to which two guns were afterwards added, under Captain Stephen Decatur. Rodgers would have preferred to keep his command together, and to strike with it at the main course of British commerce, but he was overruled. He sailed on the 21st of June, and after chasing the British frigate " Belvidera " (36), which escaped into Halifax by throwing boats, &c. , overboard, stood across the North Atlantic in search of a West Indian convoy, which he failed to sight, re- turning by the 31st of August to Boston. While he was absent, Captain Isaac Hull, commanding the " Constitution " (44), sailed from the Chesapeake, and after a narrow escape from a British squadron, which pursued him from the 18th to the 20th of July, reached Boston. Going to sea again on the 2nd of August he" captured and burned the British frigate " Guerriere " (38). On the 8th of October Rodgers and Decatur sailed— the first on a cruise to the east, the second to the south. Commodore Rodgers met with no marked success, but on the 25th of October Captain Decatur in the "United States" captured the British frigate " Macedonian " (38) , which he carried back to port. At the close of the month Captain Bainbridge sailed with the " Constitution," " Essex " (32) and " Hornet " (18) on a southerly cruise. On the 29th of December, when off Bahia, he fell in with the British frigate " Java " (38), which was carrying General Hislop, the governor of Bombay, to India, and took her after a sharp action. The "Essex" and "Hornet" were not in company. The first, under the command of Captain David Porter, went on to the Pacific, where she did great injury to British trade, till she was captured off Valparaiso by the British frigate " Phoebe " (38) and the sloop " Cherub " (24) on the 28th of March 1814. In these actions, except the last, the Americans had the advantage of greater size and a heavier broadside, but they showed excellent seamanship and gunnery. The capture of three British frigates one after another caused a painful impression in Great Britain and stimu- lated her to greater exertions. Vessels were accumulated on the American sea-board, and the watch became more strict. On the 1st of June 1813 the capture of the U.S. frigate " Chesapeake " (38), by the British frigate " Shannon " (38), a vessel of equal force, counterbalanced the moral effect of previous disasters. The blockade of American ports was already so close that the United States ships found it continually more difficult to get to sea, or to keep the sea without meeting forces of irresistibly superior strength. The operations of American privateers were too numerous and far-ranging to be told in detail. They continued active till the close of the war, and were only partially baffled by the strict enforcement of convoy by the British authorities. A signal instance of the audacity of the American cruisers was the capture of the U.S. sloop " Argus " (20) by the British sloop " Pelican " (18) so far from home as St David's Head in Wales on the 14th of August 1813. The " Pelican's " guns were heavier than those of the " Argus." Operations on the Lakes. — The American people, who had expected little from their diminutive navy, had calculated with confidence on being able to overrun Canada. As, however, they had taken no effectual measures to provide a mobile force they were disappointed. The British general, Sir George Prevost, was neither able nor energetic, but his subordinate, Major-General Isaac Brock, was both. In July, before the Americans were ready, Brock seized Mackinac at the head of Lake Huron; and on the 1 6th of August Detroit in the channel between Huron and Erie was surrendered. Kingston was held at the east end of Ontario. Montreal on the St Lawrence was a strong position on the British side to which, however, the Americans had an easy road of approach by Lake Champlain. Sound reasoning would have led the Americans to direct their chief attacks on Kingston and Montreal, since success at those points would have isolated the British posts on Lakes Ontario, Erie and Huron. But they were much influenced by fear of the Indians, who had been won over to the British side by the energy of Brock. They therefore looked more carefully to the lakes than to the course of the St Lawrence, and it may be added* that their leaders showed ah utter want of capacity for the intelligent conduct of war. The impracticable character of the communications by land made it absolutely necessary for both parties to obtain control of the water. Neither had made any preparations, and the war largely resolved itself into a race of shipbuilding. The Americans, who had far greater facilities for building than the British, allowed themselves to be forestalled. In the second half of 1812 the British general, Sir Isaac Brock, lieutenant- governor of Upper Canada; adopted measures for opposing the Americans on the frontier line, between Huron and Erie. The American brigadier-general William Hull invaded Canada on the 1 2th of July from Detroit, just below the small Lake of St Clair between Huron and Erie. His army was mainly composed of militiamen, who behaved very badly, and his papers having been captured in a boat, his plans were revealed. General Brock drove him back and forced him to surrender at Detroit on the 16th of August. Brock now promptly transferred himself to the western end of Erie, where the American general Henry Dearborn was attempting another invasion. Brock fell in action on the 13th of October, while repulsing Dearboni's subordinate Van Rensselaer, a politician named to command by favour, and ignorant of a soldier's business. The Americans were driven back. In this field also their militia behaved detestably. The Canadians on the other hand; both the French who were traditionally amenable to authority and those of English descent, who being largely sons of loyalists of the War of Independence had a bitter hatred of the Americans, did excellent service. The discontent of New England with the war both hampered the American generals and also aided the British, who drew their supplies to a great extent from United States territory. On the 22nd of January 1813, at Frenchtown, the American troops under Winchester surrendered to a British and Indian force under Procter. During the winter both sides were busy in building ships. On Ontario the Americans pushed on their preparations at Sackett's Harbour under Isaac Chauncey; the English were similarly engaged at Kingston. Sir James Lucas Yeo took command on the 15th of May 18 13. On Erie the American headquarters were at Presqu' Isle, now the city of Erie; the English at Fort Maiden. The American commander was Captain Oliver Perry, the British commander, Captain Robert Barclay. On Lake Ontario Yeo formed a more mobile though less powerful force than Chauncey's, and therefore manoeuvred to avoid being brought to close action. Three engagements, on the 10th of August, nth of September and 28th of September, led to no decisive' result. By the close of the war Yeo had constructed a ship of 102 guns which gave him the superiority, and the British became masters of Lake Ontario. On Lake Erie the energy of Captain Perry, aided by what appears to have been the' mis judgment of Barclay, enabled him to get 1 a superior force by the 4th of August, and on the 10th of September he fought a successful action which left the Americans masters of Lake Erie. The military operations were subordinate to the naval. In April 18 13 the Americans took York (now Toronto), and in May moved on Fort George; but a counter-attack by Yeo and Prevost on Sackett's Harbour, on the 29th of May, having made the Americans anxious about the safety of their base, naval support failed the American generals, and they were paralysed. A success was gained by them (October 5) at the Thames, where the Indian chief Tecumseh fell, but they made no serious progress. The Americans turned to the east of Ontario, intending to assail Montreal by the St Lawrence in combination with their forces at Lake Champlain. But the combination failed; they were severely harassed on the St Lawrence, and the invasion was given up. The operations of 18 14 bear a close resemblance to those of AMERICUS^-AMES %9 1813, with, however, one important difference. The 1 American generals, having by this time brought their troops to order, were able to fight with much better effect. Their attack on the Niagara peninsula led to hot fighting at Chippewa (July 5) and Lundy's Lane (July 25), the first a success for the Americans, the second a drawn battle. The fall of Napoleon having now freed the British government from the obligation to retain its army in Europe, troops from Spain began to pour in. .But cm the Canadian frontier they made little difference. In August 1814 Sir George Prevost attacked the American forces at Champlain. But his naval support, ill prepared, was hurried into action by him at Plattsburg on the nth of September, and defeated. Prevost then retired. His management of the war, more especially on Lake Champlain, was severely criticized, and he was threatened with a court-martial, but died before the trial came en. A British occupation of part of the coast of Maine proved to be mere demonstration. Operations on the American Coast.— When the war began the British naval forces were unequal to the work of blockading the whole coast. They were also much engaged in seeking for the American cruisers under Rodgers, Decatur and Bainbridge. The British government, having need of American foodstuffs for its army in Spain, was willing to benefit by the discontent of the New Englanders. No blockade of New England was at first attempted. The Delaware and Chesapeake were declared in a state of blockade on the 26th of December 181 2. This was extended to the whole coast south of Narragansett by November 1 813, and to the whole American coast on the 31st of May 1814. In the meantime much illicit trade was carried on by collusive captures arranged between American traders and British officers. American ships were fraudulently transferred to neutral flags. Eventually the United States government was driven to issue orders for the purpose of stopping illicit trading, and the commerce of the country was ruined. The now Over- powering strength of the British fleet enabled it to occupy the Chesapeake and to execute innumerable attacks of a destructive character on docks and harbours. The burning by the American general McClure, on the iothof December 1813, of Newark(Niagara on the Lake), for which severe retaliation was taken at Buffalo, was made the excuse for much destruction. The most famous of these destructive raids was the burning of the public buildings at Washington by Sir Alexander Cochrane, who succeeded Warren in April in the naval command, and General Robert Ross. The expedition was carried out between the 19th and 20th of August 1814, and was well organized and vigorously executed. 1 On the 24th the American militia, collected at Bladensburg to protect the capital, fled almost before they were attacked. A subse- quent attack on Baltimore, in which General Ross was killed (September 12, 1814), was a failure. The expedition to New Orleans (q.v.) is separately dealt with. Authorities. — In his Sea Power in its Relations to the War of 1812 Captain Mahan has given a careful account of the war by land and sea with reference to services. The Naval War of 18 1 2, by Theodore Roosevelt (New York, 1882), is lively but somewhat passionate, and not free from prejudice. A vehement statement of the Canadian side will be found in How Canada was held for the Empire, by James Hannay (London,Edinburgh,Toronto, 1905). See also The Canadian War of 1812, by Charles P. Lucas (Oxford, 1906). (D- H.) AMERICUS, a city and the county-seat of Sumter county, Georgia, U.S.A., about 71 m. S.S.W. of Macon. Pop. (1880) 3635; (1890) 6398; (1900) 7674 (4661 of negro descent); (1910) 8063. It is served by the Central of Georgia and the Seaboard Air Line railways, and is the seat of the Third Congressional District Agricultural High School, a branch of the state uni- versity of Georgia. The city is in a rich sugar-cane and fruit country, is a large cotton and mule and horse market, and has division shops of the Seaboard Air Line railway. : Among the city's manufactures are cotton-seed oil, fertilizers, chemicals, iron, carriages and wagons and harness (especially horse collars). The city owns the waterworks; the water-supply is 1 The burning of Washington was an act of vandalism by ho means approved of by many of the British officers who were compelled to take part in it. (See Smith. Sir Henry George Wakelyn.) obtained from artesian wells. Americus was settled in 1832, and was first chartered as a city in 1855. AMERSFOORT, a town in the province of Utrecht, Holland, on the navigable Eem, and a junction station 14 m. by rail N.E. by E. of Utrecht. Pop. (1000) 19,089. It is situated in the midst of picturesque and undulating country, consisting of wide sandy heaths and woods, and dotted with many fine country houses. One of the most interesting of its few historic monu- ments is the Koppelpoof t, an old gateway situated at the end of a fine avenue of trees bordering the canal. Close by is a lofty Gothic tower (rjoo), which belonged to the ancient church of St Mary, which was wrecked by an explosion of gunpowder in 1787. The large plain church of St George dates from the first half of the 13 th century. There is also a Jansenist church, to which a seminary is attached. Besides these there are a town hall, a court of primary jurisdiction, industrial and other schools. Amersf oort has a large garrison, consisting chiefly of artillery, and manu- factures woollen goods, cotton, silk, glass and brandy. It has also a considerable trade in tobacco, grown in the neighbourhood} and in com and fish. AMERSHAM, a market town in the Wycombe parliamentary division of Buckinghamshire, England, 24 m. W.N.W. of London by the Metropolitan railway. Pop. (1901) 2674. It is pleasantly situated in the narrow valley of the Misbourne stream, which is flanked by the well-wooded slopes of the Chiltern Hills. The church of St Mary is almost entirely Perpendicular, and has a beautiful south porch, brasses of the 1 5th, 16th and 1 7th centuries and numerous monuments, several of which, in a chantry, commemorate members of the family of Drake, lords of the manor. The town hall was built by Sir William Drake in 1642. At Coleshill, near Amersham, Edmund Waller the poet was born in 1606; he sat in parliament for the former borough of Amersham. The town has flour mills and breweries, and some straw-plaiting and lace-making are carried on in the vicinity. The district is one of the most beautiful near London; the village of Chenies, overlooking the valley of the Chess, is especially picturesque. Amersham (Elmodesham, Agmondesham, Hagmondesham, Aumundesham, Homersham) at the time of the Domesday Survey was divided into no less than six holdings. The manor, or chief of them, was held by Geoffrey de Mandeville. At the time of Edward the Confessor it was held by Queen Edith. The manor afterwards descended to the families of Fitz Piers, Bohun and Strafford, and was granted by Henry VIII. to Sir John Russell, ancestor of the earls of Bedford. In 1638 Francis„_ earl of Bedford, conveyed it to William Drake, by whose descendants it is still held. The north chapel in the church of St Michael, Chenies, has been the burial-place of the Russell family since its erection in 1556, and contains a number of fine memorials, notably that of Anne, countess of Bedford (d. 1558), who founded the chapel. : Amersham was formerly a parliamentary borough by prescription, and returned two members in 1300, 1306, 1307 and 1309. In 1623 this privilege was restored, and was only annulled by the Reform Bill of 1832. ■ The annual fair, in September, is held under a charter secured by Geoffrey Fitz Peter, earl of Essex, in 1200, that on Whit Monday under a charter of 1614, secured by Edward, earl of Bedford, which transferred the Friday market, also granted under the earlier charter, to Tuesday. AMES, FISHER (1758-1808), American statesman, orator and political writer, son of Nathaniel Ames, a physician, was born at Dedham, Massachusetts, on the 9th of April 1758. He graduated at Harvard College in 1774, and began the practice of the law at Dedham in 1781, but eventually abandoned that profession for the more congenial pursuit of politics. He was a prominent member of the Massachusetts convention which (February 1788) ratified for that state the Federal Constitution, and in the same year, having entered the lower house in the state legislature, he distinguished himself greatly by his eloquence and readiness in debate. During the eight years of Washington's administration (1 789-1 797) he was a prominent Federalist member of the national House of Representatives. On the 28th of April 1796, when the Republicans, hostile to the Jay Treaty, were on the point of holding up the appropriation necessary for its execution, Ames, who had just arisen from a sick-bed, made what has been con- sidered the greatest speech of bis life; before the delivery of bis 850 AMES speech his opponents had claimed a majority of six, but the appropriation was finally passed, in the committee of the whole, by the casting vote of the chairman. When Washington retired from the presidency, Congress voted him an address and chose Ames to deliver it. In 1797 he returned to Dedham to resume the practice of the law, which the state of his health after a few years obliged him to relinquish. He published numerous essays, chiefly in relation to the contest between Great Britain and revolutionary France, as it might affect the liberty and prosperity of America. Ames was one of the group of New England ultra- Federalists known as the " Essex Junto," who opposed the French policy of President John Adams in 1798, and were conspicuous for their British sympathies. Four years before his death he was chosen president of Harvard College, an honour which his broken state of health obliged him to decline. He died on the 4th of July 1808. His writings and speeches, which abound in sparkling passages, displaying great fertility of imagination, were collected and pub- lished, with a memoir of the author, in 1809, by the Rev. Dr J. T. Kirkland, in one large octavo volume. A more complete edition in two volumes was published by his son, Seth Ames, at Boston, Mass., in 1854. AMES, JOSEPH (1680-1759), English author, was born at Yarmouth on the 23rd of January 1689. He wrote an account of printing in England from 1471 to 1600, Typographical Antiquities ( 1 749) . Ames sent out circular letters with a list of two hundred and fifteen English printers with whose works he intended to deal, asking for any available information. He earned the gratitude of subsequent bibliographers by disregarding printed lists and consulting the title-pages of the books themselves. An inter- leaved copy of the work with many notes in the author's hand is now in the British Museum. Editions of his works were published with added information by William Herbert (3 vols., 1785-1790), and T. F. Dibdin (4 vols., 1810-1819). Ames's occupation is variously given. It is uncertain whether he was a ship-chandler, a patten-maker, a plane-iron maker or an ironmonger; but he led a prosperous life at Wapping, and amassed valuable collections of antiquities. He died on the 7th of October 1759. His other works are catalogues of English printers, of the collection of coins which belonged to the earl of Pembroke, of some two thousand English portraits, and Parentalia (1750), a memoir of the Wrens, undertaken in conjunction with Sir Christopher Wren's grand- son, Stephen Wren. Part of his correspondence in bibliography is included in Nichols's Literary Anecdotes and Illustrations. AMES, OAKES (1804-1873), American manufacturer, capitalist and politician, was born in Easton, Massachusetts, on the 10th of January 1804. As a manufacturer of shovels, in association with his father.and his brother Oliver (1807-1877), he amassed a large fortune. In i860 he became a member of the executive council of Massachusetts, and from 1863 to 1873 was a republican member of the national House of Representatives. As a member of the committee on railroads he became interested in the project, greatly aided by the government, to build a trans-continental railway, connecting the eastern states with California. Others having failed, he was induced in 1865 to assume the direction of the work, and to him more than to any other one man the credit for the construction of the Union Pacific railway was due. The execution was effected largely through a construction company, the Credit Mobilier Company of America. In disposing of some of the stock of this company, Ames in 1867-187 1 sold a number of shares to members of Congress at a price much below what these shares eventually proved to be worth. This, on becoming known , gave rise in 1872-1873 to a great congressional scandal. After an investigation by a committee of the House, which recommended the expulsion of Ames, a resolution was passed on the 28th of February 1873, " that the House absolutely condemns the con- duct of Oakes Ames ... in seeking to secure congressional atten- tion to the affairs of a corporation in which he was interested, and whose interest directly depended upon the legislation of Congress, by inducing members of Congress to invest in the stocks of said corporation." Many have since attributed this resolution to partisanship, and the influence of popular clamour, and in 1883 the legislature of Massachusetts passed a resolution vindicating Ames. He died at North Easton, Mass., on the 8th of May 1873. His son, Oliver Ames (1831-1895), was lieutenant- governor of Massachusetts from 1883 until 1887, and governor from 1887 to 1890. See Credit Mobilier of America and the references there given. For a defence of Oakes Ames, see Oakes Ames, A Memorial Volume (Cambridge, Mass., 1884). AMES, WILLIAM (1576-1633), English Puritan divine, better known, especially in Europe, as Amesius, was born of an ancient family at Ipswich, Suffolk, in 1576, and was educated at the local grammar school and at Christ's College, Cambridge, • where, as throughout his life, he was an omnivorous student. He was considerably influenced by his tutor, the celebrated William Perkins, and by his successor, a man of kindred intellect and fervour, Paul Bayne. He graduated B.A. and M.A. in due course, and was chosen to a fellowship in Christ's College. He was universally beloved in the university. His own college (Christ's) would have chosen him for the mastership; but a party opposi- tion led to the election of Valentine Cary, who had already quarrelled with Ames for disapproving of the surplice and other outward symbols. One of Ames's sermons became historical in the Puritan controversies. It was delivered on St Thomas's day (1609) before the feast of Christ's nativity, and in it he rebuked sharply " lusory lotts " and the " heathenish debauchery " of the students during the twelye days ensuing. The scathing vehem- ence of his denunciations led to his being summoned before the vice-chancellor, who suspended him " from the exercise of his ecclesiastical function and from all degrees taken or to be taken." After Cary's election he left the university and would have ac- cepted the great church of Colchester, but the bishop of London refused to grant institution and induction. Like persecution awaited him elsewhere, and at last he passed over to Holland, being aided by certain wealthy English merchants who wished him to controvert the supporters of the English church in Leiden. At Rotterdam, clad in the fisherman's habit donned for the passage, he opposed Grevinchovius (Nicholas Grevinckhoven, d. 163 2), minister of the Arminian or Remonstrant church, and over- whelmed him with his logical reasoning from Phil. ii. 13, " It is God that worketh in us both to will and to do." The fisherman- controversialist made a great stir, and from that day became known and honoured in the Low Countries. Subsequently Ames entered into 4 controversy in print with Grevinchovius on uni- versal redemption and election, and cognate problems. He brought together all he had maintained in his Coronis ad Collati- onem Hagiensem — his most masterful book, which figures largely in Dutch church history. At Leiden, Ames became intimate with the venerable Mr Goodyear, pastor of the English church there. While thus resident in comparative privacy he was sent for to the Hague by Sir Horatio Vere, the English governor of Brill, who appointed him a minister in the army of the states-general, and of the English soldiers in their service, a post held by some of the greatest of England's exiled Puritans. He married a daughter of Dr Burgess, who was Vere's chaplain, and, on his father-in-law's return to England, succeeded to his place. It was at this time he began his memorable controversy with Episcopius, who, in attacking the Coronis, railed against the author as having been " a disturber of the public peace in his native country, so that the English magistrates had banished him thence; and now, by his late printed Coronis, he was raising new disturbances in the peaceable Netherlands." It was a miserable libel and was at once rebutted by Goodyear. The Coronis had been primarily prepared for the synod of Dort, which sat from November 1618 until May 1619. At this celebrated synod the position of Ames was a peculiar one. The High Church party in England had induced Vere to dismiss him from the chaplaincy; but he was still held, deservedly, in such reverence, that it was arranged he should attend the synod, and accordingly he was retained by the Calvinist party at four florins a day to watch the proceedings on their behalf and advise them when necessary. A proposal to make him principal of a theological college at Leiden was frustrated by Archbishop Abbot; and when later invited by the state of Friesland to a professoriate at Franeker, AMES— AMESBURY 851 the opposition was renewed, but this time abortively. He was installed at Franeker on the 7th of May 1622, and delivered a most learned discourse on the occasion on " Urim and Thummin." He soon brought renown to Franeker as pro- fessor, preacher, pastor and theological writer. He prepared his Medulla Theologiae, a manual of Calvinistic doctrine, for his students. His Be Conscientia, ejus Jure et Casibus (1632), an attempt to bring Christian ethics into clear relation with particular cases of conduct and of conscience, was a new thing in Protestantism.- Having continued twelve years at Franeker (where he was rector in 1626), his health gave way, and he contemplated removal to New England. But another door was opened for him. He yearned for more frequent opportunities of preaching to his fellow-countrymen, and an invitation to Rotter- dam gave him such opportunity. His friends at Franeker were passionately opposed to the transference, but ultimately ac- quiesced. At Rotterdam he drew all hearts to him by his elo- quence and fervour in the pulpit, and his irrepressible activity as a pastor. Home-controversy engaged him again, and he prepared his Fresh Suit against Ceremonies — the book which made Richard Baxter a Nonconformist. It ably sums up the issues between the Puritan school and that of Hooker. It was posthumously pub- lished. He did not long survive his removal to Rotterdam. Having caught a cold from a flood which inundated his house, he died in November 1633, at the age of fifty-seven, apparently in needy circumstances. He left, by a second wife, a son and a daughter. His valuable library found a home in New England. Few Englishmen have exercised so formative and controlling an influence on European thought and opinion as Ames. He was a master in theological controversy, shunning not to cross swords with the formidable Bellarmine. He was a scholar among scholars, being furnished with extraordinary resources of learning. His works, which even the Biographia Britannica (1778) testifies were famous over Europe, were collected at Amsterdam in 5 vols. 4to. Only a very small proportion was translated into his mother tongue. His Lectiones in omnes Psalmos Davidis (1635) is ex- ceedingly suggestive and terse in its style, reminding of Bengel's Gnomon, as does also his Commentarius utriusque Epist. S. Petri. His " Replies " to Bishop Morton and Dr Burgess on " Cere- monies " tell us that even kinship could not prevent him from " contending earnestly for the faith." See John Quick's MS. Icones Sacrae Anglicanae, which gives the fisherman anecdote on the personal authority of one who was present ; Life by Nethenus prefixed to collected edition of Latin works (5 vols., Amsterdam, 1658); Winwood's Memorials, vol. iii. pp. 346-347; Neal's Puritans, i. 532; Fuller's Cambridge (Christ's College) ; Hanbury's Hist. Memorials, i. 533 ; Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society, vol. vi., fourth series, 1863, pp. 576-577- AMES, a city of Story county, Iowa, U.S.A., about 35 m. N. of Des Moines, at the intersection of two lines of the Chicago & North-Western railway. Pop. (1890) 1276; (1900) 2422; (1910 U. S. census) 4223. The city is the seat of the state college of agriculture and mechanic arts; this institution, opened in 1869, has for its use about n 75 acres of land, on which the state has erected, at a cost of $1,200,000, thirty-two college buildings, besides dwelling-houses and buildings for farm purposes. On the college campus are beautiful groves containing several hundred varieties of trees, and in a central position stands a campanile with excellent chimes. The college offers four-year courses in agronomy, animal husbandry, dairying, domestic economy, general science, veterinary medicine, and civil, mechanical, electrical and mining engineering. In I900-I9ioit had an enrollment of 2631 students (including 796 in the winter short course) and a library of 23,000 volumes. The cost of instruction and experimentation is met by the income from national grants (under the Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1882) and by state appropriations. Ames has a Carnegie library, and owns and operates its electric-lighting plant and waterworks. It was laid out as a town in 1864 and was named in honour of Oakes Ames, at the time one of the proprietors of the Cedar Rapids & Missouri River railway (now part of the Chicago & North-Western) ; five years later it was incorporated. AMESBURY, a small town in the Wilton parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 8 m. N. of Salisbury, on the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1143. It stands on a wooded upland, amid the chalk downs of Salisbury Plain. The church of St Mary is cruciform, with a low square tower, and is largely Early English, with some richly decorated windows in the chancel. A curious two-storeyed building which adjoins the north transept consists of a chapel with a piscina below and a priest's chamber above. Amesbury Abbey, a beautiful house built by Inigo Jones for the dukes of Queensberry, stands close to the village, in a park watered by the river Avon, here famous for its trout. Stonehenge (q.v.), the greatest surviving megalithic work in the British Isles, is a mile and a half distant; and on a hill near the village is Vespasian's Camp or the Ramparts, a large earthwork, which is undoubtedly of British, not Roman, origin. At Amesbury (Ambresberia, Aumbresbery) a witenagemot was held in 932, while about 980 ^Elfthryth (Ethelfrida), queen- dowager of Edgar, erected here a nunnery in expiation of the murder of her stepson. The house afterwards acquired such ill repute that in n 77 the nuns were dispersed and the house was attached to the abbey of Fontevrault, by whom it was re-estab- lished. From this date, by a succession of royal charters and private gifts, the nunnery amassed vast wealth and privileges, and became a fashionable retreat for ladies of high rank, among whose number were Eleanor, widow of Henry III., and Mary, daughter of Edward I. After the dissolution in 1 540 the site was granted to Edward, earl of Hertford, afterwards duke of Somerset and protector of the kingdom. It subsequently passed to the duke of Queensberry. According to the Domesday, Amesbury was a royal manor and did not pay geld, but was under the obligation of providing one night's entertainment for the king. In 13 1 7 the prioress obtained a Saturday market and a three days' fair at the feast of St Melor (Meliorus). The market was subsequently changed' to Friday, and three additional fairs were granted. Pipe- clay abounds in the neighbourhood, and in the 17th century Amesbury was famous for the best pipes in England, many of which are preserved in Salisbury museum. See Victoria County History — Wiltshire; Sir Richard Colt Hoare, History of Modern Wiltshire (1822-1844). AMESBURY, a township of Essex county, in N.E. Massa- chusetts, U.S. A., situated on the Merrimac river, about 6 m. above its mouth. Pop. (1890) 9798; (1900) 9473, of whom 2448 were foreign-born; (1910, U. S. census), 9894. Amesbury is served by two divisions of the Boston & Maine railway, and is connected by electric line with Haverhill and Newburyport, Mass., and with Hampton Beach, New Hampshire, and Salisbury Beach, Mass., two summer resorts. The township covers a land area of about 13 sq. m. The surface is hilly. The Powow river, a small stream, passes through the centre of the township. There is a public library. Among Amesbury's manufactures are hats, cotton goods, carriages, automobile bodies, carriage and auto- mobile lamps, thermometers, brass castings and motor boats. In 1905 the factory products were valued at $3,614,692. Ames- bury was settled about 1644 as a separate part of Salisbury, and in 1654, by mutual agreement of the old and new " towns," became practically independent, although not legally a township until 1666 (named Amesbury, from the English town in Wilts, in 1667). It suffered repeatedly in the course of the colonial Indian wars. Quakers settled here as early as 1701. Josiah Bartlett (1 729-1795), a signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born here, and is commemorated by a statue (1888) by Karl - Gerhardt. Shipbuilding was an important industry in the 18th and especially the first quarter of the 19th century, and the U.S. frigate "Alliance" was built at Salisburypoint in 1778. A nail factory, one of the earliest in the country, was built on the Powow in 1796. The manufacture of iron began about 1710, of hats in 1 769, of carriages in 1 800 and of cotton goods in 1 8 \ 2. Paul Moody, who with F. C. Lowell constructed in 1814 at Waltham the first successful power-loom in America, was engaged in the manufacture of cotton goods in Amesbury. The township was the home of John G. Whittier from 1836 to 1892; here were written most of the poems of his middle and later life, many of which 8^2 AMETHYST— AMHERST describe the surrounding country. In 1876 Merrimac township was created out of the territory of Amesbury; in 1886 the west part of the old township of Salisbury was united to Amesbury. See Joseph Merrill, History of Amesbury (Haverhill, 1880); S. T. Pickard, Whittier-land, A Handbook of North Essex (Boston, New York, 1904). AMETHYST, a violet or purple variety of quartz used as an ornamental stone. The name is generally said to be derived from the Gr. d, " not," and ntdvaKtiv, " to intoxicate," expressing the old belief that the stone protected its owner from strong drink. It was held that wine drunk out of a cup of amethyst would not intoxicate. According, however, to the Rev. C. W. King, the word may probably be a corruption of an Eastern name for the stone. The colour of amethyst is usually attributed to the presence of manganese, but as it is capable of being much altered and even discharged by heat it has been referred by some authorities to an organic source. Ferric thiocyanate has been suggested, and sulphur is said to have been detected in the mineral. On exposure to heat, amethyst generally becomes yellow, and much of the cairngorm or yellow quartz of jewellery is said to be merely " burnt amethyst." Veins of amethystine quartz are apt to lose their colour on the exposed outcrop. Amethyst is composed of an irregular superposition of alter- nate lamellae of right-handed and left-handed quartz. (See Quartz.) It has been shown by Prof. J. W. Judd that this structure may be due to mechanical stresses. In consequence of this composite formation, amethyst is apt to break with a rippled fracture, or to show " thumb markings," and the intersection of two sets of curved ripples may produce on the fractured surface a pattern something like that of " engine turning." Some mineral- ogists, following Sir D. Brewster, apply the name of amethyst to all quartz which exhibits this structure, regardless of its colour. The amethyst was used as a gem-stone by the ' ancient Egyptians, and was largely employed in antiquity for intaglios. Beads of amethyst are found in Anglo-Saxon graves in England. Amethyst is a very widely distributed mineral, but fine clear specimens fit for cutting as ornamental stones are confined to comparatively few localities. Such crystals occur either in cavities in mineral- veins and in granitic rocks, or as a lining in agate geodes. A huge geode, or " amethyst-grotto," from near Santa Cruz in southern Brazil, was exhibited at the Diisseldorf Exhibition of 1902. Many of the hollow agates of Brazil and Uruguay contain a crop of amethyst-crystals in the interior. Much fine amethyst comes from Russia, especially from near Mursinka in the Ekaterinburg district, where it occurs in drusy cavities in granitic rocks. Many localities in India yield amethyst ; and it is found also in Ceylon, chiefly as pebbles. Purple corundum, or sapphire of amethystine tint, is called Oriental amethyst, but this expression is often applied by jewellers to fine examples of the ordinary amethystine quartz, even when not derived from Eastern sources. Amethyst occurs at many localities in the United States, but rarely fine enough for use in jewellery. Among these may be men- tioned Amethyst Mountain, Texas; Yellowstone National Park; Delaware Co., Pennsylvania; Haywood Co., North CarolinajDeer Hill, and Stow, Maine. It is found also in the Lake Superior dis- trict. See G. F. Runz, Gems &c. of North America (1890), and Reporlfomth Census (vol. "Mines and Quarries"). (F.W.R.*) AMHARA, the central province of Abyssinia. The chief town, Gondar (q.v. ), by which name the province is also known, was the residence of the negus negusti, or emperor, of Abyssinia from the middle ages up to 1854. The speech of the inhabitants, Amharic, which differs in several features from the dialects spoken in Tigre and Shoa, is the official language of Abyssinia. AMHERST, JEFFREY AMHERST, Baron (1717-1797'), British soldier, was the son of Jeffrey Amherst of Riverhead, Kent, and by the interest of the duke of Dorset obtained an ensigncy in the Guards in 173 1. He served in Germany and the Low Countries as aide-de-camp to General (Lord) Ligonier, and was present at Dettingen, Fontenoy and Roucoux. He then served on Cumberland's staff, and took part with the duke in the later campaigns of the Austrian Succession war, in the battle of Val, and the North German campaign of 1757, including the battle of Hastenbeck. A year previously he had been promoted to a lieutenant-colonelcy. In 1 758 William Pitt caused Amherst to be made a major-general, and: gave him command of an expedition to attack the French in North America. For the great plan of conquering Canada, Pitt chose young and ardent officers, with Amherst, distinguished for steadiness and self-control, as their commander-in-chief. The first victory of the expedition, the capture of Louisburg (July 26, 1758), was.soon followed by other successes, and Amherst was given the chief command oi all the forces in the theatre of war. In the campaign of 1759 Amherst's own share was the capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point, while Fort Niagara fell to another column, and Quebec was taken by Wolfe. In 1760 a concentric march on Montreal was carried out with complete success. Amherst was immedi- ately appointed governor-general of British North America, and in the following year was made a K.B. His conduct, of the operations against the Indians under Pontiac was, however, far from being as successful as his generalship against regular troops; and he returned to England in 1763, being made governor of Virginia and colonel of the 60th regiment in the same year. In 1768 the king, who had had a quarrel with Amherst, made amends by giving him another colonelcy; in 1770 he was made governor of Guernsey; and two years later, though not yet a full general, he was made lieutenant-general of the ordnance and acting commander-in-chief of the forces. In this capacity he was the chief adviser at headquarters during the American War of Independence. He was created a peer in 1776, was promoted general in 1778 and became colonel of the 2nd Horse Grenadiers (2nd Life Guards) two years later. He aided in suppressing the Gordon riots of 1780. The rest of his active life, with a short interval in 1782-1783, he spent at the Horse Guards as com- mander-in-chief, but he was no longer capable of good service, and in 1795 he was succeeded by the duke of York, In 1796 Lord Amherst was made field-marshal; and he died on the 3rd of August 1797 at " Montreal," his residence in Kent. AMHERST, WILLIAM PITT AMHERST, Earl (1773-1857), governor-general of India, was the nephew of Jeffrey, Baron Amherst, and succeeded to his title in 1797 by the remainder provided when the patent of nobility was renewed in 1788. In 1 81 6 he was sent as ambassador extraordinary to the court of China, with a view of establishing more satisfactory commercial relations between that country and Great Britain, On arriving in the Peiho he was given to understand that he could- only be admitted to the emperor's presence on condition of performing the ko-tou (kow-tow) , a ceremony which Western nations consider degrading, and which is, indeed, a homage exacted by a Chinese sovereign from his tributaries. To this Lord Amherst, following the advice of Sir George T. Staunton, who accompanied hita as second commissioner, refused to consent, as Lord Macartney had done in 1793, unless the admission was made that his sovereign was entitled to the same show of reverence from a mandarin 0i his rank. - In consequence of this he was not allowed to enter Pekin, and the object of his mission was frustrated. His ship, the " Alceste," after a cruise along the coast of Korea and to the Loo- Choo Islands, on proceeding homewards was totally wrecked on a sunken rock in Gaspar Strait. Lord Amherst and part of his shipwrecked companions escaped in the ship's boats to Batavia, whence relief was sent to the rest. The ship in which he returned to England in 1817 having touched at St Helena, he had several interviews with the emperor Napoleon (see Ellis's Proceedings of the Late Embassy to China, 181 7; M'Leod's Narrative of a Voyage in H.M.S. "Alceste," 1817). Lord Amherst held the office of governor-general of India from August 1823 to February 1828. The principal event of his government was the first Burmese war of 1824, resulting in the cession of Arakan and Tenasserim to Great Britain. He was created Earl Amherst of Arakan in 1826. On his return to England he lived- in retirement till his death in March 1857. See A. Thackeray and R. Evans, Lord Amherst (" Rulers oif India * series), 1894. ' '«'<■• AMHERST— AMICABLE NUMBERS 853 AMHERST, a town and district in the Tenasserim division of Lower Burma. The town is situated about 30 m. S. of Moul- mein. It was founded by the British in 1826 on the restoration of the town of Martaban to the Burmese, and named in compliment to the governor-general of India of that day; but in 1827 the headquarters were transferred to Moulmein. Amherst has been eclipsed in prosperity by the latter city, and is now merely a bathing-place for Moulmein. The district forms a narrow strip of land between the Indian Ocean and the mountains which separate it from the independent kingdom of Siam. It has an area of 7062 sq. m. and had a population in 1901 of 300,173; it consists partly of fertile valleys formed by spurs of mountain system which divides it from Siam, and partly of a rich alluvial tract created by the great rivers which issue from them. The most important of these are the Salween and the Gyaing, formed by the junction of the Hlaingbwe and Haungtharaw rivers. The river highways bring down inex- haustible supplies of rice to Moulmein, the chief town of the district, as also of the province of Tenasserim. The district is subject to very heavy rainfall approaching 1 50 in. in the year, and has a uniform temperature of about 8o° F. throughout the twelve- month. AMHERST, a village of Amherst township, Hampshire county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., in the central part of the state, about 7 m. N.E. of Northampton. Pop. of the township (1890) 4512; (1900) 5028; (1910, U. S. census) 5112. It is served by the Boston & Maine and the Central Vermont railways, and by inter- urban electric railways to Northampton, Holyoke, Sunderland and Pelham. The village is picturesquely situated on a plateau within a rampart of hills on the E. side of the Connecticut river valley. About 3 m. to the S. are the Holyoke Mountains (so called), while on the three remaining sides the land slopes to meadows, beyond which rise on the W. the Hampshire and Berkr shire Hills, on the N. the Sugar Loaf Mountains and Mt. Toby, and on the E. the Pelham Hills, including Mt Lincoln (1246 ft.). Two small rivers (Mill and Fort) flow through the township. Amherst is a quiet, pleasing, academic village of attractive homes. It is noteworthy as the seat of Amherst College, one of the best known of the smaller colleges of the United States. Amherst Academy (opened about 1814, chartered 1816), a co-educational school at which Mary Lyon, the founder of Mt. Holyoke College, was educated, preceded the college (not co-educational) ,which was opened in 182 1 and was chartered in 1825. It was originally a collegiate charitable institution, its basis being a fund for the schooling of ministers, and the charity element has remained very large relatively to other colleges. The principal college buildings are College Hall (1828); College Chapel (1828); the Henry T. Morgan Library; Williston Hall, containing the Mather Art Museum, the rooms of the Young Men's Christian Association, and several lecture-rooms; Walker Hall, with college offices and lecture-rooms; Hitchcock Hall; Barrett Hall (1859), the first college gymnasium built in the United States, now used asalecture hall; the Pratt Gymnasium and Natatorium and the Pratt Health Cottage, whose donors also gave to the college the Pratt Field; an astronomical observatory; and the two dormitories, North College and South College, supplemented by several fraternity houses. The natural history collections (including the very large ichnological collection of President Hitchcock, and Audubon's collection of birds) are of exceptional richness. At Amherst is also the Massachusetts Agricultural College (co-educational ; 1 86 7 ) and experiment station (1887). Among the presidents of Amherst College have been in 1845-1854 and in 1876-1890 respectively — ■ Edward Hitchcock, the famous geologist, and the Rev. Julius H. Seelye (1824-1895), a well-known educationalist. The township seems to have been first settled in 1731; it was incorporated in 1759 as a " district" (i.e. having all the rights of a township save corporate representation in the legislature) and in 1776 as a " town " (township). It was originally part of Hadley. Itsname was given to it in honour of General Jeffrey Amherst (1717-1797). During the Shays' Rebellion Amherst was a centre of disaffection and a rallying-point of the insurgents. Noah Webster lived in the village from 1812 to 1822, when working on his Dictionary; and Emily Dickinson and Helen M. Fiske (later Helen Hunt-Jackson, " H. H.") were born here. See William Seymour Tyler, A History of Amherst College (New York, 1896), and Carpenter and Morehouse, The History of the Town of Amherst (New York, 1896). AMHERST, the county town of Cumberland county, and port of entry in Novia Scotia, Canada, at the head of Chignecto Bay and on the Intercolonial railway, 138 m. from Halifax. Pop. (1901) 4964. It is situated in a rich agricultural and mining district, and contains county and railway buildings and numerous mills and factories. It is the distributing centre for the surround- ing district, and exports railway carriages, engines, boilers, stoves, &c. AMHURST, NICHOLAS (1697-1742), English poet and political writer, was bOrn at Maiden, Kent, on the 16th of October 1697. He was educated at the Merchant Taylors' School, arid received an exhibition (1716) to St John's College, Oxford. In I7i9he was expelled from the university, ostensibly for his irregularities" of conduct, but in reality, according to his own account, because of his whig principles, which were sufficiently evident in a congratu- latory epistle to Addison, in Protestant Popery; or the Convoca- tion (17 18), an attack on the opponents of Bishop Hoadly, and in The Protestant Session . . . by a member of the Constitution Club at Oxford (1719), addressed to James, first Earl Stanhope, and printed anonymously, but doubtless by Amhurst. He had satir- ized Oxford morals in Strephon's Revenge; a Satire on the Oxford Toasts (17 18), and he attacked from time to time the administra- tion of the university and its principal members. An old Oxford Custom on public occasions permitted some persqn to deliver from the rostrum a humorous, satirical speech, full of university scandal. This orator was known as Terrae filius. In 1721 Amhurst produced a series of bi-weekly satirical papers under this name, which ran for seven months and incidentally provides much curious information. These publications were reprinted in 1726 in two volumes as Terrae Filius; or the secret history of the University of Oxford; in several essays. . . . He collected his poems in 1720, and wrote another university satire, Oculus Bri- tanniae, in 1724. On leaving Oxford for London he became a prominent pamphleteer on the opposition side. On the 5th of December 1726 he issued the first number of the Craftsman, a weekly periodical, which he conducted under the pseudonym of Caleb D' Anvers. The paper contributed largely to the final over- throw of Sir Robert Walpole's government, and reached a circu- lation of 10,000 copies. For this success Amhurst's editorship was not perhaps chiefly responsible. It was the organ of Lord Boling- broke and William Pulteney, the latter of whom was a frequent and caustic contributor. In 1 73 7 an imaginary letter from Colley Cibber was inserted, in which he was made to suggest that many plays by Shakespeare and the older dramatists contained passages which might be regarded as seditious. He therefore desired to be appointed censor of all plays brought on the stage. This was regarded as a " suspected " libel, and a warrant was issued for the arrest of the printer. Amhurst surrendered himself instead, and suffered a short imprisonment. On the overthrow of the government in 1742 the opposition leaders did nothing for the useful editor of the Craftsman, and this neglect is said to have hastened Amhurst's death, which took place at Twickenham on the 27th of April 1742. AMIANTHUS, a corruption of amiantus (Gr. afilavros, unde- fined), a name applied to the finer kinds of asbestos (q.v.), in conse- quence, it is said, of the mineral being unaffected by fire. Some of the finest amianthus, with long silky flexible fibres, occurs in the district of the Tarentaise in Savoy. According to Dr J. W. Evans, the ancient amianthus, derived mostly from Karystos in Euboea and from Cyprus, was probably a fibrous serpentine, or chrysotile (now called locally Trajx-iraKoweTpa, or cotton-stone). See Mineralogical Mag. (London) vol. xiv. no. 65 (1906), art. by J. W. Evans. AMICABLE NUMBERS, two numbers so related that the sum of the factors of the one is equal to the other, unity being con- sidered as a factor. Such a pair are 220 and 284; for the factors of 220 are 1,2,4,5,10,11,20,22,44,55 and no, of which the sum is 284; and the factors of 284 are 1,2,4,71, and 142, of which the sum 854 AMICE— AMICIS is 220. Amicable numbers were known to the Pythagoreans, who accredited them with many mystical properties. A general formula by which these numbers could be derived was invented by the Arabian astronomer Tobit ben Korra (836-901): if p = ^-2 m — 1, 5=3-2 m_l — 1 and r=o-2 2m - 1 — 1, where m is an integer and p,q,r prime numbers, then 2 m pq and 2 m r are a pair of amicable numbers. This formula gives the pairs 220 and 284, 17,296 and 18,416, 9,463,584 and 9,437,056. The pair 6232 and 6368 are amicable, but they cannot be derived from this formula. Amicable numbers have been studied by Al Madshritti (d. 1007), Rene Descartes, to whom the formula of Tobit ben Korra is some- times ascribed, C. Rudolphus and others. AMICE (earlier forms: amyt, atnys, O. Fr. amit, Lat. amictus, from amicire, to throw or wrap round, the change of / to s being probably due to an early confusion with the aumuce: see Almuce), a liturgical vestment of the Western Church. It is a rectangular piece of cloth which is wrapped round the neck, shoulders and breast. Sometimes, more particularly in Germany, it is called the hunter ale (from humerus, shoulder). According to modern Roman use, laid down by the decree of the Congregation of Rites in 1819, the amice must be of linen or of a hempen material, not wool; and, as directed by the new Roman Missal (1570), a small cross must be sewn or embroidered in the middle of it. In putting it on it is first laid on the head, then allowed to fall on the shoulders, and finally folded round the chest and tied with the strings attached for that purpose (see fig. 1). The amice is now worn under the alb, except at Milan and Lyons, where it is put on over it. The vest- ment was at first a perfectly plain white cloth, but in the 12th century the custom arose of decorating the upper border with a band of embroidery, the parure (paruru) or " apparel." This was abandoned at Rome about the end of the 15th century and is not prescribed in the Missal; it survived, however, in many parts of Europe till much later. This apparel, when the vestment has been adjusted, forms a sort of stiff collar which appears above the chasuble or dalmatic (see fig. 2). In From Braun, Lilurgische Gewandung, by permission of the publisher, B. Herder. Fig. 1. — Amice of the Present Day. Redrawn from Braun, Lilurgische Gewandung. Fig. 2. — Medieval Method of putting on the Amice. some exceptional cases, as at Milan, it has become detached from the amice and is fixed like a collar to the chasuble. The Latin word amictus was applied to any wrap-like garment, and, according to Father Braun, the liturgical amice originated in the ordinary neck-cloth worn by all classes of Romans. It had at the outset no liturgical significance whatever, and was simply adopted by the clergy for the same reason that the clergy of the 1 8th century wore wigs — because it was part of the full dress of ordinary life. The first record of its ecclesiastical use is at Rome in the 8th century, when it was worn only with the dalmatic and was known as the anabolagium {anagolaium, anagolagium, from Gr. ava^oKoiov) , a name it continued to bear at Rome till the 13th century. In the 9th century it spread to the other countries that adopted the Roman use: it is mentioned in an inventory of vestments given by Abbot Angilbert (d. 814) to the monastery at Centula (St Riguier) and in the de clericorum insu- tutione of Hrabanus Maurus (c. 820). The amice was worn firav simply as a shoulder-cloth, but at the end of the 9th century thr custom grew up of putting it on over the head and of wearing it as a hood, either while the other vestments were being put on or. according to the various uses of local churches, during part o! the Mass, though never during the canon. This ceased at Rome at the same time as the apparel disappeared; but two relics of it survive — (1) in the directions of the Missal for putting on the amice, (2) in the ordination of subdeacons, when the bishop lays the vestment on the ordinand's head with the words, " Take the amice, which symbolizes discipline over the tongue, &c." The priest too in putting it on prays, " Place on my head the helmet of salvation, &c." The amice, whatever its origin or symbolism, became specific- ally a vestment associated with the sacrifice of the Mass, and as such it was rejected with the other " Mass vestments " in England at the Reformation. Its use has, however, been revived in many Anglican churches, the favourite form being the medi- eval apparelled amice. (See Vestments.) A vestment akin to the amice is also worn in the Armenian and some other oriental churches, but it is unknown to the Orthodox Eastern Church. Akin to the amice is a vestment peculiar to the popes, the fanone (Med. Lat. fano, " cloth," Goth, fana, " cloth," Mod. Ger. Fahne, " a flag "), also called the orale (from or a, an edge, border). This is at present a circular broad collar of two thicknesses of silk, ornamented with gold stripes and a gold-em- broidered cross (see fig. 3). It is put on after the alb, &c, and under the tunicle, dalmatic and chasuble, but then drawn up so as to fall over the latter like a collar. The fanone was originally a cloth like the amice and was wrapped round neck and shoulders; until the 15th century, moreover, it was not worn with the amice. From Braun, Lilurgische Gewandung. Fig. 3. — The Papal Fanone. Since then, however, both vestments have been worn, one under, the other over, the alb. It is worn by the popes only on certain special days or occasions, and forms part of the vestments in which they are buried. See Joseph Braun, S. J., Die liturgische Gewandung, pp. 21-56 (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1907), and bibliography to the article Vestments. AMICI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1786-1863), Italian astronomer and microscopist, was born on the 2 5th of March 1 786 at Modena. After studying at Bologna, he became professor of mathematics at Modena, and in 183 1 was appointed inspector- general of studies in the duchy. A few years later he was chosen director of the' observatory at Florence, where he also lectured at the museum of natural history. He died at Florence on the 10th of April 1863. His name is best known for the improvements he effected in the mirrors of reflecting telescopes and especially in the construction of the microscope. He was also a diligent and skilful observer, and busied himself not only with astronomical subjects, such as the double stars, the satellites of Jupiter and the measurement of the polar and equatorial diameters of the sun, but also with biological studies of the circulation of the sap in plants, the fructification of plants, infusoria, &c. AMICIS, EDMONDO DE (1846- 1908), Italian writer, was born at Oneglia, in Liguria, on the 21st of October 1846. After some schooling at Cuneo and Turin, he was sent to the Military School at Modena, from which he was appointed to a lieutenancy in the 3rd regiment of the line in 1865. He fought at the battle 01 Custozza in 1866. In 1867 he became director of the Italia AMICUS CURIAE— AMIENS 855 Militate, Florence. In the following year he published his first book, La Vita Militare, which consisted of sketches of military life, and attained wide popularity. After the overthrow of the pope's temporal power in 1870, De Amicis retired from the army and devoted himself to literature, making his headquarters at Turin. Always a traveller by inclination, he found opportunity for this in his new leisure, and some of his most popular books have been the product of his wanderings. Several of these have been translated into English and the other principal languages of Europe. The most important of these are his descriptions of Spain (1873), Holland (1874), Constantinople (1877) and Morocco (1879;. These gained him a well-deserved reputation as a brilliant depicter of scenery and the external aspects of life; solid information is not within their sphere; and much of their success is owing to the opportunities they afford for spirited illustration. Subsequently De Amicis greatly extended his fame as a writer of fiction, especially by 77 Romanzo d' un Maestro, and the widely read II Cuore (translated into English as An Italian Schoolboy's Journal); later volumes from his pen being La Carozza di tutti (centring round an electric tram), Memorie, Speranze e glorie, Ricordi d' infanzia e di scuola, L' Idioma gentile, and a volume of short stories, Nel Regno dell' Amore. He died suddenly of heart disease at Bordighera on the 12th of March 1908. AMICUS CURIAE (Lat. for " a friend of the court "), a term used primarily in law, signifying a person (usually a member of the bar) who, having special knowledge but not being engaged in the suit, intervenes during its hearing to give information for the assistance of the court, either upon some fact relevant to the issue or upon a point of law, such as the hearing of a local custom, the precedent of some decided case, &c. AMIDINES, in organic chemistry, the name given to compounds of general formula R-C: (NH)- NH 2 , which maybe considered as derived from the acid-amides by replacement of oxygen by the divalent imino ( = NH) group. They may be prepared by the action of ammonia or amines on imide chorides, or on thiamides (0. Wallach, A. Bernthsen); by the action of ammonium chloride or hydrochlorides of amines on nitriles; by condensing amines and amides in presence of phosphorus trichloride; by the action of hydrochloric acid on acid-amides (0. Wallach, Ber., 1882, 15, p. 208); and by the action of ammonia or amines on imino-ethers (A. Pinner, Ber., 1883, 16, p. 1647; 1884, 17, p. 179). They are monacid bases, which are not very stable; they readily take up the elements of water (when boiled with acids or alkalies) , yielding amides and ammonia. On dry distillation they yield nitriles and ammonia. When warmed with sulphuretted hydrogen they yield thiamides, R-C : (NH)NHR+H 2 S = RC(NH 2 )(SH)NHR = R-CSNH 2 +NH 2 -RorRCS-NHR+NH 3 . With /3-ketonic esters, H0(CH 3 )C : CH- C0 2 R, they yield oxy- pyrimidines (A. Pinner, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 3820). Formamidine, HC: (NH)NH 2 , is only known in the form of its salts, the hydrochloride being obtained by the action of ammonia on the hydrochloride of formimido-ethyl ether (A. Pinner, Ber., 1883, 16, p. 357). Acetamidine, CHjC : (NH)-NH 2 , is alkaline in reaction, and readily splits up into acetic acid and ammonia when warmed with acids. Its hydrochloride melts at 163 C, and crystallizes from alcohol in colourless deliquescent prisms. Acetic anhydride converts the base into an acetamino-dimethyl pyrimidine, acetic acid and acetamide being also formed. Benzamidine, CeHs-C: (NH)NH 2 , forms colourless crystals which melt at 75-80° C. When warmed it breaks down into ammonia and cyanphenine (s-triphenyl triazine). It condenses with acetic anhydride to form a methyldiphenyl triazine, acet- amide being also formed; with acetyl-acetone to form dimethyl- phenyl pyrimidine (A. Pinner, Ber., 1893, 26, p. 2125); and with trimethylene bromide to form a phenyl tetrahydropyrimidine (Pinner). H. v. Pechmann {Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2362) has shown that amidines of the type R-C : (NY)-NHZ sometimes react as if they possessed the constitution R-C : (NZ)- NHY; but this only appears to occur when Y and Z are groups which function in the same way. If Y and Z are groups which behave very differently, then there is apparently no tautomerism and a definite formula can be given to the compound. The formulae of the ringed compounds mentioned above are here shown : N-C— (CH 3 ) N-C— (CH S ) R-c/ \CH CH 3 -c/ \ CH N=C— (OH) N=C— (NHCOCH s ) Oxypyrimidine. Acetaminodimethyl pyrimidine. N- N - CH 2 C 6 H 6 -C the most striking features are the height of the nave and the boldness of the columns supporting the vaulting. The chief of the other churches of Amiens is St Germain (15th century), which has some good stained glass. The hotel de ville, begun in 1550, a belfry of the 14th and 18th centuries and several old mansions are of interest. Amiens has a rich library and admirable collections of paintings, sculptures and antiquities in the museum of Picardy. Its learned associations include the Societe des Antiquaires de Picardie, by whom the museum was built in 1854-1864. The city is the seat of a bishop, a prefect, a court of appeal and a court of assizes, and headquarters of the II. Army Corps. There are also tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of Commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. The educational institutions include lycees for boys and girls, training-colleges for teachers, a preparatory school of medicine, a school of music and a school of iron-working and wood- working. The textile industries for which Amiens has been celebrated since the middle ages include manufactures of velvet, cotton-, wool-, silk-, hemp- and flax-spinning, and the weaving of hosiery and a variety of mixed fabrics. Manufactures of machinery, chemicals, blacking, polish and sugar, and printing, dyeing and iron-founding are also carried on. Market gardens, known as horlillonnages, intersected by small canals derived from the Somme and Avre, cover a considerable area to the north-east of Amiens; and the city has trade in vegetables, as well as in grain, sugar, wool, oil-seeds and the duck-pasties and macaroons for which it is renowned. Amiens occupies the site of the ancient Samarobriva, capital of the Ambiani, from whom it probably derives its name. At the beginning of the 4th century Christianity was preached there by St Firmin, its first bishop. During the middle ages its territory formed the countship of Amienois. The authority of the counts was, however,balanced by that of the bishops,and early in the 1 2th century the citizens, profiting by this rivalry, gained a charter of enfranchisement. The fief became for the first time a dependency of the French crown in 1185, when Philip of Alsace, count of Flanders, ceded it to Philip Augustus. It more than once passed out of the power of the French kings, notably in 1435, when, by the treaty of Arras, it came into the possession of the dukes of Burgundy, to whom it belonged till 1477. Surprised by the Spaniards in 1597, the city was recaptured from them after a long siege by Henry IV. Till 1790 it was the capital of the gouverne- ment of Picardy (q.v.). The famous treaty between Great Britain, France, Spain and Holland which took its name from Amiens was signed in the hotel de ville on the 25th of March 1802. During the war between France and Germany, Amiens, after an important action, fell into the hands of the Prussians on the 28th of November 1870. (See Franco- German War.) See A. de Calonne, Histoire de la ville d' Amiens (1900) ; John Ruskin, The Bible of Amiens (1881); La Picardie historique et monumentale, tome i., published by the Societe des Antiquaires de Picardie (1893). AMINES, in chemistry, derivatives of ammonia in which one or more of the hydrogen atoms are replaced by alkyl or aryl groups. The replacement of one hydrogen atom by one aikyl or aryl group gives rise to primary amines; of two hydrogen atoms by two groups, to secondary amines; of three hydrogen atoms by three groups, to tertiary amines. The tertiary amines possess the power of combining with one molecular proportion of an alkyl iodide to form quaternary ammonium salts. The structural relations of these compounds may be shown thus: NH 3 ; NH 2 R; Ammonia ; primary amine ; NHR 2 ; NR 3 ; NR4I. secondary amine; tertiary amine; quaternary ammonium iodide. Aliphatic amines. — These compounds possess properties very similar to those of ammonia, the lowest members of the series being combustible gases readily soluble in water. The next higher members of the series are liquids of low boiling point also readily soluble in water, the solubility and volatility, however, decreasing with the increasing carbon content of the molecule, until the highest members of the series are odourless solids of high boiling point and are insoluble in water. They ale all strong bases, readily forming salts with the mineral acids and double salts with the chlorides of gold, platinum and mercury. They are ionized in aqueous solution to a much greater extent than ammonia, the quaternary ammonium bases being the most ionized, and the secondary bases being more strongly ionized than the primary or tertiary bases. For data concerning the conductivity of the organic bases see G. Bredig (Zeit. fur phys. Chem., 1894, 13, p. 289). Many methods have been devised for the preparation of the amines, the first amine having been isolated in 1849 by A. Wurtz on boiling methyl isocyanate with caustic potash, CON-CH 3 -f- 2KHO=CH 3 NH 2 -r-K 2 C08; The primary amines may also be prepared by heating the alkyl iodides with ammonia (A. W. Hof- mann) ; by the reduction of nitriles with alcohol and sodium (A. Ladenburg, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 783); by heating the esters of nitric acid with alcoholic ammonia at ioo° C. (O. Wallach, Ber., 1881, 14, p. 421); by the action of reducing agents on nitro- paraffins; by the action of zinc and hydrochloric acid on aldehyde ammonias (German Patent 73,812); by the reduction of the phenylhydrazones and oximes of aldehydes and ketones with sodium amalgam in the presence of alcohol and sodium acetate (J. Tafel, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 1925; 1889, 22, p. 1854; H. Gcld- schmidt, Ber., r886, 19, p. 3232); by the action of dilute hydro- chloric acid on the isonitriles, R-NC+2H 2 = R-NH { -f H„C0 2 ; by heating the mustard oils with a mineral acid, by the hydro- lysis of the alkyl phthalimides (S. Gabriel, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 2224; 1891, 24, p. 3104), /CCX RI ,CO v 2H 2 Q /COOH C, NK -> C 6 H 4 < A > NR C 6 H 4 . +NH 2 R; OK Vx)/ 1 "^ " ^"" \CQOH by distilling the amino-acids with baryta; by the action of bromine and caustic potash on the acid-amides (A. W. Hofmann, Ber., 1885, 18, p. 2734; 1886, 19, p. 1822); CH 3 CONH 2 -4CH 3 CONHBr->CH 3 CONKBr-> CH 3 NCO-*CH 3 NH 2 ; and by the hydrolysis of substituted urethanes (Th. Curtius, Ber., 1894, 27, p. 779; 1896, 20, p.'n66), N 2 H 4 -H 2 HONO R-COOH-^R-COOR 1 ->-» R-CONH-NH 2 -> acid ester hydrazide C 2 H 6 OH HC1 R-CON 3 -> R-NH-C0 2 C 2 H 6 '-» R-NH 2 azide urethane The secondary amines are prepared, together with the primary and tertiary, by the action of ammonia on the alkyl iodides (see below), or by the hydrolysis of para-nitroso derivatives of tertiary aromatic amines, such as para-nitrosodimethylaniline, thus: NO-C 6 H 4 -N(CH 3 ) 2 + H 2 = NO-C 6 H 4 -OH + NH(CH 3 ) 2 . By the action of ammonia on the alkyl iodides a complex mixture Of primary, secondary and tertiary amines, along with a quaternary ammonium salt, is obtained, the separation of which is difficult. The method worked out by A. W. Hofmann is as follows;^— the mixture is distilled with caustic potash, when the primary, secondary and tertiary amines distil over, and the quaternary ammonium salt remains behind unaffected. The aqueous solu- tion of the amines is now shaken up with diethyl oxalate, when the primary amine forms a crystalline dialkyl oxamide and the secondary amine an insoluble liquid, which is an ethyl dialkyl oxamate, the tertiary amine not reacting: (C02C 2 H 5 ) 2 -t- 2NH 2 R = (CONHR) 2 + 2C 2 H 5 OH; (C0 2 C 2 H 5 ) ? + NHR 2 « C 2 H 5 2 C-CONR 2 +C 2 H 5 OH. The tertiary amine is then dis- tilled off, the residual products separated by filtration and finally hydrolysed by a caustic alkali. The primary, secondary and tertiary amines may be readily dis- tinguished by their behaviour with various reagents. Primary amines when heated with alcoholic potash and chloroform yield isonitriles, which are readily detected by their offensive smell. The secondary and tertiary amines do not give this reaction. With nitrous acid, the primary amines yield alcohols, the secondary amines yield nitrosamines and the tertiary amines do not react: R-NH 2 +ONOH-R-OH+N 2 +H 2 0; R 2 NH+ ONOH=R 2 N-NO+H 2 0. With benzene sulphochloride in the presence of alkali, the primary amines yield compounds of the type C6H5SO2NHR, soluble in alkalies, whilst the secondary amines AMINES 857 yield compounds of the type CsHjS0 2 NR 2 , insoluble in alkalies (O. Hinsberg, Ber., r8oo, 2.3, p. 2963). Priirlary amines heated with carbon bisulphide in alcoholic solution are converted into mustard oils, when the dithiocarbamate first produced is heated with a solution of mercuric chloride. Methylamine, CH 3 NH 2 , occurs in Mercurialis perennis, in bone-oil, and herring brine. It is also a decomposition product of many alkaloids. At ordinary temperatures it is a gas, but may be condensed to a liquid which boils at - 6° C. It has a strong am- moniacal smell, burns readily and is exceedingly soluble in water. Its critical temperature is 155° C. and critical pressure 72 atmos. (C. Vincent, J. Chappuis; /aAr&sft., 1886, p. 202). Dimetnylamine, (CH S ) 2 NH, is found in Peruvian guano. It is a heavy vapour which condenses at 7 C. to a liquid, having a pronounced fish-like smell. Trimethylamine, (CHa^N, is very similar to dimethyl- amine, and condenses to a liquid which boils at 3 -2-3 -8° C. It is usually obtained from " vinasses," the residue obtained from the distillation of beet sugar alcohol, and is used in the manufao ture of potassium bicarbonate by the Solvay process, since its hydrochloride is much more soluble than potassium carbonate. Tetramethylammonium iodide, N(CHs)4l, is the chief product obtained by the action of methyl iodide on ammonia (Hofmann). It crystallizes in quadratic prisms and has a 'bitter taste. By warming its aqueous solution with an excess of silver oxide it is converted into tetramethylammonium hydroxide, N(CHj)6pos). The details of his life are unknown, insomuch that he has frequently been confused with a Christian philosopher of the same name. Eusebius (Church History, vi. 19), who is followed by Jerome, asserts that he was born a Christian, remained faithful to Christianity throughout his life, and even 1 The allusions in Jer. xlix. 1-6; Zeph.ii. 8-11; Ezek. xxi. 28-32; Judg. xi. 12-28, have been taken to refer to an Ammonite occupa- tion of Israelite territory after the deportation of the east Jordanic Israelites in 734, but more probably belong to a later event. The name Chephar-Ammoni (in Benjamin ; Josh, xviii. 24) seems to imply that the " village " became a settlement of " Ammonites." Some light is thrown upon the obscure history of the post -exile period by the references to the mixed marriages which aroused the reforming zeal of Ezra and culminated in the exclusion of Ammon and Moab from the religious community — on the ground of incidents which were ascribed to the time of the " exodus " (Deut. xxiii. 3 sqq.; Ezr. ix. I sqq.; Neh. xiii. I sqq.). produced two works called The Harmony of Moses and Jesus and The Diatessaron, or Harmony of the Four Gospels, which is said by some to exist in a Latin version by Victor, bishop of Capua. Porphyry, quoted by Eusebius, ib. vi. 19. 6, however, says that he apostatized in later life and left no writings behind him. There seems no reason, therefore, to doubt that Eusebius is here referring to the Christian philosopher. After long study and meditation, Ammonius opened a school of philosophy in Alexandria. His principal pupils were Herennius, the two Origens, Cassius Longinus and Plotinus. As he designedly wrote nothing, and, with the aid of his pupils, kept his views secret, after the manner of the Pythagoreans, his philosophy must be inferred mainly from the writings of Plotinus. As Zeller points out, however, there is reason to think that his doctrines were rather those of the earlier Platonists than those of Plotinus. Hierocles, writing in the 5th century a.d., states that his funda- mental doctrine was an eclecticism, derived from a critical study of Plato and Aristotle. His admirers credited him with having reconciled the quarrels of the two great schools. His death is variously given between a.d. 240 and 245. See Neo-Platonism, Origen. Bibliography.— C. Rosier, De commentitiis philosophiae Am- moniaceae fraudibus et noxis (Tubingen, 1786); L. J. Dehaut, Essai historique sur la vie et la doctrine d' Ammonius Saccas (Brussels, 1836); E. Zeller, " Ammonius Saccas und Plotinus," Arch. f. Gesch. d. P.fiilos. vii., 1894, PP- 295-312; E. Vacherot, Hist. crit. de I'ecole d' Alexandria (Paris, 1846) ; T. Whittaker, The Neo-platonists (Camb., 1901); Eusebius, Hist. Eccles., trans. A. C. M'Giffert (Oxford and New York, 1890), notes on passages quoted above. AMMUNITION, a military term (derived, through the French, from Lat. munire, to provide), for consumable stores used in attack or defence, such as rifle cartridges, cartridges, projectiles, igniting tubes and primers for ordnance, &c. The components of ammunition intended for rifles and ordnance may be divided into (a) explosives and propellants (see Ex- plosives and Gunpowder), (b) projectiles of all kinds, and (c) cartridges. The military classification of explosives differs some- whatfrom that of the Explosives Act 1875, but, broadly speaking, they are divided into two groups. The first of these comprises explosives in bulk, made-up cartridges for cannon, and filled quick- firing cartridges; Group II. contains small-arm cartridges, fuzes, primers, tubes, 1 filled shells (fuzed or unfuzed), &c. Each group is subdivided, and arrangements are made for storing certain divisions of Group I. in a magazine in separate compartments. All the divisions of Group II. are, and the remaining divisions of Group I. (comprising wet gun-cotton, picric acid and Q.F. cartridges) may be, stored in ammunition stores. These general conditions apply to the storage of ammunition in fortresses. Here the positions.for the magazine and ammunition stores are so chosen as to afford the best means of protection from an enemy's fire. Huge earth parapets cover these buildings, which are further strengthened, where possible, by traverses protecting the entrances. For the purpose of filling, emptying and examining cannon cartridges and shell, a laboratory is gener- ally provided at some distance from the magazine. The various stores for explosives are classified into those under magazine conditions (viz. magazines, laboratories and cartridge stores) and those with which these restrictions need not be observed (viz. ammunition and shell stores). The interior walls of a magazine are Kned and the floors laid so that there may be no exposed iron or steel. At the entrance there is a lobby or barrier, inside which persons about to enter the magazine change their clothes for a special suit, and their boots for a pair made without nails. In an ammunition or shell store these precautions need not be taken except where the shell store arid the adjacent cartridge store have a common entrance; persons entering may do so in their ordinary clothes. A large work may have a main magazine and several subsidiary magazines, from which the stock of cartridges is renewed in the cartridge stores attached to each group of guns or in the expense cartridge stores and cartridge recesses. The same applies to main ammunition stores which supply the shell stores, expense stbres and recesses. The supply of ammunition may be divided roughly into (a) that AMMUNITION 865 for guns forming the movable armament, (6) that for guns placed in permanent positions. The movable armament will consist of guns and howitzers of small and medium calibre, and it is neces- sary to arrange suitable expense cartridge stores and shell stores in close proximity to the available positions. They can generally be constructed to form part of the permanent work in the pro- jected face of traverses or Other strong formations, and should be arranged for a twenty-four hours' supply of ammunition. These stores are refilled from the main magazine every night under cover of darkness. Light railways join the various positions. The guns mounted in permanent emplacements are divided into groups of two or three guns each, and usually each group will require but one calibre of ammunition. A cartridge store, shell store and a general store, all well ventilated, are arranged for the especial service of such a group of guns. In the cartridge store the cylinders containing the cartridges are so placed and labelled that the required charge, whether reduced or full, can be immedi- ately selected. In the shell store also for the same reason the common shell are separated from the armour-piercing or shrapnel. Each nature of projectile is painted in a distinctive manner to render identification easy. The fuzes, tubes, &c, are placed in the general store with the tools and accessories belonging to the guns. The gun group is distinguished by some letter and the guns of the group by numerals; thus, } is No. 1 gun of group A. The magazine and shell stores are also indicated by the group letter, and so that mistakes, even by those unaccustomed to the fort, may be avoided, the passages are pointed out by finger posts and direction boards. For the immediate service of each gun a few cartridges and projectiles are stored in small receptacles' — called cartridge and shell recesses respectively — built in the parapet as near the gun position as practicable. In some cases a limited number of projectiles may be placed close underneath the parapet if this is conveniently situated near the breech of the gun and not exposed to hostile fire. In order to supply the ammunition sufficiently rapidly for the efficient service of modern guns, hydraulic, electric or hand- power hoists are employed to raise the cartridges and shell from Fig. 1. -Ammunition Hoist. AMMUNITION PASSAGE V'-yS--IS.-i>'fl' the cartridge store and shell store to the gun floor, whence they are transferred to a derrick or loading tray attached to the mounting for loading the gun. Projectiles for B.L. guns above 6-in. calibre are stored in shell stores ready filled and fuzed standing on their bases, except shrapnel and high-explosive shell, which are fuzed only when abou t to be used. Smaller sizes of shells are laid on their sides in layers, each layer pointing in the opposite direction to the one below to prevent injury to the driving bands. Cartridges are stored in brass corrugated cases or in zinc cylinders. The corrugated cases are stacked in layers in the magazine with the mouth of the case towards a passage between the stacks, so that it can be opened and the cartridges removed and transferred to a leather case when required for transport to the gun. Cylinders are stacked, when possible, vertically one above the other. The charges are sent to the gun in these cylinders, and provision is made for the rapid removal of the empty cylinders. The number and nature of rounds allotted to any fortress depends on questions of policy and location, the degrees of resist- ance the nature of the works and personnel could reasonably be expected to give, and finally on the nature of the arma- ment. That is to say, for guns of large calibre three hundred to four hundred rounds per gun might be sufficient, while for light Q.F. guns it might amount to one thousand or more rounds per gun. (A. G. H.) With every successive improvement in military arms there has necessarily been a corresponding modification in the method of supplying ammunition and in the quantity required to gaooiy of be supplied. When hand-to-hand weapons were the ammuoi- principal implements of battle, there was, of course, no iion 1" such need, but even in the middle ages the archers and tbe tieU ' crossbowmen had to replenish the shafts and bolts expended in action, and during a siege stone bullets of great size, as well as heavy arrows^ere freely used. The missiles of those days were, however, interchangeable, and at the battle of Towton (1461) the commander of the Yorkist archers, by inducing the enemy to waste his arrows, secured a double supply of ammunition for his own men. This interchangeability of war material was even possible for many centuries after the invention of firearms. At the battle of Liegnitz (1760) a general officer was specially commissioned by Frederick the Great to pack up and send away, for Prussian use, all the muskets and ammunition left on the field of battle by the defeated Austrians. Captured material is, of course, utilized whenever possible, at the present time, and in the Chino-Japanese War the Japanese went so far as to prepare beforehand spare parts for the Chinese guns they expected to capture (Wei-Hai-Wei, 1895), but it is rare to find a modern army trusting to captures for arms and ammunition; almost the only instance of the practice is that of the Chilean civil war of 1891, in which the army of one belligerent was almost totally dependent upon this means of replenishing stores of arms and cartridges. But what was possible with weapons of comparatively rough make -is no longer to be thought of in the case of modern arms. The Lee-Metford bullet of -303 in. diameter can scarcely be used in a rifle of smaller calibre, and in general the minute accuracy of parts in modern weapons makes interchangeability almost impossible. Further, owing to the rapidity with which, in modern arms, ammunition is expended, and the fact that, as battles are fought at longer ranges than formerly, more shots have to be fired in order to inflict heavy losses, it is necessary that the reserves of ammunition should be as close as possible to the troops who have to use them. This was always the case even with the older firearms, as, owing to the great weight of the ammuni- tion, the soldier could carry but few rounds on his person. Nevertheless it is only within the past seventy years that there has grown up the elaborate system of ammunition supply which now prevails in all regularly organized armies. That which is described in the present article is the British, as laid down in the official Combined Training (1005) and other manuals. The new system designed for stronger divisions, and others, vary only in details and nomenclature. Infantry .—The. infantry soldier generally carries, in pouches, bandoliers, &c, one hundred rounds of small-arms ammunition (S.A.A.), and it is usual to supplement this, when an action is imminent, from the regimental reserve (see below). It is to be noticed that every reduction in the calibre of the rifle means an increase in the number of rounds carried. One hundred rounds of 866 AMMUNITION the Martini-Henry ammunition weighed iolb 10 oz. ; the same weight gives 155 with -303 ammunition (incl.charges), and if a -256 calibre is adopted the number of rounds will be still greater. It is, relatively, a matter of indifference that the reserves of ammuni- tion include more rounds than formerly; it is of the highest im- portance that the soldier should, as far as possible, be independent of fresh supplies, because the bringing up of ammunition to troops closely engaged is laborious and costly in lives. The regimental reserves are carried in S.A.A. carts and on pack animals. Of the former each battalion has six, of the latter eight. The six carts are distributed, one as reserve to the machine gun, three as reserve to the battalion itself, and two as part of the brigade reserve, which consists therefore of eight carts. The brigade reserve communicates directly with the brigad 3 ammunition columns of the artillery (see below). The eighi pack animals follow the eight companies of their battalion. These, with two out of the three battalion carts, endeavour to keep close to the firing line, the remaining cart being with the reserve companies. Men also are employed as carriers, and this duty is so onerous that picked men only are detailed. Gallantry displayed in bringing up ammunition is considered indeed to justify special rewards. The amount of S.A.A. in regimental charge is 100 rounds in the possession of each soldier, 2000 to 2200 on each pack animal, and 16,000 to 17,600 in each of four carts, with, in addition, about 4000 rounds with the machine gun and 16,000 more in the fifth cart. Artillery. — The many vehicles which accompany batteries (see Artillery) carry a large quantity of ammunition, and with the contents of two wagons and the limber each gun may be con- sidered as well supplied, more especially as fresh rounds can be brought up with relatively small risk, owing to the long range at which artillery fights and the use of cover. Each brigade of artillery has its own ammunition column, from which it draws its reserve in the first instance. Ammunition Columns. — An ammunition column consists of military vehicles carrying gun and S.A. ammunition for the combatant unit to which the column belongs. Thus the am- munition columns of a division, forming part of the brigades of field artillery, carry reserve ammunition for the guns, the machine guns of the infantry and the rifles of all arms. Generally speak- ing, the ammunition column of each of the artillery brigades furnishes spare ammunition for its own batteries and for one of the brigades of infantry. All ammunition columns are officered and manned by the Royal Artillery. They are not reserved exclusively to their own brigades, divisions, &c, but may be called upon to furnish ammunition to any unit requiring it during an action. The officers and men of the R.A. employed with the ammunition column are, as a matter of course, immediately available to replace casualties in the batteries. Teams, wagons and maUriel generally are also available for the same purpose. The horse artillery, howitzer and heavy brigades of artillery have each their own ammunition columns, organ- ized in much the same way and performing similar duties. The ammunition column of the heavy brigade is divisible into three sections, so that the three batteries, if operating independently, have each a section at hand to replenish the ammunition expended. The horse artillery brigade ammunition columns carry, besides S.A.A. for all corps troops other than artillery, the reserve of pom-pom ammunition. In action these columns are on the battlefield itself. Some miles to the rear are the divisional and corps troops columns, which on the one hand replenish the empty wagons of the columns in front, and on the other draw fresh supplies from the depots on the line of communication. These also are in artillery charge; a divisional column is detailed to each division(t.e. to replenish each set of brigade ammuni- tion columns), and the corps troops column supplies the columns attached to the heavy, howitzer and horse artillery brigades. The ammunition thus carried includes ordinarily seven or eight kinds at least. S.A.A., field, horse, howitzer and heavy gun shrapnel, howitzer and heavy gun lyddite shells, cartridges for the four different guns employed and pom-pom cartridges for the cavalry, — in all twelve distinct types of stores would be carried for a complete army corps. Consequently the rounds of each kind in charge of each ammunition column must vary in accordance with the work expected of the combatant unit to which it belongs. Thus pom-pom ammunition is out of place in the brigade ammunition columns of field artillery, and S.A.A. is relatively unnecessary in that attached to a heavy artillery brigade. Under these circumstances a column may be unable to meet the particular wants of troops engaged in the vicinity ; for instance, a cavalry regiment would send in vain to a heavy artillery ammunition section for pom-pom cartridges. The point to be observed in this is that the fewer the natures of weapons used, the more certain is the ammunition supply. (C. F. A.) The first projectiles fired from cannon were the darts and stone shot which had been in use with older weapons. These darts (" garros ") had iron heads or were of iron wrapped sbot with leather to fit the bore of small guns, and con- tinued in use up to nearly the end of the 1 6th century. Spherical stone shot were chosen on account of cheapness; forged iron, bronze and lead balls were tried, but the expense prevented their general adoption. Further, as the heavy metal shot necessitated the use of a correspondingly large propelling charge, too great a demand was made on the strength of the feeble guns of the period. Stone shot being one-third the weight of those of iron the powder charge was reduced in proportion, and this also effected an economy. Both iron and stone shot were occasionally covered with lead, probably to preserve the interior of the bore of the gun. Cast iron, while known in the 14th century, was not sufficiently common to be much used for the manufacture of shot, although small ones were made about that time. They were used more frequently at the latter part of the following century. Towards the end of the 16th century nearly all shot were of iron, but stone shot were still used with guns called Petrieroes (hence the name) or Patararoes, for attacking weak targets like ships at short range. Case shot are very nearly as ancient as spherical shot. They can be traced back to the early part of the 1 5th century, and they have practically retained their orig- tifting «. n rf/«»j na i f orm up t0 t h e present date. They are intended for use at close quarters when a volley of small shot is required. With field guns they are not of much use at ranges exceeding about four hundred yards; those for heavy guns are effective up to one thousand yards. In the earlier forms lead or iron shot were packed in wood casks or in canvas bags tied up with twine like the later quilted shot. In the present (fig. 2) type small shot are placed in a cylindri- cal case of sheet iron, with iron ends, one end being provided with handles. For small guns the bullets are made of lead and antimony — like shrapnel bullets — while for larger calibres they are of cast ounces to three and a half pounds Fig. 2. — Case Shot. iron weighing from two each. Grape shot is now obsolete. It consisted generally of three tiers of cast-iron balls separated by iron plates and held in place by an iron bolt which passed through the centre of the plates. There was also another type called quilted shot which consisted of a number of small shot in a canvas covering tied up by rope. Chain shot, in the days of sailing ships, was much in favour as a means of destroying rigging. Two spherical shot were fastened together by a short length of chain. On leaving the gun they began gyrating around each other and made a formidable missile. Red-hot shot were invented in 1579 by Stephen Batory, king of Poland. They were used with great effect by the English during the siege of Gibraltar, especially on the 13th of September 1782, when the French floating batteries were destroyed, together with a large part of the Spanish fleet. Martin's shell was a AMMUNITION 867 modified form; here a cast-iron shell was filled with molten cast iron and immediately fired. On striking the side of a ship the shell broke up, freeing the still molten iron, which set fire to the vessel. Rotation. — Projectiles intended for R.M.L. guns were at first fitted with a number of gun-metal studs arranged around them in a spiral manner corresponding to the twist of rifling. This was defective, as it allowed, as in the old smooth-bore guns, the powder gas to escape by the clearance (called " windage ") between the projectile and the bore, with a consequent loss of efficiency; it also quickly eroded the bore of the larger guns. Later the rotation was effected by a cupped copper disc called a "gas check" attached to the base end of the projectile. The powder gas pressure expanded the rim of the gas check into the rifling grooves and prevented the escape of gas; it also firmly fixed the gas check to the projectile, thus. causing it to rotate. A more regular and efficient action of the powder gas was thus ensured, with a corresponding greater range and an improvement in accuracy. With the earlier Armstrong (R.B.L.) guns the projectiles were coated with lead (the late Lord Armstrong's system), the lead being forced through the rifling grooves by the pressure of the exploded powder gas. The lead coating is, how- ever, too soft with the higher velocities of modern B.L. guns. Mr Vavasseur, C.B., devised the plan of fitting by hydraulic pressure a copper " driving band " into a groove cut around the body of the projectile. This is now universal. It not only fulfils the purpose of rotating the projectile, but renders possible the use of large charges of slow-burning explosive. The copper band, on being forced through the gun, gives rise to considerable resistance, which allows the propelling charge to burn properly and thus to exert its enormous force on the projectile. The laws which govern the designs of projectiles are not well defined. Certain formulae are used which give the thickness of the walls of the shell for a known chamber pressure in the gun, and for a particular stress on the material of the shell. The exact proportions of the shell depend, however, greatly on experi- mental knowledge. Armour-piercing Shot and Shell. — On the introduction of iron ships it was found that the ordinary cast-iron projectile readily pierced the thin plating, and in order to protect the vital parts of the vessel wrought-iron armour of considerable thickness was placed on the sides. It then became necessary to produce a projectile which would pierce this armour. This was effected by Sir VV. Palliscr, who invented a method of hardening the head of the pointed cast-iron shot. By casting the projectile point downwards and forming the head in an iron mould, the hot metal was suddenly chilled and became intensely hard, while the remainder of the mould being formed of sand allowed the metal to cool slowly and the body of the shot to be made tough. These shot proved very effective against wrought-iron armour, but were not serviceable against compound and steel armour. A new departure had, therefore, to be made, and forged steel shot with points hardened by water, &c, took the place of the Palliser shot. At first these forged steel shot were made of ordinary carbon steel, but as armour improved in quality the projectiles followed suit, and, for the attack of the latest type of cemented steel armour, the projectile is formed of steel — either forged or cast — containing both nickel and chromium. Tungsten steel has also been used with success. Armour-piercing shot or shell are generally cast from a special mixture of chrome steel melted in pots; they are afterwards forged into shape. The shell is then thoroughly annealed, the core bored and the exterior turned up in the lathe. The shell is finished in a similar manner to others described below. The final or tempering treatment is very important, but details are kept strictly secret. It consists in hardening the head of the projectile and tempering it in a special manner, the rear portion being reduced in hardness so as to render it tough. The cavity of these projectiles is capable of receiving a small bursting charge of about 2 % of the weight of the complete projectile, and when this is used the projectile is called an armour-piercing shell. The shell, whether fuzed or unfuzed, will burst on striking a medium thick- ness of armour. Armour-piercing shells, having a bursting charge of about 3 % of the weight of the complete projectile, are now often fitted with a soft steel cap (fig. 3) for the perforation of Fig. 3.— Capped A. P. Shell. hard steel armour. For the theory of the action of the cap see Armour Plates. Even with these improvements the projectile cannot, with a reasonable velocity, be relied upon to pierce one calibre in thick- ness of modern cemented steel armour. Explosive shells do not appear to have been in general use before the middle of the 16th century. About that time hollow balls of stone or cast iron were fired from mortars. The balls were nearly filled with gunpowder and the remain- ing space with a slow-burning composition. This plan was unsatisfactory, as the composition was not always ignited by the flash from the discharge of the gun, and moreover the amount of composition to SheU. burn a stipulated time could not easily be gauged. The shell was, therefore, fitted with a hollow forged iron or copper plug, filled with slow-burn- ing powder. It was impossible to ignite with certainty this primitive fuze simply by firing the gun; the fuze was con- sequently first ignited and the gun fired immediately after- wards. This entailed Fuze Hole. -Sabot. Rivet Fig. 4. — Spherical Common Shell. Lifting Eye. the use of a mortar or a very short piece, so that the fuze could be easily reached from the muzzle without unduly endangering the gunner. Cast-iron spherical common shell (fig. 4) were in use up to 187 1. For guns they were latterly fitted with a wooden disc called a sabot, .Fuze Hole attached by a copper rivet, intended to keep the fuze central when loading. They were also supposed to reduce the rebounding tendency of the shell as it travelled along the bore on discharge. Mortar shell (fig. 5) were not fitted with sabots. Cast iron held its own as the most convenient material for projectiles up to recent for projectiles intended for for common shell for high- Mortar Shell. years, steel supplanting it, first piercing armour, and afterwards velocity guns where the shock of discharge has been found too severe for cast iron. Common shell is essentially a material destructor. Filled with ordinary gunpowder, the larger natures are formidable projectiles for the attack of fortifications and the unarmoured portions of warships. On bursting they break up into somewhat large pieces, which carry destruction forward to some distance from the point of burst. For the attack of buildings common shell are superior to shrapnel and they are used to attack troops posted behind cover where it is impossible for shrapnel to reach them; their effect against troops is, however, generally insignificant. When 868 AMMUNITION filled with lyddite, melinite, &c, they are called high^explosive (H.E.) shell (see below). Common shell for modern high-velocity guns may be made of cast steel or forged steel; those made of cast iron are now generally made for practice, as they are found to break up on impact, even against earthworks, before the fuze has time to act; the bursting charge is, therefore, not ignited or only ignited after the shell has broken up, the effect of the bursting charge being lost in either case. So long as the shell is strong enough to resist the shocks of discharge and impact against earth or thin steel plates, it should be designed to contain as large a bursting charge as possible and to break up into a large number of medium-sized pieces. Their effect between decks is generally more far-reaching than lyddite shell, but the purely local effect is less. Light structures, which, at a short distance from the point of burst, successfully resist lyddite shell and confine the effect of the explosion, may be destroyed by the shower of heavy pieces produced by the burst of a large common shell. To prevent the premature explosion of the shell, by the friction of the grains of powder on discharge, it is heated and coated intern- ally with a thick lacquer, which on cooling presents a smooth surface. Besides this, the bursting charge of all shell of 4-in. calibre and upwards (also with all other natures except shrapnel) is contained. in a flannel or canvas bag. The bag is inserted through the fuze hole and the bursting charge of pebble and fine grain powder gradually poured in. The shell is tapped on the out- side by a wood mallet to settle the powder down. When all the powder has been got in, the neck of the bag is tied and pushed through the fuze hole. A few small shalloon primer bags, filled with seven drams of fine grain powder, are then inserted to fill up the shell and carry the flash from the fuze through the burster bag. In the United States specially long common shell called torpedo shell, about 4-7 calibres in length, are employed with the coast artillery 12-in. mortars. They were made of cast steel, but owing to a premature explosion in a mortar, supposed to be due to weakness of the shell, they are now made of forged steel. The weight of the usual projectile for this mortar is 850 lb. The torpedo shell, however, weighs 1000 lb and contains 137 lb of high explosive ; it is not intended for piercing armour but for producing a powerful explosion on the armoured deck of a War- ship. The compression, and consequent generation of heat on discharge of the charge in these long shell, render them liable to premature explosion if fired with high velocities. Some inventors have, therefore, sought to overcome this by dividing the shell transversely into compartments and so making each portion of the charge comparatively short. Cast-steel common shell (fig. 6) are cast in sand moulds head downwards from steel of the required composition to give the proper tenacity. A large head, which is subsequently removed, is cast on the base to give solidity and soundness to the castings. The castings are annealed by placing them in a furnace or oven until red hot, then allowing them to cool gradually. The process of casting is very similar to that for the old cast- iron commonshell, which, however, Were cast base downwards. The Steel cast- ings after being annealed are dressed and carefully examined for defects. The exterior of the body is generally ground by an emery wheel or turned in a lathe; the groove for the driving band is also turned and the fuze hole Driving Band fitted with a gun-metal bush. Forged- - Bast Plug steel common shell are made from solid steel billets. These are heated to red- ness and shaped by a series of punches which force the heated metal through steel dies by hydraulic pressure. If the shell is intended for a nose fuze the base end is shaped by the press and the head subsequently formed by a properly shaped die, Fig. 6. — Pointed Com- mon Shell (cast steel). Fig. 7. — Lyddite Shell (forged steel). or, in the case of stnaE shell, the head can, when red hot, be spun up in a lathe by a properly formed tool. For a base fuze shell the head is produced by the punches and dies, and the base is subsequently formed by pressing in the metal to the desired shape. The shell is then completed as described above. High-explosive shell (fig. 7), as used in the English service, are simply forged-steel common shell filled with lyddite and having a special nose fuze and exploder. The base end of lyddite shell is made solid to prevent the possibility of the gas pressure in the gun producing a premature explosion. In filling the shell great precautions are necessary to prevent the melted lyddite (picric acid) from coming in contact with certain materials such as combinations of lead, soda, &c, which produce sensitive picrates. The shell are consequently painted externally with a special non-lead paint and lacquered inside with special lacquer. The picric acid is melted in an oven, the temperature being carefully limited. The melted material is .poured into the shell by means of a bronze funnel, which also forms the space for the exploder of picric powder. On cooling, the material solidifies into a dense, hard mass (density 1 -6), in which state it is called lyddite. The fuze on striking ignites the exploder and in turn the lyddite. When properly detonated a dense black smoke is produced and the projectile is broken up into small pieces, some of which are almost of the fineness of grains of sand. The radius of the explosion is about 25 yds., but the local effect is intense, and hence on light structures in a confined space the destruction is complete. The shell is only of use against thin plates; against modern armour it is ineffective. When detonation has not been complete, as sometimes happens with small shells, the smoke is yellowish and the pieces of the exploded shell are as large as when a powder burster is used. The French high-explosive shell obus torpille or obus & melinite was adopted in 1886. The melinite was originally filled into the ordinary cast-iron common shell (obus ordinaire) with thick walls, but soon afterwards a forged-steel thin-walled shell (obus allonge) was introduced. To explode the shell a steel receptacle (called a gaine) is screwed into the nose of the shell. It is filled with explosive and fitted with a detonator which is exploded by a percussion fuze. Except for the means adopted to ensure detonation this shell is practically the same as the lyddite shell. Picric acid in some form or other is used in nearly all countries for filling high-explosive shell. In some the explosive is melted and poured into cardboard cases instead of being poured directly into the shell. The cases are placed in the shell either by the head of the shell unscrewing from the body or by a removable base plug. The French melinite and the Italian pertite are believed to be forms of picric acid. Russia and the United States use com- pressed wet gun-cotton (density 1-2) as the charge for their high- explosive shell. The gun-cotton is packed in a thin zinc or copper case and is placed in the shell either by the head or base of the shell being removable. The gun-cotton is detonated by a power- ful exploder, the form of which differs in each country. Ammonal is also used in high-explosive shell, but owing to its light density it is not in great favour. For field-gun and other small high- explosive shells, ordinary smokeless powder is often used. Double shell is a term given to a common shell which was made abnormally long, so as to receive a large bursting charge. They were intended to be fired with a reduced charge at short range. They are now practically obsolete; their place with modern B.L. guns has been taken by high-explosive shell. Star shell are intended for illuminating the enemy's position. They are very Similar to shrapnel shell, composition stars made up in cylindricaJ paper cases taking the place of the bullets. The shell on bursting, AMMUNITION 869 blows off the head and scatters the ignited stars. This shell is only supplied to mountain guns and howitzers, and takes the place of the older types of illuminating shell, viz. the ground light ball and the parachute light ball. Hand grenades were used at the assault of entrenchments or in boat attacks. Although generally regarded as obsolete, they were much used by the Japanese at the siege of Port Arthur, 1904. In the British service they were small, thin, spherical common shell weighing 3 lb for land service and 6 H> for sea service, filled with powder. They were fitted with a small wood time fuze to burn 7-5 seconds. The grenade was held in the hand and H The vent-sealing tube accurately fits into a chamber formed at the end of the vent, and is held in place by the gun lock or some similar means. The force of the explosion expands the tube against the walls of its chamber, while the internal structure of the tube renders it gas-tight, any escape of gas through the vent being thus prevented. In the English service electric tubes (in the United States called " primers ") are mostly used, but percussion or friction tubes are in most favour on the continent, and electric tubes are seldom or never used. There are two types of electric tube, one with long wires (fig. 16) for join- ing up with the electric circuit 73 .Contact 1 disc 4: _ _ Insulated Wire Brass Body — Ebonite Insulation Brass Cone . Composition Priming . . . P/atmum Sr'trer Sridga WSSg, taper Disc . . Powcfer ,4j - . Copper Pole m\...CorA/°/ug Fig. 17. — Wireless Tube. and the other without external wires. The first type has two insu- lated wires led into the interior and attached to two insulated 872 AMMUNITION Brass Washer .. . . Brass Body BrassStriker . Percussion Cap . Antii ...Cork Plug Fig. 18. — Primer. brass cones which are connected by a wire " bridge " of platinum silver. This bridge is surrounded by a priming composition of gun- cotton dust and mealed powder and the remainder of the tube is filled with powder. On an electric current passing, the bridge is heated to incandescence and ignites the priming composition. In the wireless tube (fig. 17) the lock of the gun makes the electric contact with an insulated disc in 'the head of the tube. This disc is connected by an insulated wire to a brass cone, also insulated, the bridge being formed from an edge of the cone to a brass wire which is soldered to the mouth of the tube. Priming composition surrounds the bridge and the tube is filled with powder. The electric circuit passes 'from the gun lock to the disc, thence through the bridge to the body of the tube, returning through the metal of the gun and mounting. The percussion tube (fig. 18) has a similarly shaped body to the wire- less electric tube, but the internal construction differs; it is fitted with a striker, below which is a percussion cap on a hollow brass anvil, and the tube is filled with powder. With Q.F. guns (that is, strictly, . Fine Grsin Powder those using metallic cartridge cases) the case itself is fitted with the igniting medium ; in England these are called primers. For small guns the case contains a percussion primer, usually a copper cap filled with a chlorate mixture and resting against an anvil. The striker of the gun strikes the cap and fires the mixture. For larger guns an electric primer (fig. 19) is used, the internal construction and action of which are precisely similar to the wireless tube already described; the exterior is screwed for the case. For percussion ^.Waterproof Cement ^e Glaze board Disc Gun-cotton Oust "*" and Heeled Powder, ^Platinum silver wire ** Tart of gun-cotton yarn .impure tin -» Crown metal poh ^m Brass screw collar ^Ebonite washer -* Oiled Silk 4T. Brass Cone nBUck Thread -m Copper wihe insulated with silk, bared at end with one turn in head ■mfbonite ctyn screwed •* White metal contact Section FutJ Size Fig. 19. — Electric Primer. firing an ordinary percussion tube is placed in an adapter screwed into the case. In some foreign services a combined electric and percussion primer is used; the action of this will be understood from fig. 20. The first cartridges for cannon were made up of gunpowder packed in a paper bag or case. For many years after the intro- duction of cannon the powder was introduced into the bore by means of a scoop-shaped ladle fixed to the end of a long stave. The ladle was made of the same diameter as the shot, and it had a definite length so that it was filled once for the charging of small guns but for larger guns the ladle had to be filled twice or even thrice. The rule was to make the powder charge the same weight as that of the shot. Cartridges made up in paper or canvas bags were after- Car* fridges. wards used in forts at night-time or on board ship, so that the guns could be more rapidly loaded and with less risk than by using a ladle. Before loading, a piece of the paper or canvas covering had to be cut open immediately under the vent; after the shot had been rammed home the vent was filled with — Magazine _. Platinum Wire Insulation Percussion Cap — Anvil Fig. 20. — Combined Primer. powder from a priming horn, and the gun was then fired by means of a hot iron, quick match or port-fire. The ancient breech-loading guns were not so difficult to load, as the powder chamber of the gun was removable and was charged by simply filling it up with powder and ramming a wad on top to prevent the escape of the powder. Paper, canvas and similar materials are particularly liable to smoulder after the gun has been fired, hence the necessity of well sponging the piece. Even with thia precaution accidents often occurred owing tc a cartridge being ignited by the still glowing debris of the previous round. In order to prevent this, bags of non-smouldering material, such as flannel, serge or silk cloth are used; combustible material such as woven gun-cotton cloth has also been tried, but there are certain disadvantages attending this. All smokeless powders are somewhat difficult to ignite in a gun, so that in order to prevent hang-fires every cartridge has a primer or igniter, of ordinary fine grain gunpowder, placed so as to intercept the flash from the tube; the outside of the bag con- taining this igniter is made of shalloon, to allow the flash to pene- trate with ease. The charge for heavy guns (above 6 in.) is made up in separate cartridges containing half and quarter charges, both for convenience of handling, and to allow of a reduced charge being used. The cartridges are made of a bundle of cordite, or other smoke- less powder, tightly tied with silk, placed in a silk cloth bag with the primer or igniter stitched on the unclosed end; the exterior is taped with silk cloth tape so as to form a stiff cartridge. For ]Hillboard Disc "I steeped in Shellac - Silk cloth attached to millboard disc — 1 Primer stitched across in 4 places Plan ot Top shewing disc to be lorn ofr 'Silk braid becket Fig. 21. — 10-inch B.L. Gun Cartridge. some of the longer guns, the exterior of the cartridge is conven- iently rnade of a coned shape, the coned form being produced by building Up layers outside a cylindrical core. In these large cartridges a silk cord becket runs up the centre with a loop at the top for handling (fig. 21). AMMUNITION 873 For howitzers, variable charges are used, and are made up so that the weight can be readily altered. The following typical instance (fig. 22) will serve to show the general method of making .2 OE . _ _ ring of cordite covered with shalloon ^_^ Shalloon dh. RFC' Powder v 1 0! r i n g f cordite round bundle Fig. 22. — 6-inch B.L. Howitzer Cartridge. up such charges, whether for B.L. or Q.F. howitzers. Small size cordite is used, and the charge is formed of a mushroom-shaped core, made up in a shalloon bag; on the stalk, so as to be easily removed, three rings of cordite are placed. The bottom of the core contains the primer, and the rings can be attached to the core by two silk braids. The weight of the rings is graduated so that by detaching one or more the varying charges required can be obtained. For quick-firing guns the charge is contained in a brass case to which is fitted a primer for igniting the charge. This case is -Sleet Sk»H-— .Driving Band 1 J \ „. C'P \ Sor/no \ Pellet'of '< Lead Body Hokhklss Base Puts MarkJY Brass Case- — ^Bursting Chans 4 01 Powder AHotchkiss fuze III. \I2 Threads per ' inch left hand ■Paper wad Cordite .* Silk twist [Silk Mst for " {securing primer \to bottdm of cordite > Igniter or 'Primer Sech on Fig. 23. — 6-pr. Q.F. Cartridge. "" Percussion Cap inserted into the gun, and when fired slightly expands and tightly fits the chamber of the gun, thus acting as an obturator and preventing any escape of gas from the breech. This class of ammunition is especially useful for the smaller calibres of guns, such as 3-pr., 6-pr. and field guns, but Messrs Krupp also employ metallic cartridge cases for the largest type of _ Lubricatinq Lid * --Felt Wad 3 Silk Braids gun, probably on account of the known difficulty of ensuring trustworthy obturation by any other means practicable with sliding wedge guns. The charges for these cases are made up in a very similar manner to those already de- scribed for B.L. guns. Where necessary, distance . pieces formed of papier-mdcM tubes and felt wads are used to fill up the space in the case and so prevent any move- ment of the charge. The mouth of the case is closed either by the base end of the projectile (fig. 23), in which case it is called " fixed ammunition " or " simultane- ous loading ammunition," or by a metallic cap (fig. 24), when it is called " separate loading ammunition," the projectile and charge being . Brass Case —..SUA: Braid '•"Cordite Charqe SI6./OZ.. Sizi 20 Cordite Cylinder .... Powder Igniter '•••Shalloon Bag ■■■• Electric Primer Fig. 24. — 4-7-inch Q.F. Cartridge (greatly reduced scale). thus loaded by separate operations. (A. G. H.) The Bullet. — The original musket bullet was a spherical leaden ball two sizes smaller than the bore, wrapped in a loosely fitting paper patch which formed the cartridge. The loading was, therefore, easy with the old smooth-bore Brown J^ s ' am . Bess and similar military muskets. The original munition. muzzle-loading rifle, on the other hand, with a closely fitting ball to take the grooves, was loaded with difficulty, particu- larly when foul, and for this reason was not generally used for military purposes. In 1826 Delirque, a French infantry officer, invented a breech with abrupt shoulders on which the spherical bullet was rammed down until it expanded and filled the grooves. The objection in this case was that the deformed bullet had an erratic flight. The Brunswick rifle, introduced into the British army in the reign of William IV., fired a spherical bullet weighing 557 grs. with a belt to fit the grooves. The rifle was not easily loaded, and soon fouled. In 1835 W. Greener produced a new expansive bullet, an oval ball, a diameter and a half in length, with a flat end, perforated, in which a cast metallic taper plug was inserted. The explosion of the charge drove the plug home, expanded the bullet, filled the grooves and prevented windage. A trial of the Greener bullet in August 1835, at Tynemouth, by a party of the 60th (now King's Royal) Rifles, proved successful. The rangeand accuracy of the rifle were retained, while the loading proved as easy as with a smooth-bore musket. The invention was, however, rejected by the military authorities on the ground that the bullet was a compound one. In 1852 the government awarded Minie, a Frenchman, £20,000 for a bullet of the same principle, adopted into the British service. Subsequently, in 1857, Greener was also awarded £1000 for " the first public suggestion of the principle of expansion, commonly called the Minie principle, in 1836." The Minie bullet contained an iron cup in a cavity in the base of the bullet. The form of the bullet was subsequently changed from conoidal to cylindro-conoidal, with a hemispherical iron cup. This bullet was used in the Enfield rifle introduced into the British army in 1855. It weighed 530 grs., and was made up into cartridges and lubricated as for the Minie rifle. A boxwood plug to the bullet was also used. The bullet used in the breech-loading Martini-Henry rifle, adopted by the British government in 187 1 in succession to the Snider-Enfield rifle, weighed 480 grs., and was fired from an Eley-Boxer cartridge- case with a wad of wax lubrication at the base of the bullet. Between 1854 and 1857 Sir Joseph Whitworth conducted a long series of rifle experiments, and proved, among other points, the advantages of a smaller bore and, in particular, of an elongated bullet. The Whitworth bullet was made to fit the grooves of the rifle mechanically. The Whitworth rifle was never adopted by the government, although it was used extensively for match purposes and target practice between 1857 and 1866, when 87 74 AMMUNITION it was gradually superseded by Metford's system mentioned below. The next important change in the history of the rifle bullet occurred in 1883, when Major Rubin, director of the Swiss Laboratory at Thun, invented the small-calibre rifle, one of whose essential features was the employment of an elongated compound bullet, with a leaden core in a copper envelope. About 1862 and later, W. E. Metford had carried out an ex- haustive series of experiments on bullets and rifling, and had invented the important system of light rifling with increasing spiral, and a hardened bullet. The combined result of the above inventions was that in December 1888 the Lee-Metford small-bore •303 rifle, Mark I., was finally adopted for the British army. The latest development of this rifle is now known as the -303 Lee- Enfield, which fires a long, thin, nickel-covered, leaden-cored bullet 1-25 in. long, weighing only 215 grs., while the Martini- Henry bullet, 1-27 in. in length and -45 in. in diameter, weighed 480 grs. The adoption of the smaller elongated bullet, necessitated by the smaller calibre of the rifle, entailed some definite disad- vantages. The lighter bullet is more affected by wind. Its greater relative length to diameter necessitates a sharper pitch of rifling in order properly to revolve the bullet (one turn in 10 in. for the -303 rifle as compared with one turn in 22 in. for the Martini-Henry). This, in its turn, necessitates a hard nickel envelope for the leaden bullet in order to prevent its " stripping," or being forced through the barrel without rotation. The general result is that, while the enveloped bullet has a much higher penetrative power than one of lead only, it does not usually inflict so severe a wound, nor has it such a stunning effect as the old lead bullet. It cuts a small clean hole, but does not deform. This fact is of some military importance, as, for example, in warfare with savages, in which the chief danger is usually a rush of large numbers at close quarters. The advantages, however, of the smaller calibre and the lighter bullet and ammunition are considered to outweigh the disadvantages, and they have been universally adopted for all military rifles. Bullets for target and sporting-rifles have, in the main, followed, or occasionally preceded, the line of progress of military rifle bullets. In 1861 Henry introduced a modification of the grooving of the cylindrical Whitworth bullet, and in 1864 and 1865 the Rigby mechanically fitting bullet was used with success at the National Rifle Association meeting, and in the second stage of the Queen's prize. The bullets of sporting rifles, and particu- larly those of Express rifles, are often lighter than military bullets, and made with hollow points to ensure the expansion of the projectile on or after impact. The size and shape of the hollow in the point vary according to the purpose required and the nature of the game hunted. If greater penetration is needed, the leaden bullet is hardened with mercury or tin, or the military nickel-coated bullet is used with the small-bore, smokeless- powder rifles. Explosive bullets filled with detonating powder were at one time used in Express and large-bore rifles for large game. The use of these bullets is now practically abandoned owing to their uncertainty of action and the danger involved in handling them. Their use in warfare is prohibited by inter- national law. The nickel-covered bullet, when used in a modern small-bore rifle for sporting purposes, is made into an expanding bullet, either by leaving the leaden core uncovered at the nose of the bullet, with or without a hollow point, or by cutting transverse or longitudinal nicks of varying depth in the point or circumfer- ence of the bullet. A cone-shaped sharp-pointed bullet, named the Spitzer bullet, has been tried in the United States under the auspices of the Ordnance Department, in a Springfield rifle, which is practically identical with the British service -303 Lee-Enfield. This bullet is lighter than the Lee-Enfield bullet (150 grs. as against 215 grs.), and when fired with a heavier charge of powder (51 grs, as against 31 grs.) gives, it is claimed, better results in muzzle-velocity, trajectory, deflexion from wind and wear and tear of rifling, than the present universally used cylinder-shaped bullet. In 1906 details of its prototype, the German " S " bullet (Spitzgesckoss) , and of the French " D " bullet, were published. The Cartridge. — The original cartridge for military small arms dates from 1 586. It consisted of a charge of powder and a bullet in a paper envelope. This cartridge was used with the muzzle- loading military firearm, the base of the cartridge being ripped or bitten off by the soldier, the powder poured into the barrel, and the bullet then rammed home. Before the invention of the fire- lock or flint-lock, about 1635, the priming was originally put into the pan of the wheel-lock and snaphance muskets from a flask containing a fine-grained powder called serpentine powder. Later the pan was filled from the cartridge above described before loading. The mechanism of the flint-lock musket, in which the r\ r\ t rv "* 0-31l"> British .303 ballet « 0-322 J- German "S"bulle< 3t -<- -.4se" --> Lee Metford •303 in. 440 •*■ Rumanian •SS56 in. 3* Fig. 25. pan was covered by the furrowed steel struck by the flint, rendered this method of priming unnecessary, as, in loading, a portion of the charge of powder passed from the barrel through the vent into the pan, where it was held by the cover and hammer. The next important advance in the method of ignition was the introduction of the copper percussion cap. This was only gener- ally applied to the British military musket (the Brown Bess) in 1842, a quarter of a century after the invention of percussion powder and after an elaborate government test at Woolwich in 1834. The invention which made the percussion cap possible was patented by the Rev. A. J. Forsyth in 1807, and consisted of priming with a fulminating powder made of chlorate of potash, sulphur and charcoal, which exploded by concussion. This invention was gradually developed, and used, first in a steel cap, and then in a copper cap, by various gunmakers and private individuals before coming into general military use nearly thirty years later. The alteration of the military flint-lock to the per- cussion musket was easily accomplished by replacing the powder pan by a perforated nipple, and by replacing the cock or hammer which held the flint by a smaller hammer with a hollow to fit on the nipple when released by the trigger. On the nipple was placed the copper cap containing the detonating composition, now made of three parts of chlorate of potash, two of fulminate of mercury and one of powdered glass. The detonating cap thus invented and adopted, brought about the invention of the modern cartridge case, and rendered possible the general adop- tion of the breech-loading principle for all varieties of rifles, shot guns and pistols. Probably no invention connected with fire- arms has wrought such changes in the principle of gun construc- tion as those effected by the expansive cartridge case. This invention has completely revolutionized the art of gunmaking, AMNESTY— AMOEBA 875 has been successfully applied to all descriptions of firearms, and has produced a new and important industry— that of cartridge manufacture. Its essential feature is the prevention of all escape of gas at the breech when the weapon is fired, by means of an expansive cartridge case containing its own means of ignition. Previous to this invention shot guns and sporting rifles were loaded by means of powder flasks and shot flasks, bullets, wads and copper caps, all carried separately. The earliest efficient modern cartridge case was the pin-fire, patented, according to some authorities, by Houiller, a Paris gunsmith, in 1847; and, according to others, by Lefaucheux, also a Paris gunsmith, in or about 1850. It consisted of thin weak shell made of brass and paper which expanded by the force of the explosion, fitted perfectly into the barrel, and thus formed an efficient gas check. A small percussion cap was placed in the middle of the base of the cartridge, and was exploded by means of a brass pin projecting from the side and struck by the hammer. This pin also afforded the means of extracting the cartridge case. This cartridge was introduced in England by Lang, of Cockspur Street, London, about 1855. The central-fire cartridge was introduced into England in 1861 by Daw. It is said to have been the invention of Pottet of Paris, improved upon by Schneider, and gave rise to much litigation in respect of its patent rights. Daw was subsequently defeated in his control of the patents by Eley Bros. In this cartridge the cap in the centre of .the cartridge base is detonated by a striker passing through the standing breech to the inner face, the cartridge case being withdrawn, or, in the most modern weapons, ejected by a sliding extractor fitted to the breech end of the barrel, which catches the rim of the base of the cartridge. This is practically the modern cartridge case now in universal use. In the case of shot guns it has been gradually inproved in small details. The cases are made either of paper of various qualities with brass bases, or entirely of thin brass. The wadding between powder and shot has been thickened and improved in quality; and the end of the cartridge case is now made to fit more perfectly into the breech chamber. These cartridges vary in size from 32 bore up to 4 bore for shoulder guns. They are also made as small as -410 and -360 gauge: their length varies from if in. to 4 in. Cartridges for punt guns are usually i\ in. in diameter and 9J in. in length. In the case of military rifles the breech-loading cartridge case was first adopted in principle by the Prussians about 1841 in the needle-gun (q.v.) breech-loader. In this a conical bullet rested on a thick wad, behind which was the powder, the whole being enclosed in strong lubricated paper. The detonator was in the hinder surface oi the wad, and fired by a needle driven forward from the breech, through the base of tht cartridge and through the powder, by the action of a spiral spring set free by the pulling of the trigger. In 1867 the British war office adopted the Eley-Boxer metallic central-fire cartridge case in the Enfield rifles, which were converted to breech-loaders on the Snider principle. This con- sisted of a block opening on a hinge, thus forming a false breech against which the cartridge rested. The detonating cap was in the base of the cartridge, and was exploded by a striker passing through the breech block. Other European powers adopted breech-loading military rifles from 1866 to 1868, with paper instead of metallic cartridge cases. The original Eley-Boxer cartridge case was made of thin coiled brass. Later the solid- drawn, central-fire cartridge case, made of one entire solid piece of tough hard metal, an alloy of copper, &c, with a solid head of thicker metal, has been generally substituted. Central-fire cartridges with solid-drawn metallic cases contain- ing their own means of ignition are now universally used in all modern varieties of military and sporting rifles and pistols. There is great variety in the length and diameter of cartridges for the different kinds and calibres of rifles and pistols. Those for military rifles vary from 2-2 in. to 2-25 in. in length, and from ■256 to -315 gauge. For sporting rifles from 2j in. to 3 J in. in length, and through numerous gauges from -256 in. to -6oo in. For revolvers, pistols, rook and rabbit rifles, and for Morris tubes, cartridges vary from -22 in. to -301 in. in gauge. All miniature cartridges with light charges are made for breech adapters to enable -303 military rifles to be used on miniature rifle ranges. All the above cartridges are central-fire. Rim-fire cartridges for rifles, revolvers and pistols vary from -22 in. to -56 in. gauge according to the weapon for which they are required. The cartridge for the British war office miniature rifle is -22 calibre, with 5 grs. of powder and a bullet weighing 40 grs. Most modern military rifles are supplied with clip or charger loading arrangements, whereby the magazine is filled with the required number of cartridges in one motion. A clip is simply a case of cartridges which is dropped into the magazine; a charger is a strip of metal holding the bases of the cartridges, and is placed over the magazine, the cartridges being pressed out into the latter. Both clips and chargers, being consumable stores, may be considered as ammunition. (H. S.-K.) AMNESTY (from the Gr. anvqcrria, oblivion), an act of grace by which the supreme power in a state restores those who may have been guilty of any offence against it to the position of innocent persons. It includes more than pardon, inasmuch as it obliterates all legal remembrance of the offence. Amnesties, which may be granted by the crown alone, or by act of parliament, were formerly usual on coronations and similar occasions, but are chiefly exercised towards associations of political criminals, and are sometimes granted absolutely, though more frequently there are certain specified exceptions. Thus, in the case of the earliest recorded amnesty, that of Thrasybulus at Athens, the thirty tyrants and a few others were expressly excluded from its operation; and the amnesty proclaimed on the restoration of Charles II. did not extend to those who had taken part in the execution of his father. Other celebrated amnesties are that proclaimed by Napoleon on the 13th of March 1815, from which thirteen eminent persons, including Talleyrand, were excepted; the Prussian amnesty of the 10th of August 1840; the general amnesty proclaimed by the emperor Francis Joseph of Austria in 1857; the general amnesty granted by President Johnson after the Civil War in 1868; and the French amnesty of 1905. The last act of amnesty passed in Great Britain was that of 1747, which proclaimed a pardon to those who had taken part in the second Jacobite rebellion. AMOEBA, the Greek equivalent of the name " Amibe " given by Bery St Vincent to the Proteus animalcule of earlier natural- ists, used as a quasi-popular term for any simple naked protist the sole external organs of which are pseudopodia, i.e. temporary outgrowths of the clearer outer layer of the soft protoplasmic body. It is also used as a generic name, and in its present limitations by E. Penard includes only those the pseudopodia of which are constantly changing, blunt outgrowths. In the former wider sense, amoebae are found in sluggish waters, fresh and salt, all over the world; they readily make their appearance in infusions putrefying after infection from aerially carried germs, and the leucocytes or colourless blood corpuscles of Metazoa are essentially amoebae in their structure and behaviour. The protoplasm of the individual is divided into a centrally placed body, the nucleus, of relatively stable shape, and the cytoplasm, itself divided into an outer, clearer ectoplasm (" ectosarc ") and an inner, more granular endoplasm (" endosarc "), passing into one another. The movements of amoebae are of several kinds. (1) The amoeba may grow out irregularly into blunt lobes, the pseudopodia, some being emitted while others are retracted, and so may advance in any direction by the emission of pseudopodia thitherward, and the enlargement of these by the passage of the organism into them. (2) Again, it may advance by a sort of rolling: the lower surface, or that in contact with the sub- stratum over or under which it is passing, is viscid and adheres to the substratum, the superficial dorsal layer passing forward and bending over to the ventral side; whilst the converse action takes place at the hinder end; (3) or again, the pseudopodia, when long, well marked and relatively permanent, may serve as actual limbs on which the body is supported and on which it moves. In the outgrowth of a pseudopod the process may take 876 AMOL— AMORT place gradually, the ectoplasm growing as it stretches, or it may take place by the limiting layer of the ectosarc bursting, as it were, and a rounded prominence of the endosarc protruding and at once forming a new " skin " or pellicle. This last mode, termed " eruptive," is common in the case of the enormous, multinucleate amoeba termed Pelomyxa palustris, which attains a diameter when contracted and spherical of as much as a line (over 2 mm.). From the ease with which amoebae are obtained and kept alive under the microscope, as well as from their identity in structure with the primitive elements of Metazoa, they have always been favourite objects of study for protoplasmic physi- ology under its simplest conditions. Among the investigators of protoplasmic movements we may cite F, Dujardin, O. Biitschli, L. Rhumbler and H. S. Jennings. The opening to the exterior of the contractile vesicle has been found here. Pelomyxa has yielded to A. E. Dixon and M. Hartog a peptic ferment, such as has been extracted by C. F. W. Krukenbergfromthe Myxomycete Fidigo (Flowers of Tan), which is the largest known naked mass of protoplasm without cellular differentiation. Amoeba shows also the multiplication by fission, so character- istic of the cell: for the study of other modes of reproduction, spore formation and syngarrtic (or so-called fertilization) pro- cesses, fresh-water or salt-water amoebae are ill suited, and up to this date we do not know the life cycle of any free-living naked amoeba, though that of some parasitic forms and shell-bearers have been fully made out. Some amoebae are certainly young states of Myxomycetes. Encystment, the excretion of a mem- brane around the cell to tide over unfavourable circumstances, has been noted in almost all species. Amoeba colt and A. histolytica are parasites in the gut of man, the former relatively harmless, the latter the cause of severe dysentery and hepatic abscess, common in India. H. S. Jennings has recently made a full study of the move- ments of Amoeba, and of its general behaviour, and found therein many indications that these are on the whole such as we should expect of an organism working by " trial and error " rather than the uniform modes of non-living beings. Thus the operations of an amoeba ingesting a round, encysted Euglena are summed up thus: " One seems to see that the amoeba is trying to obtain this cyst for food, that it shows remarkable pertinacity in continuing its attempts to put forth efforts to accomplish this in various ways, and that it shows remarkable pertinacity in continuing its attempts to ingest the food when it meets with difficulties. Indeed the scene could : be described in a much more vivid and interesting way by the use of terms still more anthropomorphic in tendency." (M. Ha.) AMOL, or Amul, a town of Persia, in the province of Mazan- daran, 23 m. W. of Barfurush, in 36° 28' N. Lat. and 52° 23' E. long Pop. about 10,000. It is situated on both banks of the Heraz, or Herhaz river, which is crossed here by a very narrow stone bridge of twelve arches and flows into the Caspian Sea 12 m. lower down. Amol is not walled and is now a place of little importance, but in and around it there are ruins and ancient buildings which bear witness to its former greatness. Of these the most conspicuous is the mausoleum of Seyed Kawam ud-din, king of Mazandaran, who died in 1379, and one old mosque dates from a.d. 793. The town has spacious and well-supplied bazaars and post and telegraph offices. AMONTONS, GUILLAUME (1663-1705), French experimental philosopher, the son of an advocate who had left his native province of Normandy and established himself at Paris, was born in that city on the 31st of August 1663. He devoted himself particularly to the improvement of instruments employed in physical experiments. In 1687 he presented to the Academy of Sciences an hygrometer of his own invention, and in 1695 he published his only book, Remarques el experiences physiques sur la construction d'une nouvelle clepsydre, sur les baromelres, les thermometres et les hygrometres. In 1699 he published some in- vestigations on friction, and in 1702-1703 two noteworthy papers on thermometry. He experimented with an air-thermometer, in which the temperature was defined by measurement of the length of a column of mercury; and he pointed out that the extreme cold of such a thermometer would be that which reduced the " spring " of the air to nothing, thus being the first to recognize that the use of air as a thermometric substance led to the inference of the existence of a zero of temperature. In 1704 he noted that barometers are affected by heat as well as by the weight of the atmosphere, and in the following year he described barometers without mercury, for use at sea. Amontons, who through disease was rendered almost completely deaf in early youth, died at Paris on the nth of October 1705. 'AMORA (Hebrew for "speaker" or " discourser "), a title applied to the rabbis of the 2nd to 5th centuries, i.e. to the com- pilers of the Talmud. Each tana — or rabbi of the earlier period — had a spokesman, who repeated to large audiences the discourses of the tana. But the 'amora soon ceased to be a mere repeater, and developed into an original expounder of scripture and tradition. AMORITES, the name given by the Israelites to the earlier inhabitants of Palestine. They are regarded as a powerful people, giants in stature "like the height of the cedars," who had occupied the land east and west of the Jordan. The Biblical usage appears to show that the terms " Canaanites " and " Amorites " were used synonymously, the former being char- acteristic of Judaean, the latter of Ephraimite and Deuteronomic writers. A distinction is sometimes maintained, however, when the Amorites are spoken of as the people of the past, whereas the Canaanites are referred to as still surviving. The old name is an ethnic term, evidently to be connected with the terms Amurru and Amar, used by Assyria and Egypt respectively. In the spelling Mar-tu, the name is as oldasthefirstBabyloniandynasty, but from the 15th century B.C. and downwards its syllabic equivalent Amurru is applied primarily to the land extending northwards of Palestine as far as Kadesh on the Orontes. The term " Canaan," on the other hand, is confined more especially to the southern district (from Gebal to the south of Palestine). But it is possible that the terms at an early date were inter- changeable, Canaan being geographical and Amorite ethnical. The wider extension of the use of Amurru by the Babylonians and Assyrians is complicated by the fact that it was even applied to a district in the neighbourhood of Babylonia. If the people of the first Babylonian dynasty (about 21st century B.C.) called them- selves " Amorites," as Ranke seems to have shown, it is possible that some feeling of common origin was recognized at that early date. See Ranke, Bab. Exped. Pennsylvania, series D, iii. 33 sqq. ; and for general information, W. M.Miiiier,Asienu.Europa,2i^sqq. ; Pinches, Old Testament, Index (s.v.). The people of Amar are represented on the Egyptian monuments with yellow skin, blue eyes, red eyebrows and beard, whence it has been conjectured that they were akin to the Libyans (Sayce, Expositor, July 1888). Senir, the " Amorite " name of Hermon (Deut. iii. 9), appears to be identical with Saniru in the Lebanon, mentioned by Shalmaneser II. In the Old Testament the chief references may be classified as follows : — primitive inhabit- ants generally, Is. xvii. 9 (on text see comm.), Ezek. xvi. 3; a people W. of Jordan, Josh. x. 5; Judg. i. 34-36; Deut. i. 7, 44; Gen. xiv. 7, xlviii. 22; E. of Jordan, Num. xxi. 13, 21 sqq.; Josh. ii. 10, xxiv. 8; Judg. x. 8. See further Canaan, Palestine. AMORPHISM (from a, privative, and fiop-li, form), a term used in chemistry and mineralogy to denote the absence of regular or crystalline structure in a body; the adjective " amor- phous," formless or of irregular shape, being also used technically in biology, &c. AMORT, EUSEBIUS (1692-1775), German Catholic theologian, was born at Bibermuhle, near Tolz, in Upper Bavaria, on the 15th of November 1692. He studied at Munich, and at an early age joined the Canons Regular at Polling, where, shortly after his ordination in 1717, he taught theology and philosophy. In 1 733 he went to Rome as theologian to Cardinal Niccolo Maria Lercari (d. 1757). He returned to Polling in 1735 and devoted the rest of his life to the revival of learning in Bavaria. He died at Polling on the 5th of February 1775. Amort, who had the reputation of being the most learned man of his age, was a voluminous writer on every conceivable subject, from poetry to astronomy, from dogmatic theology to mysticism. His best known works are: a manual of theology in 4 vols., Theologia AMORTIZATION—AMOS 877 eclectica, moralis et sckolastica (Augsburg, 1752; revised by Benedict XIV. for the 1753 edition published at Bologna); a defence of Catholic doctrine, entitled Demonslratio critica religibnis Catholicae (Augsburg, 1751); a work on indulgences, which has of ten been criticized by Protestant writers, DeOrigine, Progressu, Valore, et Fructu Indulgentiorum (Augsburg, 1735); a treatise on mysticism, De Revelationibus et Visionibus, &c. (2 vols., 1744); and the astronomical work Nova philosophiae planetarum et artis criticae syslemata (Nuremberg, 1723). The list of his other works, including his three erudite contributions to the question of authorship of the Imitatio Christi, will be found in C. Toussaint's scholarly article in A. Vacant's Diet, de thtologie (1900, cols. 1115-1117). AMORTIZATION (derived through the French from Lat. ad, and mortem, to death) , literally an extinction or doing to death, a word formerly used of alienating lands in mortmain, and now for the paying off of a debt, particularly by means of a regular sinking-fund; thus "amortization" and "amortization fund" generally refer to the latter method of extinguishing some pecuniary liability. AMORY, THOMAS (c. 1691-1788), British author, was born about 1691, his father being the secretary for the forfeited estates in Ireland. He was an eccentric character and seems to have lived a very secluded life. He published Memoirs; containing the lives of several Ladies of Great Britain; a History of Antiquities 6* c - ( r 7SS) an d Life of John Bunch Esq. (1756 and 1766). Both books are an extraordinary mixture of fiction, autobiography, scenic description and theological discussion. Amory died on the 25th of November 1788. AMOS, in the Bible, an Israelitish prophet of the 8th century B.C. He was a native of Tekoa, i.e. as most suppose, a place which still bears the same name 6 m. S. of Bethlehem. He was a shepherd, or perhaps a sheep-breeder, but combined this occupation with that of a tender of sycomore figs. It is true, the Tekoa just mentioned lies too high for sycomores; so it has been almost too ingeniously supposed that Amos may have owned a plantation of sycomores in the hill country leading down to Philistia, techni- cally called the Shephelah (R. V '., " lowland "). Here there were sycomores in abundance (1 Kings x. 27). That this was his usual occupation we learn from a better source than the heading (i. 1), viz. a narrative (vii. 10, 17), evidently of early origin, which interrupts the series of prophetic visions on the fall of the kingdom of Israel. Amos, it appears, though himself a Judahite, had been prophesying in the northern kingdom, when his activity was brought to an abrupt close by the head priest of the royal sanctuary at Bethel, Amaziah, who bade him escape to the land of Judah and get his living there. The reply of Amos is full of instruction. "No prophet am I; no prophet's son am I; a shepherd am I, and one who tends sycomore-figs. And Yahweh took me from behind the flock; and Yahweh said to me, Go, prophesy against my people Israel." The following words show tha t a prophet in ancient Israel had the utmost freedom of speech. It was far otherwise in the period of the fall of Judah. (See Jeremiah.) But what had Amos said that appeared so dangerous to the head priest ? Amaziah summarizes it thus, " Jeroboam shall die by the sword, and Israel shall go away into captivity from his own land " (vii. n; cf. vii. 9b, v. 27, vi. 7). He omits all the reasons for this stern prophecy. The reasons are that the good old Israelitish virtue of brotherliness is dying away, that oppres- sion and injustice are rampant (ii. 6-8, iii. 9, 10, iv. 1, v. n, 12, viii. 4-6), and that rites are practised in the name of religion which are abhorrent to Yahweh, because they either have no moral meaning at all, and are mere forms (v. 21-23), or else, judged from Amos's purified point of view, are absolutely immoral (ii. 7; cf. viii. 14), On the details of the captivity Amos preserves a mysterious vagueness. The fact, however, he puts forward with the confidence of one who is intimate with his God (iii. 7), and most probably it was at some great festival that he spoke the words which so perturbed Amaziah. The priest may not indeed himself have believed them, but he probably feared their effect on the moral courage of the people. And it is perhaps not arbitrary to suppose that the splendour of the ritual in Amos's time implies a tremulous anxiety that Israel's seeming prosperity under Jeroboam II. (see Jews) may not be as secure as could be wished. For Amos cannot have been quite alone either in Israel or in Judah; there must have been a little flock of those who felt with Amos that there was small reason indeed to "desire the day of Yahweh" (v. 18; see Harper's note) . But why did Amos so emphatically decline to be called a prophet ? A prophet in some true sense he certainly was, a prophet who, within his own range, has not been surpassed. He means this — that he is no mere ecstatic enthusiast or " dervish," whose primary aim is to keep up the warlike spirit of the people, taking for granted that Yahweh is on the people's side, and that he is perfectly free from the taint of selfishness, not having to support himself by his prophesying. He could not indeed tell Amaziah this, but it is nevertheless true that he was the founder, or one of the founders, of a new type of prophet. He was also either the first, or one of the first, to write down, or to get written down, the substance of his spoken prophecies, and perhaps also prophecies which he never delivered at all. This was the consequence of his ill success as a public preacher. The other prophets of the same order may be presumed to have been hardly less unsuccessful. Hence the new phenomenon of written prophecies. The literary skill of Amos leads one to suppose that he had prepared in advance for this, perhaps we may say, not altogether unfortunate necessity. That there are many hard problems connected with the fascin- ating book of Amos cannot be denied. The one point on which we have indicated a doubt, viz. as to the situation of Tekoa, ought strictly to be accompanied by others. For instance, how came Amos to transfer himself to northern Israel ? How hard it must have been to obtain a footing there while he was a mere student and observer! And how came he by his wide knowledge of people outside the limits of Israel ? The most recent and elaborate commentator even calls him an " ethnologist." And lastly, whence came his mastery of the poetical and literary arts ? Is he really the Columbus of written prophecy ? And behind these questions is the fundamental problem of the text, which has been somewhat too slightly treated. The text of Hosea may be in a much worse condition, but a keen scrutiny discloses many an uncertainty, not to say impossibility, in the traditional form of Amos. That the text has been much adapted and altered is certain; not less obvious are the corruptions due to carelessness and accident. The main divisions of the book are plain, viz. chaps, i.-ii., chaps, iii.— vi., and chaps, vii.-ix. This arrangement, however, is probably not due to Amos himself, or to his immediate disciples, but to some later redactor. A number of passages seem to have been inserted subsequently to the time of Amos, on which see Ency. Bib., " Amos," and the introduction to Robertson Smith's Prophets of Israel ( 2 ), though in some cases the final decision will have to be preceded by a more thorough examination of the traditional text. The most obvious non-Amosian passage in the book is the concluding passage, ix. 8-15, which has evidently supplanted the original close of the section. The meaning of the phrase " the tabernacle (booth) of David that is fallen " (ver. n) is not perfectly clear. Beyond reasonable doubt, however, the writer seeks to take out the sting of the preceding passage in which Israel is devoted to utter destruction. The penitent and God-fearing Jews of the post-exilic age needed some softening appendix, and this the editor provided. English readers are now well supplied with books on Amos. Driver's Joel and Amos (see Joel) (1897) and G. A. Smith's Twelve Prophets, vol. i. (1896), supplement and illustrate each other. Harper's Amos and Hosea (see Hosea) (1905) gives the cream of all the good things that have been said before, with a generally sound judgment; it is addressed to advanced students, and is perhaps less cautious than the two former. The German commentaries on the Minor Prophets by Nowack (2nd ed., 1903) and (especially) Marti (1904) must not, however, be neglected. Wellhausen's briefer work (3rd ed., 1898) is especially suggestive for textual criticism. Cheyne's Critica Biblica (1904), cf. his review of Harper in Hibbert Journal, iii. 824 ff., breaks new ground. (T. K. C.) 8 7 8 AMOS— AMPERE AMOS, SHELDON (1835-1886), English jurist, was educated at Clare College, Cambridge, and was called to the bar as a member of the Middle Temple in 1862. In 1869 he was appointed to the chair of jurisprudence in University College, London, and in 1872 became reader under the council of legal education and examiner in constitutional law and history to the university of London. Failing health led to his resignation of those offices, and he took a voyage to the South Seas. He resided for a short time at Sydney, and finally settled in Egypt, where he practised as an advocate. After the bombardment of Alexandria, and the reorganization of the Egyptian judicature, he was appointed judge of the court of appeal, but being without any previous experience of administrative work he found the strain too great for his health. He came to England on leave in the autumn of 1885, and on his return to Egypt he died suddenly at Alexandria on the 3rd of January 1886. His principal publications are: Systematic View of the Science 0} Jurisprudence (1872); Lectures on International Law (1873); Science of Law (1874); Science of Politics (1883); History and Principles of the Civil Law of Rome as Aid to the Study of Scientific and Comparative Jurisprudence (1883), and numerous pamphlets. His wife, Mrs Sheldon Amos (Sarah Maclardie Bunting), took a prominent part in Liberal Nonconformist politics and in movements connected with the position of women. She died at Cairo on the 21st of January 1908. AMOY, a city and treaty-port in the province of Fuh-kien, China, situated on the slope of a hill, on the south coast of a small and barren island named Hiamen, in 24 28' N. and 118 10' E. It is a large and exceedingly dirty place, about 9 m. in circumference, and is divided into two portions, an inner and an outer town, which are separated from each other by a ridge of hills, on which a citadel of considerable strength has been built. Each of these divisions of the city possesses a large and com- modious harbour, that of the inner town, or city proper, being protected by strong fortifications. There are dry-docks and an excellent anchorage. Amoy may be regarded as the port of the inland city of Chang-chow, with which it has river communication, and its trade, both foreign and coastwise, is extensiveand valuable. The chief articles imported are sugar, rice, raw cotton and opium, as well as cotton cloths, iron goods and other European manu- factures. The chief exports are tea, porcelain and paper. The trade carried on by means of Chinese junks is said to be large, and the native merchants are considered to be among the wealthiest and most enterprising in China. By other vessels the trade in 1870 was: — imports, £1,915,427; exports, £1,440,000. In 1904 the figures were: — imports, £2,081,494; exports, £384,494. The falling off of exports is due to the decreased demand for China tea, for which Amoy was one of the chief centres. The native population is now estimated at 300,000, and the foreign residents number about 280. A large part of the trade is that carried on with the neighbouring Japanese island of Formosa. The province of Fuh-kien is claimed by the Japanese as their particular sphere of influence. Amoy was captured by the British in 1 84 1, after a determined resistance, and is one of the five ports that were opened to British commerce by the treaty of 1842; it is now open to the ships of all nations. AMPELIUS, LUCIUS, possibly a tutor or schoolmaster, and author of an extremely concise summary — a kind of index — of universal history (Liber Memorialis) from the earliest times to the reign of Trajan. Its object and scope are sufficiently indi- cated in the dedication to a certain Macrinus: " Since you desire to know everything, I have written this ' book of notes/ that you may learn of what the universe and its elements consist, what the world contains, and what the human race has done." It seems to have been intended as a text-book to be learnt by heart. The little work, in fifty chapters, gives a sketch of cosmo- graphy, geography, mythology (chaps, i.-x.), and history (chap, x.-end). The historical portion, dealing mainly with the republican period, is untrustworthy, and the text in many places corrupt; the earlier chapters are more valuable, and contain some interesting information. In chap. viii. (Miracula Mundi) occurs the only reference in an ancient writer to the famous sculptures of Pergamum, discovered in 1871, excavated in 1878, and now at Berlin: " At Pergamum there is a great marble altar, 40 ft. high, with colossal sculptures, representing a battle of the giants." Nothing is known of the author or of the date at which he lived: the times of Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, the beginning of the 3rd century, and the age of Diocletian and Constantine have all been suggested. The Macrinus to whom the work is dedicated may have been the emperor, who reigned 217-218, but the name is not uncommon, and it seems more likely that he was a young man with a thirst for universal know- ledge, which the Liber Memorialis was compiled to satisfy. There is no English edition or translation. The first edition of Ampelius was published in 1638 by Salmasius (Saumaise) from the Dijon MS., now lost, together with the Epitome of Florus; the latest edition is by Wolfflin (1854), based on Salmasius's copy of the lost codex. See Glaser, Rheinisches Museum, ii. (1843); Zink, Eos, ii. (1866); Wolfflin, De L. Ampelii Libro Memorials (1854). AMPELOPSIS (from Gr. ti/xxeXos , vine, and oipis, appear- ance, as it resembles the grape-vine in habit), a genus of the vine order Ampelideae and nearly allied to the grape-vine. The plants are rapidly-growing, hardy, ornamental climbers, which flourish in common garden soil, and are readily propagated by cuttings. They climb by means of tendrils. A . quinquefolia, Virginian creeper, a native of North America, introduced to Europe early in the 17th century, has palmately compound leaves with three to five leaflets. A . tricuspidata, better known as A. Veitchii, a more recent introduction (1868) from Japan, has smaller leaves very variable in shape; it clings readily to stone or brick work by means of suckers at the ends of the branched tendrils. AMPERE, ANDRE MARIE (1775-1836), French physicist, was born at Polemieux, near Lyons, on the 22nd of January 1775. He took a passionate delight in the pursuit of knowledge from his very infancy, and is reported to have worked out long arithmetical sums by means of pebbles and biscuit crumbs before he knew the figures. His father began to teach him Latin, bu}: ceased on discovering the boy's greater inclination and aptitude for mathematical studies. The young Ampere, however, soon resumed his Latin lessons, to enable him to master the works o^ Euler and Bernouilli. In later life he was accustomed to say tha.< he knew as much about mathematics when he was eighteen as ever he knew; but his reading embraced nearly the whole round of knowledge — history, travels, poetry, philosophy and the natural sciences. When Lyons was taken by the army of the Convention in 1793, the father of Ampere, who, holding the office oijuge de paix, had stood out resolutely against the previous revolutionary excesses, was at once thrown into prison, and soon after perished on the scaffold. This event produced a profound impression on his susceptible mind, and for more than a year he remained sunk in apathy. Then his interest was aroused by some letters on botany which fell into his hands, and from botany he turned to the study of the classic poets, and to the writing of verses himself. In 1796 he met Julie Carron, and an attachment sprang up between them, the progress of which he naively recorded ina journal (Amorum). In 1799 they were married. Fromabout 1796 Ampere gave private lessons at Lyons in mathematics, chemistry and languages; and in 1801 he removed to Bourg, as professor of physics and chemistry, leaving his ailing wife and infant son at Lyons. She died in 1804, and he never recovered from the blow. In the same year he was appointed professor of mathematics at the lycee of Lyons. His small treatise, Considera- tions sur la theorie mathematique dujeu, which demonstrated that the chances of play are decidedly against the habitual gambler, published in 1802, brought him under the notice of J. B. J. Delambre, whose recommendation obtained for him the Lyons appointment, and afterwards (1804) a subordinate position in the polytechnic school at Paris, where he was elected professor of mathematics in 1809. Here he continued to prosecute his scientific researches and his multifarious studies with unabated diligence. He was admitted a member of the Institute in 1814. It is on the service that he rendered to science in establishing the relations between electricity and magnetism, and in developing the AMPERE— AMPEREMETER 879 science of electromagnetism, or, as he called it, electrodynamics, that Ampere's fame mainly rests. On the nth of September 1820 he heard of H. C. Oersted's discovery that a magnetic needle is acted on by a voltaic current. On the 18th of the same month he presented a paper to the Academy, containing a far more complete exposition of that and kindred phenomena. (See Electrokinetics.) The whole field thus opened up he explored with characteristic industry and care, and developed a mathe- matical theory which not only explained the electromagnetic phenomena already observed but also predicted many new ones. His original memoirs on this subject may be found in the Ann. Chim. Phys. between 1820 and 1828. Late in life he prepared a remarkable Essai sur la philosophic des sciences. In addition, he wrote a number of scientific memoirs and papers, including two on the integration of partial differential equations (Jour. Ecole Polytechti. x., xi.). He died at Marseilles on the 10th of June 1836. The great amiability and childlike simplicity of Ampere's character are well brought out in his Journal et corre- spondance (Paris, 1872). AMPERE, JEAN JACQUES (1800-1864), French philologist and man of letters, only son of Andre Marie Ampere, was born at Lyons on the 12 th of August 1800. He studied the folk-songs and popular poetry of the Scandinavian countries in an extended tour in northern Europe. Returning to France, he delivered in 1830 a series of lectures on Scandinavian and early German poetry at the Athenaeum in Marseilles. The first of these was printed as De I'Histoire de la poesie (1830) , and was practically the first intro- duction of the French public to the Scandinavian and German epics. In Paris he taught at the Sorbonne, and became professor of the history of French literature at the College de France. A journey in northern Africa (1841) was followed by a tour in Greece and Italy, in company with Prosper Merim6e and others. This bore fruit in his Voyage dantesque (printed in his Grece, Rome et Dante, 1848), which did much to popularize the study of Dante in France. In 1848 he became a member of the French Academy, and in 1851 he visited America. From this time he was occupied with his chief work, L'Histoire romaine a Rome (4 vols., 1861-1864), until his death at Pau on the 27th of March 1864. The Correspondance et souvenirs (2 vols.) of A. M. and J. J. Ampere (1805-1854) was published in 1875. Notices of J. J. Ampere are to be found in Sainte-Beuve's Portraits litteraires, vol. iv., and Nouveaux Lundis, vol. xiii.; and in P. Merimee's Portraits his- toriques et litteraires (2nd ed., 1875). AMPEREMETER, or Ammeter, an instrument for the measurement of electric currents in terms of the unit called the ampere. (See Electrokinetics; Conduction, Electric; and Units, Physical.) Since electric currents may be either con- tinuous, i.e. unidirectional, or alternating, and the latter of high or of low frequency, amperemeters may first be divided into those (1) for continuous or direct currents, (2) for low frequency alternating currents, and (3) for high frequency alternating currents. A continuous electric current of one ampere is defined to be one which deposits electrolytically 0001 118 of a gramme of silver per second from a neutral solution of silver nitrate. 1 An alternating current of one ampere is defined to be one which produces the same heat in a second in a wire as the unit continu- ous current defined as above to be one ampere. These definitions provide a basis on which the calibration of amperemeters can be conducted. Amperemeters may then be classified according to the physical principle on which they are constructed. An electric current in a conductor is recognized by its ability (a) to create heat in a wire through which it passes, (b) to produce a magnetic field round the conductor or wire. The heat makes itself evident by raising the temperature and therefore elongating the wire, whilst the magnetic field creates mechanical forces which act on pieces of iron or other conductors conveying electric currents when placed in proximity to the conductor in question. Hence we may classify ammeters into (1) Thermal; (2) Electro- magnetic, and (3) Electrodynamic instruments. 1 See J. A.Fleming, A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room, vol. i. p. 341 (1901), also A. Gray, Absolute Measure- ments in Electricity arid Magnetism, vol. ii. pt. ii. p. 412 (1893). 1. Thermal Ammeters. — These instruments are also called hot-wire ammeters. In their simplest form they consist of a wire through which passes the current to be measured, some arrange- ment being provided for measuring the small expansion produced by the heat generated in the wire. This may consist simply in attaching one end of the wire to an index lever and the other to a fixed support, or the elongation of the wire may cause a rotation in a mirror from which a ray of light is reflected, and the move- ment of this ray over a scale will then provide the necessary means of indication. It is found most convenient to make use of the sag of the wire produced when it is stretched between two fixed points (KiK 2 , fig. 1) and then heated. To render the elonga- tion evident, another wire is attached to its centre \ t S2, this last having a thread fixed to its middle of which the other end is twisted round the shaft of an in- dex needle or in some way connected to it through a multiplying gear. The ex- pansion of the working wire when it is heated will then increase or create a sag in it owing to its increase in Fig. i.— Diagram showing the arrange- 1 ,v „ 1 ,!• ;„ „,„i f ; ments of Hartmann and Braun s Hot- length, and this is multi- wire Ammeter plied and rendered evi- dent by the movement of the index needle. In order that this may take place, the heated wire must be flexible and must therefore be a single fine wire or a bundle of fine wires. In ammeters for small currents it is customary to pass the whole current through the heating wire. In instruments for larger currents the main current passes through a metallic strip acting as a bye-pass or shunt, and to the ends of this shunt are attached the ends of the working wire. A known fraction of the current is then indicated and measured. This shunt is generally a strip of platinoid or constantm, and the working wire itself is of the same metal. There is therefore a certain ratio in which any current passing through the ammeter is divided between the shunt and the working wire. Thermal ammeters recommend themselves for the following reasons: — (1) the same instrument can be used for continuous- currents and for alternating currents of low frequency; (2) there is no temperature correction; (3) if used with alternating currents no correction is necessary for frequency, unless that frequency is very high. It is, however, requisite to make provision for the effect of changes in atmospheric temperature. This is done by mounting the working wire on a metal plate made of the same metal as the working wire itself; thus if the working wire is of platinoid it must be mounted on a platinoid bar, the supports which carry the ends of the working wire being insulated from- this bar by being bushed with ivory or porcelain. Then no changes of external temperature can affect the sag of the wire, and the only thing which can alter its length relatively to the supporting bar is the passage of a current through it. Hot-wire ammeters are, however, liable to a shift of zero, and means are always provided by some adjusting screw for slightly altering the sag of the wire and so adjusting the index needle to the zero of the scale. Hot-wire ammeters are open to the following objec- tions: — The scale divisions for equal increments of current are not equal in length, being generally much closer together in the lower parts of the scale. The reason is that the heat produced in a given time in a wire is proportional to the square Of the strength of the current passing through it, and hence the rate at which the heat is produced in the wire, and therefore its temperature, increases much faster than the current itself increases. From this it follows that hot-wire ammeters are generally not capable of giving visible indications below a certain minimum current for each instrument. The instrument therefore does not begin to read from zero current, but from some higher limit which, gener- ally speaking, is about one-tenth of the maximum, so that an ammeter reading up to 10 amperes will not give much visible 88o AMPEREMETER j_ J L__S' indication below i ampere. On the other hand, hot-wire instru- ments are very " dead-beat," that is to say, the needle does not move much for the small fluctuations in the current, and this quality is generally increased by affixing to the index needle a small copper plate which is made to move in a strong magnetic field (see fig. 2). Hot-wire instruments working on the sag principle can be used in> any position if properly constructed, and are very portable. In the construc- tion of such an instrument it is essential that the wire should be subjected to a process of preparation or " ageing," which consists in passing through it a fairly strong current, at least the maximum that it will ever have to carry, and starting and stopping this current frequently. The wire ought to be so ^ .. . , treated for many hours Fig. 2,-Hot-wire Ammeter. before k ig pkced ^ the instrument. It is also necessary to notice that shunt instruments cannot be used for high frequencies, as then the relative inductance of the shunt and wire becomes important and affects the ratio in which the current is divided, whereas for low frequency currents the inductance is unimportant. In con- structing a hot-wire instrument for the measurement of high frequency currents it is necessary to make the working wire of a number of fine wires placed in parallel and slightly separated from one another, and to pass the whole of the current to be measured through this strand. In certain forms, hot-wire instruments are well adapted for the measurement of very small alternating currents. One useful form has been made as follows: — Two fine wires of diameter not greater than -ooi in. are stretched parallel to one another and 2 or 3 mm. apart. At the middle of these parallel wires, which are preferably about 1 m. in length, rests a very light metallic bridge to which a mirror is attached, the mirror reflecting a ray of light from a lamp upon a screen. If a small alternating current is passed through one wire, it sags down, the mirror is tilted, and the spot of light on the screen is displaced. Changes of atmospheric temperature affect both wires equally and do not tilt the mirror. The instrument can be calibrated by a continuous current, Another form of hot-wire ammeter is a modification of the electric thermometer originally invented by Sir W. Snow Harris. It consists of a glass bulb, in which there is a loop of fine wire, and to the bulb is attached a U-tube in which there is some liquid. When a current is passed through the wire, continuous or alternating, it creates heat, which expands the air in the bulb and forces the liquid up one side of the U-tube to a certain position in which the rate of loss of heat by the air is equal to the rate at which it is gaining heat. The instrument can be calibrated by continuous currents and may then be used for high frequency alternating currents. 2. Electromagnetic Ammeters. — Another large class of ammeters depend for their action upon the fact thatanelectriccurrentcreates an electric field round its conductor, which varies in strength from point to point, but is otherwise proportional to the current. A small piece of iron placed in this field tends to move from weak to strong places in the field with a force depending on the strength of the field and the rate at which the field varies. In its simplest form an electromagnetic ammeter consists of a circular coil of wire in which is pivoted eccentrically an index needle carrying at its lower end a small mass of iron. The needle is balanced so that gravity compels it to take a certain position in which the fragment of iron occupies a position in the centre of the field of the coil where it is weakest. When a current is passed through the coil the iron tends to move nearer to the coil of the wire where the field is stronger and so displaces the index needle over the scale. Such an instrument is called a soft-iron gravity ammeter. Another type of similar instrument consists of a coil of wire having a fragment of iron wire suspended from one arm of an index needle near the mouth of a coil. When a current is passed through the wire forming the coil, the fragment of iron is drawn more into the aperture of the coil where the field is stronger and so displaces an index needle over a scale. In the construction of this soft-iron instrument it is essential that the fragment of iron should be as small and as well annealed as possible and not touched with tools after annealing; also it should be preferably not too elongated in shape so that it may not acquire permanent magnetization but that its magnetic condition may follow the changes of the current in the coil. If these conditions are not fulfilled sufficiently, the ammeter will not give the same indica- tions for the same current if that current has been reached (a) by increasing from a smaller current, or (b) by decreasing from a larger current. In this case there is said to be hysteresis in the readings. Although therefore most simple and cheap to construct, such soft-iron instruments are not well adapted for accurate work. A much better form of electromagnetic ammeter can be con- structed on a principle now extensively employed, which consists in pivoting in the strong field of a permanent magnet a small coil through which a part of the current to be measured is sent. Such an instrument is called a shunted movable coil ammeter, and is represented by a type of instrument shown in fig. 3. The Fig. 3. — Shunted Movable Coil Ammeter, Isenthal & Co. construction of this instrument is as follows: — Within the instrument is a horseshoe magnet having soft-iron pole pieces so arranged as to produce a uniform magnetic field. In this magnetic field is pivoted a small circular or rectangular coil carried in jewelled bearings, the current being passed into and out of the movable coil by fine flexible conductors. The coil carries an index needle moving over a scale, and there is generally an iron core in the interior of the coil but fixed and independent of it. The coil is so situated that, in its zero position when no current is passing through it, the plane of the coil is parallel to the direction of the lines of force of the field. When a current is passed through the coil it rotates in the field and displaces the index over the scale against the control of a spiral spring like the hairspring of a watch. Such instruments can be made to have equidivisional scales and to read from zero upwards. It is essential that the permanent magnet should be subjected to a process of ageing so that its field may not be liable to change subsequently with time. In the case of ammeters intended for very small currents, the whole current can be sent through the coil, but for larger currents it is necessary to provide in the instrument a shunt which carries the main current, the movable coil being connected to the ends of this shunt so that it takes a definite small fraction of the current passed through the instrument. Instruments of this type with a permanent magnetic field are only available for the measurement of continuous currents, but soft-iron instruments of AMPEREMETER 881 the above-described gravity type can be employed with certain restrictions for the measurement of alternating currents. Direct reading equidivisional movable coil ammeters can be made in various portable forms, and are very much employed as laboratory instruments and also as ammeters for the measurement of large eiectric currents in electric generating stations. In this last case the shunt need not be contained in the instrument itself but may be at a considerable distance, wires being brought from the shunt which carries the main current to the movable coil ammeter itself, which performs the function simply of an indicator, 3. Electr adynamic Ammeters. — Instruments of the third class depend for their action on the fact discovered by Ampere, that mechanical forces exist between conductors carrying electric currents when those conductors occupy certain relative positions. If there be two parallel wires through which currents are passing, then these wires are drawn together if the currents are in the same direction and pressed apart if they are in opposite directions. (See Electrokinetics.) Instruments of this type are called Electrodynamometers, and have been employed both as laboratory research instruments and for technical purposes. In one well-known form, called a Siemens Electrodynamometer, there is a fixed coil (fig. 4), which is surrounded by another coil having its axis at right angles to that of the fixed coil. This second coil is suspended by a number of silk fibres, and to the coil is also attached a spiral spring the other end of which is fastened to a torsion head. If then the torsion head is twisted, the suspended coil experiences a torque and is displaced through + T Ip HEI Fig. 4. — Siemens Electrodynamometer. F, Fixed coil; D, Movable coil; 5, Spiral spring; T, Torsion head; MM, Mercury cups; /, Index needle. \n angle equal to that of the torsion head. The current can be passed into and out of the movable coil by permitting the ends of the coil to dip into two mercury cups. If a current is passed through the fixed coil and movable coil in series with one another, the movable coil tends to displace itself so as to bring the axes of the coils, which are normally at right angles, more into the same direction. This tendency can be resisted by giving a twist to the torsion head and so applying to the movable coil through the spring a restoring torque, which opposes the torque due to the dynamic action of the currents. If then the torsion head is provided with an index needle, and also if the movable coil is provided with an indicating point, it is possible to measure the torsional angle through which the head must be twisted to bring the movable coil back to its zero position. In these circum- stances the torsional angle becomes a measure of the torque and therefore of the product of the strengths of the currents in the two coils, that is to say, of the square of the strength of the current passing through the two coils if they are joined up in series. The instrument can therefore be graduated by passing through it known and measured continuous currents, and it then becomes available for use with either continuous or alternating currents. The instrument can be provided with a curve or table showing the current corresponding to each angular displacement of the torsion head. It has the disadvantage of not being direct reading when made in the usual form, but can easily be converted into a direct reading instrument by appropriately dividing the scale over which the index of the torsion head moves. Ampere Balance. — Very convenient and accurate instruments based on the above principles have been devised by Lord Kelvin, and a large variety of these ampere balances, as they are called, suitable for measuring currents from a fraction of an ampere up to many thousands of amperes, have been constructed by that illustrious inventor. The difficulty which has generally pre- sented itself to those who have tried to design instruments on the Fig. 5. — Kelvin Flexible Metallic Ligament. electrodynamometer principle for use with large currents has been that of getting the current into and out of the movable conductor, and yet permitting that conductor to remain free to move under very small force. The use of mercury cups is open to many objections on account of the fact that the mercury becomes oxidized, and such instruments are not very convenient for transportation. The great novelty in the ampere balances of Lord Kelvin was a joint or electric coupling, which is at once exceedingly flexible and yet capable of being constructed to carry with safety any desired current. This he achieved by the intro- duction of a device which is called a metallic ligament. The general principle of its construction is as follows: — Let+A,— A (fig. s). be a pair of semi-cylindrical fixed trunnions which are carried on a supporting frame and held with flat sides downwards. Let + B, — B, be two smaller trunnions which project out from the sides of the two strips connecting together a pair of rings CC. The rings and the connecting strips constitute the circuit which is to be rendered movable. A current entering by the trunnion + B flows round the two halves of the circuit, as shown by the arrows, and comes out at the trunnion— B. In fig. 5 the current is shown dividing round the two rings; but in all the balances, except those intended for the largest currents, the current really circulates first round one ring and then round the other. To make the ligament, a very large number of exceedingly fine copper wires laid close together are soldered to the upper surface of the upper trunnion. The movable circuit CC thus hangs by two ligaments which are formed of very fine copper wires. This mode of suspension enables the conductor CC to vibrate freely like a balance, but at the same time very large currents can easily be passed through this perfectly flexible joint. Above and below these movable coils, which form as it were the two scale- pans of a balance, are fixed other stationary coils, and the connexions of all these , 1 1 ^. — » six coils (shown in fig. 6) *i— v^J^) are such that when a cur- rent is passed through the whole of the coils in series, Fig. 6. — Connexions of Kelvin Ampere Balance. forces of attraction and repulsion are brought into existence which tend to force one movable coil upwards and the other movable coil downwards. This tendency is resisted by the weight of a mass of metal, which can be caused to slide along a tray attached to the movable coils. The appearance of the complete instru- ment is shown by fig. 7. When a current is passed through the instrument it causes one end of the movable system to tilt down- wards, and the other end upwards; the sliding weight is then moved along the tray by means of a silk cord until equilibrium is again established. The value of the current in amperes is then 882 AMPERSAND— AMPHIARAUS obtained approximately by observing the position of the weight on the scale, or it may be obtained more accurately in the follow- Fig. 7. — Lord Kelvin's Ampere Balance. ing manner: — The upper edge of the shelf on which the weights slide (see fig. 8) is graduated into equal divisions, and the weight is provided with a sharp tongue. of metal in order that its position on the shelf may be accurately determined. Since the cur- rent passing through the balance when equilibrium is obtained with a given weight is proportional to the square ro'ot of the couple due to this weight, it follows that the current strength when equilibrium is obtained is proportional to the product of the square root of the weight used and the square root of the Fig. 8. — Slider of Kelvin Ampere Balance. displacement distance of this weight from its zero position. Each instrument is accompanied by a pair of weights and by a square root table, so that the product of the square root of the number corresponding to the position of the sliding weight and the ascertained constant for each weight, gives at once the value of the current in amperes. Each of these balances is made to cover a certain range of reading. Thus the centi-ampere balance ranges from 1 to 100 centi-amperes, the deci-ampere balance from 1 to 100 deci-amperes, the ampere balance from 1 to 100 amperes, the deka-ampere balance from 1 to 100 amperes, the hecto-ampere balance from 6 to 600 amperes, and the kilo-ampere balance from 100 to 2500 amperes. They are constructed for the measurement not only of continuousorunvaryingbutalsoof alternating currents. In those intended for alternating currents, the main current through the movable coil, whether consisting of one turn or more than one turn, is carried by a wire rope, of which each component strand is insulated by silk covering, to prevent the inductive action from altering the distribution of the current across the transverse section of the conductor. To avoid the creation of induced currents, the coil frames and the base boards are con- structed of slate. Kelvin ampere balances are made in two types — (1) a variable weight type suitable for obtaining the ampere value of any current within their range; and (2) a fixed weight type intended to indicate when a current which can be varied at pleasure has a certain fixed value. An instrument of the latter type of considerable accuracy was designed by Lord Kelvin for the British Board of Trade Electrical Laboratory, and it is there used as the principal standard ampere balance. A fixed weight is placed on one coil and the current is varied gradu- ally until the balance is just in equilibrium. In these circum- stances the current is known to have a fixed value in amperes determined by the weight attached to the instrument. Calibration. — The calibration of ammeters is best conducted by means of a series of standard low resistances and of a potentio- meter (q.i).). The ammeter to be calibrated is placed in series with a suitable low resistance which may be -i ohm, -oi ohm, •001 ohm or more as the case may be. A steady continuous current is then passed through the ammeter and low resistance, placed in series with one another and adjusted so as to give any required scale reading on the ammeter. The potential difference of the ends of the low resistance is at the same time measured on the potentiometer, and the quotient of this potential difference by the known value of the low resistance gives the true value of the current passing through the ammeter. This can be then compared with the observed scale reading and the error of the ammeter noted. 1 A good ammeter should comply with the following qualifica- tions: — (1) its readings should be the same for the same current whether reached by increasing from a lower current or decreasing from a higher current; (2) if used for alternating currents its indications should not vary with the frequency within the range of frequency for which it is likely to be used; (3) it should not be disturbed by external magnetic fields; (4) the scale divisions should, if possible, be equal in length and there should be no dead part in the scale. In the use of ammeters in which the control is the gravity of a weight, such as the Kelvin ampere balances and other instruments, it should be noted that the scale reading or indication of the instrument will vary with the latitude and with the height of the instrument above the mean sea-level. Since the difference between the acceleration of gravity at the pole and at the equator is about 5 %, the correction for latitude will be quite sensible in an instrument which might be used at various times in high and low latitudes. If G is the acceleration of gravity at the equator and g that at any lati- tude X, then g = G(i+o-oo5i3 sin 2 X). In the case of an instrument with gravity control, the latitude at which it is calibrated should there- fore be stated. Switchboard Ammeters. — For switchboard use in electric supply stations where space is valuable, instruments of the type called edgewise ammeters are much employed. In these the indicating needle moves over a graduated cylindrically shaped scale, and they are for the most part electromagnetic instruments (see fig. 9). Bibliography. — Lord Kelvin (Sir W. Thomson), " New Standard and Inspectional Electrical Measuring Instruments," Proc. Soc. Telegraph Engineers, 1888, 17, p. 540; J. A. Fleming, A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room (2 vols., London, 1901, 1903) ;G.D.Aspinall Parr, Electrical Measuring Instruments (Glasgow, I 9°3) I J- Swinburne, "Electric Light Measuring Instruments," Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., 1891-1892, no, pt. 4; K. Edgcumbe and F. Punga, " Direct Reading Measuring instruments for Switchboard Use," Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng., 1904, 33, p. 620. (J. A. F.) AMPERSAND (a corruption of the mixed English and Latin phrase, " and per se and," of which there are many dialect forms, as " ampussyand," or " amperseand "), the name of the sign &° or &, which is a combination of the letters e, t, of the Lat. et = and. The sign is now usually called " short and." In old- fashioned primers and nursery books the name and sign were always added at the end of the alphabet. AMPHIARAUS, in Greek mythology, a celebrated seer and prince of Argos, son of Oiicles (or Apollo) and Hypermestra, and through his father descended from the prophet Melampus (Odyssey, xv. 244). He took part in the voyage of the Argonauts and in the chase of the Calydonian boar; but his chief fame is in connexion with the expedition of the Seven against Thebes, organized by Adrastus, the brother of his wife Eriphyle, for the purpose of restoring Polyneices to the throne. Amphiaraus, fore- seeing the disastrous issue of the war, at first refused to share in it; he had, however, promised Eriphyle when he married her that, in the event of any dispute arising between her brother and 1 See " The Electrolysis of Copper Sulphate in Standardizing Electrical Instruments," by A. W; Meikle, read before the Physical Society of Glasgow University on the 27th of January 1888, or J. A. Fleming, A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing Room. vol. i. p. 343. Fig. 9.— Edgewise Switchboard Ammeter, Kelvin & James White Ltd. AMPHIBIA— AMPHIBOLE 883 himself, she should decide between them; and now Eriphyle, bribed by Polyneices with the fatal necklace given by Cadmus to Harmonia, persuaded him against his better judgment to set out on the expedition. Knowing his doom, he bade his sons, Alcmaeon and Amphilochus, avenge his death upon their mother, upon whom, as he stepped into his chariot, he turned a look of anger. This scene was represented upon the chest of Cypselus described by Pausanias (v. 17). The assault on Thebes was disastrous for the Seven; and Amphiaraus, pursued by Periclymenus, would have been slain with his spear, had not Zeus with a thunderbolt opened a chasm into which the seer, with his chariot, horses and charioteer, disappeared. Henceforth he was numbered with the immortals and worshipped as a god. Near Oropus, on the supposed site of his passing, his sanctuary arose, with healing springs, and an oracle famous for its interpretation of dreams (Pausanias i. 34). The ruins of this temple, with inscriptions which identify it, have been discovered and preserved at Mavrodilisi, in the provinces of Boeotia and Attica. There was another temple dedicated to him on the road from Thebes to Potniae, and here was the oracle of Amphiaraus consulted by Croesus and Mardonius. Homer, Odyssey, xi. 326; Herodotus viii. 134; Pindar, Olympia, vi., Nemea, ix. ; Apollodorus iii. 6. AMPHIBIA, a zoological term originally employed by Linnaeus to denote a class of the Animal Kingdom comprising crocodiles, lizards and salamanders, snakes and Caeciliae, tortoises and turtles and frogs; to which, in the later editions of the Sy sterna Naturae he added some groups of fishes. In the Tableau Elementaire, published in 1795, Cuvier adopts Linnaeus's term in its earlier sense, but uses the French word " Reptiles," already brought into use by Brisson, as the equivalent of Amphibia. In addition Cuvier accepts the Linnaean subdivisions of Amphibia- Reptilia for the tortoises, lizards (including crocodiles), salamanders and frogs; and Amphibia-Serpenles for the snakes, apodal lizards and Caeciliae. In 1799' Alexandre Brongniart pointed out the wide differences which separate the frogs and salamanders (which he terms Batrachia) from the other reptiles; and in 1804 P. A. Latreille, 2 rightly estimating the value of these differences, though he was not an original worker in the field of vertebrate zoology, proposed to separate Brongniart's Batrachia from the class of Reptilia proper, as a group of equal value, for which he retained the Linnaean name of Amphibia. Cuvier went no further than Brongniart, and, in the Regne Animal, he dropped the term Amphibia, and substituted Reptilia for it. J. F. Meckel, 3 on the other hand, while equally accepting Brongniart's classification, retained the term Amphibia in its earlier Linnaean sense; and his example has been generally followed by German writers, as, for instance, by H. Stannius, in that remarkable monument of accurate and extensive research, the Handbuch der Zootomie (2nd ed., 1856). In 1816, de Blainville, 4 adopting Latreille's view, divided the Linnaean Amphibia into Squamiferes and Nudipelliferes, or Amphibiens; though he offered an alternative arrangement, in which the class Reptiles is preserved and divided into two sub- classes, the Ornithoides and the Ichlhyoides. The latter are Brongniart's Batrachia, plus the Caeciliae, whose true affinities had, in the meanwhile, been shown by A. M. C. Dumeril; and, in this arrangement, the name Amphibiens is restricted to Proteus and Siren. B. Merrem's Pholidota and Batrachia (1820), F. S. Leuckart's Monopnoa and Dipnoa (1821), J. Muller's Squamata and Nuda (1832), are merely new names for de Blainville's Ornithoides and Ichlhyoides, though Muller gave far better anatomical characters of the two groups than had previously been put forward. More- 1 Brongniart's Essai d'une classification naturelle its reptiles was not published in full till 1803. It appears in the volume of the Memoir es presentes & Vlnstitut par divers savans for 1805. 2 Nouveau dictionnaire d'histoire naturelle, xxiv., cited in Latreille's Families naturelles du regne animal. ' System der vergleichenden Anatomie (182 1). * " Prodrome d'une Nouvelle Distribution du Regne Animal," Bulletin des sciences par la Societc Philomatique de Paris (1816), p. 1 13. over, following the indications already given by K. E. von Baer in 1828, 5 Muller calls the attention of naturalists to the important fact, that while all the Squamata possess an amnion and an allantois, these structures are absent in the embryos of all the Nuda. An appeal made by Muller for obser/ations on the development of the Caeciliae, and of those Amphibia which re- tain gills or gill-clefts throughout life, has unfortunately yielded no fruits. In 1825 P. A. Latreille 6 published a new classification of the Vertebrata, which are primarily divided into Haematherma, containing the three classes of Mammifera, Monotremata and Aves; and Haemacryma, also containing three classes — Reptilia, Amphibia and Pisces. This division of the Vertebrata into hot and cold blooded is a curiously retrograde step, only intelligible when we reflect that the excellent entomologist had no real comprehension of vertebrate morphology; but he makes some atonement for the blunder by steadily upholding the class distinctness of the Amphibia. In this he was followed by Dr J. E. Gray; but Dumeril and Bibron in their great work, 7 and Dr Gunther in his Catalogue, in substance, adopted Brongniart's arrangement, the Batrachia being simply one of the four orders of the class Reptilia. Huxley adopted Latreille's view of the dis- tinctness of the Amphibia, as a class of the Vertebrata, co-ordinate with the Mammalia, Aves, Reptilia and Pisces; and the same arrangement was accepted by Gegenbaur and Haeckel. In the Hunterian lectures delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons in 1863, Huxley divided the Vertebrata into Mammals, Sauroids and Ichthyoids, the latter division containing the Amphibia and Pisces. Subsequently he proposed the names of Sauropsida and Ichthyopsida for the Sauroids and Ichthyoids respectively. Sir Richard Owen, in his work on The Anatomy of Vertebrates, followed Latreille in dividing the Vertebrata into Haematotherma and Haematocrya, and adopted Leuckart's term of Dipnoa for the Amphibia. T. H. Huxley, in the ninth edition of this Encyclo- paedia, treated of Brongniart's Batrachia, under the designation Amphibia, but this use of the word has not been generally accepted. (See Batrachia.) (T. H. H.; P. C. M.) AMPHIBOLE, an important group of rock-forming minerals, very similar in chemical composition and general characters to the pyroxenes, and like them falling into three series according to the system of crystallization. They differ from the pyroxenes, however, in having an angle between the prismatic cleavage of 56° instead of 87 ; they are specifically lighter than the corre- sponding pyroxenes; and, in their optical characters, they are distinguished by their stronger pleochroism and by the wider angle of extinction on the plane of symmetry. They are minerals of either original or secondary origin; in the former case occurring as constituents (hornblende) of igneous rocks, such as granite, diorite, andesite, &c. Those of secondary origin have either been developed (tremolite) in limestones by contact-metamorphism, or have resulted (actinolite) by the alteration of augite by dynamo-metamorphism. Pseudomorphs of amphibole after pyroxene are known as uralite. The name amphibole (from the Gr. a/*<£i0oXos, ambiguous) was used by R. J. Haiiy to include tremolite, actinolite and hornblende; this term has since been applied to the whole group. Numerous sub-species and varieties are distinguished, the more important of which are tabulated below in three series. The formulae of each will be seen to conform to the general meta- silicate formula R"Si0 3 . Orthorhombic Series. (Mg,Fe)Si0 3 . Monoclinic Series. CaMg 3 (Si0 3 ) 4 . Ca(Mg,Fe) 3 (Si0 3 ) 4 . (Fe,Mg)Si0 3 . (K 2 ,Na 2 ,Mg,Ca,Mn)Si0 3 . ( Ca(Mg,Fe) s (Si0 3 ) 4 with 1 N a Al(SiQ 3 ) 2 and (Mg.Fe) (Al,Fe). 2 SiO«. 5 Entwickelungs-Geschichte der Thi'ere, p. 262. 6 Families naturelles du regne animal. 7 Erpetologie genSrale, ou histoire naturelle complete des reptiles (1836). Anthophyllite . Tremolite Actinolite Cummingtonite Richterite Hornblende 88 4 AMPHIBOLITE— AMPHIBOLOGY Glaucophane Crocidolite Riebeckite Arfvedsonite Aenigmatite Monoclinic Series — continued. . NaAl(Si0 3 ) 2 -(Fe,Mg)Si0 3 . . NaFe(Si0 3 ) 2 -FeSi0 3 . 2NaFe(Si0 3 ) 2 -FeSi0 3 . . Na 8 (Ca,Mg) 3 (Fe,Mn) 1 4(Al,Fe) 2 Si al 04 6 . Anorthic Series. . Na 4 Fe" 9 Al Fe" ' (Si,Ti) 12 O „. Of these, tremolite, hornblende and crocidolite, as well as the important varieties, asbestos and jade, are treated under their own headings. Brief mention only need be here made of some of the others. Naturally, on account of the wide variations in chemical composition, the different members vary considerably in characters and general appearance; the specific gravity, for example, varies from 2-0 in tremolite to 3-8 in aenigmatite. Anthophyllite occurs as brownish, fibrous or lamellar masses with hornblende in mica-schist at Kongsberg in Norway and some other localities. An aluminous variety is known as gedrite, and a deep green, Russian variety containing little iron as kupfferite. Actinolite is an important member of the monoclinic series, forming radiating groups of acicular crystals of a bright green or greyish-green colour. It occurs frequently as a constituent of crystalline schists. The name (from aicrts, a ray, and \Wos, a stone) is a translation of the old German word Strahlstein, radiated stone. Glaucophane, crocidolite, riebeckite and arfvedsonite form a somewhat special group of alkali-amphiboles. The two former are blue fibrous minerals occurring in crystalline schists, and are the result of dynamo-metamorphic processes; the two latter are dark green minerals which occur as original constituents of igneous rocks rich in soda, such as nepheline-syenite and phonolite. Aenigmatite and its variety cossyrite are rare minerals forming constituents of igneous rocks of the nepheline-syenite and phonolite groups. (L. J. S.) AMPHIBOLITE, the name given to a rock consisting mainly of amphibole (hornblende), the use of the term being restricted, however, to metamorphic rocks. Holocrystalline plutonic igneous rocks composed essentially of hornblende are known as hornblendites. As is the case with most petrological terms the exact connotation is not very strictly defined; most authors allow that accessory minerals such as felspar, garnet, augite and quartz may be present in variable and often considerable amount. A foliated or schistose structure, though often developed in these rocks, is not universal. The hornblende is usually dark green (actinolite) but may be nearly black in the hand specimen; in the microscopic slide it is commonly green of various shades, but may be brown, blue or nearly colourless. It frequently occurs in elongated bladed prisms, but rarely shows good crystal faces. The term hornblende-schist is employed by many writers as nearly, synonymous with amphibolite; most hornblende-schists contain felspar and iron oxides, while sphene, rutile, quartz and apatite are rarely absent. Reddish garnets are often conspicu- ous in the rocks of this group (garnet-amphibolites), and when in addition a green-coloured augite occurs the rocks are inti- mately allied to the hornblende-eclogites. Epidote also, in yellow grains, is common (epidote-amphibolites), and in these rocks the hornblende may be of the blue and richly pleochroic variety known as glaucophane (glaucophane-epidote-schists). Horn- blende-schists containing dark green ferriferous hornblende (grunerite-schists) are abundant in some parts of North America. Tremolite-schists consist essentially of white or very pale green amphibole; occasionally they are black from the presence of numerous minute grains of iron oxide or of graphite. Many tremolite-schists contain much talc and chlorite, and as these rocks have been derived from peridotites they not infrequently show residual grains of olivine. Nephrite (Gr. veQpos, a kidney) is a very compact, hardly schistose amphibolite, consisting of fine interwoven fibres of hornblende. Among other accessory minerals biotite, chlorite, talc, scapolite and tourmaline may be mentioned; if abundant they give rise to special varieties such as biotite-amphibolite, &c. The amphibolites are typical rocks of the metamorphic group and as such attain a large development in all regions of crystalline schists and gneisses such as the Alps, Ardennes, Harz, Scottish Highlands, and the Lakes district of North America. They occur in two ways, viz. as large circular or elliptical areas which mark the site of old plutonic stocks or bosses of basic rock, and as long narrow strips intercalated among outcrops of other meta- morphic rocks. Regarded from the point of view of their origin they fall into two groups, the ortho-amphibolites, which are modified igneous rocks, and the para-amphibolites, which are altered sediments. The former are far the more common. Igneous rocks which contain much augite (e.g. dolerites, gabbros, diabases, pyroxenites and many peridotites) are usually con- verted into amphibolites when they are subjected to pressure and interstitial movements during earth-folding. If felspar be present also, epidote may form, while part of the felspar recrystal- lizes as a species of the same mineral richer in alkalies or as mica. Olivine and ilmenite, the other common constituents of these rocks, may, alone or in conjunction with the above-named minerals, yield garnet, talc, spherie, rutile, &c. There is little or no alteration in the bulk composition of the rock, but its component elements enter into new combinations. Chemical analysis, accordingly, will often enable us to identify an igneous rock (diabase, &c.) under the guise of an amphibolite. The trans- formation of the rock may be complete, so that no trace is left of the original structures or minerals. Very often, however, it is only partial, and by obtaining a sufficiently large number of specimens a series of intermediate or transitional stages may be studied; these prove conclusively the nature of the process, though its causes are less clearly understood. Green hornblende may be seen gradually replacing augite, at first in needle-like crystals, for which gradually more compact masses are substi- tuted. The felspar breaks up into a mosaic in which albite, epidote or zoisite, quartz and garnet may often be identified. Biotite and primary hornblende suffer comparatively little change; olivine disappears, and garnet, talc and tremolite or anthophyllite take its place. The original structures of this ^roup of rocks (ophitic, porphyritic, poikilitic, vesicular, &c.) gradually fade away, and merge into those of the metamorphic amphi- bolites. Even when the greater part of the rock mass has suffered complete reconstruction, kernels or phacoids may remain, show- ing the old igneous structures, though the minerals are greatly altered. The transitional stages from gabbro or diabase to amphibolite are so common that they form a widespread and important group of rocks, which have been described under the names greenstone, greenstone-schist, flaser-gabbro, saussurite- gabbro, meta-diabase, &c. The ortho-amphibolites also include a small group of igneous rocks, which have a foliated or banded structure due to movements and pressure during consolidation, e.g. foliated diorite or diorite-schist. The sedimentary amphibolites or para-amphibolites, less common than those above described, are frequent in some districts, such as the northern Alps, southern highlands of Scotland, Green Mountains, U.S.A. Many of them have been ash-beds, and their conversion into hornblende-schists follows exactly similar stages to those exemplified by basic crystalline igneous rocks. Others have been greywackes of varied com- position with epidote, chlorite, felspar, quartz, iron oxides, &c, and may have been mixed with volcanic materials, or may be partly derived from the disintegration of basic rocks. When they are most metamorphosed they are often very hard to distinguish from igneous hornblende-schists; yet they rarely fail to reveal signs of bedding, pebbly structure, sedimentary banding and gradual transition into undoubtedly sediment- ary types of gneiss and schist. Deposits containing dolomite and siderite also readily yield amphibolites (tremolite-schists, grunerite-schists, &c.) especially where there has been a cer- tain amount of contact metamorphism by adjacent granitic masses. (J. S. F.) AMPHIBOLOGY, or Amphiboly (Gr. a^ifioXia), in logic, a verbal fallacy arising from ambiguity in the grammatical structure of a sentence (Aristot., Organon,Soph., El., chap. iv.). AMPHICTYONY 885 It occurs frequently in poetry, owing to the alteration for metrical reasons of the natural order of words; Jevons quotes as an example Shakespeare, Henry VI.: "The duke yet lives that Henry shall depose." AMPHICTYONY (Gr. an4>iKTVOvia, i.e. a body composed of aniKTiovts, aniKTVoves, " dwellers around "), an association of ancient Greek communities centring in a shrine. As the extant sources do not define the term, and as they apply it to but five or six associations, the majority of which are little known, modern scholars are in doubt as to the essential character of the institution, and hesitate therefore to extend the name beyond this limited list. The word itself indicates that the association primarily comprised neighbours, though the Delphic amphictyony came in time to include relatively distant communities (Strabo ix. 3, 7). For the origin of the institution it is safe to assume that neighbouring communities, whether tribes (Wvri) or cities, desiring friendly intercourse with one another chose the sanctu- ary of some deity conveniently situated, at which to hold their periodical festival for worship and their fair for the interchange of goods. If the limited use of the word according to our sources is not purely accidental, at all events there were many Greek leagues, not expressly termed amphictyonies, which had the characteristics here stated. The Delian amphictyony probably reached the height of its splendour early in the 7th century B.C. The Hymn to the Delian Apollo, composed about that time, celebrates the gathering of the Ionians with their wives and children at the shrine of their god on the island of Delos, to worship him with music, dancing and gymnastic contests (vv. 146-164; cf. Thuc. iii. 104). The later misfortunes of the Ionians caused a decline of the festival. Peisistratus, taking possession of Delos, seems to have used the sanctuary as a means of extending his political influence. When after the great war with Persia the Aegean cities under the leadership of Athens united in a political league (477 B.C.), they chose as its centre the temple of the Delian Apollo, doubtless through a desire to connect the new alliance with the associations of the old amphictyony. How far the council and other institu- tions of the Delian confederacy were based upon the amphictyonic organization cannot be determined. The removal of the treasury to Athens in 454 B.C. deprived Delos of political importance, though the amphictyony continued. The council gradually dwindled, and probably came to an end without formal abolition. In 426 B.C. the Athenians purified the island and instituted a great festival to be held under their presidency every four years (Thuc. iii. 104). In 422 they expelled the Delians (Thuc. v. 1). At the end of the Peloponnesian War Athens was deprived of Delos along with her other possessions, but she appears to have regained control of the island after the victory of Cnidus (394). An inscription of 390 B.C. proves that at this date Athenian authority had been restored. The affairs of the temple were managed by a board of five Athenian amphictyons, assisted by some Delian officials (inscrr. in Bull. Hell. viii. 284, 304, 307 f .) ; and in the 4th century we again hear of a council in addition to the board (CIG. i. 158). At this time the amphictyony is known to have embraced both the Athenians and the inhabitants of the Cyclades; but a strong Delian party bitterly opposed Athenian rule (cf. inscr. in Bull. Hell. iii. 473 f.), which came to an end with the supremacy of Macedon. The dissolution of the amphictyony soon followed. Far more famous is the Delphic, or more strictly, the Pylaeic-Delphic, amphictyony. It was originally composed of twelve tribes dwelling round Thermopylae — the Thessalians, Boeotians, Dorians, Ionians, Perrhaebians, Magnetes, Locrians, Oetaeans, Phthiotes, Malians, Phocians (Aeschih. ii. 116), and Dolopians (Paus. x. 8. 2). The name of the council (pylaea) and of one set of deputies (pylagori), together with the important place held in the amphictyony by the temple of Demeter at Anthela, near Thermopylae, suggests that this shrine was the original centre of the association. How and when Delphi became a second centre is quite uncertain. The council of the league included deputies of two different kinds — pylagori and hieromnemones. The latter were twenty-four in number, two from each tribe. As the league was originally made up of neighbours, the Dorian tribe must have comprised simply the inhabitants of Doris; the Locrians were probably the eastern (Opuntian) branch; and the Ionians were doubtless limited to the adjacent island of Euboea. Afterwards, by affiliating them- selves to Doris* the Peloponnesian Dorians gained admission, and Athens must have entered as an Ionian city before the first Sacred War. Henceforth Athens monopolized one of the two Ionian votes, while the other passed in rotation among the remaining Ionic, perhaps only among the Euboeic, cities. In the same way Doris held one Dorian vote and the other passed in rotation among the Dorian cities of Peloponnesus; and the east and west Locrians came to have one each. When after the second Sacred War the Phocians were expelled, Macedon received their two votes (346 B.C.) About the same time the Perrhaebians and the Dolopians were deprived of half their representation, and the two votes were transferred to the Delphians (inscrr. in N. Jahrb. f. cl. Phttol. civ. 742, cf. 743, 753; Bull. Hell. xxi. 322, cf. 325; Bourguet, Sanct. Pyth. 145, 147). In the following century the Aetolians gained such dominance in the amphictyony as to convert the council into an organ of their league. Recent research has made it appear certain (cf. Pomp tow, ib. 754 ff.) that they were never formally admitted to membership, but that they maintained their supremacy in the council (Livy xxxi. 32.3; Polyb. iv. 25. 8) by controlling the votes of their allies, who — called Aetolians in the inscriptions — were often in the majority. They made no material change in its composition, which, accord- ingly, after the dissolution of their league by the Romans is found to be nearly as it was after the second Sacred War. A few minor changes came in under the supremacy of the Roman republic; and finally Augustus increased the number of votes to thirty, and distributed them according to his pleasure. In the age of the Antonines the association was still in existence (Paus. x. 8. 4 f.). Although the hieromnemones of the Thessalians, who held the presidency, and perhaps of a few other communities, must have been elected, the office was ordinarily, as at Athens, filled by lot. As a rule they were renewed annually (Aristoph. Clouds, 623 f . ; Foucart, in Bull. Hell. vii. 411, 413 f.). Each hieromnemon was accompanied by two pylagori, elected semi-annually (Demosth. xviii. 149; Aeschin. iii. 115; Tim. Lex. Plat., s.v. ' A/jupucTVoves) , and representing the same tribe, though not necessarily the same city. On one occasion Athens is known to have sent three. The hieromnemones were formally superior, but because of the method of appointment they were necessarily men of mediocre ability, inexperienced in speaking and public business, and for that reason they readily became the tools of the pylagori, who were orators and statesmen. In the literary sources, accordingly, the latter are rightly given credit for the acts of the council; it was the pylagori who set a price on the head of the traitor Ephialtes (Herod, vii. 2 1 3) , and who on the motion of Themistocles rejected the proposition of Lacedaemon for the expulsion of the states which had sided with Persia (Plut. Them. 20) . The pylagori had a right to propose measures and to take part in the delibera- tions; they as well as the hieromnemones were required to take the juror's oath; and the acts of the council were inscribed officially as resolutions of the hieromnemones and pylagori conjointly. The hieromnemon, however, cast the vote of his community, though in the record his two pylagori were made equallyresponsiblefor it. Thenecessaryinferencefrom these facts is that the vote was determined by a majority of the three deputies (inscr. in Bull. Hell, xxvii. 106-111, A 20-33; B 1-10). The council decided all questions which fell within its competence. Matters of greater importance, as the levy of an extraordinary fine on a state or the declaration of a sacred war, it presented in the form of a resolution to an assembly {tKKK-qcrla) , com- posed of the deputies, the amphictyonic priests, and any other citizens of the league who chanced to be present (Aeschin. iii. 124; cf. Hyp. iv. 7, 26 f.). This assembly was relatively unim- portant, however, and is mentioned only by the two authorities here cited. It is now well established by epigraphic evidence {Bull. Hell. 886 AMPHILOCHUS— AMPHIOXUS vii. 412 f., 417; Pomptow, in N. Jahrb. f. cl. Philol. cxlix. 826-829) that the amphictyons met both in the spring and in the autumn at Delphi, and the literary sources should alone be sufficient authority for meetings in the same seasons at Thermopylae (Hyp. iv. 7, 25 ff.; Strabo ix. 3, 7, 4, 17; Harpocration, s.v. IlvXat). It is known, too, that the meeting at Thermopylae followed that at Delphi (inscr. in Bull. Hell. xxiv. 136 f.). The primary function of the council was to administer the temporal affairs of the two shrines, of which the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi claimed by far the greater share of attention. The hieromnemones were required periodically to inspect the lands belonging to this god, to punish those who encroached, and to see that the tenants rendered their quota of produce; and the council held the states responsible for the right performance of such duties by their respective deputies (CIA. ii. 545; inscr. in Bull. Hell. vii. 428 f.). Another task of the council was to super- vise the treasury, to protect it from thieves, and by investments to increase the capital (Strabo ix. 3, 7; Isoc. xv. 232; Demosth. xxi. 144; Plut. Sull. 12). Naturally, too, it controlled the expenditure. We find it, accordingly, in the 6th century B.C. contracting for the rebuilding of the Delphic temple after it had been destroyed by fire (Herod, v. 62; Paus. x. 5. 13), and in the 4th century creating an Hellenic college of temple-builders for the purpose (inscrr. in Bull. Hell. xx. 202 f., 206, xxi. 478, xxiv. 464), adorning the interior with statues and pictures (Diod. xvi. 2,z), inscribing the proverbs of the Seven Sages on the walls (Paus. x. 24. 1), bestowing crowns on benefactors of the god (CIG. i. 1689 b), preparing for the Pythian games, awarding the prizes (Pind. Pyth. iv. 66, x. 8 f.), instituting a board of treasurers (inscr. in Bourguet, Sanct. Pyth. 175 ff.) and issuing coins. It was also in the material interest of Apollo that the council passed a law which forbade the Greeks to levy tolls on pilgrims to the shrine (Aeschin. iii. 107; Strabo ix. 3, 4), and another requiring the amphictyonic states to keep in repair their own roads which led towards Delphi (CIA. ii. 545). A law of great interest, dating from the beginning of the institution, imposed an oath upon the members of the league not to destroy an amphictyonic city or to cut it off from running water in war or peace; but to wage war upon those who transgressed this ordinance, to destroy their cities, and to punish any others who by theft or plotting sought to injure the god (Aeschin. ii. 115). In this regulation, which was intended to mitigate the usages of war amongst the members of the league, we have one of the origins of Greek interstate law. Though other regulations were made to secure peace at the time of the festival (Dion. Hal. iv. 25. 3), and though occasionally the council was called upon to arbitrate in a dispute (cf. Demosth. xviii. 13s), no provision was made to compel arbitration. For the enforcement of such laws and for administrative effi- ciency in general it was necessary that the council should have judicial power. As jurors the deputies took an oath to decide according to written law, or in cases not covered by law, accord- ing to their best will and judgment (CIA. ii. 545). The earliest known amphictyonic penalty was the destruction of Crisa for having levied tolls on pilgrims (Aeschin. iii. 107; Strabo ix. 3, 4; cf . Paus. x. 3 7. 5-8) . This offence was the cause of the first Sacred War. The second and third Sacred Wars, fought in the 4th century B.C., were waged by the amphictyons against the l'hocians and the Amphissaeans respectively for alleged tres- passing on the sacred lands (Aeschin. iii. 124, 128; Diod. xvi. 23, 31 f.). In the 5th century the council fined the Dolopians for having disturbed commerce by their piracy (Plut. Cim. 8), and in the 4th century the Lacedaemonians for having occupied the citadel of Thebes in time of peace (Diod. xvi. 23, 29). The judgments of the council were sometimes considered unfair, and were occasionally defied by the states affected. The Lacedaemonians refused to pay the fine above mentioned; the Athenians protested against the treatment of Amphissa, and were slow in accepting the decisions given under the influence of Mace- don. The inability of the council to enforce its resolutions was chiefly due to its composition; the majority of the communities represented were even in combination no match for individual cities like Athens, Sparta or Thebes. The council was a power in politics only when manipulated by a great state, as Thebes, Macedon or Aetolia, and in such a case its decrees were most likely to give offence by their partisanship. Although the council sometimes championed the Hellenic cause, as could any association or individual, it never acquired a recognized authority over all Greece; and notwithstanding its frequent par- ticipation in political affairs, it remained essentially a religious convocation. In addition to the three associations thus far mentioned there was an amphictyony of Onchestus (Strabo ix. 2, 33). It may be inferred from a comparison of Paus. iv. 5. 2 with Herod, vi. 92 that there was an amphictyony of Argos of which Epidaurus and Aegina were members. An amphictyony of Corinth has, with less justification, been assumed on the strength of a passage in Pindar (Nem. Od. vi. 40-42). Authorities. — Foucart, " Amphictyones," in Daremberg and Saglio, Diet. d. antiq. grecq. et rom. (1873) i. 235-238; F. Cauer, " Amphiktyonia," in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencycl. d. cl. Altertumswiss. (1894) i. 1904-1935; Pomptow, Fasti Delphici, ii. in Neue Jahrb. f. cl. Philol. (1894) cxlix. 497-558, civ. (1897) 737-765, 785-848; E. A. Freeman, History of Federal Government in Greece and Italy (2nd ed., London and New York, 1895), 95-ui; W. S. Ferguson, " Delian Amphictyony," in Classical Review (1901), xv. 38-40; Schomann-Lipsius, Griechische Alterlhiimer (1902), ii. 29-44; E. Bourguet, V Administration financiire du sanctuaire pythique auIV' sihele avant J.-C. (Paris, 1905). The earlier literature has been deprived of a great part of its value by recent discoveries of inscrip- tions, many of which may be found in the Bulletin de correspondance hellenique, iii. vii. viii. x. xx. xxi. xxiv. xxvi. xxvii., edited with commentary chiefly by Bourguet, Colin, Foucart and Homolle. See also H. Collitz, Sammlung d. griech. Dialekl-Inschriften, ii. p. 643 ff. and Nos. 2508 ff., edited by Baunack. (G. W. B.) AMPHILOCHUS, in Greek legend, a famous seer, son of Amphiaraus and Eriphyle and brother of Alcmaeon. According to some he assisted in the murder of Eriphyle, which, according to others, was carried out by Alcmaeon alone (Apollodorus iii. 6, 7). He took part in the expedition of the Epigoni against Thebes and in the Trojan War. After the fall of Troy he founded, in conjunction with Mopsus, another famous seer, the oracle of Mallos in Cilicia. The two seers afterwards fought for its posses- sion, and both were slain in the combat. Amphilochus is also said to have been killed by Apollo (Strabo xiy. 675, 676). Accord- ing to another story, he returned to Argos from Troy, but, being dissatisfied with the condition of things there, left it for Acarnania, where he founded Amphilochian Argos on the Ambracian gulf. He was worshipped at Oropus, Athens and Sparta. Strabo xiv. pp. 675, 676 ; Thucydides ii. 68 ; Pausanias i. 34, iii. 15. AMPHION and ZETHUS, in ancient Greek mythology, the twin sons of Zeus by Antiope. When children, they were exposed on Mount Cithaeron, but were found and brought up by a shepherd. Amphion became a great singer and musician, Zethus a hunter and herdsman (Apollodorus iii. 5). After punishing Lycus and Dirce for cruel treatment of Antiope (q.v.), they built and fortified Thebes, huge blocks of stone forming themselves into walls at the sound of Amphion's lyre (Horace, Odes, iii. n). Amphion married Niobe, and killed himself after the loss of his wife and children (Ovid, Metam. vi. 270). The brothers were buried in one grave and worshipped as the Dioscuri " with white horses " (Eurip. Phoen. 609). AMPHIOXUS, or Lancelet, the name of small, fish-like, marine creatures, forming the class Cephalochorda, of the phylum Vertebrata. Lancelets are found in brackish or salt water, generally near the coast, and have been referred to several genera and many species. They were first discovered by P. S. Pallas in 1778, who took them to be slugs and described them under the name Limax lanceolatus. The true position in the animal kingdom was first recognized in 1834 by O. G. Costa, who named the genus Branchiostoma, and it has since been dealt with by many writers. The theoretical interest of Amphioxus depends upon a variety of circumstances. In its manner of development from the egg, AMPHIOXUS 887 and in the constitution of its digestive, vascular, respiratory (branchial), excretory, skeletal, nervous and muscular systems it exhibits what appears to be a primordial condition of vertebrate organization, a condition which is, in fact, partly recapitulated in the course of the embryonic stages of craniate vertebrates. In comparative morphology it provides many illustrations of im- portant biological principles (such, for example, as substitution and change of function of organs), and throws new light upon, or at least points the way to new ideas of, the primitive relations of different organic systems in respect of their function and topo- graphy. One of the most puzzling features in its structure, and, at the same time, one of the greatest obstacles to the view that it is essentially primitive and not merely a degenerate creature, is the entire absence of the paired organs of special sense, olfactory, optic and auditory, which are so characteristic of the higher vertebrates. Although it is true that there is a certain amount of gradation in the degree of development to which these organs have attained in the various orders, yet it is hardly sufficient to enable the imagination to bridge over the gap which separates Amphioxus from the lowest fishes in regard to this feature of organization. Classification. — On account of the absence of anything in the nature of a skull, Amphioxus has been regarded as the type of a division, Acrania, in contrast with the Craniata which comprise all the higher Chordata. The ordinal name for the genera and species of Amphioxus is Cephalochorda, the term referring to the extension of the primary backbone or notochord to the anterior extremity of the body; the family name is Branchiostomidae. The amount of generic divergence exhibited by the members of this family is not great in the mass, but is of singular interest in detail. There are two principal genera — 1. Branchiostoma Costa, having paired sexual organs (gonadic pouches) ; 2. Heteropleuron Kirkaldy, with unilateral gonads. Of these, the former includes two subgenera, Amphioxus (s. str.) Yarrell and Dolichorhynchus Willey. The species belonging to the genus Heteropleuron are divided among the three subgenera Paramphioxus Haeckel, Epigonichthys Peters, and Asymmelron Andrews. The generic characters are based upon definite modifications of form which affect the entire facies of the animals, while the specific diagnoses depend upon minor characters, such as the number of myotomes or muscle-segments. Habits and Distribution. — With regard to its habits, all that need be said here is that while Amphioxus is an expert swimmer when occasion requires, yet it spends most of its time burrowing in the sand, in which, when at rest, it lies buried with head pro- truding and mouth wide agape. Its food consists of microscopic organisms and organic particles; these are drawn into the mouth tfc an. Fig. 1. — Epigonichthys cultellus from below and from the left side. (Slightly altered from Kirkaldy.) rm .and Im, Right and left meta- pleur; at, atriopore; an, anus; e, " eyespot " at anterior end of neurochord projecting beyond the myotomes (my) ; n, notochord ; rg". gonads of right side only showing through by transparency; go 20, the last gonad ; dfr, dorsal fin with fin chambers and fin rays ; vfc, ventral fin chambers. together with currents of water induced by the action of the vibratile cilia which are abundant along special tracts on the sides and roof of the vestibule of the mouth and in the walls of the perforated pharynx ("ciliary ingestion"). Amphioxus favours a littoral habitat, and rarely if ever descends below the 50-fathom line. Species occur in all seas of the temperate, tropical and subtropical zones. The EuroDean species. A. lanceolatus As found in the Black and Mediterranean Seas, and on the coasts of France, Great Britain and Scandinavia, while a closely allied species or subspecies, A. caribaeus, frequents the Caribbean region from Chesapeake to La Plata. A . californiensis occurs on the coast of California, and A. belcher i extends its area of distribution from Queensland through Singapore to Japan. A recently described species, Dolichorhynchus indicus, characterized by the great length of the praeoral lobe or snout, has been dredged in the Indian Ocean. Paramphioxus bassanus occurs on the coast of Australia from Port Phillip to Port Jackson; P. cingalensis at Ceylon. Epigon- ichthys cultellus (fig. 1) inhabits Torres Strait, and has also been FlG. 2. — Amphioxus lanceolatus, Yarrell (Branchiostoma lubricum, Coste). (From Ray Lankester.) (1) Lateral view o." adult, to show general form, the myomeres, fin rays and gonads. A. Oral tentacles (28 to 32 in full-grown animals, 20 to 24 in half-growii specimens) ; B, praeoral hood or praeoral epipleur; C, plicated ventral surface of atrial chamber; D 1 , D 17 , D 26 , gonads, twenty-six pairs, coincident with myotomes 10 to 36; E, metapleur or lateral ridge on atrial epipleur; F, atripore, coincident with myotome 36; G 1 , G 15 , G 3t , double ventral fin rays, extending from myotomes 37 to 52, but having no numerical relation to them; H, position of anus, between myotomes 51 and 52; I, notochord, projecting beyond myotomes; K 7 , K 27 , K 62 , myotomes or muscular segments of body-wall, 62 in number; L m , L 23c , L 253 , dorsal fin rays, about 250 in number, the hard substance of the rav being absent at the extreme ends of the 888 AMPHIOXUS body (these have no constant numerical relation to the myomeres) ; M, notochord as seen through the transparent myotomes, the thin double-lined spaces being the connective-tissue septa and the broader spaces the muscular tissue of the myotomes; N, position of brown funnel of left side (atrio-coelomic canal) ; O, nerve tube resting on notochord. (2) Dissection of Amphioxus. By a horizontal incision on each side of the body a large ventral area has been separated and turned over, as it were on a hinge, to the animal's left side. The perforated pharyngeal region has then been detached from the adherent epi- pleura or opercular folds (wall of atrial or branchial chamber) by cutting the fluted pharyngo-pleural membrane d, and separated by a verticar cut from the intestinal region, a, Edge of groove formed by adhesion of median dorsal surface of alimentary canal to sheath of notochord ; b, median dorsal surface of alimentary canal ; c, left dorsal aorta ; cc, single dorsal aorta, formed by union of the two anterior vessels; cc', same vessel resting on intestine; d, cut edge of pharyngo-pleural folds of atrial tunic, really the original outer body-wall before the downgrowth of epipleura; d', atrial tunic (original body-wall) at non-perforate region, cut and turned back so as to expose peri-enteric coelom and intestine r; e', upstanding folds of body-wall (pharyngo-pleural folds) on alternate bars of per- forate region of body; /, atrio-coelomic canals or brown funnels (collar-pores of Balanoglossus); g, cavity of a gonad-sac; m, cut musculature of body- wall; n, anus; 0, post-atrioporal extension of atrial chamber in form of a tubular caecum; p, atriopore; q, hepatic caecum ; r, intestine ; s, coelom ; /, area of adhesion between alimentary canal and sheath of notochord; v, atrial chamber or branchial cavity; w, post-atrioporal portion of intestine; x, canals of metapleura exposed by cutting; E, probe passing through atrio- pore into atrial or branchial chamber; FF , probe passing from coelom, where it expands behind the atriopore, into narrower peri- enteric coelom of praeatrioporal region. (3) Portion of (2) enlarged to show atrio-coelomic canals ("brown funnels " of Lankester). Lettering as in (2). (4) Section taken transversely through praeoral region near ter- mination of nerve tube, a, Olfactory ciliated pit on animal's left side, its wall confluent with substance of nerve tube; b, pigment spot (rudimentary eye) on anterior termination of nerve tube ; c, first pair of nerves in section; d, fin ray; e, myotome; /, notochord; g, space round myotome (?artifact or coelom) ; h, subchordal canal (? blood-vessel) ; i, a symmetrical epipleura of praeoral hood. found at Ternate. Asymmetron lucayanum is the Bahaman representative of the family, with a subspecies, A. caudatum, in the South Pacific from New Guinea to the Loyalty Islands. The Peruvian species, Branchiostoma elongatum, with nearly eighty myotomes, cannot at present be assigned to its proper subgenus. External Form.— The following description, unless otherwise stated, refers to A. lanceolatus. Amphioxus is a small fish-like creature attaining a maximum length of about 3 in., semi- transparent in appearance, showing iridescent play of colour. The body is narrow, laterally compressed and pointed at both ends. The main musculature can be seen through the thin skin to be divided into about sixty pairs of muscle-segments (myo- tomes) by means of comma-shaped dissepiments, the myocommas, which stretch between the skin and the central skeletal axis of the body. These myotomes enable it to swim rapidly with char- acteristic serpentine undulations of the body, the movements being effected by the alternate contraction and relaxation of the longitudinal muscles on both sides. Apparently correlated with this peculiar locomotion is the anatomical fact of the alteration of the myotomes on the two sides. Symmetrical at their first appearance in the embryo, the somites (from which the myotomes are derived) early undergo a certain distortion, the effect of which is to carry the somites of the left side forwards through the length of one half-segment. For example, the twenty-seventh myotome of the left side is placed opposite to the twenty-sixth myocomma of the right side. The back of the body is occupied by a crest, called the dorsal fin, consisting of a hollow ridge, the cavity of which is divided into about 250 compartments or fin chambers, into each of which, with the exception of those near the anterior and posterior end of the body, projects a stout pillar composed of characteristic laminar tissue, the fin ray. The dorsal crest is continued round both extremities, becoming expanded to form the rostral fin in front and the caudal fin behind. Even in external view, careful inspection will show that the body is divisible into four regions, namely, cephalic, atrial, abdominal and caudal. The cephalic region includes the rostrum or praeoral fllGHT Fig. 3. — Transverse sections of Amphioxus. (From Lankester.) A. Section through region of atrio-coelomic canals, v. B. Section in front of mouth ; the right and left sides are transposed, a, Cavity surround- ing fin ray; a', fin ray; b, muscular tissue of myotome; c, nerve- cord ; d, notochord ; c, left aorta ; /, thickened ridges of epithelium of praeoral chamber (Rader organ) ; g, coiled tube lying in a coelomic space on right side of praeoral hood, apparently an artery ; h, cuticle of notochord ; i, connective-tissue sheath of notochord ; k, median ridge of skeletal canal of nerve-cord; /, skeletal canal protecting nerve-cord; m, inter-segmental skeletal septum of myotome; n, subcutaneous ' skeletal connective tissue; 0, ditto of metapleur (this should be relatively thicker than it is) ; q, sub cutaneous connective tissue of ventral surface of atrial wall (not a canal, as supposed by Stieda and others); r, epiblastic epithelium; s, gonad-sac containing ova ; /, pharyngeal bar in section, one of the " tongue " bars alternating with the main bars and devoid of pharyngo-pleural fold and cqelom; v, atrio-coelomic funnel; u\ so- called dorsal " coelom; x, lymphatic space or canal of metapleur; y, sub-pharyngeal vascular trunk; z, blood-vessel (portal vein) on wall of hepatic caecum; aa, space of atrial or branchial chamber; bb, ventral groove of pharynx (anteriorly this takes the form of a ridge); cc, hyperbranchial groove of pharynx; dd, lumen or space of hepatic caecum; ee, narrow coelomic space surrounding hepatic caecum ; ff, lining cell-layer of hepatic caecum ; gg, inner face of a pharyngeal bar clothed with hypoblast, the outer face covered with epiblast (represented black) ; hh, a main pharyngeal bar with projecting pharyngeal fold (on which the reference line rests) in section, showing coelomic space beneath the black 'epiblast ; ii, transverse ventral muscle of epipleura; kk, raphe or plane of fusion of two down-grown epipleura; 11, space and nucleated cells on dorsal face of notochord; mm, similar space and cells en its ventral face. AMPHIOXUS 889 lobe and the mouth. As already stated, the notochord extends beyond the mouth to the tip of the rostrum. The mouth consists of two portions, an outer vestibule and an inner apertura oris; the latter is surrounded by a sphincter muscle, which forms the so-called velum. The vestibule of the mouth is the space bounded by the oral hood; this arises by second- ary downgrowth of lid-like folds over the true oral aperture, and is provided with a fringe of tentacular cirri, each of which is supported by a solid skeletal axis. The oral hood with its cirri has a special nerve supply and musculature by which the cirri can be either spread out, or bent inwards so that those of one side may interdigitate with those of the other, thus completely closing the en- trance to the mouth. The velum is also provided withacircletof twelve tantacles (in some species sixteen) which hang backwards into the pharynx; these are the velar tentacles. The atrial region extends from the mouth over about two- thirds of the length of the body, terminat- ing at a large median ventral aperture, the atriopore; this is the excurrent orifice for the respiratory current of water and also serves for the evacuation of the generative products. This region is really the branchiogenital region, al- though the fact is not apparent in exter- nal view. The ventral side of the body in the atrial region is broad and convex, so that the body presents the appearance of a spherical triangle in transverse sec- tion, the apex being formed by the dorsal fin and the angles bordered by two hollow folds, the metapleural folds, each of which contains a continuous longitudi- nal lymph-space, the metapleural canal. In the genus Branchiostoma the meta- pleural folds terminate symmetrically shortly behind the atriopore, but in Heteropleuron the right metapleur passes uninterruptedly into the median crest of the ventral fin (fig. 1). In this connexion it may also be mentioned that in all cases the right half of the oral hood is directly continuous with the rostral fin (fig. 2). The abdominal region comprises a short stretch of body between atriopore and anus, the termination of the alimentary canal. It is characterized by the presence of a special development of the lophioderm or median fin-system, namely, the ventral fin, which is composed of two portions, a lower keel-like portion, which underlies an upper chambered portion, each chamber containing typically a pair of gelatinous fin rays. Finally, the caudal region comprises the post-anal division of the trunk. The keel of the ventral fin is continued past the anus into the expanded caudal fin, and so it happens that the anal opening is displaced from the middle line to the left side of the fin. In Asymmetron the caudal region is remarkable for the curious elongation of the notochord, which is produced far beyond the last of the myotomes. Alimentary, Respiratory and Excretory Systems.— Although the function of the two latter systems of organs is the purification of the blood, they are not usually considered together, and it is therefore the more remarkable that their close association in Amphioxus renders it necessary to treat them in common. The alimentary canal is a perfectly straight tube lined throughout by ciliated epithelium. As food particles pass in through the mouth they become enveloped in a slimy substance (secreted by the endostyle) and conveyed down the gut by the action of the vibratile cilia as a continuous food-rope, the peristaltic move- ments of the gut-wall being very feeble. The first part of the alimentary canal consists of the pharynx or branchial sac, the side walls of which are perforated by upwards of sixty pairs of elongated Fig. 4. — Amphioxus lanceolatus laid open ven- trally. (After Rathke, slightly altered.) m, Mouth appearing as an elongated slit when relaxed (as in the lamprey) ; p, perforated pharynx; e, endostyle; g, gonads; /, liver; at, level of atriopore; i, intestine; an, anus. In this species the atrium is produced as an asym- metrical blind pouch behind the atriopore as far as the anus. slits, the gill-clefts. Each primary gill-cleft becomes divided into two by a tongue-bar which grows down secondarily from the upper wall of the cleft and fuses with the ventral wall. New clefts continue to form at the posterior end of the pharynx during the adult life of the animal. The gill-clefts open directly from the cavity of the pharynx into that of the atrium, and so give egress to the respiratory current which enters the mouth with the food (fig. 4) . The atrium or atrial chamber is a peripharyngeal cavity of secondary origin effecting the enclosure of the gill-clefts, which in the larva opened directly to the exterior. The atrium is thus analogous to the opercular cavity of fishes and tadpoles, and, as stated above, remains in communication with the exterior by means of the atriopore. The primary and secondary bars which separate and divide the successive gill-clefts from one another are traversed by blood-vessels which run from a simple tubular con- tractile ventral branchial vessel along the bars into a dorsal aorta. The ventral branchial vessel lies below the hypobranchial groove or endostyle, and is the representative of a heart. As water for respiration streams through the clefts, gaseous interchange takes place between the circulating colourless blood and the percolat- ing water. The pharynx projects freely into the atrium; it is surrounded at the sides and below by the continuous atrial cavity, but dorsally it is held in position in two ways. First, its dorsal wall (which is grooved to form the hyperpharyngeal groove) is closely adherent to the sheath of the notochord; and secondly, the pharynx is attached through the intermediation of the primary bars. These are suspended to the muscular body- wall by a double membrane, called the ligamentum denticuiatum, which forms at once the roof of the atrial chamber and the floor of a persistent portion of the original body-cavity or coelom (the dorsal coelomic canal on each side of the pharynx). The liga- mentum denticuiatum is thus lined on one side by the epiblastic atrial epithelium, and on the other by mesoblastic coelomic epithelium. Now this ligament is inserted into the primary bars some distance below the upper limits of the gill-clefts, and it therefore follows that, corresponding with each tongue-bar, the atrial cavity is produced upward beyond the insertion of the ligament into a series of bags or pockets, which may be called the atrial pouches. At the top of each of these pouches there is a minute orifice, the aperture of a small tubule lying above each pouch in the dorsal coelom. These tubules are the excretory tubules or nephridia. They communicate with the coelom by several openings or nephrostomes, and with the atrium by a single opening in each case, the nephridiopore. It is important to emphasize the fact that in Amphioxus the excretory tubules are co-extensive with the gill-clefts. The perforated pharynx terminates some distance in front of the atriopore. At the level of its posterior end a pair of funnel-shaped pouches of the atrium are produced forwards into the dorsal coelom. These are the atrial coelomic funnels or brown funnels, so called on account of the characteristic pigmentation of their walls. There are reasons for supposing that these funnels are vestiges of an ancient excretory system, which has given way by substitution to the excretory tubules described above. In the same region of the body, namely, close behind the pharynx, a large diverticulum is given off from the ventral side of the gut. This is the hepatic caecum (fig. 2, 2, q, fig. 4, /), which is quite median at its first origin, but, as it grows in length, comes to lie against the right wall of the pharynx. Although within the atrial cavity, it is separated from the latter by a narrow coelomic space, bounded towards the atrium by coelomic and atrial epithelium. No food passes into the hepatic caecum, whichhas been definitely shown on em bryological and physiological grounds to be the simplest persistent form of the vertebrate liver. Nervous System.- — As has already been indicated, a solid sub- cylindrical elastic rod, the notochord, surrounded by a sheath of laminar connective tissue, the cordal sheath, lies above the ali- mentary canal in contact with its dorsal wall, and extends beyond it both in front and behind to the obtusely pointed extremities of the body. This notochord represents the persistent primordial skeletal axis which, in the higher Craniata (though not so in the lower), gives way by substitution to the segmented vertebral column. Immediately above the notochord there lies another 890 AMPHIOXUS subcylindrical cord, also surrounded by a sheath of connective tissue. This cord is neither elastic nor solid, but consists of nerve tissue, fibres and ganglion cells, surrounding a small central canal. For the sake of uniformity in nomenclature this nerve-cord may be called the neurochord. It is the central nervous system, and contains within itself the elements of the brain and spinal marrow of higher forms. The neurochord tapers towards its posterior end, where it is coextensive with the notochord, but ends abruptly in front, some distance behind the tip of the snout. The neurochord attains its greatest thickness not at its anterior end but some way behind this region; but the central canal dilates at the anterior extremity to form a thin-walled cerebral vesicle, in the front wall of which there is an aggregation of dark pigment cells constituting an eyespot, visible through the transparent skin (fig. 1). There are two pairs of specialized cerebral nerves innervating the praeoral lobe, and provided with peripheral ganglia placed near the termination of the smaller branches. Corresponding with each pair of myotomes, and subject to the same alternation, two pairs of spinal nerves arise from the neurochord, namely, a right and left pair of compact dorsal sensory roots without ganglionic enlargement, and a right and left pair of ventral motor roots composed of loose fibres issuing separately from the neurochord and passing directly to their termination on the muscle-plates of the myotomes. The first dorsal spinal nerve coincides in position with the myocomma which separates the first myotome from the second on each side, and thereafter the successive dorsal roots pass through the substance of the myocommata on their way to the skin; they are therefore septal or intersegmental in position. The ventral roots, on the contrary, are myal or seg- mental in position. In addition to the cerebral eyespot there are large numbers of minute black pigmented bodies beside and below the central canal of theneuro- chord, commencing from the level of the third myotome. It has been determined that these bodies are of the nature of eyes (Becheraugen, R. Hesse), each consisting of two cells, a cup-shaped pigment cell and a triangular retinal cell. These may be called the spinal eyes, and it is said that they are disposed in such a way as to receive illumination preferentially from the right side, although this fact has no relation with the side upon which Amphi- oxus may lie upon the sand. When kept in captivity the animal often lies upon one side on the surface of the sand, but on either side indiffer- ently. Over the cerebral eye there is a small orifice placed to the left of the base of the cephalic fin, leading into a pit which extends from the surface of the body to the surface of the cerebral vesicle; this is known as A. von Kolliker's olfactory pit. Reproductive System.- — The sexes are separate, and the male or female gonads, which are exactly similar in outward appearance, occur as a series of gonadic pouches project- ing into the atrial cavity at the base of the myotomes (figs. 2,3,4). At the breeding season the walls of the pouches burst and the sexual elements pass into the atrium, whence they are discharged through the atriopore into the water, where fertilization takes place. Development. — The development of Amphioxus possesses many features of interest, and cannot fail to retain its importance as an introduction to the study of W^m >m y Fig. 5. — Diagram of embryo of Amphioxus seen from above in optical section. (Adapted from Hatschek.) pc, Pre- chordal head-cavity of em- bryo; cc, collar-cavity (first somite) ; my, mesodermic somites (myocoelomic or archenteric pouches) ; ch, notochord with the neural tube (neurochord) lying upon it; np, anterior neuropore; ne, position of posterior neur- enteric canal. embryology. The four principal phases in the development are: (1) Blastula, (2) Gastrula, (3) Flagellate Embryo, (4) Larva. The segmentation or cleavage of the ovum which follows upon fertilization terminates in the achievement of the blastula form, a minute sphere of cells surrounding a central cavity. Then follows the phenomenon of gastrulation, by which one- half of the blastula is invaginated into the other, so as to obliterate the segmentation cavity. The embryo now consists of two layers of cells, epiblast and hypoblast, surrounding a cavity, the archenteron, which opens to the exterior by the orifice of invagination or blastopore. One important fact should anp 8" cc r w& m rm.', Fig. 6. — Anterior region of two pelagic larvae of A. lanceolatus ob- tained by the tow-net in 8-10 fathoms, showing the asymmetry of the large lateral sinistral mouth with its ciliated margin cm and the dextral series of simple primary gill-slits (lps-i^ps). The larvae swim normally like the adult or suspend themselves by their flagella (not shown in the figures) vertically in mid-water. There is nothing in their mode of life which will afford an explanation of the asym- metry which is a developmental phenomenon. Lettering of upper figure. — anp, Anterior neural pore ; be, rudiment of buccal skeleton ; c, cilia; cb, ciliated band; cc, ciliated groove; cm, cilia at margin of mouth; gl, external opening of club-shaped gland; Hn, Hatschek's nephridium; Im, left metapleur; n, notochord; pp, praeoral pit; ps, primary gill-slits, 1, 5, and 13; rm, right meta- pleur showing through. Lettering of lower figure. — a, Atrium ; al, alimentary canal; bv, blood-vessel; cv, cerebral vesicle; if, dorsal section of myocoel ( = fin spaces); e, "eyespot"; end, endostyle; gl, club-shaped gland; Im, edge of left metapleur; m, lower edge of mouth; n, notochord; nt, pigmented nerve tube; ps, primary gill-slits, I, 9, and 14; re, renal cells on atrial floor; rm, edge of right metapleur; so, sense organ opening into praeoral pit ; is, thickenings, the rudiments of the row of secondary gill-slits. be noted with regard to the gastrula, in which it seems to differ from the gastrulae of invertebrata. After invagination is completed, the embryo begins to elongate, the blastopore becomes narrower, and the dorsal wall of the gastrula loses its convexity, and becomes flattened to form the dorsal plate, the outer layer of which is the primordium of the neurochord and the inner layer the primordium of the noto- chord. While still within the egg-membrane the epiblastic cells become flagellated, and the gastrula rotates within the membrane. About the eighth hour after commencement of development the membrane ruptures and the oval embryo escapes, swimming by means of its flagella at the surface of the sea for another twenty-four hours, during which the principal organs are laid down, although the mouth does not open until the close of this period. The primordium of the neurochord (neural or medullary plate) referred to above becomes closed in from the surface by the overgrowth of surrounding epiblast, and its edges also bend up, meet, and finally fuse to form a tube, the medullary or neural tube. An important fact to note is that the blastopore is included in this overgrowth of epiblast, so that the neural tube remains for some time in open communication with the archenteron by means of a posterior neurenteric canal. It is still longer before the neural tube completes its closure in front, exhibiting a small orifice at the surface, the anterior neuropore. It is thus possible that the neurenteric canal is due to the con- junction of a posterior neuropore with the blastopore, i.e. it is a complex and not a simple structure. Paired archenteric pouches AMPHIPOLIS— AMPHITHEATRE 891 meanwhile appear at the sides of the axial notochordal tract, the mesoblastic somites. The first of these differs in several respects from those which succeed, and has been called the collar cavity (MacBride) . In front of the latter there remains a portion of the archenteron, which becomes constricted off as the head cavity. This becomes divided into two, the right half forming the cavity of the rostrum, while the left acquires an opening to the exterior, and forms the praeoral pit of the larva, which subsequently gives rise to special ciliated tracts in the vestibule of the mouth mentioned above. The larval period commences at about the thirty-sixth hour with the perforation of the mouth, first gill-cleft and anus. The larva is curiously asymmetrical, as many as fourteen gill-clefts appearing in an unpaired series on the right side, while the mouth is a large orifice on the left side, the anus being median. The adult form is achieved by metamorphosis, which cannot be further described here. One point must not be omitted, namely, the homogeny of the endostyle of Amphioxus and the thyroid gland of Craniata. References. — T. Boveri, " Die Nierencanalchen des Amphi- oxus," Zool Jahrb. Anat. v. (1892), p. 429; T. Felix, " Beitrage zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Salmoniden," Anat Hefte Arb. viii. 1897; Amphioxus, p. 333; T. Garbowski, "Amphioxus als Grundlage der Mesodermtheorie," Anat Anz. xiv. (1898), p. 473; R. Hesse, " Die Sehorgane des Amphioxus," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. lxiii. (1898), p 456 ; J. W. Kirkaldy, " A Revision of the Genera and Species of the Branchiostomidae," Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxxvii. (1895), p. 303; E. R. Lankester, " Contributions to the Knowledge of Amphioxus lanceolatus (Yarrell)," op, cit., xxix. (1889), p. 365; Lwoff, " Die Bildung der primaren Keimblatter und die Ent- stehung der Chorda und des Mesoderms bei den Wirbelthieren," Bull. Soc. Moscow (1894); E. W. MacBride, " The early Development of Amphioxus," Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xl. (1897), p. 589, and xliii. (1900) ; T. H. Morgan and A. P. Hazen, " The Gastrulation of Amphioxus," J. Morphol. xvi. (1900), p. 569; P. Sammassa, " Studien iiber den Einfluss des Dotters auf die Gastrulation und die Bildung der primaren Keimblatter der Wirbelthiere : iv. Amphioxus" Arch. f. Entwick. Mech. vii. (1898), p. 1; G. Schneider, " Einiges iiber Resorption und Excretion bei Amphioxus lanceolatus," Anat. Anz. xvi. (1899), p. 601 ; J. Sobotta, " Die Reifung und Befruchtung des Eies von Amphioxus lanceolatus," Arch. mikr. Anat. 1. (1897), p. 15; F. E. Weiss, " Excretory tubules in Amphioxus lanceolatus," Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxxi. (1890), p. 489; A. Willey, Amphioxus and the Ancestry of the Vertebrates (1894) ; " Remarks on some recent Work on the Protochorda," Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xliii. (1899), p. 223; '" Dolichorhynchus indicus," ib. (1901); W. B. Benham, " Hetero- pleuron of New Zealand," ib. (1901); E Burchardt, "Finer Anatomy of Amphioxus," with bibliography, Jena Zeitschr. xxxiv. (1900), p. 719. (A. W.*) AMPHIPOLIS (mod. Yeni Keui), an ancient city of Macedonia, on the east bank of the river Strymon, where it emerges from Lake Cercinitis, about 3 m. from the sea. Originally a Thracian town, known as ''E.vvta 'Odoi (" Nine Roads "), it was colonized by Athenians with other Greeks under Hagnon in 437 B.C., previous attempts — in 497, 476 (Schol. Aesch. De fals. leg. 31) and 465 — having been unsuccessful. In 424 B.C. it surrendered to the Spartan Brasidas without resistance, owing to the gross negli- gence of the historian Thucydides, who was with the fleet at Thasos. In 422 B.C. Cleon led an unsuccessful expedition to recover it, in which both he and Brasidas were slain. The im- portance of Amphipolis in ancient times was due to the fact that it commanded the bridge over the Strymon, and consequently the route from northern Greece to the Hellespont; it was important also as a depot for the gold and silver mines of the district, and for timber, which was largely used in shipbuilding. This importance is shown by the fact that, in the peace of Nicias (421 B.C.), its restoration to Athens is made the subject of a special provision, and that about 417, this provision not having been observed, at least one expedition was made by Nicias with a view to its recovery. Philip of Macedon made a special point of occupying it (357), and under the early empire it became the headquarters of the Roman propraetor, though it was recognized as independent. Many inscriptions, coins, &c, have been found here, and traces of the ancient fortifications and of a Roman aqueduct are visible. AMPHIPROSTYLE (from the Gr. apcbi, on both sides, and irpocrTv'Kos, a portico), the term for a temple (q.v.) with a portico both in the front and in the rear. AMPHISBAENA (a Greek word, from aix&s, both ways, and fiaiveiv, to go), a serpent in ancient mythology, beginning or ending at both head and tail alike. Its fabled existence has been utilized by the poets, such as Milton, Pope and Tennyson. In modern zoology it is the name given to the main genus of a family of worm-shaped lizards, most of which inhabit the tropical parts of America, the West Indies and Africa. The commonest species in South America and the Antilles is the sooty or dusky A. fuliginosa. The body of the amphisbaena, from 18 to 20 in. long, is of nearly the same thickness throughout. The head is small, and there can scarcely be said to be a tail, the vent being close to the extremity of the body. The animal lives mostly underground, burrowing in soft earth, and feeds on ants and other small animals. From its appearance, and the ease with which it moves backwards, has arisen the popular belief that the amphisbaena has two heads, and that when the body is cut in two the parts seek each other out and reunite. From this has arisen another popular error, which attributes extraordinary curative properties to its flesh when dried and pulverized. AMPHITHEATRE (Gr. &/j.optvs, derived from d,u<£i, on both sides, and 4>eptiv, to bear), a large big-bellied vessel used by the ancient Greeks and Romans for preserving wine, oil, honey, and fruits; and in later times as a cinerary urn. It was so named from usually having an ear or handle on each side of the neck {diota) . It was commonly made of earthenware, but sometimes of stone, glass or even more costly materials. Amphorae either rested on a foot, or ended in a point so that they had to be fixed in the ground. The older amphorae were oval-shaped, such as the vases filled with oil for prizes at the Panathenaic festival, having on one side a figure of Athena, on the other a representation of the contest; the latter were tall and slender, with voluted handles. The first class exhibits black figures on a reddish background, the second red figures on a black ground. The amphora was a standard measure of capacity among both Greeks and Romans, the Attic containing nearly nine gallons, and the Roman about six. In modern botany it is a technical term sometimes denoting the lower part of the capsule called pyxidium, attached to the flower stalk in the form of an urn. AMPLIATIVE (from Lat. ampliare, to enlarge), an adjective used mainly in logic, meaning " extending " or " adding to that which is already known." In Norman law an " ampliation " was a postponement of a sentence in order to obtain further evidence. AMPLITUDE (from Lat. amplus, large), in astronomy, the angular distance of the rising or setting sun, or other heavenly body, from the east or west point of the horizon; used mostly by navigators in finding the variation of the compass by the setting sun. In algebra, if a be a real positive quantity and co a root of unity, then a is the amplitude of the product aw. In elliptic in- tegrals, the amplitude is the limit of integration when the integral is expressed in the form j 'Py'i-N 2 sin 2 d. The hyperbolic or Gudermannian amplitude of the quantity x is tan (sinh *). In mechanics, the amplitude of a wave is the maximum ordinate. (See Wave.) AMPSANCTUS, or Amsanctus (mod. Sorgente Mefita), a small lake in the territory of the Hirpini, 10 m. S.E. of Aeclanum, close to the Via Appia. There are now two small pools which exhale carbonic acid gas and sulphuretted hydrogen. Close by was a temple of the goddess Mephitis, with a cave from which suffocating vapours rose, and for this reason the place was brought into connexion with the legends of the infernal regions. Virgil's description (Aeneid, vii. 563) is not, however, very accurate. AMPTHILL, 0D0 WILLIAM LEOPOLD RUSSELL, ist Baron (1829-1884), British diplomatist and ambassador, was born in Florence on the 20th of February 1829. He was the son of Major- General Lord George William Russeli, by Elizabeth Ann, niece of the marquess of Hastings, who was governor-general of India during the final struggle with the Mahrattas. His education, like that of his two brothers — Hastings, who became eventually 9th duke of Bedford, and Arthur, who sat for a generation in the House of Commons as member for Tavistock — -was carried on entirely at home, under the general direction of his mother, whose beauty was celebrated by Byron in Beppo. Lady William Russell was as strong-willed as she was beautiful, and certainly deserved to be described as she was by Disraeli, who said in con- versation, " I think she is the most fortunate woman in England, for she has the three nicest sons." If it had not been for her strong will it is as likely as not that all the three would have gone through the usual mill of a public school, and have lost half their very- peculiar charm. In March 1849 Odo was appointed by Lord Malmesbury attach6 at Vienna. From 1850 to 1852 he was temporarily employed in the foreign office, whence he passed to Paris. He remained there, however, only about two months, when he was transferred to Vienna. In 1853 he became second paid attache at Paris, and in August 1854 he was transferred as first paid attache to Constantinople, where he served under Lord Stratford de Redcliffe. He had charge of the embassy during his chief's two visits to the Crimea in 1855, but left the East to work under Lord Napier at Washington in 1857. In the following year he became secretary of legation at Florence, but was detached from that place to reside in Rome, where he remained for twelve years, till August 1870. During all that period he was the real though unofficial representative of England at the Vatican, and his consummate tact enabled him to do all, and more than all, that an ordinary man could have done in a stronger position. A reference, however, to his evidence before a committee of the House of Commons in 1871 will make it clear to any unprejudiced reader that those were right who, during the early 'fifties, urged so strongly the importance of having a duly accredited agent at the papal court. The line taken by him during the Vatican council has been criticized, but no fault can justly be found with it. Abreast as he was of the best thought of his time — the brother of Arthur Russell, who, more perhaps than any other man, was its most ideal representative in London society — he sympathized strongly with the views of those who 8 94 AMPTHILL— AMRAOTI laboured to prevent the extreme partisans of papal infallibility from having everything their own way. But in his capacity of clear-headed observer, whose business it was to reflect the actual truth upon the mind of his government, he was obliged to make it quite clear that they had no chance whatever, and in conversing with those whose opinions were quite unlike his own, such as Cardinal Manning,he seems to have shown that he had no illusions about the result of the long debate. In 1868 Odo Russell married Lady Emily Theresa Villiers, the daughter of Lord Clarendon. In 1870 he was appointed assistant under-secretary at the foreign office, and in November of that year was sent on a special mission to the headquarters of the German army, where he remained till 1871. It was in connexion with this mission that an episode occurred which at the time threw much discredit upon Gladstone's government. Russia had taken advantage of the collapse of France and her own cordial relations with Prussia to denounce the Black Sea clauses of the treaty of Paris of 1856. Russell, in an interview with Bismarck, pointed out that unless Russia withdrew from an attitude which involved the destruction of a treaty solemnly guaranteed by the powers, Great Britain would be forced to go to war "with or without allies." This strong attitude was effective, and the question was ultimately referred to and settled by the conference which met at London in 1871. Though the result was to score a distinct diplomatic success for the Liberal government, the bellicose method employed wounded Liberal sentiment and threatened to create trouble for the ministry in parliament. On the 16th of February 1871, accord- ingly, Gladstone, in answer to a question, said that " the argu- ment used by Mr Odo Russell was not one which had been directed by her Majesty's government," that it was used by him " without any specific instructions or authority from the govern- ment," but that, at the same time, no blame was to be attached to him, as it was " perfectly well known that the duty of diplo- matic agents requires them to express themselves in that mode in which they think they can best support and recommend the propositions of which they wish to procure acceptance." This Gladstonian explanation was widely criticized as an illegitimate attack on Russell. What is certain is that the foreign office and the country profited by Russell's firmness. (See Morley's Gladstone, ii. 534.) A little later in the same year he received the well-deserved reward of his labours by being made ambassador at Berlin. During the months he passed at the foreign office he was examined before the committee of the House of Commons, already alluded to, and had an opportunity of stating very dis- tinctly in public some of his views with regard to his profession. " If you could only organize diplomacy properly," he said, " you would create a body of men who might influence the destinies of mankind and ensure the peace of the world." In these words we have the key to the thought and habitual action of one of the best and wisest public servants of the time. Russell remained at Berlin, with only brief intervals of absence, from the 16th of October 1871 till his death at Potsdam on the 25th of August 1884. He was third plenipotentiary at the Berlin congress, and is generally credited with having prevented, by his tact and good sense, the British prime minister from making a speech in French, which he knew very imperfectly and p'ronounced abominably. In 1874 Odo Russell received a patent of precedence raising him to the rank of a duke's son, and after the congress of Berlin he was offered a peerage by the Conservative government. This he naturally declined, but accepted the honour in 1881 when it was offered by the Liberals, taking the title of Baron Ampthill. He became a privy councillor in 1872 and was made a G.C.B. somewhat later. At the conference about the Greek frontier, which followed the congress of Berlin, he was the only British representative. During all his long sojourn in the Prussian capital, he did everything that in him lay to bring about close and friendly relations between Great Britain and Germany. He kept on the best of terms with Bismarck, carefully avoiding everything that could give any cause of offence to that most jealous and most unscrupulous minister, whom he, however, did not hesitate to withstand when his unscrupulousness went the length of deliberately attempting to deceive. He was succeeded as 2nd baron by his son, Arthur Oliver Villiers Russell (b. 1869), who rowed in the Oxford eight (1889, 1890, 1891) and became a prominent Unionist politician. He was private secretary to Mr Chamberlain, 1895-1897, and governor of Madras, 1899-1906. In 1904 he acted temporarily as Viceroy of India. (M. G. D.) AMPTHILL, a market town in the northern parliamentary division of Bedfordshire, England, 44 m. N.N.W. of London by the Midland railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2177. It lies on the southern slope of a low range of hills, in a well-wooded district. The church of St Andrew ranges in date from Early English to Perpendicular. It contains a monument to Richard Nicolls (1624-1672), who, under the patronage of the duke of York, brother to Charles II., to whom the king had granted the Dutch North American colony of New Netherland, received the submission of its chief town, New Amsterdam, in 1664, and became its first English governor, the town taking the name of New York. Nicolls perished in the action between the English and Dutch fleets at Solebay, and the ball which killed him is preserved on his tomb. Houghton Park, in the vicinity, contains the ruins of Houghton House, built by Mary, countess of Pem- broke, in the time of James I. To this countess Sir Philip Sidney dedicated the Arcadia. Ampthill Park became in 1818 the seat of that Lord Holland in whose time Holland House, in Kensington, London, became famous as a resort of the most distinguished intellectual society. In the park a cross marks the site of Ampthill Castle, the residence of Catherine of Aragon while her divorce from Henry VIII. was pending. A commemorative inscription on the cross was written by Horace Walpole. Brewing, straw- plaiting and lace-making are carried on in Ampthill. AMPULLA (either a diminutive of amphora, or 'from Lat. ambo, both, and olla, a pot), a small, narrow-necked, round-bodied vase for holding liquids, especially oil and perfumes. It is the Latin term equivalent to the Greek \tjkv6os. It was used in ancient times for toilet purposes and anointing the bodies of the dead, being then buried with them. Gildas mentions the use of ampullae as established among the Britons in his time, arid St Columba is said to have employed one in the coronation of King Aidan. Both the name and the function of the ampulla have survived in the Western Church, where it still signifies the vessel containing the oil consecrated by the bishop for ritual uses, especially in the sacra- ments of Confirmation, Orders and Extreme Unction. The word occurs repeatedly in the service of coronation of the English sovereign in connexion with the ancient ceremony of anointing by the archbishop of Canterbury, which is still observed. The ampulla of the regalia of England takes the form of a golden eagle with outspread wings. The most celebrated ampulla in history was that known as la sainte ampoule, in the abbey of St Remi at Reims, from which the kings of France were anointed. Accord- ing to the legend it had been brought from heaven by a dove for the coronation of Clovis, and at one period the kings of France claimed precedence over all other sovereigns on account of it. It was destroyed at the Revolution. The word " ampulla " is used in biology, by analogy from the shape, for a certain portion of the anatomy of a plant or animal. AMRAM (d. 875), a famous gaon or head of the Jewish Academy of Sura (Persia) in the 9th century. He was author of many " Responsa," but his chief work was liturgical. He was the first to arrange a complete liturgy for the synagogue, and his Prayer-Book (Siddur Rab 'Amram) was the foundation of most of the extant rites in use among the Jews. The Siddur was published in Warsaw in two parts (1865). AMRAOTI, or Umrawattee, a town and district of India, in Berar, Central Provinces. The district was reconstituted in 1905, when that of Ellichpur was incorporated with it. The town has a station 6 m. from Badnera junction on the Great Indian Peninsula line. Pop. (1901) 34,216, showing an increase of 22% in the decade. It is the richest town of Berar, with the most numerous and substantial commercial population. It possesses a branch of the Bank of Bombay, and has the largest AMRAVATI— AMRITSAR 895 cotton mart, where an average of 80,593 bqjas of cotton are bought and sold annually. It has also a large grain market, cotton presses, ginning factories and oil mills. Amraoti raw cotton is quoted on the Liverpool Exchange. The district of Amraoti has an area of 4754 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 630,245, showing a decrease of 4% in the decade; on the area as now constituted it was 809,499. The district is an extensive plain, about 800 ft. above sea-level, the general flatness being only broken by a small chain of hills, running in a north-westerly direction between Amraoti and Chandor, with an average height from 400 to 500 ft. above the lowlands. The principal towns, besides Amraoti, are Karinja, Kolapur, and Badnera, which lies on the Great Indian Peninsula railway, the main line of which crosses the district. Severe drought visited Amraoti in 1890- 1900. AMRAVATI, or Amaravati, a ruined city of India in the Gun tur district of the Madras presidency, on the south bank of the Kistna river, 62 m. from its mouth. The town is of great interest for the antiquary as one of the chief centres of the Buddhist kingdom of Vengi, and for its stupa (sepulchral monument). Amravati has been identified with Hsiian Tsang's To-na-kie-tse-kia and with the Rahmi of Arab geographers. Subsequent to the disappearance of Buddhism from this region the town became a centre of the Sivaite faith. When Hsiian Tsang visited Amravati in a.d. 639 it had already been deserted for a century, but he speaks in glowing terms of its magnificence and beauty. Very careful and artistic representations of the stupa with its daghoba and interesting rail, pillars and sculptures will be found in Fergusson's Tree and Serpent Worship, and in his History of Indian Architecture (1876). Its elaborate carvings illustrate the life of Buddha. Some are preserved in the British Museum; others in the museum at Madras. An account by Dr James Burgess was published in 1877 as one of the volumes of the Archaeological Survey of Southern India. 'AMR-IBN-EL-ASS, or 'Amr (strictly 'Amr b. 'As), one of the most famous of the first race of the Saracen leaders, was of the tribe of Koreish (Qureish). In his youth he was an antagonist of Mahomet. His zeal prompted him to undertake an embassy to the king of Ethiopia, in order to stimulate him against the con- verts whom he had taken under his protection, but he returned a convert to the Mahommedan faith and joined the fugitive prophet at Medina. When Abu Bekr resolved to invade Syria, he en- trusted 'Amr with a high command. 'Amr soon perceived that his troops were not sufficient for a serious battle. Reinforced by Khalid b. al-Walld, whom Abu Bekr sent in all haste from Irak to Syria, he defeated the imperial troops, commanded by Theodorus, the brother of Heraclius, not far from Ramleh in Palestine, on the 31st of July 634. When Omar became caliph he made Khalid chief commander of the Syrian armies, 'Amr remaining in Palestine to complete the submission of that province. It is not certain that 'Amr assisted Khalid in the siege of Damascus, but very probable that he took part in the decisive battle of Yarmuk, 20th of August 636. After this battle he laid siege to Jerusalem, in which enterprise he was seconded a year later by Abu Obeida, then chief commander. After the surrender of Jerusalem 'Amr began the siege of Caesarea, which, however, was brought to a successful end in September or October 640 by Moawiya, 'Amr having obtained Omar's sanction for an expedition against Egypt. Towards the end of 639 he led an army of 4000 Arabs into that country. During his march a messenger from Omar arrived with a letter containing directions to return if he should have received it in Syria, but if in Egypt to advance, in which case all needful assistance would be instantly sent to him. The contents of the letter were not made known to his officers until he was assured that the army was on Egyptian soil, so that the expedition might be continued under the sanction of Omar's orders. Having taken Farama (Pelusium), he advanced to Misr, north of the ancient' Memphis, and besieged it and the strong fortress of Babylon for seven months. Although numerous rein- forcements arrived, he would have found it very difficult to storm the place previous to the inundation of the Nile but for treachery within the citadel; the Greeks who remained there were cither made prisoners or put to the sword. On the same spot 'Amr built a city named Fostat (" the encampment "), the ruins of which are known by the name of Old Cairo. The mosque which he erected and called by his own name is described in Asiatic Journal (1890), p. 759. 'Amr pursued the Greeks to Alexandria, but finding that it was impossible to take the place by storm, he contented himself with blockading it with the greater part of his army, and reducing the Delta to submission with the rest. At the end of twelve months Alexandria sued for peace, and a treaty was signed on the 8th of November 641. To 'Amr acting on Omar's command has been attributed the burning of the famous Alexandrian library. (See Libraries and Alexandria.) Not only is this act of barbarism inconsistent with the characters of Omar and his general, but the earliest authority for the story is Abulfaragius (Barhebraeus), a Christian writer, who lived six centuries later. After the conquest of Egypt 'Amr carried his conquests eastward along the North African coast as far as Barca and even Tripolis. His administration of Egypt was moderate and statesmanlike, and under his rule the produce of the Nile Valley was a constant source of supply to the cities of Arabia. He even reopened a canal at least 80 m. long from the Nile to the Red Sea with the object of renewing communication by sea. Removed from his office by Othman in 647, who replaced him by Ibn abi Sarh, he sided with Moawiya in the contest for the cali- phate, and was largely responsible for the deposition of Ali (q.v.) and the establishment of the Omayyad dynasty. (See Caliphate, section B.) In 658 he reconquered Egypt in Moawiya's interest, and governed it till his death on the 6th of January 664. In a pathetic speech to his children on his deathbed, he bitterly lamented his youthful offence in opposing the prophet, although Mahomet had forgiven him and had frequently affirmed that ■" there was no Mussulman more sincere and steadfast in the faith than 'Amr." Sir W. Muir, The Caliphate (London, 1891); E. Gibbon's Decline and Fall; M. J. de Goeje, Memoire sur la conquite de la Syrie (Leiden, 1900) ; Butler, Arab Conquest of Egypt (Oxford, 1902) ; art. Egypt, History, Mahommedan Period. 'AMR IBN KULTHUM, Arabian poet, author of one of the Mo'allakat. Little or nothing is known of his life save that he was a member of the tribe of Taghlib and that he is said to have died of excessive v/ine-drinking. Some stories of him are told in the Book of Songs (see Abulfaraj), vol. ix. pp. 181-185. AMRITSAR, or Umritsar, a city and district of British India, in the Lahore division of the Punjab. The city has a station on the North Western railway 32 m. E. of Lahore, its position on which has greatly assisted its development. Amritsar is chiefly notable as the centreof the Sikh religion and the site of the Golden Temple, the chief worshipping place of the Sikhs. Ram Das, the fourth guru, laid the foundations of the city upon a site granted by the emperor Akbar. He also excavated the holy tank from which the town derives its name of Amrita Turas, or Pool of Immortality. It is upon a small island in the middle of this tank that the Golden Temple is now situated. About two centuries afterwards, in the course of the struggle between the Sikhs and the Mahommedans, Ahmad Shah Durani routed the Sikhs at the great battle of Panipat, and on his homeward march he destroyed the town of Amritsar, blew up the temple with gunpowder, filled in the sacred tank with mud, and defiled the holy place by the slaughter of cows. But when Ahmad Shah returned to Kabul the Sikhs rose once more and re-established their religion. Finally the city and surrounding district fell under the sway of Ranjit Singh at Lahore, and passed with the rest of the Punjab into the possession of the British after the second Sikh war. The Golden Temple is so called on account of its copper dome, covered with gold foil, which shines brilliantly in the rays of the Indian sun, and is reflected back from the waters of the lake; but the building as a whole is too squat to have much architectural merit apart from its ornamentation. Marble terraces and balustrades surround the tank, and a marble cause- way leads across the water to the temple, whose gilded walls, roof, dome and cupolas, with vivid touches of red curtains, are reflected in the still water. The temple was considerably 8 9 6 AMROHA— AMSTERDAM enriched by the spoils taken by Ranjit Singh in his conquests. The population of Amritsar in 1901 was 162,429. A Sikh college for university education was opened in 1897. The other public buildings include two churches, a town hall and a hospital. Amritsar is famous for its carpet-weaving industry. It was the first mission station of the church of England in the Punjab. The district is bounded on the N.W. by the river Ravi, on the S.E. by the river Beas, on the N.E. by the district of Gurdaspur, and on the S.W. by the district of Lahore. Amritsar district is a nearly level plain, with a very slight slope from east to west. The banks of the Beas are high, and on this side of the district well-water is not found except at 50 ft. below the surface; while towards the Ravi wells are less than 20 ft. in depth. The only stream passing through the district is the Kimi or Saki, which takes its rise in a marsh in the Gurdaspur district, and after traversing part of the district empties itself into the Ravi. Numerous canals intersect the district, affording ample means of irrigation. The Sind, Punjab and Delhi railway (North Western) and Grand Trunk road, which runs parallel with it, afford the principal means of land communication and traffic. The area of the district is 1601 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 1,023,828, showing an increase of 3 % on the previous decade. It is the headquarters of the Sikh religion, containing 264,329 Sikhs as against 280,985 Hindus and 474,976 Mahommedans. The principal crops are wheat, pulse, maize, millet, with some cotton and sugar-cane. There are factories for ginning and pressing cotton. AMROHA, a town of British India, in the Moradabad dis- trict of the United Provinces. It contains the tomb of a Mahom- medan saint, Shaikh Saddu, and has been for many centuries a Mahommedan centre. Pop. (1901) 40,077. AMRUM, or Amrom, a German island in the North Sea, off the coast of Schleswig-Holstein to the south of Sylt. Pop. (1900) 900. It is 6 m. long and 3 m. broad, with an area of 105 sq. m., and is reached from the mainland by a regular steamboat service to Wittdun, a favourite sea-bathing resort; or at low water by carriage from Fohr. The larger part of Amrum consists of a treeless sandy expanse, but a fringe of rich marshes affords good pasture-land. The principal place is Nebel, connected by a light railway with Wittdun. (See also Frisian Islands.) AMRU'-UL-QAIS, or Imrtj'-ul Qais, IBN HUJR, Arabian poet of the 6th century, the author of one of the Mo'allakat (q.v.), was regarded by Mahomet and others as the most distinguished poet of pre-Islamic times. He was of the kingly family of Kinda, and his mother was of the tribe of Taghlib. While he was still young, his father was killed by the Bani Asad. After this his life was devoted to the attempt to avenge his father's death. He wandered from tribe to tribe to gain assistance, but his attempts were always foiled by the persistent following of the messengers of Mundhir of Hira (Hfra). At last he went to the Jewish Arabian prince, Samu'al, left his daughter and treasure with him, and by means of Harith of Ghassan procured an introduc- tion to the Byzantine emperor Justinian. After a long stay in Constantinople he was named phylarch of Palestine, and received a body of troops from Justin II. With these he started on his way to Arabia. It is said that a man of Asad, who had followed him to Constantinople, charged him before the emperor with the seduction of a princess, and that Justin sent him a poisoned cloak, which caused his death at Ancyra. His poems are contained in W. Ahlwardt's The Divans of the six ancient Arabic Poets (London, 1870), and have been published separately in M'G. de Slane's Le Diwan d'Amro'lkats (Paris, 1837) ; a German version with life and notes in F. Riickert's Amrilkais der Dichter und Konig (Stuttgart, 1843). Many stories of his life are told in the Kitab ul-Aghdni, vol. viii. pp. 62-77. (G. W. T.) AMSDORF, NICOLAUS VON (1483-1565), German Protestant reformer, was born on the 3rd of December 1483 at Torgau, on the Elbe. He was educated at Leipzig, and then at Wittenberg, where he was one of the first who matriculated (1502) in the recently founded university. He soon obtained various academi- cal honours, and became professor of theology in 1511. Like Andreas Carlstadt, he was at first a leading exponent of the older type of scholastic theology, but under the influence of Luther abandoned his Aristotelian positions for a theology based on the Augustinian doctrine of grace. Throughout his life he remained one of Luther's most determined supporters; was with him at the Leipzig conference (15 19), and the diet of Worms (1521); and was in the secret of his Wartburg seclusion. He assisted the first efforts of the Reformation at Magdeburg (1524), at Goslar (1531) and at Einbeck (1534) ; took an active part in the debates at Schmalkalden (1537), where he defended the use of the sacra- ment by the unbelieving; and (1539) spoke out strongly against the bigamy of the landgrave of Hesse. After the death of the count palatine, bishop of Naumburg-Zeitz, he was installed there (January 20, 1542), though in opposition to the chapter, by the elector of Saxony and Luther. His position was a painful one, and he longed to get back to Magdeburg, but was persuaded by Luther to stay. After Luther's death (1 546) and the battle of Muhlberg (1547) he had to yield to his rival, Julius von Pflug, and retire to the protection of the young duke of Weimar. Here he took part in founding Jena University (1548); opposed the " Augsburg Interim " (1548); superintended the publication of the Jena edition of Luther's works; and debated on the freedom of the will, original sin, and, more noticeably, on the Christian value of good works, in regard to which he held that they were not only useless, but prejudicial. He urged the separation of the High Lutheran party from Melanchthon (1557), got the Saxon dukes to oppose the Frankfort Recess (1558) and continued to fight for the purity of Lutheran doctrine. He died at Eisenach on the 14th of May 1565, and was buried in the church of St George there, where his effigy shows a well-knit frame and sharp-cut features. He was a man of strong will, of great aptitude for controversy, and considerable learning, and thus exercised a decided influence on the Reformation. Many letters and other short productions of his pen are extant in MS., especially five thick volumes of Amsdorfiana, in the Weimar library. They are a valuable source for our knowledge of Luther. A small sect, which adopted his opinion on good works, was called after him; but it is now of mere historical interest. Bibliography. — Life, in Th. Pressel, Leben u. ausgewahlte Schrift. der Voter der luth. Kirche, vol. viii. (published separately Elberfeld, 1862, 8vo) ; J. Meier in Das Leben der Altvater der luth. Kirche, vol. iii. ed. M. Meurer (1863) ; art. by G. Kawerau in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyk. fiir prot. Theologie (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1896). AMSLER, SAMUEL (1791-1849), Swiss engraver, was bom at Schinznach, in the canton of Aargau. He studied his art under Johan Heinrich Lips (1758-1817) and Karl Ernst Hess, at Munich, and from 1816 pursued it in Italy, and chiefly at Rome, till in 1829 he succeeded his former master Hess as professor of copper engraving in the Munich academy. The works he designed and engraved are remarkable for the grace of the figures, and for the wonderful skill with which he retains and expresses the characteristics of the original paintings and statues. He was a passionate admirer of Raphael, and had great success in reproducing his works. Amsler's principal engravings are: " The Triumphal March of Alexander the Great," a.nd a full-length " Christ," after the sculptures of Thorwaldsen and Dannecker; the " Entombment of Christ," and two " Madonnas " after Raphael; and the " Union between Religion and the Arts," after Overbeck, his last work, on which he spent six years. AMSTERDAM, the chief city of Holland, in the province of North Holland, on the south side of the Y or Ij, an arm of the Zuider Zee, in 52 22' N. and 4 53' E. Pop. (1900) 523,557. It has communication by railway and canal in every direction; steam-tramways connect it with Edam, Purmerend, Alkmaar and Hilversum, and electric railways with Haarlem and the sea- side resort of Zandvoort. Amsterdam, the " dam or dyke of the Amstel," is so called from the Amstel, the canalized river which passes through the city to the Y. Towards the land the city is surrounded by a semicircular fosse or canal, and was at one time regularly fortified; but the ramparts have been demolished and are replaced by fine gardens and houses, and only one gateway, the Muiderpoort, is still standing. Within the city are four similar canals (grackten) with their ends resting on the Y, extend- S ing in the form of polygonal crescents nearly parallel to each AMSTERDAM 897 other and to the outer canal. Each of these canals marks the line of the city walls and moat at different periods. Lesser canals intersect the others radially, thus virtually dividing the city into a number of islands; whence it has been compared with Venice. The nucleus of the town lies within the innermost crescent canal, and, with the large square, the Dam, in the centre, represents the area of Amsterdam about the middle of the 14th century. At one extremity of the enclosing canal is the Schrei- jerstoren (1482) or " Weepers' Tower," so called on account of its being at the head of the ancient harbour, and the scene in former days of sorrowful leave-takings. Between this and the next crescent of the Heeren Gracht sprang up, on the east, the labyrinthine quarter where for more than three centuries the large Jewish population has been located, and in the middle of which the painter Rembrandt lived (1640-1656) and the philo- sopher Spinoza was born (1632). Beyond the Heeren Gracht lie the Keizers Gracht and the Prinsen Gracht respectively, and these three celebrated canals, with their tree-bordered quays and plain but stately old-fashioned houses, form the principal thorough- fares of the city. West of the Prinsen Gracht lies the region called De Jordaan, a corruption of Le Jardin, the name which it acquired from the fact of its streets being called after various flowers. It was formed by the settlement of French refugees here after the revocation of the edict of Nantes. The outermost crescent canal is called the Singel Gracht (girdle canal), and marks the boundary of the city at the end of the 17th century. The streets in the oldest part of Amsterdam are often narrow and irregular, and the sky-line is picturesquely broken by fantastic gables, roofs and towers. The site of the city being originally a peat bog, the foundations of the houses have to be secured by driving long piles (4-20 yds.) into the firm clay below, the palace on the Dam being supported on nearly 14,000 piles. As late as 1822, however, an overladen corn magazine sank into the mud. Modern Amsterdam extends southward beyond the Singel Gracht, and here the houses are often very handsome, while the broad streets are planted with rows of large trees. In the middle of this new region lies the Vondel Park, named after the great national poet Joost van den Vondel (d. 1679), whose statue stands in the park. The Willems Park adjoining was added in later times. In the older part of the town the chief open space is the Zoological Gardens in the north-eastern corner. They belong to a private society called Natura ArtisMagistra, and came into existence in 1838. They have, however, been much enlarged since then, and bear a high reputation. In connexion with the gardens there are an aquarium (1882), a library, and an ethno- graphical and natural history museum. Concerts are given here in summer as well as in the Vondel Park. Close to the Zoological Gardens are the Botanical Gardens, and a small park, also the property of a private society, in which there is a variety theatre. The public squares of the city include the Sophiaplein, with the picturesque old mint-tower; the Rembrandtplein, with a monu- ment (1852) to the painter by Lodswyk Royer; the Thorbecke- plein, with a monument to the statesman, J. R. Thorbecke (1708-1872), and the Leidscheplein, with the large town theatre, rebuilt in 1890-1894 after a fire. Buildings and Institutions. — The Dam is the vital centre of Amsterdam. All the tramways meet here, and some of the busiest streets, and here too are situated the Nieuwe Kerk and the palace. In the middle of the Dam stands a monument to those who fell in the Belgian revolution of 1 830-1 831, and called the Metal Cross after the war medals struck at that time. The palace is an imposing building in the classical style, originally built as a town-hall in 1648-1655 by the architect Jacob van Kempen. It was first given up to royalty on the occasion of the visit of the Stadtholder William V. in 1768, and forty years later was appropriated as a royal palace by Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland. But King William I. afterwards formally returned the palace to the city, and the sovereign is therefore actually the city's guest when residing in it. Beautifully decorated on the exterior with gable reliefs by Artus Quellinus (1 600-1 668) of Antwerp, its great external defect is the absence of a grand entrance. The architectural and ornamental sculpture of the 1. 29 interior is mostly by the same artist, and there area few interest- ing pictures, as well as some realistic wall paintings by the 18th- century artist Jacob de Wit similar to those in the Huis ten Bosch near the Hague. The great hall is one of the most splendid of its kind in Europe. Like most of the lesser apartments, it is lined with white Italian marble, and in spite of its enormous dimensions the roof is unsupported by pillars. Ancient flags captured in war decorate the walls, and in the middle of the marble floor is a representation of the firmament inlaid in copper. The Nieuwe Kerk (St Catherine's), in which the sovereigns of Holland are crowned, is a fine Gothic building dating from 1408. Inter- nally it is remarkable for its remains of ancient stained glass, fine carvings and interesting monuments, including one to the famous Admiral de Ruyter (d. 1676). A large stained-glass window commemorates the taking of the oath by Queen Wilhel- mina in 1898. The new exchange (1901) is a striking building in red brick and stone, and lies a short distance away between the Dam and the fine central station (1889). The Oude Kerk (St Nicholaas), so called, was built about the year 1300, and contains some beautiful stained glass of the 1 6th and 17th centuries, by Pieter Aertsen of Amsterdam (1508-1575) and others. One window contains the arms of the burgomasters of Amsterdam from 1578 to 1767. Among the monuments are those to various naval heroes, including Admirals van Heemskerk (d. 1607), Sweers (d. 1673) and van der Hulst (d. 1666). The North Church was the last work of the architect Hendrik de Keyser (1565-1621) of Utrecht. The Roman Catholic church of St Nicholaas (1886) was built to replace the accommodation previously afforded by a common dwelling-house, now the Museum Amstelkring of ecclesiastical antiquities. Among the numerous Jewish synagogues, the largest is that of the Portuguese Jews (1670), which is said to be an imitation of the temple of Solomon. Other buildings of interest are the St Antonieswaag, built as a town gate in 1488-1585, and now containing the city archives; the Trippenhuis, built as a private house in 1662, and now the home of the Royal Society of Science, Letters and Fine Arts; the Netherlands Bank (1865-1869), built by the architect W. A. Froger; the new building (i860) of the Seamen's Institute, founded in 1785; the cellular prison; and the so-called Paleis van Volksvlijt, an immense building of iron and glass with a fine garden, built by Dr Samuel Sarphati, and used for industrial exhibitions, the performance of operas, &c. The museums and picture galleries of Amsterdam are of great interest. The Ryks Museum, or state museum, is the first in Holland. It is a large, handsome and finely situated building designed by Dr P. J. H. Cuyper in the Dutch Renaissance style, and erected in 1876-1885. The exterior is decorated with sculptures and tile-work, and internally it is divided, broadly speaking, into a museum of general antiquities below, and the large gallery of pictures of the Dutch and Flemish schools above. The nucleus of this unsurpassed national collection of pictures was formed out of the collections removed hither from the Pavilion at Haarlem, consisting of modern paintings, and from the town-hall, the van der Hoop Museum and the Trippenhuis in Amsterdam. The important van der Hoop collection arose out of bequests by Adrian van der Hoop and his widow in 1854 and 1880; but the most famous pictures in the Ryks Museum are perhaps the three which come from the Trippenhuis, namely, the so-called " Night- watch " and the " Syndics of the Cloth Hall " by Rembrandt, and the " Banquet of the Civic Guard," by van der Heist. The Trippenhuis gallery consisted of the pictures brought from the Hague by Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, and belonging to the collection of the Orange family dispersed during the Napokonic period. The municipal museum contains a collection of furniture, paintings, &c, bequeathed by Sophia Lopez-Suasso (1890), a medico-pharmaceutical collection, and the National Guard Museum. The Joseph Fodor Museum (i860) contains modern French and Dutch pictures. The private collection founded by Burgomaster Jan Six (d. 1702), the friend and patron of Rembrandt, was sold to the state in 1907; the pictures, except the family Rembrandts, are in the Ryks Museum. Close to this is the Willet-Holthuysen Museum (1895) of furniture, porcelain, &cv 11 8 9 8 AMSTERDAM Education and Charities. — There are two universities in Amsterdam: the Free University (1880), and the more ancient state university of Amsterdam, originally founded in 1632, but reconstructed in 1887. In addition to the numerous science laboratories the state university possesses a very fine library of about 100,000 volumes, including the Rosenthal collection of over 8000 books on Jewish literature. Modern educational institutions include a school of engineering (1879), a school for teachers (1878) and a school of industrial art(i87o). Amsterdam is also remarkable for the number and high character of its benevolent institutions, which are to a large extent supported by voluntary contributions. Among others may be mentioned hospitals for the sick, the aged, the infirm, the blind, the deaf, the dumb, the insane, and homes for widows, orphans, foundlings and sailors. The costumes of the children educated at the different orphanages are varied and picturesque, those of the municipal orphanage being dressed in the city colours of red and black. In the Walloon orphanage are some interesting pictures by van der Heist and others. The Society for Public Welfare {Maatschappij tot nut van het Algemeen), founded in 1785, has for its object the promotion of the education and improvement of all classes, and has branches in every part of Holland. Among other Amsterdam societies are the Felix Meritis (1776), and the Arti et Amicitiae (1839), whose art exhibitions are of a high order. Harbour and Commerce. — -The first attempt which the city of Amsterdam made to overcome the evils wrought to its trade by the slow formation of the Pampus sandbank at the entrance to the Y from the Zuider Zee, was the construction of the North Holland canal to the Helder in 1825. But the route was too long and too intricate, and in 1876 a much larger and more direct ship canal was built across the isthmus to the North Sea at Ymuiden. The serious rivalry of Rotterdam, especially with regard to the transit trade, and the inadequacy of the Keulsche Vaart, which connected the city with the Rhine, led to the construction in 1892 of the Merwede canal to Gorinchem. Meanwhile a complete transformation took place on the Y to suit the new requirements of the city's trade. The three islands built out into the river serve to carry the railway across the front of the city, and form a long series of quays. On either side are the large East and West docks (1825-1834), and beyond these stretch the long quays at which the American and East Indian liners are berthed. On the west of the West, dock is the timber dock, and east of the East dock is another series of islands joined together so as to form basins and quays, one of which is the State Marine dock (1790-1795) with the arsenal and admiralty offices. Opening out of one of the crescent canals which penetrate the city from the Y is the State Entrep6t dock (1900), the free harbour of Amsterdam, where the produce from the Dutch East Indies is stored. On the north side of the Y are the dry docks and the petroleum dock (1880-1890). The principal imports are timber, coal, grain, ore, petroleum and colonial produce. Under the last head fall tobacco, tea, coffee, cocoa, sugar, Peruvian bark and other drugs. Diamond-cutting has long been practised by the Jews and forms one of the most characteristic industries of the city. Other industries include sugar refineries, soap, oil, glass, iron, dye and chemical works; distilleries, breweries, tanneries; tobacco and snuff factories; shipbuilding and the manufacture of machinery and stearine candles. Although no longer the centre of the banking transac- tions of the world, the Amsterdam exchange is still of considerable importance in this respect. The celebrated Bank of Amsterdam, founded in 1609, was dissolved in 1796, and the present Bank of the Netherlands was established in 1814 on the model of the Bank of England. The money market is the headquarters of companies formed to promote the cultivation of colonial produce. History.— In 1204, when Giesebrecht II. of Amstel built a castle there, Amsterdam was a fishing hamlet held in fee by the lords of Amstel of the bishops of Utrecht, for whom they acted as bailiffs. In 1240 Giesebrecht III., son of the builder of the castle, constructed a dam to keep out the sea. To these two, then, the origin of the city may be ascribed. The first mention of the town is in 1275, in a charter of Floris IV., count of Holland, exempting it from certain taxes. In 1 296 the place passed out of the hands of the lords of Amstel, owing to the part taken by Giesebrecht IV. in the murder of Count Floris V. of Holland. Count John (d. 1304), after coming to an understanding with the bishop of Utrecht, bestowed the fief on his brother, Guy of Hainaut. Guy gave the town its first charter in 1300. It established the usual type of govern- ment under a bailiff (schout) and judicial assessors (scabini, or schoppenen), the overlord's supremacy being guarded, and an appeal lying from the court of the scabini, in case of their dis- agreement, to Utrecht. In 1342 more extensive privileges were granted by Count William IV., including freedom from tolls by land and water in return for certain annual dues. In 1482 the town was surrounded with walls; and in the 16th century, during the religious troubles, it received a great increase of prosperity owing to the influx of refugees from Antwerp and Brabant. Amsterdam, influenced by its trading interests, did not join the other towns in revolt against Spain until 1578. In 1587 the earl of Leicester made an unsuccessful attempt to seize it. The great development of Amsterdam was due, however, to the treaty of Westphalia in 1648, by which its rival, Antwerp, was ruined, owing to the closing of the Scheldt. The city held out obstin- ately against the pretensions of the stadtholders, and in 1650 opened the dykes in order to prevent William II. from seizing it. The same device was successful against Louis XIV. in 1672; and Amsterdam, now reconciled with the stadtholder, was one of the staunchest supporters of William III. against France. After the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685 it opened its gates to numerous French refugees; but this hardly compensated it for its losses during the war. In 1787 Amsterdam was occupied by the Prussians, and in 1795 by the French under Pichegru. It was now made the capital of the Batavian Republic and after- wards of the kingdom of Holland. When, in 1810, this was united with the French empire, Amsterdam was recognized officially as the third town of the empire, ranking next after Paris and Rome. See J. ter Gouw, Geschiedeniss van Amsterdam (3 vols., Amsterdam, 1879-1881), a full history with documents. AMSTERDAM (New Amsterdam), an uninhabited and almost inaccessible island in the Indian Ocean, in 37°47'S., and 77 34' E., about 60 m. N. of St Paul Island, and nearly midway between the Cape of Good Hope and Tasmania. It is an extinct volcano, rising 2989 ft. from the sea. It was dis- covered by Anthony van Diemen in 1633, and annexed by France in 1893. It may have been sighted by the companions of Magellan returning to Europe in 1522, and by a Dutch vessel, the " Zeewolf, " in 1617. In 1871 the British frigate " Megaera " was wrecked here, and most of the 400 persons on board had to remain upwards of three months on the island. The Memoires of a Frenchman, Captain Francois Peron (Paris, 1824), who was marooned three years on the island (1792-1795), are of much interest. AMSTERDAM, a city of Montgomery county, New York, U.S.A., on the north bank of the Mohawk river, about 33 m. N.W. of Albany. Pop. (1890) 17,336; (1900) 20,929, of whom 5575 were foreign-born; (1910) 31,267. It is served by the New York Central & Hudson River and the West Shore railways, and by the Erie Canal. Hills on both sides of the river command fine views of the Mohawk Valley. Amsterdam has two hospitals, a free public library and St Mary's Institute (Roman Catholic). Manufacturing is the most important industry, and carpets and rugs, hosiery and knit goods are the most important products. In 1905 the city's factory products were valued at $15,007,276 (an increase of 41 % over their value in 1900); carpets and rugs being valued at $5,667,742, and hosiery and knit goods (in the manufacture of which Amsterdam ranked third among the cities of the country) at $4,667,022, or 3-4 % of the total product of the United States. Among the other manufactures are brushes, brooms, buttons, silk gloves, paper boxes, electrical supplies, dyeing machines, cigars, and wagon and carriage springs. Amsterdam was settled about 1775, and was called Veedersburg AMUCK— AMUR 899 until 1804, when its present name was adopted. It was incorpor- ated as a village in 1830, and was chartered as a city in 1885. AMUCK, RUNNING (or more properly Amok), the native term for the homicidal mania which attacks Malays. A Malay will suddenly and apparently without reason rush into the street armed with a kris or other weapon, and slash and cut at every- body he meets till he is killed. These frenzies were formerly regarded as due to sudden insanity. It is now, however, certain that the typical amok is the result of circumstances, such as domestic jealousy or gambling losses, which render a Malay des- perate and weary of his life. It is, in fact, the Malay equivalent of suicide. " The act of running amuck is probably due to causes over which the culprit has some amount of control, as the custom has now died out in the British possessions in the peninsula, the offenders probably objecting to being caught and tried in cold blood " (W. W. Skeat). Though so intimately associated with the Malay there is some ground for believing the word to have an Indian origin, and the act is certainly far from unknown in Indian history. Some notable cases have occurred among the Rajputs. Thus, in 1634, the eldest son of the raja of Jodhpur ran amuck at the court of Shah Jahan, failing in his attack on the emperor, but killing five of his officials. During the 18th century, again, at Hyderabad (Sind), two envoys, sent by the Jodhpur chief in regard to a quarrel between the two states, stabbed the prince and twenty- six of his suite before they themselves fell. In Malabar there were certain professional assassins known to old travellers as Amouchi or Amuco. The nearest modern equivalent to these words would seem to be the Malayalim A mar- khan, " a warrior " (from amar, " fight "). The Malayalim term chaver applied to these ruffians meant literally those " who devote themselves to death." In Malabar was a custom by which the zamorin or king of Calicut had to cut his throat in public when he had reigned twelve years. In the 17th century a variation in his fate was made. He had to take his seat, after a great feast lasting twelve days, at a national assembly, surrounded by his armed suite, and it was lawful for anyone to attack him, and if he succeeded in killing him the murderer himself became zamorin (see Alex. Hamilton, " A new Account of the East Indies," in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, viii. 374). in 1600 thirty would-be assassins were killed in their attempts. These men were called Amar-khan, and it has been suggested that their action was " running amuck " in the true Malay sense. Another proposed derivation for amouchi is Sanskrit amokshya, " that cannot be loosed," suggesting that the murderer was bound by a vow, an explanation more than once advanced for the Malay amuck; but amokshya in such a sense is unknown in Malayalim. See Sir F. A. Swettenham, Malay Sketches (1895); H. Clifford, Studies in Brown Humanity (1898). AMU1ET (Late Lat. amuletum, origin unknown; falsely con- nected with the Arab, himdlah, a cord used to suspend a small Koran from the neck), a charm, generally, but not invariably, hung from the neck, to protect the wearer against witch- craft, sickness, accidents, &c. Amulets have been of many different kinds, and formed of different substances, — stones, metals, and strips of parchment being the most common, with or without characters or legends engraved or written on them. Gems have often been employed and greatly prized, serving for ornaments as well as for charms. Certain herbs, too, and animal preparations have been used in the same way. In setting them apart to their use as amulets, great precautions have been taken that fitting times be selected, stellar and other magic influences propitious, and everything avoided that might be supposed to destroy or weaken the force of the charm. From the earliest ages the Oriental races have had a firm belief in the prevalence of occult evil influences, and a superstitious trust in amulets and similar preservatives against them. There are references to, and apparently correctives of, these customs in the Mosaic injunctions to bind portions of the law upon the hand and as frontlets be- tween the eyes, as well as write them upon the door-posts and the gates; but, among the later Jews especially, the original design and meaning of these usages were lost sight of; and though it has been said that the phylacteries were not strictly amulets, there is no doubt that they were held in superstitious regard. Amulets were much used by the ancient Egyptians, and also among the Greeks and Romans. We find traces of them too in the early Christian church, in the emphatic protests of Chrysostom, Augustine and others against them. The fish was a favourite symbol on these charms, from the word lx8vs being the initials of 'lijarovs Xpiarbs Qeov vlos a-oirrip. A firm faith in amulets still prevails widely among Asiatic nations. Talisman, also from the Arabic, is a word of similar meaning and use, but some distinguish it as importing a more powerful charm. A talisman, whose " virtues are still applied to for stopping blood and in cases of canine madness," figures prominently in, and gives name to, one of Sir Walter Scott's novels. See also Arpe, De Prodigiis Naturae et Artis Operibus Talismanes et Amuleta diclis (Hamburg, 1717) ; Ewele, Ueber Amulete (1827) ; and Koop's Palaeographica Crilica, vols. iii. and iv. (1829). AMUR (known also as the Sakhalin-ula), a river of eastern Asia, formed by the confluence of the Argun and the Shilka, at Ust-Stryelka, in 53 19' N. lat. and 120° 30' E. long. Both these rivers come from the south-west: the Argun, or Kerulen as it is called above Lake Kulun (Dalai-nor) , through which it flows about half way between its source and Ust-Stryelka, rises in 49 N. lat. and 109° E. long.; the Shilka is formed by the union of the Onon and the Ingoda, both of which have their sources a little farther north-east than the Kerulen (Argun). The Amur proper flows at first in a south-easterly direction for about 800 m., as far as long. 132' E., separating Manchuria from the Amur govern- ment; it then turns to the north-east, cuts its way through the Little Khingan mountains in a gorge 2000 ft. wide and 140 m. long, and after a total course of over 1700 m. discharges into the Sea of Okhotsk, opposite to the island of Sakhalin. It is esti- mated to drain an area of 772,000 sq. m. its principal tributaries from the south are the Sungari, which the Chinese consider to be the true head-river of the Amur, and the Usuri; from the north it receives the Oldoi, Zeya, Bureya, Kur, Gorin and Amgun. As the mouth is choked with sandbanks, goods are disembarked at Mariinsk and carried by train (9 m.) to Alexandrovsk at the head of the Gulf of Tartary. Navigation on the river is open from April to early in November. See T. W. Atkinson, Travels in the Region of the Amoor (i860); Collins, Exploration of the Amoor (ed. 1864) and Voyage down the Amoor (1866); Andree, Das Amurgebiet (ed. 1876); and Grum- Grshimaylo, Account of the Amur (Russian, 1894). AMUR, a government of East Siberia, stretching from the Stanovoi (Yablonoi) mountains southwards to the left bank of the Amur river. It includes the basins of the Oldoi, Zeya and Bureya, left-bank tributaries of the river Amur, and has the governments of Transbaikalia on the W., Irkutsk and Yakutsk on the N., the Maritime province on the E., and Manchuria on the S.W. and S. Area, 172,848 sq. m. Immense districts are quite uninhabited. All the north-western part is occupied by a high plateau, bordered by the Great Khingan range, whose exact position in the region is not yet definitely settled. Next comes a belt of fertile plateaus bounded on the east by the Little Khingan, or Dusse-alin, a picturesque well-wooded range, which stretches in a north-easterly direction from Kirin across Man- churia, is pierced by the Amur, and continues on its left bank, separating the Bureya from the Amgun. To the east of it stretches in the same direction a strip of marshy lowlands. In the ranges which rise above the high plateau in the north-west, in the vicinity of the Stanovoi watershed, gold mines of great richness are worked. Coal of inferior quality is known to exist on the Oldoi, Zeya and Bureya. The Russians are represented by the Amur Cossacks, whose villages, e.g. Albazin, Kumara, Ekaterino-Nikolsk and Mikhailo-Semenovsk, are strung at intervals of 17 to 20 m. along the whole course of the river; by peasant immigrants, chiefly nonconformists, who are the wealthiest part of the population; and by a floating population of gold miners. Nomadic Tungus (Orochons), Manegres and Golds hunt and fish along the rivers. Steamers ply regularly 900 AMYGDALIN— AMYNTAS along the Amur for 6^ months, from Khabarovsk to Stryetensk, on the Shilka terminus of the Trans-Siberian railway; but only light steamers with 2 to 3 ft. draught can navigate the upper Amur and Shilka. In the winter the frozen river is the usual highway. Rough roads and bridle-paths only are found in the interior. The great engineering difficulties in building a railway along the Amur induced the Russian government to obtain from China permission to build a railway through Manchuria, but the project for a railway from Khabarovsk to Stryetensk received imperial sanction in the summer of 1906. The Amur government has a continental climate, the yearly average at Blagovyeshchensk (50 N. lat.) being 30 Fahr. (January, 17 ; July, 70°). It benefits from the influence of the monsoons. Cold north-west winds prevail from October to March, while in July and August torrential rains fall, resulting in a sudden and very considerable rise in the Amur and its right-bank tributaries. The only town is Blagovyeshchensk, but the centre of the adminis- tration is Khabarovsk in the Maritime province. The settled population in 1897 was 119,909, of whom 31,51s lived in towns. The governor-generalship of Amur includes this government and the Maritime province, the total area being 888,830 sq. m., and the total population in 1897, 339,127. This region became known to the Russians in 1639. In 1649^1651 a party of Cossacks, under Khabarov, built a fort at Albazin on the Amur river, but in 1689 they withdrew in favour of the Chinese. From 1847 onwards they once more turned their attention to this region, and began to make settlements, especially after 1854, when a powerful flotilla sailed from Ust-Stryelka down to the mouth of the river. Four years later China ceded to Russia the whole left bank of the Amur, and also the right bank below the confluence of the Ussuri, and in i860 all the territory between the Ussuri and the Eastern Sea. (P. A. K.) AMYGDALIN (from the Gr. anvySa\ri, almond), C^H^NOn, a glucoside isolated from bitter almonds by H. E. Robiquet and A. F. Boutron-Charlard in 1830, and subsequently investigated by Liebig and Wohler, and others. It is extracted from almond cake by boiling alcohol; on evaporation of the solution and the addition of ether, amygdalin is precipitated as white minute crystals. Sulphuric acid decomposes it into rf-glucose, benzaldehyde and prussic acid; while hydrochloric acid gives mandelic acid, d-glucose and ammonia. The decom- position induced by enzymes may occur in two ways. Maltase partially decomposes it, giving i-glucose and mandelic nitrile glucoside, C6H 5 CH(CN)0-C6H U 05; this compound is isomeric with sambunigrin, a glucoside found by E. E. Bourquelot and Danjou in the berries of the common elder, Sambucus nigra. Emulsin. on the other hand, decomposes it into benzaldehyde, prussic acid, and two molecules of glucose; this enzyme occurs in the bitter almond, and consequently the seeds invariably contain free prussic acid and benzaldehyde. An " amorphous amygdalin " is said to occur in the cherry-laurel. Closely related to these glucosides is dhurrin, C14H17O7N, isolated by W. Dunstan and T. A. Henry from the common sorghum or " great millet," Sorghum vulgare; this substance is decom- posed by emulsin or hydrochloric acid into d-glucose, prussic acid, and ^-hydroxybenzaldehyde. AMYGDALOID, a term meaning " almond-shaped," used in anatomy and geology. AMYL ALCOHOLS (C 6 H u OH). Eight amyl alcohols are known: normal amyl alcohol CH 3 -(CH 2 ) 4 -OH, isobutyl carbinol or isoamyl alcohol (CH 3 ) 2 -CHCH 2 -CH 2 OH, active amyl alcohol (CH 3 )(C 2 H 5 ):CH-CH 2 OH,tertiarybutylcarbinol(CH 3 ) 3 C-CH 2 OH, diethyl carbinol ^HsHCH-OH, methyl (n) propyl carbinol (CHrCH 2 -CH 2 )(CH 3 ):CH:OH, methyl isopropyl carbinol (CH 3 ) 2 :CH(CH 3 ):CHOH, and dimethyl ethyl carbinol (CH 3 ) 2 -(C 2 H 5 )iC-OH. Of these alcohols, the first four are primary, the last one a tertiary, the other three secondary alcohols; three of them, viz. active amyl alcohol, methyl (n) propyl carbinol, and methyl isopropyl carbinol, contain an asym- metric carbon atom and can consequently each exist in two optically active, and one optically inactive form. The most important is isobutyl carbinol, this being the chief constituent of fermentation amyl alcohol, and consequently a constituent of fusel (q.v.) oil. It may be separated from fusel oil by shaking with strong brine solution, separating the oily layer from the brine layer and distilling it, the portion boiling between 125° and i40°C. being collected. For further purification it may be shaken with hot milk of lime, the oily layer separ- ated, dried with calcium chloride and fractionated, the fraction boiling between 128° and i32°C. only being collected. It may be synthetically prepared from isobutyl alcohol by conversion into isovaleryl-aldehyde, which is subsequently reduced to isobutyl carbinol by means of sodium amalgam. It is a colourless liquid of specific gravity 0-8248 (o°C), boiling at i3i-6°C, slightly soluble in water, easily soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform and benzene. It possesses a characteristic strong smell and a sharp burning taste. When perfectly pure, it is not a poison, although the impure product is. On passing its vapour through a red-hot tube, it undergoes decomposition with production of acetylene, ethylene, propylene, &c. It is oxidized by chromic acid mixture to isovaleryl-aldehyde; and it forms crystalline addition compounds with calcium and stannic chlorides. The other amyl alcohols may be obtained synthetically. Of these, tertiary butyl carbinol has been the most difficult to obtain, its synthesis having only been accomplished in 1891, by L. Tissier (Comptes Rendus, 1891, 112, p. 1065) by the reduction of a mixture of trimethyl acetic acid and trimethylacetyl chloride with sodium amalgam. It is a solid whichmelts at 48°-so° C. and boils at 112-3° C. AMYL NITRITE (isoamyl nitrite), C 6 H ir ONO, a liquid prepared by passing nitrous fumes (from starch and concen- trated nitric acid) into warm isoamyl alcohol; or by distilling a mixture of 26 parts of potassium nitrite in 15 parts of water with 30 parts of isoamyl alcohol in 30 parts of sulphuric acid (Renard, Jahresb., 1874, p. 352). It is a yellow-coloured liquid of specific gravity 0-877, boiling at about 95°-96° C. It has a characteristic penetrating odour, and produces marked effects on the system when its vapour is inhaled. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves readily in alcohol, ether, glacial acetic acid, chloroform and benzene. On heating with methyl alcohol it is converted into isoamyl alcohol, methyl nitrite being produced at the same time; a similar reaction takes place with ethyl alcohol, but the change is less complete. It is readily decomposed by nascent hydrogen, with the formation of ammonia and isoamyl alcohol; and on hydrolysis with caustic potash it forms potassium nitrite and isoamyl alcohol. When the liquid is dropped on to fused caustic potash, it forms potassium valerate. Amyl nitrite finds application in medicine, and in the prepara- tion of anhydrous diazonium salts (E. Knoevenagel, Berichte, 1890, 23, p. 2094). AMYMONE, in ancient Greek legend, daughter of Danaiis. With her sisters, she had been sent to look for water, the district of Argos being then parched through the anger of Poseidon. Amymone having thrown her spear at a stag, missed it, but hit a satyr asleep in the brake. The satyr pursued her, and she called for help on Poseidon, who appeared, and for love of her beauty caused a spring to well up, which received her name. Aeschylus wrote a satyric drama on the subject. By the god Amymone became the mother of Nauplius, the wrecker. Her meeting with Poseidon at the spring is frequently represented on ancient coins and gems. Apollodorus ii. I, 4; Hyginus, Fab. 169; Propertius ii. 26. AMYNTAS I., king of Macedonia (c. 540-498 B.C.), was a tributary vassal of Darius Hystaspes. With him the history of Macedonia may be said to begin. He was the first of its rulers to have relations with other countries; he entered into an alliance with the Peisistratidae, and when Hippias was driven out of Athens he offered him the territory of Anthemus on the Thermaic Gulf, with the object of turning the Greek party feuds to his own advantage (Herodotus v. 17, 94; Justin vii. 2; Thucydides ii. 100; Pausanias ix. 40). See Macedonian Empire. AMYNTAS II. (or III.), son of Arrhidaeus, great-grandson of Alexander I., king of Macedonia from 393 (or 389) to 369 B.C. AMYOT— AMYRAUT 901 He came to the throne after the ten years of confusion which followed the death of Archelaus, the patron of art and literature, and showed the same taste for Greek culture and its representa- tives. But he had many enemies at home; in 383 he was driven out by the Illyrians, but in the following year, with the aid of the Thessalians, he recovered his kingdom. He concluded a treaty with the Spartans, who assisted him to reduce Olynthus (379). He also entered into a league with Jason of Pherae, and assidu- ously cultivated the friendship of Athens. By his wife, Eurydice, he had three sons, the youngest of whom was the famous Philip of Macedon. Diodorus xiv. 89, xv. 19, 60; Xenophon, Hellenica, v. 2; Justin vii. 4. AMYOT, JACQUES (1513-1593), French writer, was born of poor parents, at Melun, on the 30th of October 1513. He found his way to the university of Paris, where he supported himself by serving some of the richer students. He was nineteen when he became M.A. at Paris, and later he graduated doctor of civil law at Bourges. Through Jacques Colure (or Colin), abbot of St Ambrose in Bourges, he obtained a tutorship in the family of a secretary of state. By the secretary he was recommended to Marguerite de Valois, and through her influence was made professor of Greek and Latin at Bourges. Here he translated Thiagene et Chariclee from Heliodorus (1547 fol.), for which he was rewarded by Francis I. with the abbey of Bellozane. He was thus enabled to go to Italy to study the Vatican text of Plutarch, on the translation on whose Lives (1559; 1565) he had been some time engaged. On the way he turned aside on a mission to the council of Trent. Returning home, he was appointed tutor to the sons of Henry II., by one of whom (Charles IX.) he was after- wards made grand almoner (1561) and by the other (Henry- III.) was appointed, in spite of his plebeian origin, commander of the order of the Holy Ghost. Pius I. promoted him to the bishopric of Auxerre, and here he continued to live in comparative quiet, repairing his cathedral and perfecting his translations, for the rest of his days, though troubled towards the close by the insub- ordination and revolts of his clergy. He was a devout and conscientious churchman, and had the courage to stand by his principles. It is said that he advised the chaplain of Henry III. to refuse absolution to the king after the murder of the Guise princes. He was, nevertheless, suspected of approving the crime. His house was plundered, and he was compelled to leave Auxerre for some time. He died on the 6th of February 1593, bequeathing, it is said, 1 200 crowns to the hospital at Orleans for the twelve " deniers " he received there when " poor and naked " on his way to Paris. He translated seven books of Diodorus (1554), the Daphnis et Chloe of Longus (1559) and the Opera M or alia of Plutarch (1572). His vigorous and idiomatic version of Plutarch, Vies des hommes illustres, was translated into English by Sir Thomas North, and supplied Shakespeare with materials for his Roman plays. Montaigne said of him," I give the palm to Jacques Amyot over all our French writers, not only for the simplicity and purity of his language in which he surpasses all others, nor for his constancy to so long an undertaking, nor for his profound learning . . . but I am grateful to him especially for his wisdom in choosing so valuable a work." It was indeed to Plutarch that Amyot devoted his attention. His other trans- lations were subsidiary. The version of Diodorus he did not publish, although the manuscript had been discovered by him- self. Amyot took great pains to find and interpret correctly the best authorities, but the interest of his books to-day lies in the style. His translation reads like an original work. The personal method of Plutarch appealed to a generation ad- dicted to memoirs and incapable of any general theory of history. Amyot's book, therefore, obtained an immense popularity, and exercised great influence over successive generations of French writers. There is a good edition of the works of Amyot from the firm of Didot (25 vols., 1818-1821). See also AugustedeBlignieres, Essai sur Amyot et les traducteurs franco-is au xvi e sihcle (Paris, 1851). AMYRAUT, MOSES (1596-1664), also known as Amyrai,dtjs, French Protestant theologian and metaphysician, was born at Bourgueil, in the valley of Anjou, in 1596. His father was a lawyer, and, designing Moses for his own profession, sent him on the completion of his study of the humanities at Orleans to the university of Poitiers. Here he took the degree of licentiate (B.A.) of laws. On his way home from the university he passed through Saumur, and, having visited the pastor of the Protestant church there, was introduced by him to Philippe de Mornay, governor of the city. Struck with young Amyraut's ability and culture, they both urged him to change from law to theology. His father advised him to revise his philological and philosophical studies, and read over Calvin's Institutions, before finally deter- mining. He did so, and decided for theology. He thereupon removed to Saumur — destined to be for ever associated with his name — and studied under J. Cameron, who ultimately regarded him as his greatest scholar. He had a brilliant course, and was in due time licensed as a minister of the French Protestant Church. The contemporary civil wars and excitements hindered his advancement. His first church was in St Aignan, in the province of Maine. There he remained two years. The eminent theologian, Jean Daille, being then removed to Paris, advised the church at Saumur to secure Amyraut as his successor, praising him " as above himself." The university of Saumur at the same time had fixed its eyes on him as professor of theology. The great churches of Paris and Rouen also contended for him, and to win him sent their deputies to the provincial synod of Anjou. Amyraut had left the choice to the synod. He was appointed to Saumur in 1633, and to the professor's chair along with the pastorate. On the occasion of his inauguration he maintained for thesis De Sacerdotio Christi. His co-professors were Louis Cappel and Josue de la Place, who also were Cameron's pupils. Very beautiful was the lifelong friendship of these three remark- able men, who collaborated in the Theses Salmurienses, a collec- tion of theses propounded by candidates in theology prefaced by the inaugural addresses of the three professors. Full of energy, Amyraut very speedily gave to French Protestantism a new force. In 1 63 1 he published his Traits des religions, a book that still lives; and from this year onward he was a foremost man in the church. Chosen to represent the provincial synod of Anjou, Touraine and Maine at the national synod held in 1631 at Charenton, he was appointed as orator to present to the king " The Copy of their Complaints and Grievances for the Infrac- tions and Violations of the Edict of Nantes." Previous deputies had addressed the king on their bended knees, whereas the repre- sentatives of the Catholics had been permitted to stand. Amy- raut consented to be orator only if the assembly authorized him to stand. There was intense resistance. Cardinal Richelieu himself, preceded by lesser dignitaries, condescended to visit Amyraut privately, to persuade him to kneel; but Amyraut held resolutely to his point and carried it. His " oration " on this occasion, which was immediately published in the French Mercury, remains a striking landmark in the history of French Protestantism. During his absence on this matter the assembly debated " Whether the Lutherans who desired it, might be admitted into communion with the Reformed Churches of France at the Lord's Table." It was decided in the affirmative previous to his return; but he approved with astonishing eloquence, and thereafter was ever in the front rank in maintaining inter- communication between all churches holding the main doctrines of the Reformation. P. Bayle recounts the title-pages of no fewer than thirty-two books of which Amyraut was the author, These show that he took part in all the great controversies on predestination and Arminianism which then so agitated and harassed all Europe. Substantially he held fast the Calvinism of his preceptor Cameron; but, like Richard Baxter in England, by his breadth and charity he exposed himself to all manner of misconstruction. In 1634 he published his Traiti de la pri- destination, in which he tried to mitigate the harsh features of predestination by his " Universalismus hypotheticus." God, he taught, predestines all men to happiness on condition of their having faith. This gave rise to a charge of heresy, of which he was acquitted at the national synod held at Alencon in 1637, and presided over by Benjamin Basnage (1580-1652). The q02 ANA charge was brought up again at the national synod of Charenton in 1644, when he was again acquitted. A third attack at the synod of Loudun in 1659 met with no better success. The university of Saumur became the university of French Pro- testantism. Amyraut had as many as a hundred students in attendance upon his prelections. Another historic part filled by Amyraut was in the negotiations originated by Pierre le Gouz de la Berchere (1600-1653), first president of the parlement of Grenoble, when exiled to Saumur, for a reconciliation and reunion of the Catholics of France with the French Protestants. Very large were the concessions made by Richelieu in his personal interviews with Amyraut; but, as with the Worcester House negotiations in England between the Church of England and nonconformists, they inevitably fell through. On all sides the statesmanship and eloquence of Amyraut were conceded. His De V elevation de la Joy el de I' abaissement de la raison en la creance des mysleres de la religion (1641) gave him early a high place as a metaphysician. Exclusive of his controversial writings, he left behind him a very voluminous series of practical evangelical books, which have long remained the fireside favourites of the peasantry of French Protestantism. Amongst these are Eslat des fideles apres la mort; Sur I'oraison dominicale; Du nitrite des ceuvres; Traite de la justification; and paraphrases of books of the Old and New Testament. His closing years were weakened by a severe fall he met with in 1657. He died on the 1 8th of January 1664. See Edm. Saigey, Moses Amyraut, sa vie et ses ecrits (1849) ; Alex. Schweizer in Tub. theol. Jahrbb., 1852, pp. 41 ft". 155 ft., Protestant. Central-Dogmen(i8$4 ff.), ii. 225 ff., and in Herzog-Hauck, Real- encyklopadie ; Bayle, s.v.; Biog. Univ., s.v. ; John Quick's Synod, in Gall. Reform, pp. 35 2 "357; Ibid. MS. Itones Sacrae Callicanae; Life of Cameron. ANA, a Latin neuter plural termination appropriated to various collections of the observations and criticisms of eminent men, delivered in conversation and recorded by their friends, or dis- covered among their papers after their decease. Though the term Ana is of comparatively modern origin, the introduction of this species of composition is not of recent date. It appears, from d'Herbelot's Bibliotheque Orientate, that from the earliest periods the Eastern nations were in the habit of preserving the maxims of their sages. From them the practice passed to the Greeks and Romans. Plato and Xenophon treasured up and recorded the sayings of their master Socrates; and Arrian, in the concluding books of his Enchiridion, now lost, collected the casual observations of Epictetus. The numerous apophthegms scattered in Plutarch, Diogenes Laertius and other writers, show that it was customary in Greece to preserve the colloquially expressed ideas of illustrious men. It appears that Julius Caesar compiled a book of apophthegms, in which he related the bons mots of Cicero; and Quintilian informs us that a freedman of that celebrated wit and orator composed three books of a work entitled De Jocis Ciceronis. We are told by Suetonius that Caius Melissus, originally the slave but afterwards the freedman and librarian of Maecenas, collected the sayings of his master; and Aulus Gellius has filled his Nodes Atticae with anecdotes which he heard from the eminent scholars and critics whose society he frequented in Rome. But though vestiges of Ana may be traced in the classical ages, it is only in modern times that they have come to be regarded as constituting a distinct species of composition, comprising literary anecdotes, critical reflexions, and historical incidents, mingled with the detail of bons mots and ludicrous tales. The term Ana seems to have been applied to such collections as far back as the beginning of the 15th century. Francesco Barbaro, in a letter to Poggio, says that the information and anecdotes which Poggio and Bartolommeo of Montepulciano had picked up during a literary excursion through Germany will be called Ana: " Quemadmodum mala ab Appio e Claudia gente Appiana, et pira a Mallio Malliana cognominata sunt, sic haec literarum quae vestra ope et opera Germania in Italiam defe- rentur, aliquando et Poggiana et Montepolitiana vocabuntur." Poggio Bracciolini, to whom this letter is addressed, and to whom the world is indebted for the preservation of so many classical remains, is the first eminent person of modern times whose jests and opinions have been transmitted to posterity. Poggio was secretary to five successive popes. During the pontificate of Martin V., who was chosen in 1417, Poggio and other members of the Roman chancery were in the habit of assembling in a common hall adjoining the Vatican, in order to converse freely on all subjects. Being more studious of wit than of truth, they termed this apartment Buggiale, a word which Poggio himself interprets Mendaciorum Officina. Here Poggio and his friends discussed the news and scandal of the day; communicated entertaining anecdotes; attacked what they did not approve (and they approved of little); and indulged in the utmost latitude of satiric remark, not sparing even the pope and cardinals. The jests and stories which occurred in these unrestrained conversations were collected by Poggio, and formed the chief materials of his Facetiae, first printed, according to de Bure, in 1470. This collection, which forms a principal part of the Poggiana, is chiefly valuable as recording interesting anecdotes of eminent men of the 14th and 15th centuries. It also contains a number of quibbles or jeux de mots, and a still greater number of facetiae, idle and licentious stories. These Facetiae form, upon the whole, the most amusing and interesting part of the Poggiana printed at Amsterdam in 1720; but this collection also comprehends additional anecdotes of Poggio's life, and a few extracts from his graver compositions. Though Poggio was the first person whose remarks and bons mots were collected under the name of Ana, the Scaligerana, which contains the opinions of Joseph Scaliger, was the first worked published under that appellation, and accordingly may be regarded as having led the way to that class of publications. There are two collections of Scaligerana — the Prima and Secunda. The first was compiled by a physician named Francois Vertunien, sieur de Lavau, who attended a family with whom Joseph Scaliger resided. He, in consequence, had frequent opportunities of meeting the celebrated critic, and was in the custom of com- mitting to writing the observations which dropped from him in the course of conversation, to which he occasionally added remarks of his own. This collection, which was chiefly Latin, remained in manuscript many years after the death of the com- piler. It was at length purchased by M. de Sigogne, who published it in 1669, under the title of Prima Scaligerana, nusquam antehac edita, calling it prima in order to preserve its claim of priority over another Scaligerana, which, though published three years before, had been more recently compiled. This second work, known as Secunda Scaligerana, was collected by two brothers of the name of Vassan, students of the university of Leiden, of which Scaliger was one of the professors. Being particularly recommended to Scaliger, they were received in his house, and enjoyed his conversation. Writing down what they had heard, particularly on historical and critical subjects, they soon made up a large manuscript volume, in which, however, there was neither connexion nor arrangement of any description. After passing through various hands this manuscript came into the possession of M. Daille, who for his own use arranged in alpha- betical order the articles which it contained. Isaac Vossius, obtaining the manuscript in loan from M. Daille, transcribed it, and afterwards published it at the Hague, under the title of Scaligerana, sive Excerpta ex Ore Josephi Scaligeri. This edition was full of inaccuracies and blunders, and a more correct im- pression was afterwards published by M. Daille, with a preface complaining of the use that Vossius had made of the manuscript, which he declares was never intended for publication, and was not of a nature to be given to the world. Indeed, most literary men in that age conceived that the Scaligerana, particularly the second, detracted considerably from the reputation of the great scholar. Joseph Scaliger, with more extensive erudition, but, as some think, less genius than his father Julius Caesar Scaliger, had inherited his vanity and dogmatical spirit. Con- versing with two young students, he would probably be but little cautious in the opinions he expressed, as his literary errors could not be detected or exposed. Unfortunately the blind admiration of his pupils led them to regard his opinions as the responses ANABAPTISTS 903 of an oracle, and his most unmerited censures as just condemna- tions. The Scaligerana, accordingly, contains many falsehoods, with much unworthy personal abuse of the most distinguished characters of the age. In imitation of the Scaligerana, a prodigious number of similar works appeared in France towards the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century. At first these collections were confined to what had fallen from eminent men in con- versation ; but they were afterwards made to embrace fragments found among their papers, and even passages extracted from their works and correspondence. Of those which merely record the conversations of eminent men, the best known and most valuable is the Menagiana. Gilles Menage was a person of good sense, of various and extensive information and of a most communicative disposition. A collection of his oral opinions was published in 1693, soon after his death; and this collection, which w:as entitled Menagiana, was afterwards corrected and enlarged by Bernard de la Monnoye, in an edition published by him in 1 715. The Perroniana, which exhibits the opinions of Cardinal du Perron, was compiled from his conversation by C. Dupuy, and published by Vossius in 1666, by the same contrivance which put him in possession of the Scaligerana. The Thuana, or observa- tions of the president de Thou, have usually been published along with the Perroniana, but first appeared in 1669. The Valesiana is a collection of the literary opinions of the historiographer Adrien de Valois, published by his son. M. de Valois was a great student of history, and the Valesiana accord- ingly comprehends many valuable historical observations, par- ticularly on the works of du Cange. The Fnreteriana (1696) contains the bons mots of Antoine Furetiere, the Academician, the stories which he was in the habit of telling, and a number of anecdotes and remarks found in his papers after his decease. The Chevraeana (1697), so called from Urbain Chevreau, is more scholarly than most works of a similar description, and probably more accurate, as it differs from the Ana proper, of which the works described above are instances, in having been published during the life of the author and revised by himself. Parrhasiana (169Q-1701) is the work of JeanleClerc, a professor of Amsterdam, who bestowed this appellation on his miscel- laneous productions with the view of discussing various topics of philosophy and politics with more freedom than he could have employed under his own name. The Huetiana contains the detached thoughts and criticisms of P. D. Huet, bishop of Avranches, which he himself committed to writing when he was far advanced in life. Huet was born in 1630, and in 171 2 he was attacked by a malady which impaired his memory, and rendered him incapable of the sustained attention necessary for the completion of a long or laborious work. In this situation he employed himself in putting his detached observa- tions on paper. These were published by the Abbe d'Olivet the year after his death (1722). The Casauboniana presents us with the miscellaneous observa- tions, chiefly philological, of the celebrated Isaac Casaubon. During the course of a long life that eminent commentator was in the daily practice of committing to paper anything remarkable which he heard in conversation with his friends, especially if it bore on the studies in which he was engaged. He also made annotations from day to day on the works he read, with which he connected his judgments concerning the authors and their writings. This compilation was styled Ephemerides. His Adver- saria, and materials amassed for a refutation of the Ecclesiastical Annals of Baronius, were bequeathed by his son Meric Casaubon to the Bodleian Library at Oxford. These were shown to J. C. Wolf during a visit which he paid to that university; and having been transcribed by him, were published in 17 10 under the title of Casauboniana. Besides the above a great many works under the title of Ana appeared in France about the same period. Thus, the opinions and conversation of Charpentier, Colomesius and St Evremond were recorded in the Carpenteriana, Colomesiana and St Evre- moniana; and those of Segrais in the Segraisiana, — a collection formed by a person stationed behind the tapestry in a house where Segrais was accustomed to visit, of which Voltaire declared, " que de tous les Ana c'est celui qui merite le plus d'etre mis au rang des mensonges imprim6s, et surtout des mensonges insipides." The Ana, indeed, from the popularity which they now enjoyed, were compiled in such numbers and with so little care that they became almost proverbial for inaccuracy. In 1743 the Abbe d'Olivet spoke indignantly of " ces ana, dont le nombre se multiple impunement tous les jours a la honte de notre siecle." About the middle of the 18th century, too, they were sometimes made the vehicles of revolutionary and heretical opinions. Thus the evil naturally began to cure itself, and by a reaction the French Ana sank in public esteem as much below their intrinsic value as they had formerly been exalted above it. Of the examples England has produced of this species of composition, perhaps the most interesting is the W alpoliana, a transcript of the literary conversation of Horace Walpole, earl of Orford. Most other works which in England have been published under the name of Ana, as Baconiana, Alterburyana, &c, are rather extracts from the writings and corresponded ce of eminent men than memorials of their conversation. There are some works which, though they do not bear the title, belong more strictly to the class of Ana than many of the collec- tions which are known under that appellation. Such are the Melanges d'histoire et de lilterature, published under the name of Vigneul Marville, though the work of a Benedictine, d'Argonne; and the Locorum Communium Collectanea, ex Lectionibus Philippi Melanchthonis, — a work of considerable reputation on account of its theological learning, and the information it communi- cates concerning the early state of the Eeformed Church. But of those productions which belong to the class, though they do not bear the name, of Ana, the most celebrated are the Colloquia Mensalia of Luther and Selden's T able-Talk. The former, which comprehends the conversation of Luther with his friends and coadjutors in the great work of the Reformation, was first published in 1566. Captain H. Bell, who translated it into English in the time of the Commonwealth, informs us that, an edict having been promulgated commanding the works of Luther to be destroyed, it was for some time supposed that all the copies of the Colloquia Mensalia had been burned; but in 1626, on the foundation of a house being removed, a printed copy was found lying in a deep hole and wrapped up in a linen cloth. The book, translated by Bell, and again by the younger Hazlitt in 1847, was originally collected by Dr Anton Lauterbach (1 502-1 569.) " out of the holy mouth of Luther." It consists chiefly of observations and discussions on idolatry, auricular confession, the mass, excommunication, clerical jurisdiction, general councils, and all the points agitated by the reformed church in those early periods. The Table- Talk of Selden contains a more genuine and undisguised expression of the sentiments of that eminent man than we find in his more studied productions. It was published after his death by Richard Milward, his amanuensis, who affirms that for twenty years he enjoyed the opportunity of daily hearing his discourse, and made it his practice faithfully to commit to writing " the excellent things that usually fell from him." The most remarkable collection of Ana in the English language —and, indeed, in any language — is to be found in a work which does not correspond to the normal type either in name or in form. In his Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D., Boswell relates that to his remark, a propos of French literature, " Their Ana are good," Johnson replied, " A few of them are good; but we have one book of that kind better than any of them — Selden's Table- Talk." Boswell's own work, however, is incomparably superior to all. J. C. Wolf has given a history of the Ana in a preliminary dis- course to his edition of the Casauboniana, published in 1710. In the Repertoire de bibliographies speciales, curieuses, et instructives, by Peignot, there is a Notice bibliographique of these collections; but many of the books there enumerated consist of mere extracts from the writings of popular authors. ANABAPTISTS (" re-baptizers," from Gr. ava. and PairTifoc), a name given by their enemies to various sects which on the 9°4 ANABAPTISTS occasion of Luther's revolt from Romanism denied the validity of infant baptism, and therefore baptized those whom they quite logically regarded as not having received any Christian initiation at all. On the 27th of December 1521 three "prophets " appeared in Wittenberg from Zwickau, Thomas Miinzer, Nicolas Storch and Mark Thomas Stiibner. Luther's reform was not thorough enough for them. He professed to rest all upon Scripture, yet accepted from the Babylon of Rome a baptism neither scriptural nor primitive, nor fulfilling the chief conditions of admission into a visible brotherhood of saints, to wit, repentance, faith, spiritual illumination and free surrender of self to Christ. Melanchthon, powerless against the enthusiasts with whom his co-reformer Carlstadt sympathized, appealed to Luther, still concealed in the Wartburg. He had written to the Waldenses that it is better not to baptize at all than to baptize little children; now he was cautious, would not condemn the new prophecy off-hand; but advised Melanchthon to treat them gently and to prove their spirits, less they be of God. There was confusion in Wittenberg, where schools and university sided with the " prophets " and were closed. Hence the charge that Anabaptists were enemies of learning, which is sufficiently rebutted by the fact that the first German translation of the Hebrew prophets was made and printed by two of them, Hetzer and Denk, in 1527. The first leaders of the movement in Zurich — Grebel, Manz, Blaurock, Hubmaier — were men learned in Greek, Latin and Hebrew. On the 6th of March Luther returned, interviewed the prophets, scorned their " spirits," forbade them the city, and had their adherents ejected from Zwickau and Erfurt. Denied access to the churches, the latter preached and celebrated the sacrament in private houses. Driven from the cities they swarmed over the countryside. Compelled to leave Zwickau, Miinzer visited Bohemia, resided two years at Alltstedt in Thuringia, and in 1524 spent some time in Switzerland. During this period he proclaimed his revolutionary doctrines in religion and politics with growing vehemence, and, so far as the lower orders were concerned, with growing success. The crisis came in the so- called Peasants' War in South Germany in 1525. In its origin a revolt against feudal oppression, it became, under the leader- ship of Miinzer, a war agaiict all constituted authorities, and an attempt to establish by force his ideal Christian commonwealth, with absolute equality and the community of goods. The total defeat of the insurgents at Frankenhausen (May 15, 1525), followed as it was by the execution of Miinzer and several other leaders, proved only a temporary check to the Anabaptist move- ment. Here and there throughout Germany, Switzerland and the Netherlands there were zealous propagandists, through whose teaching many were prepared to follow as soon as another leader should arise. A second and more determined attempt to establish a theocracy was made at Miinster, in Westphalia (1532-1535). Here the sect had gained considerable influence, through the adhesion of Rothmann, the Lutheran pastor, and several prominent citizens; and the leaders, Johann Matthys- zoon or Matthiesen, a baker of Haarlem, and Johann Bockholdt, a tailor of Leiden, had little difficulty in obtaining possession of the town and deposing the magistrates. Vigorous prepara- tions were at once made, not only to hold what had been gained, but to proceed from Miinster as a centre to the conquest of the world. The town being besieged by Francis of Waldeck, its expelled bishop (April 1534), Matthiesen, who was first in command, made a sally with only thirty followers, under the fanatical idea that he was a second Gideon, and was cut off with his entire band. Bockholdt, better known in history as John of Leiden, was now supreme. Giving himself out as the successor of David, he claimed royal honours and absolute power in the new " Zion." He justified the most arbitrary and extrava- gant measures by the authority of visions from heaven, as others have done in similar circumstances. With this pre- tended sanction he legalized polygamy, and himself took four wives, one of whom he beheaded with his own hand in the market-place in a fit of frenzy. As a natural consequence of such licence, Miinster was for twelve months a scene of unbridled profligacy. After an obstinate resistance the town was taken by the besiegers on the 24th of June 1535, and in January 1536 Bockholdt and some of his more prominent followers, after being cruelly tortured, were executed in the market-place. The outbreak at Miinster was the crisis of the Anabaptist movement. It never again had the opportunity of assuming political im- portance, the civil powers naturally adopting the most stringent measures to suppress an agitation whose avowed object was to suppress them. It is difficult to trace the subsequent history of the sect as a religious body. The fact that, after the Miinster insurrec- tion the very name Anabaptist was proscribed in Europe, is a source of twofold confusion. The enforced adoption of new names makes it easy to lose the historical identity of many who really belonged to the Miinster Anabaptists, and, on the other hand, has led to the classification of many with the Miinster sect who had no real connexion with it. The latter mistake, it is to be noted, has been much more common than the former. The Mennonites, for example, have been identified with the earlier Anabaptists, on the ground that they included among their number many of the fanatics of Miinster. But the continuity of a sect is to be traced in its principles, and not in its adherents, and it must be remembered that Menno and his followers expressly repudiated the distinctive doctrines of the Miinster Anabaptists. They have never aimed at any social or political revolution, and have been as remarkable for sobriety of conduct as the Miinster sect was for its fanaticism (see Mennonites). In English history frequent reference is made to the Anabaptists during the 16th and 17th centuries, but there is no evidence that any considerable number of native Englishmen ever adopted the principles of the Miinster sect. Many of the followers of Miinzer and Bockholdt seem to have fled from persecution in Germany and the Netherlands to be subjected to a persecution scarcely less severe in England. The mildest measure adopted towards these refugees was banishment from the kingdom, and a large number suffered at the stake. It was easier to burn Anabaptists than to refute their arguments, and contemporary writers were struck with the intrepidity and number of their martyrs. Thus Stanislaus Hosius (1504-1579), a Polish cardinal and bishop of Warmie, wrote {Opera, Venice, 1573, p. 202):— " They are far readier than followers of Luther and Zwingli to meet death, and bear the harshest tortures for their faith. For they run to suffer punishments, no matter how horrible, as if to a banquet ; so that if you take that as a test either of the truth of doctrine or of their certitude of grace, you would easily conclude that in no other sect is to be found a faith so true or grace so certain. But as Paul wrote: ' Even if I give my body up to be burned and have not charity, it avails me naught.' But he has not charity who divides the unity. . . . He cannot be a martyr who is not in the Church." The excesses of John of Leiden, the Brigham Young of that age, cast an unjust stigma on the Baptists, of whom the vast majority were good, quiet people who merely carried out in practice the early Christian ideals of which their persecutors prated. They have been reckoned an extreme left wing of the Reformation, because for a time they followed Luther and Zwingli. Yet their Christology and negative attitude towards the state rather indicate, as in the case of Wicklif, Hus and the Fraticelli, an affinity to the Cathari and other medieval sects. But this affiliation is hard to establish. The earliest Anabaptists of Zurich allowed that the Picardi or Waldensians had, in contrast with Rome and the Reformers, truth on their side, yet did not claim to be in their succession; nor can it be shown that their adult baptism derived from any of the older Baptist sects, which undoubtedly lingered in parts of Europe. Later on Hermann Schyn claimed descent for the peaceful Baptists from the Waldensians, who certainly, as the records of the Flemish inquisi- tion, collected by P. Fredericq, prove, were wide-spread during the 15th century over north France and Flanders. It would appear from the way in which Anabaptism sprang up everywhere independently, as if more than one ancient sect took in and through it a new lease of life. Ritschl discerned in it the leaven of the Fraticelli or Franciscan Tertiaries. In Moravia, if what Alex. Rost related be true, namely that they called themselves AN AB ASIS— AN ACHRONISM 9°5 Apostolici, and went barefooted healing the sick, they must have at least absorbed into themselves a sect of whom we hear in the 1 2th century in the north of Europe as deferring baptism to the age of 30, and rejecting oaths, prayers for the dead, relics and invocation of saints. The Moravian Anabaptists, says Rost, went bare-footed, washed each other's feet (like the Fraticelli), had all goods in common, worked everyone at a handicraft, had a spiritual father who prayed with them every morning and taught them, dressed in black and had long graces before and after meals. Zeiler also in his German Itinerary (1618) describes their way of life. The Lord's Supper, or bread-breaking, was a commemoration of the Passion, held once a year. They sat at long tables, the elders read the words of institution and prayed, and passed a loaf round from which each broke off a bit and ate, the wine being handed round in flagons. Children in their colonies were separated from the parents, and lived in the school, each having his bed and blanket. They were taught reading, writing and summing, cleanliness, truthfulness and industry, and the girls married the men chosen for them. In the following points Anabaptists resembled the medieval dissenters:— (1) They taught that Jesus did not take the flesh from his mother, but either brought his body from heaven or had one made for him by the Word. Some even said that he passed through his mother, as water through a pipe, into the world. In pictures and sculp- tures of the 15 th century and earlier, we often find represented this idea, originated by Marcion in the 2nd century. The Anabaptists were accused of denying the Incarnation of Christ: they did, but not in the sense that he was not divine; they rather denied him to be human. (2) They condemned oaths, and also the reference of disputes between believers to law-courts. (3) The believer must not bear arms or offer forcible resistance to wrongdoers, nor wield the sword. No Christian has the jus gladii. (4) Civil government belongs to the world, is Caesar. The believer who belongs to God's kingdom must not fill any office, nor hold any rank under government, which is to be passively obeyed. (5) Sinners or unfaithful ones are to be excommunicated, and excluded from the sacraments and from intercourse with believers unless they repent, according to Matt, xviii. 15 seq. But no force is to be used towards them. Some sects calling themselves Spirituals or Perfecti also held that the baptized cannot sin, a very ancient tenet. They seem to have preserved among them the primitive manual called the Teaching of the Apostles, for Bishop Longland in Eng- land condemned an Anabaptist for repeating one of its maxims " that alms should not be given before they did sweat in a man's hand." This was between 1518 and 1521. On the 1 2th of April 1 549, certain London Anabaptists brought before a commission of bishops asserted. — " That a man regenerate could not sin; that though the outward man sinned, the inward man sinned not; that there was no Trinity of Persons; that Christ was only a holy prophet and not at all God; that all we had by Christ was that he taught us the way to heaven; that he took no flesh of the Virgin, and that the baptism of infants was not profitable." The Anabaptists were great readers of Revelation and of the Epistle of James, the latter perhaps by way of counteracting Luther's one-sided teaching of justification by faith alone. Luther feebly rejected this scripture as " a right strawy epistle." English Anabaptists often knew it by heart. Excessive reading of Revelation seems to have been the chief cause of the aberrations of the Miinster fanatics. In Poland and Holland certain of the Baptists denied the Trinity, hence the saying that a Socinian was a learned Baptist (see Socinus). With these Menno and his followers refused to hold communion. One of the most notable features of the early Anabaptists is that they regarded any true religious reform as involving social amelioration. The socialism of the 16th century was necessarily Christian and Anabaptist. Lutheranism was more attractive- to grand-ducal patriots and well-to-do burghers than to the poor and oppressed and disinherited. The Lutherans and Zwinglians never converted the Anabaptists. Those who yielded to stress of persecution fell back into Papalism and went to swell the tide of the Catholic reaction. Authorities. — Filssli, Kitchen- und Ketzerhistorie der mittlern Zeit (contains Bullinger); Zwinglius, In catabaptistarum strophas elenchus (1527) (Opera iii. 351) ; Bullinger, Der Wiedertdufer Ursprung (1560); Gieseler, Ecclesiastical History, Engl. tr. v. 344; Spanheim, De origine Anabapt. (Lugd. 1643); Ranke's History of the Re- formation; Melanchthon, Die Historie von Th. Miintzer (1525) (in Luthers Werke, ed. Walch, xvi. 199) ; Strobel, Leben Th. Muntzers (i795); C. A. Cornelius, Die niederldndischen Wiedertdufer, in publications of Bavarian Academy (1869); J, G. Walch, Hist. u. theolog. Einleitung (Jena, 1733) ; Mosheim, Ecclesiastical History Gerbert, Gesch. d. Strassb. Sektenbewegung (Strassburg, 1889) W. Moeller, History of the Christian Church, tr. by Freese, i960, Jos. v. Beck, Die Geschichtsbucher der Wiedertdufer in Osterr.-Ung. (Wien, 1883), (Fontes return Austr II. xliii., a valuable history of the sect from their own early documents) ; Ritschl, Geschichte des Pietismus, vol. i. T.Bonn, 1880) ; Loserth, B. Hubmaier und die Anfdnge der Wiedertdufer in Mdhren (Brunn, 1893) ; Kolde, in Kirchengesch. Studien (Leipzig, 1888); Kessler, Sabbata; Leendertz and Zur Linden, M. Hofmann (Haarlem, 1883-1885); Erbkam, Gesch. der prot. Sekten der Reform. (1848); Justus Menius, Der Wiedertdufer Lehre (Wittenberg, 1534); johann Cloppenburg and Fred. Spanheim, Gangraena theologiae Anabaptisticae (Franekerd, 1656) ; Balthasar Lydius, Waldensia, id est conservatio verae Ecclesiae (Rotterdam, 1616) ; Herman Schyn, Historiae Mennonitarum (Amsterdam, 1729) ; Joh. Henr. Ottius, Annates Anabaptistici (Basileae. 1772); Karl Rembert, Die Wiedertdufer in Herzogtum Julich (Miinster, 1873); Universal Lexicon, art. " Wiedertaufer " (Leipzig. 1748) ; Tielmann Janssen van Bracht, Martyrologia Mennonitarum (Haarlem, 1615-1631); Joh. Gastii, Tractat. de Anabapt. Exordio (Basel, 1545); Jehring, History of the Baptists; Auss Bundt, or hymns written by and of the Baptist martyrs from 1 526-1620, first printed without date or place, reprinted Basel, 1838. (F. C. C.) ANABASIS (avafiaais, a march up country), the title given by Xenophon (q.v.) to his narrative of the expedition of Cyrus the younger against his brother, Artaxerxes of Persia, 401 B.C., and adopted by Arrian for his history of the expedition of Alexander the Great. ANABOLISM (Gr. ava, up, |3o\ii, a throw), the biological term for the building up in an organism of more complex from simpler substances, constructive metabolism. (See Physiology.) ANACHARSIS, a Scythian philosopher, who lived about 600 B.C. He was the son of Gnurus, chief of a nomadic tribe of the Euxine shores, and a Greek woman. Instructed in the Greek language by his mother, he prevailed upon the king to entrust him with an embassy to Athens about 589 B.C. He became acquainted with Solon, from whom he rapidly acquired a know- ledge of the wisdom and learning of Greece, and by whose influence he was introduced to the principal persons in Athens. He was the first stranger who received the privileges of citizenship. He was reckoned one of the Seven Sages, and it is said that he was initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries. After he had resided several years at Athens, he travelled through different countries in quest of knowledge, and returned home filled with the desire of instructing his countrymen in the laws and the religion of the Greeks. According to Herodotus he was killed by his brother Saulius while he was performing sacrifice to the goddess Cybele. It was he who compared laws to spiders' webs, which catch small flies and allow bigger ones to escape. His simple and forcible mode of expressing himself gave birth to the proverbial expression " Scythian eloquence," but his epigrams are as unauthentic as the letters which are often attributed to him. According to Strabo he was the first to invent an anchor with two flukes. Barth61emy borrows his name as the title for his Anacharsis en Grece. Herodotus iv. 76; Lucian, Scyiha; Cicero, Tusc. Disp. v. 32; Diog. Laert. i. 101. ANACHRONISM (from ava, back, and xpovos, time), a neglect or falsification, whether wilful or undesigned, of chronological relation. Its commonest use restricts it to the ante-dating of events, circumstances or customs; in other words, to the introduction, especially in works of imagination that rest on a historical basis, of details borrowed from a later age. Ana- chronisms may be committed in many ways, originating, for instance, in disregard of the different modes of life and thought that characterize different periods, or in ignorance of the progress 906 ANACOLUTHON— ANACREON of the arts and sciences and the other ascertained facts of history, and may vary from glaring inconsistency to scarcely perceptible misrepresentation. Much of the thought entertained about the past is so deficient in historical perspective as to be little better than a continuous anachronism. It is only since the close of the 1 8th century that this kind of untruthfulness has jarred on the general intelligence. Anachronisms abound in the works of Raphael and Shakespeare, as well as in those of the meanest daubers and playwrights of earlier times. In particular, the artists, on the stage and on the canvas, in story and in song, assimilated their dramatis personae to their own nationality and their own time. The Virgin was represented here as an Italian contadina, and there as a Flemish frow; Alexander the Great appeared on the French stage in the full costume of Louis XIV. down to the time of Voltaire; and in England the contemporaries of Addison could behold, without any suspicion of burlesque, " Cato's long wig, flower'd gown, and lacquer'd chair." Modern realism, the progress of archaeological research, and the more scientific spirit of history, have made an anachronism an offence, where our ancestors saw none. ANACOLUTHON (Gr. for " not following on "), a grammatical term, given to a defectively constructed sentence which does not run on as a continuous whole; this may occur either, in a text, by some corruption, or, in the case of a writer or speaker, simply through his forgetting the way in which he started. In the case of a man who is full of his subject, or who is carried along by the passion of the moment, such inconsequents are very apt to occur. Of Niebuhr it is told that his oral lectures consisted almost entirely of anacoluthic constructions. To this kind of licence some languages, as Greek and English, readily lend themselves; while the grammatical rigidity of others, as Latin and French, admits of it but sparingly. In Herodotus, Thucydides, Aeschylus, Pindar and Plato, abundant specimens are to be found; and the same is true of the writers of the Elizabethan age in English. The following is an example: — " And he charged him to tell no man; but go show thyself," &c. (Luke v. 14). ANACONDA, a city and the county-seat of Deer Lodge county, Montana, U.S.A., situated in the mountains on the W. side of Deer Lodge Valley, in the S.W. part of the state, about 26 m. N.W. of Butte, and at an altitude of about 5300 ft. Pop. (1890) 3975; (1900) 9453, of whom 3478 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 10,134. It is connected with Butte by the Butte, Anaconda & Pacific railroad. Among its public buildings are the county court-house and the Hearst free public library (1898). Industrially, Anaconda is essentially a smelting camp for the copper ores from the Butte mines, probably the largest copper- smelter in the world being located here ; the principal copper-mine at Butte — one of the most famous copper-mines in the world — is called the Anaconda. In 1903 the capital invested in manu- facturing was $13,728,456, and the factory product was valued at $28,581,530. Electric power generated at the Helena Power Transmission Company's plant on the Missouri river, 18 m. from Helena, comes to Anaconda over 1 10 m. of wire at 70,000 voltage. Anaconda is to a large degree the market and trading-place of the Big Hole Basin cattle country in the north-western part of Beaverhead county; with Wisdom, in the Big Hole Basin, it was connected in 1905 by a 65 m. telephone line. Anaconda was first settled in 1884 and was chartered as a city in 1888. ANACONDA, an aquatic boa, inhabiting the swamps and rivers of the dense forests of tropical South America. It is the largest of all modern snakes, said to attain over 30 ft. in length. The Eunectes murinus (formerly called Boa murina) differs from Boa by the snout being covered with shields instead of small scales, the inner of the three nasal shields being in contact with that of the other side. The general colour is dark olive-brown, with large oval black spots arranged in two alternating rows along the back, and with smaller white-eyed spots along the sides. The belly is whitish, spotted with black. The anaconda combines an arboreal with an aquatic life, and feeds chiefly upon birds and mammals, mostly during the night. It lies submerged in the water, with only a small part of its head above the surface, waiting for any suitable prey, or it establishes itself upon the branches of a tree which overhangs the water or the track of game. Being eminently aquatic this snake is viviparous. It is the only large boa which is decidedly ill-tempered. ANACREON, Greek lyric poet, was born about 560 B.C., at Teos, an Ionian city on the coast of Asia Minor. Little is known of his life, except a ifew scattered notices, not in all cases certainly authentic. He probably shared the voluntary exile of the mass of his fellow-townsmen, who, when Cyrus the Great was besieging the Greek cities of Asia (545) , rather than surrender, their city to his general Harpagus, sailed to Abdera in Thrace, where they founded a colony. Anacreon seems to have taken part in the fighting, in which, on his own admission, he did not distinguish himself, but, like Alcaeus and Horace, threw away his shield and fled. From Thrace he removed to the court of Polycrates of Samos, one of the best of those old " tyrants," who by no means deserved the name in its worst sense. He is said to have acted as tutor to Polycrates; that he enjoyed the tyrant's confidence we learn on the authority of Herodotus (iii. 121), who represents the poet as sitting in the royal chamber when audience was given to the Persian herald. In return for his favour and protection, Anacreon wrote many complimentary odes upon his patron. Like his fellow-lyrist, Horace, who was one of his great admirers, and in many respects of a kindred spirit, Anacreon seems to have been made for the society of courts. On the death of Polycrates, Hipparchus, who was then in power at Athens and inherited the literary tastes of his father Peisis- tratus, sent a special embassy to fetch the popular poet to Athens in a galley of fifty oars. Here he became acquainted with the poet Simonides, and other members of the brilliant circle which had gathered round Hipparchus. When this circle was broken up by the assassination of Hipparchus, Anacreon seems to have returned to his native town of Teos, where, according to a metrical epitaph ascribed to his friend Simonides, he died and was buried. According to others, before returning to Teos, he accompanied Simonides to the court of Echecrates, a Thessalian dynast of the house of the Aleuadae. Lucian mentions Anacreon amongst his instances of the longevity of eminent men, as having completed eighty-five years. If an anecdote given by Pliny (Nat. Hist. vii. 7) is to be trusted, he was choked at last by a grape-stone, but the story has an air of mythical adaptation to the poet's habits, which makes it somewhat apocryphal. Anacreon was for a long time popular at Athens, where his statue was to be seen on the Acropolis, together with that of his friend Xanthippus, the father of Pericles. On several coins of Teos he is represented, holding a lyre in his hand, sometimes sitting, sometimes standing. A marble statue found in 1835 in the Sabine district, and now in the Villa Borghese, is said to represent Anacreon. Anacreon had a reputation as a composer of hymns, as well as of those bacchanalian and amatory lyrics which are commonly associated with his name. Two short hymns to Artemis and Dionysus, consisting of eight and eleven lines respectively, stand first amongst his few undisputed remains, as printed by recent editors. But pagan hymns, especially when addressed to such deities as Aphrodite, Eros and Dionysus, are not so very unlike what we call " Anacreontic " poetry as to make the contrast of style as great as the word might seem to imply. The tone of Anacreon's lyric effusions has probably led to an unjust estimate, by both ancients and moderns, of the poet's personal character. The " triple worship " of the Muses, Wine and Love, ascribed to him as his religion in an old Greek epigram (Anthol. iii. 25,51), may have been as purely professional in the two last cases as in the first, and his private character on such points was probably neither much better nor worse than that of his contemporaries. Athenaeus remarks acutely that he seems at least to have been sober when he wrote; and he him- self strongly repudiates, as Horace does, the brutal characteristics of intoxication as fit only for barbarians and Scythians (Fr. 64). Of the five books of lyrical pieces by Anacreon which Suidas and Athenaeus mention as extant in their time, we have now but the merest fragments, collected from the citations of later writers. Those graceful little poems (most of them first printed ANACREONTICS— ANAESTHESIA 907 from the MSS. by Henry Stephens in 1554), which long passed among the learned for the songs of Anacreon, and which are well-known to many English readers in the translations of Cowley and Moore, are really of much later date, though possibly here and there genuine fragments of the poet are included. Modern critics, however, regard the entire collection as imitations belonging to different periods — the oldest probably to Alexandrian times, the most recent to the last days of paganism. They will always retain a certain popularity from their lightness and elegance, and some of them are fair copies of Anacreon's style, which would lend itself readily enough to a clever imitator. A strong argument against their genuineness lies in the fact that the peculiar forms of the Ionic Greek, in which Anacreon wrote, are not to be found in these reputed odes, while the fragments of his poems quoted by ancient writers are full of Ionicisms. Again, only one of the quotations from Anacreon in ancient writers is to be found in these poems, which further contain no references to contemporaries, whereas Strabo (xiv. p. 638) expressly states that Anacreon's poems included numerous allusions to Polycrates. The character of Love as a mischievous little boy is quite different from that given by Anacreon, who describes him as " striking with a mighty axe, like a smith," and is more akin to the conceptions of later literature. The best edition of the genuine fragments of Anacreon, as well as of the Anacreontea, is by Bergk (Poetae lyrici graeci, 1882). He includes in an appendix a similar collection of imitations from the Anecdota graeca of P. Matranga (1850), which had their origin in the beginning of the middle ages, and resemble the Christian anacreontics of Sophronius. ANACREONTICS (from the name of the Greek poet Anacreon), the title given to short lyrical pieces, of an easy kind, dealing with love and wine. The English word appears to have been first used in 1656 by Abraham Cowley, who called a section of his poems " anacreon tiques," because they were paraphrased out of the so-called writings of Anacreon into a familiar measure which was supposed to represent the metre of the Greek. Half a century later, when the form had been much cultivated, John Phillips ( 1 631-1706) laid down the arbitrary rule that an ana- creontic line " consists of seven syllables, without being tied to any certain law of quantity." In the 18th century, the antiquary William Oldys (1696-1761) was the author of a little piece which is the perfect type of an anacreontic: this begins: — " Busy, curious, thirsty fly, Drink with me, and drink as I ; Freely welcome to my cup, Could'st thou sip and sip it up. Make the most of life you may; Life is short and wears away." In 1800 Tom Moore published a collection of erotic anacreontics which are also typical in form; Moore speaks of the necessity of catching " the careless facility with which Anacreon appears to have trifled," as a reason why anacreontics are often tame and worthless. He dwells, moreover, on the absurdity of writing " pious anacreontics," a feat, however, which was performed by several of the Greek Christian poets, and in particular by Gregory of Nazianzus and John of Damascus. (E. G.) ANADYOMENE (' kvahvonkvq), an epithet of Aphrodite (Venus), expressive of her having sprung from the foam of the sea. In a famous picture by Apelles she was represented under this title as if just emerged from the sea and in the act of wringing her tresses. This painting was executed for the temple of Asclepius at Cos, from which it was taken to Rome by Augustus in part payment of tribute, and set up in the temple of Caesar. In the time of Nero, owing to its dilapidated condition, it was replaced by a copy made by the painter Dorotheus (Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxxv. 36). There are several epigrams on it in the Greek anthology. ANADYR, (1) a gulf, and (2) a river, in the extreme N.E. of Siberia, in the Maritime Province. The gulf extends from Cape Chukchi on the north to Cape Navarin on the south, forming part of the Bering Sea. The river, taking its rise in the Stanovoi mountains as the Ivashki or Ivachno, about 67 N. lat. and 173° E. long., flows through the Chukchi country, at first south-west and then east, and enters the Gulf of Anadyr after a course of about 500 m. The country through which it passes is thinly populated, barren and desolate. For nine months of the year the ground is covered with snow. Reindeer, upon which the in- habitants subsist, are found in considerable numbers. ANAEMIA (from Gr. av-, privative, and al/xa, blood), literally " want of blood," a word used as a generic term for various forms of disease characterized by a defective constitution of the blood. For different types of anaemia see the article Blood, section Pathology. ANAESTHESIA and ANAESTHETICS (Gr. Ai«ucr0ij(rfa, from av-, privative, and dxaQ-qavs, sensation), terms used in medicine to describe a state of local or general insensibility to external impressions, and the substances used for inducing this state. In diseases of the brain or spinal cord anaesthesia is an occasional symptom, but in such cases it is usually limited in extent, involving a limb or a definite area of the body's surface. Com- plete anaesthesia occurs in a state of catalepsy or trance — conditions associated with no definite lesion of the nervous system. The artificial induction of anaesthesia has come to occupy a foremost place in modern medicine, but there is abundant evidence to show that it is a practice of great antiquity. Besides the mention by Homer of the anaesthetic effects of nepenthe, and the reference by Herodotus to the practice of the Scythians of inhaling the vapours of a certain kind of hemp to produce intoxication, the employment of anaesthetics in surgery by the use of mandragora is particularly alluded to by Dioscorides and Pliny. It also appears, from an old Chinese manuscript laid before the French Academy by Stanislas Julien, that a physician named Hoa-tho, who lived in the 3rd century, gave his patients a preparation of hemp, whereby they were rendered insensible during the performance of surgical operations. Mandragora was extensively used as an anaesthetic by Hugo de Lucca, who practised in the 13th century. The soporific effects of mandrake are alluded to by Shakespeare, who also makes frequent mention of anaesthetizing draughts, the composition of which is not specified. In the Medical Gazette, vol. xii. p. 515, Dr Sylvester, quoting from a German work by Meissner, published in 1782, mentions the case of Augustus, king of Poland, who underwent amputation while rendered insensible by a narcotic. But the practice of anaesthesia never became general, and surgeons appear to have usually regarded it with disfavour. When, towards the close of the 1 8th century, the discoveries of Priestley gave an impetus to chemical research, the properties of gases and vapours began to be more closely investigated, and the belief was then entertained that many of them would become of great medicinal value. In 1800, Sir Humphry Davy, experimenting on nitrous oxide (the so-called " laughing gas "), discovered its anaesthetic properties, and described the effects it had on himself when inhaled with the view of relieving local pain. He suggested its employment in surgery in the following words: — " As nitrous oxide, in its extensive operation, seems capable of destroying physical pain, it may probably be used with advantage in surgical operations in which no great effusion of blood takes place." His suggestion, however, remained unheeded for nearly half a century. The inhalation of sulphuric ether for the relief of asthma and other lung affections had been employed by Dr Pearson of Birmingham as early as 1785; and in 1805 Dr J. C. Warren of Boston, U.S.A., used this treatment in the later stages of pulmonary consumption. In 1818 Faraday showed that the inhalation of the vapour of ether produced anaesthetic effects similar to those of nitrous oxide; and this property of ether was also shown by the American physicians, John D. Godman (1822), James Jackson (1833), Wood and Bache (1834). These observations, however, appear to have been regarded in the light of mere scientific curiosities and subjects for lecture- room experiment, rather than as facts capable of being applied practically in the treatment of disease, till December 1844, when Dr Horace Wells, a dentist of Hartford, Connecticut, underwent 908 ANAESTHESIA in his own person the operation of tooth-extraction while rendered insensible by nitrous oxide. Satisfied, from further experience, chat teeth could be extracted in this way without pain, Dr Wells proposed to establish the practice of painless dentistry under the influence of the gas; but in consequence of an unfortunate failure in an experiment at Boston he abandoned the project. On the 30th of September 1846 Dr W. T. G. Morton, a dentist of Boston, employed the vapour of ether to procure general anaesthesia in a case of tooth-extraction, and thereafter administered it in cases requiring surgical operation with complete success. This great achievement marked a new era in surgery. Operations were performed in America in numerous instances under ether in- halation, the result being only to establish more firmly its value as a successful anaesthetic. The news of the discovery reached England on the 17th of December 1846. On the 19th of December Mr Robinson, a dentist in London, and on the 21st Robert Liston, the eminent surgeon, operated on patients anaesthetized by ether; and the practice soon became general both in Great Britain and on the continent. Sir James Simpson was the first to apply anaesthesia by ether to midwifery practice; this he did in 1847, an d found that the pains of labour could be abolished without interference with uterine contractions or injury to the child. On the 8th of March 1847 M. J. P. Flourens read a paper before the Academie des Sciences on the effect of chloroform on the lower animals, but no notice was taken of what has since proved to be a discovery of epoch-making importance. In November of the same year Simpson announced his discovery of the anaesthetic properties of chloroform, the trial of which had been suggested to him by Waldie, a chemist of Liverpool. As the result, chloroform came to be widely used instead of ether, though it was found by several casualties that it was not the absolutely safe anaes- thetic that had at first been hoped. It, however, remained the drug that was chiefly used till Dr J. T. Clover (1825-1882) of London introduced his regulating ether-inhaler in 1876, embodying a new principle — that of limiting the quantity of air during etherization and regulating the strength of the vapour. During the intervening period, as the results of the labours of John Snow, Sir Benjamin Ward Richardson, Thomas Nunnely, and Colton amongst others, several drugs were found to possess anaesthetic properties. Of these one, ethyl chloride, which was speedily given up, has come into deserved prominence at the present time; and another, nitrous oxide, which had been lost sight of since Wells's failure at Boston, was reintroduced, and it became and has remained the most popular anaesthetic in dental practice. Since 1876 no new drugs have been introduced; the progress has been in the direction of improvements in the technique of anaesthetization. The most important of these is the administra- tion of oxygen with nitrous oxide, resulting from the recogni- tion of the fact that this drug does not owe its anaesthetic properties to partial asphyxia, as was thought till the contrary was shown by Edmund Andrews of Chicago in 1868. It was not till twenty years later that this knowledge was put to practical use, when F. W. Hewett introduced his regulating stopcock, which enabled the anaesthetist to exhibit the nitrous oxide and oxygen in such proportions as were demanded by the patient's condition. At the present time the anaesthetics in common use are the following: — (1) Nitrous oxide gas, or laughing gas, N 2 0. This is a colour- less, odourless gas, which for convenience is carried about in liquid form in iron cylinders. When about to be used, it is allowed to escape into a large rubber bag, connected with a closely- fitting face-piece, which covers up the nose and mouth, and allows of inspiration only from the bag of gas, expiration being into the air. When thus given the patient is exposed to a certain degree of asphyxia. This asphyxia is not only not necessary but is harmful, and may be obviated by giving oxygen in small amounts simultaneously by means of Hewett's regulating stopcock. This drug is used chiefly for dental operations, and for minor surgery where absolute muscular relaxation is not required. When mixed with oxygen, it can be given if necessary for an hour or longer. It has an induction period of a few breaths only, and the recovery is as a rule unaccompanied by excitement or nausea. It is also used as a preliminary to ether; the gas is given till unconsciousness is reached, the unpleasant taste of the ether being thus avoided and the induction period shortened. The mortality from nitrous oxide is small, and from the gas and oxygen in expert hands nil. (2) Ethyl chloride, C 2 H 5 C1, a colourless liquid of a pleasant odour, boiling at 1 2.5° C. It is used in the same class of operations as the last anaesthetic. It is best given in an apparatus that consists of a mask closely adapted to the face, and a rubber bag of small capacity, with which is connected the bottle containing the ethyl chloride. The vapour supplied from the bottle is breathed backwards and forwards from the bag, fresh air being admitted in small quantities only. The period of induction is shorter than in the case of nitrous oxide, the patienl losing consciousness in two or three breaths; the stage of recovery is not so uniformly pleasant, headache, nausea and vomiting occurring not infrequently. It is difficult at present to estimate the mortality, as it has only recently come into general use, but it seems to occupy an intermediate position between ether and chloroform. (3) Ether, or ethyl oxide, (C 2 H 5 ) 2 0, a colourless, volatile liquid, boiling at 36.5° C. It has a pungent odour. It is best administered, as in the case of ethyl chloride, by limiting the amount of air during inhalation. The induction is much slower than in the case of the last two drugs, and it is accompanied by a feeling of suffocation, owing to the pungent odour of the ether. On that account the anaesthetic is best started with nitrous oxide or ethyl chloride. The recovery is always marked by some nausea and very frequently by vomiting. The mortality is small during the actual operation, but fatalities from respiratory complications later on are not uncommon. (4) Chloroform, CHCI3, a colourless liquid of a penetrating odour, boiling at 63 C. It is administered in such a way as to ensure the free admixture of air. To secure this the face-piece must be loosely-fitting, and the strength of the vapour so gradually increased that the patient is never inconvenienced or impelled to hold the breath. The induction is slow, occupying two or more minutes, but it is not at all unpleasant; nausea and vomiting during recovery are rarer than in the case of ether; but if they do occur they last longer. The mortality on the table is about 1 in 2500. The question as to which is the better anaesthetic, ether or chloroform, for long operations, is a moot point. In the hands of an experienced anaesthetist there is probably nothing to choose as regards safety, and the anaesthetic advantages of the latter are incontestable. In the hands of the less-experienced anaesthetist, ether is the more suitable drug. At the extremes of life, chloroform is well taken, as it is also by women in labour, and it is indicated where there has been recent inflammation of the air passages. In operations, too, about the mouth, chloroform must be the drug used, as a closely-fitting mask is obviously impossible. The introduction by inhalation of any of the above drugs into the organism produces an anaesthesia, the degree of which at any moment varies directly as the amount or tension of the vapour in the blood, and therefore also as the tension of the vapour in the inspired air. The organism in this case may be compared to an electric lamp, of which the voltage is, say 100, a current of any less voltage will only produce a red heat, however many amperes are forced through; with the voltage at 100 the filament will be white hot, at over 100 the filament will fuse. So with these drugs : with the vapour at a low tension a certain low depth of anaesthesia is obtained; if the administrator increases the tension, true surgical anaesthesia is produced; if he increases it again, the filament fuses and the patient dies. This is the principle which guides the anaesthetist; it is the quality of the vapour that decides the depth of the anaesthesia, not the quantity. An infinite quantity of chloroform may be absorbed with impunity if the tension be low, but a few drops will kill if the tension be high. For practical purposes four ANAESTHESIA 909 degrees of anaesthesia are described, through which a patient passes from unconsciousness to (in the last resort) death: — (1) A state of disordered consciousness, with analgesia; the patient's ideas are confused, the special senses are disturbed, and though the application of stimuli to the skin causes no mental impression, yet in response to them there may be what look like purposeful movements. (2) In the second stage there is complete loss of consciousness, and though the reflexes persist, the movements in response to the stimuli are purposeless. The muscles generally act strongly. (3) The stage of surgical anaesthesia; there is a general muscular relaxation, with the loss of many of the reflexes, i.e. an operation may be performed without evoking any movement on the part of the patient, while the vital reflexes and the vital centres in the medulla are still active, and the heart muscle is not paralysed. (4) Finally, the stage of paralysis of the medulla, when the respiratory and circulatory centres are paralysed, and the heart muscle itself is poisoned and death ensues. # The aim of the anaesthetist is to keep the patient in the third degree of anaesthesia, thus avoiding the movements of the second and the dangers of the fourth; he therefore keeps the patient under close observation, and by watching the respiration, pulse and facial aspect, is able to judge the condition of the respiration and circulation. He has a further guide in the lid- reflex, i.e. the movement of the eyelid when the globe is touched ; this and the size of the pupil tell him to what extent the central nervous system is depressed and complete the information he requires. It will have been observed that the administration of the above drugs is by inhalation, and has to be continued throughout the operation, the reason being that all the drugs are as rapidly excreted as they are absorbed, especially by the lungs, and therefore no other method would be of any avail. That there are drugs which are sufficiently slowly eliminated to allow of an operation being performed between the moment of induction and that of recovery, cannot be doubted, and their discovery and use can only be a matter of time. Even at the present time there is one, urethane, which, if injected with a hypodermic needle, soon produces a profound general anaesthesia. It has only been used on the lower animals, as its depressing effect on the re- spiratory centre contra-indicates its use in human beings. Local Anaesthesia. — Much attention has recently been devoted to the discovery of methods by which the insensibility may be confined to the area of operation and the loss of consciousness avoided. Such a procedure has been common for many years for small operations, but it is only lately that it has been success- fully applied to the severer ones. It is very doubtful whether local anaesthesia will ever replace general in the latter class. Though the preliminary starvation is avoided, and the patient has the shock of operation alone to recover from, without the cardiac depression resulting from the anaesthetic during the operation, the patient, unless of a very apathetic tempera- ment, is in that state of severe nervous strain, when any un- expected movement or remark, or sight of a soiled instrument, may produce an alarming or fatal syncope. The earliest local anaesthetic was cold, produced by a mixture of ice and salt. In place of this cumbersome method, the skin is now frozen by means of a fine spray of ether or ethyl chloride directed upon it. The spraying is discontinued when the skin becomes white, and it is then allowed to regain its colour. The moment this occurs the incision is made and will be quite painless. The recovery, like that from any other frost-bite, is very painful, and the time during which an operation can be done is very short ; con- sequently this method has been very largely superseded by the use of drugs. The drugs chiefly used are cocaine and its de- rivatives. Cocaine has by far the highest anaesthetic properties ; it is, however, in certain individuals a most powerful cardiac depressant and has caused numerous fatalities, and further, it cannot be sterilized by heat, as it undergoes decomposition. Eucaine has now largely taken its place, though its anaesthetic properties are less; it is, however, less toxic, and can be sterilized by heat. In combination with these drugs there is usually given some of the extract of the suprarenal body of the sheep; this substance increases and prolongs the anaesthetic effect by constricting the blood-vessels, the result of which is to reduce the haemorrhage, and also to prevent the too rapid absorption of the drug into the general system, confining it to the area of operation. The chief methods of bringing about local anaesthesia are as follows : — (1) Painting or spraying a solution of the drugs on to the area on which it is proposed to operate. (2) Injection by means of a needle of the solution into the skin and the deeper structures. (3) Spinal analgesia. The method of inducing analgesia by- injecting solutions into the sheath surrounding the spinal cord was devised by Bier in 1898, and for the purpose he employed a solution of cocaine. It was found, however, that there was con- siderable danger with this drug, so the method was not adopted to any great extent, until Fourneau discovered stovaine in 1904. The principle involved in spinal anaesthesia is this: that a substance in solution is injected into the sac containing the spinal cord in the lumbar region. The spinal cord as such ends at the level of the first lumbar vertebra in a leash of nerves termed the cauda equina. When giving an injection there is little danger of injuring these nerves because in this situation there is a space filled with fluid between the wall of the sac and the nerves. The substances injected, by virtue of their specific action on nervous tissues, cause loss of painful sensations in the lower limbs and for a variable distance up the trunk. It has been found that the specific gravity of the solution injected has some influence on the height to which the analgesia will extend up the trunk, and this distance can also be controlled by altering th6 position of the patient. The canal in which the cord is situated is not a straight tube, but is curved backwards in the sacral and upper dorsal regions, and forwards in the lower dorsal and lumbar regions. Therefore with the patient lying on his back, any solution injected that has a greater specific gravity than that of the cerebrospinal fluid which bathes the cord, tends to gravitate towards the sacral and upper dorsal regions; and, conversely, any solution of lower specific gravity than that of the cerebro- spinal fluid tends to rise and produce analgesia at a still higher level. In this way the situation of the fluid producing analgesia can be controlled to some extent. It has been found that a very serious danger exists if the solution passes up to the brain, or even if it passes higher than the sixth cervical nerve. It is important that the osmotic pressure of the solutions employed should be as nearly as possible that of the cerebrospinal fluid, that is to say, the nearer the solution is isotonic with the cerebrospinal fluid, the better will be the analgesia, and the less will be the harmful effects. At present it has not been found possible to separate in any of the substances employed the radicle which produces motor effects from that which blocks the advent of sensory stimuli. Although both effects last only a short time there seems to be a certain risk due to the temporary muscular par- alysis, and in a patient with a tendency to bronchitis this is a matter of considerable moment. The fluid is injected in the following manner. A puncture is made with a special trocar and canula in the lumbar region be- tween the second and third or third and fourth lumbar spines. The sheath of the sac having been entered, as is evidenced by the loss of resistance to the point of the trocar, and by the fact that cerebrospinal fluid escapes when the trocar is withdrawn, the dose of the fluid selected is injected through the canula, which is then withdrawn. An important point is that the operation must be absolutely aseptic; great care is taken to sterilize thoroughly the instruments, site of operation and fluid used. The patient is placed in that position which will yield the best and safest analgesia for the operation; it is essential, however, that the patient's head be raised well above the level of the spine. The injection is followed very quickly, generally within three to five minutes, by the production of analgesia, which lasts for a period varying from half an hour to two hours. Various substances have gio ANAGNIA— ANAGRAM been used for the injection, of which the following are the chief — tropacocaine, stovaine, novocaine, cocaine, eucaine and alypin. All of these have been combined with adrenalin hydrochloride with a view to limiting their action in one degree or another; and also with other inert substances in such , quantity as will produce isotonic solutions of relatively high specific gravity. The points in favour of this method of producing analgesia are as follows: (a) The patient is not rendered unconscious, and is often able to assist at his own operation, such as by coughing or moving his limbs in any way as may be desired, (b) There are no troublesome after-effects, such as nausea, vomiting and thirst. (c) The formation of haematoma is less frequent, (d) Surgical shock is considerably lessened, especially in such operations as amputations and severe abdominal emergencies, (e) The risk attending a general anaesthetic is avoided. The disadvantages at present attending the method are: (a) A severe form of headache may sometimes follow, but this has seemed to depend on the kind of fluid injected, and in the recent cases has not been so frequent as in the early ones. (6) The paralysis of muscles. In a very few cases this has been permanent. The temporary paralysis of the muscles of respiration is apt to be a serious matter, (c) Occasionally incontinence of urine and faeces occurs; this, however, has not been permanent except in a few of the earlier cases, (d) The uncertainty of the method, so that the analgesia is not always as complete as is desirable, (e) The analgesia for safety must be limited to a line below the level of the second rib in front. (/) The use of the Trendelenburg position is impossible, or indeed the use of any position which involves lowering the patient's head. It would appear that the method undoubtedly has its uses, and that it will take its place in surgery and find its proper level. A large amount of work is being done on the subject, with a view of determining the limitations and possibilities of the method, the best kind of substance to use and the proper dose to employ. Finally, a large number of operations have been performed under a local anaesthesia produced by hypnotism (g.v.), but this is a method that can only be used on selected cases. (H. C. C.) ANAGNIA [mod. Anagni; pop. (iooi) 10,059], an ancient town of the Hernici, situated on a hill (1558 ft.) above the valley of the Trerus and the Via Labicana (the post-station 3 m. below the town, from which a branch road ascended to it, was Com- pitum Anagninum, which was 40 m. E.S.E. of Rome: see T. Ashby, in Papers of the British School at Rome, i. 215). In 1880 a pre-Aryan grave was found between the town and the river, with a skeleton painted red, stone implements and a bronze dagger. After the Italian immigration, its position in a fertile district soon gave it importance, and it became the seat of the assembly of the Hernican towns. In the war of 306 B.C. it was conquered by Q. Marcius Tremulus and lost its independence. Its inhabitants had certainly acquired Roman citizenship before the Social War and it continued to be a municipium throughout the Roman period. It was besieged by the Saracens in 877, but in the nth century was a place of considerable importance, the Conti and Gaetani being the chief families; Pope Boniface VIII., a member of the latter, was there made prisoner in 1303. The ancient city walls are in some points still existing, in others they have been much restored; they are built of rectangular blocks of porous limestone about lift. high. On the north of the town they are especially well-preserved, and at one point the area within them is slightly extended by a terrace supported by three lofty pillars. Within the city there are no ancient remains, except some massive substruction walls which supported build- ings on the hillside. The present town still preserves in parts its medieval aspect. The cathedral, constructed in 1074 at the summit of the hill, is externally plain; it has a fine Gothic interior, somewhat spoilt by restoration, with a good Cosmati pavement, and a canopy and paschal candlestick in the same style. The crypt contains frescoes of the 13th century, and in the treasury are valuable vestments. Lower down is the Palazzo Civico, belonging to the nth or early 12th century, which is supported on arches of a single span, under which the road passes. .Its posterior facade is fine. Pope Adrian IV. (Nicholas Break- speare) died here, and there is a chapel of St Thomas Becket in the crypt of the cathedral. See L. Pigorini, in Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana (1880, 8 seq.)', J. Kulakowski, in Atti del Congresso Internazionale di Scienze Storiche (Rome, 1904), v. 673 seq. (T. As.) ANAGRAM (Gr. ava, back, and ypaeiv, to write), the result of transposing the letters of a word or words in such a manner as to produce other words that possess meaning. The construction of anagrams is an amusement of great antiquity, its invention being ascribed without authority to the Jews, probably because the later Hebrew writers, particularly the Kabbalists, were fond of it, asserting that " secret mysteries are woven in the numbers of letters." Anagrams were known to the Greeks and also to the Romans, although the known Latin examples of words of more than one syllable are nearly all imperfect. They were popular throughout Europe during the middle ages and later, particularly in France, where a certain Thomas Billon was appointed " ana- grammatist to the king " by Louis XIII. W. Camden (Remains, .7th ed., 1674) defines " Anagrammatisme " as " a dissolution of a name truly written into his letters, as his elements, and a new connection of it by artificial transposition, without addition, subtraction or change of any letter, into different words, making some perfect sence applyable to the person named." Dryden disdainfully called the pastime the " torturing of one poor word ten thousand ways," but many men and women of note have found amusement in it. A well-known anagram is the change of Ave Maria, gratia plena, Dominus tecum into Virgo serena, pia, munda et immaculata. Among others are the anagrammatic answer to Pilate's question, "Quid est Veritas?" — namely, " Es* vir qui adest "; and the transposition of " Horatio Nelson ." into " Honor est a Nilo "; and of " Florence Nightingale " into " Flit on, cheering angel." James I.'s courtiers discovered in " James Stuart " " A just master," and converted " Charles James Stuart " into " Claimes Arthur's seat." " Eleanor Audeley," wife of Sir John Davies, is said to have been brought before the High Commission in 1634 for extravagances, stimulated by the discovery that her name could be transposed to " Reveale, O Daniel," and to have been laughed out of court by another anagram submitted by the dean of the Arches, " Dame Eleanor Davies," " Never soe mad a ladie." There must be few names that could furnish so many anagrams as that of " Augustus de Morgan," who tells that a friend had constructed about 800 on his name, specimens of which are given in his Budget of Paradoxes, p. 82. The pseudonyms adopted by authors are often transposed forms, more or less exact, of their names; thus " Calvinus " becomes " Alcuinus "; " Francois Rabelais," " Alcofribas Nasier "; " Bryan Waller Proctor," " Barry Cornwall, poet "; " Henry Rogers," " R. E. H. Greyson," &c. It is to be noted that the last two are impure anagrams, an " r " being left out in both cases. " Telliamed," a simple reversal, is the title of a well- known work by " De Maillet." The most remarkable pseudonym of this class is the name " Voltaire," which the celebrated philosopher assumed instead of his family name, " Francois Marie Arouet," and which is now generally allowed to be an anagram of " Arouet, l.j.," that is, Arouet the younger. Perhaps the only practical use to which anagrams have been turned is to be found in the transpositions in which some of the astronomers of the 17th century embodied their discoveries with the design apparently of avoiding the risk that, while they were engaged in further veri- fication, the credit of what they had found out might be claimed by others. Thus Galileo announced his discovery that Venus had phases like the moon in the form, " Haec immatura a me jam frustra leguntur — oy," that is, " Cynthiae figuras aemulatur Mater Amorum." Another species of anagram, called " palindrome " (Gr. iraXiv, back, and 8p6y,os, running), is a word or sentence which may be read backwards as well as forwards, letter by letter, while pre- serving the same meaning; for example, the words " Anna," "noon," " tenet," or the sentence with which Adam is humorously supposed to have greeted Eve: "Madam, I'm Adam!" A still more complicated variety is the " logogram " (Gr. \6yos, word) , a versified puzzte containing several words derived ANAH— ANAHUAC 911 from recombining the letters of the original word, the difficulty lying in the fact that synonyms of the derived words may be used. Thus, if the original word be " curtain," the word " dog " may be used instead of " cur." ANAH, or 'Ana, a town on the Euphrates, about mid-way between the Gulf of Alexandretta and the Persian Gulf. It is called Hanat in a Babylonian letter (about 2200 B.C.), and An-at by the scribe of Assur-nasir-pal (879 B.C.), 'Avadu (Isidore Charax), Anatha (Ammianus Marcellinus) by Greek and Latin writers in the early Christian centuries, 'Ana (sometimes, as if plural, 'Anat) by Arabic writers. The name has been connected with that of the deity Anat. Whilst 'Ana has thus retained its name for forty-one centuries the site is variously described. Most early writers concur in placing it on an island; so Assur- nasir-pal, Isidore, Ammianus Marcellinus, Ibn Serapion, al- Istakri, Abulfeda and al-Karamani. Ammianus (lib. 24, c. 2) calls it a munimentum, Theophylactus Simocatta (iv. 10, v. 1, 2) to 'Avadwv pobpwv, Zosimus (iii. 14) a (ppovpiov, opp. Qadvcrcu, which may be the Be6(d)iva of Ptolemy (v. 19). 1 Leonhart Rauwolff, in a.d. 1574, found it " divided . . . into two towns," the one " Turkish," " so surrounded by the river, that you cannot go into it but by boats," the other, much larger, on the Arabian side of the river. 2 G. A. Olivier in the beginning of the 19th century describes it as a long street (5 or 6 m. long), parallel to the right bank of the Euphrates — some 100 yards from the water's edge and 300 to 400 paces from the rocky barrier of the Arabian desert — with, over against its lower part, an island bearing at its north end the ruins of a fortress (p. 451). This southernmost town of Mesopotamia proper (Gezira) must have shared the chequered history of that land (see Mesopo- tamia). Of 'Ana's fortunes under the early Babylonian empire the records have not yet been unearthed; but in a letter dating from the third millennium B.C., six men of Hanat (Ha-na-at K1 ) are mentioned in a statement as to certain disturbances which had occurred in the sphere of the Babylonian Resident of Suhi, which would include the district of 'Ana. How 'Ana fared at the hands of the Mitanni and others is unknown. The suggestion that Amenophis (Amenhotep) I. (16th century B.C.) refers to it is improbable; but we seem to be justified in holding 'Ana to be the town " in the middle of the Euphrates " opposite (ina put) to which Assur-nasir-pal halted in his campaign of 879 B.C. The supposed reference to 'Ana in the speech put into the mouth of Sennacherib's messengers to Hezekiah (2 Kings xix. 13, Is. xxxvii. 13) is exceedingly improbable. T ne town may be mentioned, however, in four 7 th ceniury documents edited by C. H. W. Johns. 3 It was at 'Ana that the emperor Julian met the first opposition on his disastrous expedition against Persia (363), when he got possession of the place and transported the people ; and there that Ziyad and Shureih with the advanced guard of 'Ali's army were refused passage across the Euphrates (36/657) to join 'Ali in Mesopotamia (Tabari i. 3261). Later 'Ana was the place of exile of the caliph Qaim (al-Qaim bi-amr-illah) when Baslslri was in power (450/1058). In the 14th century 'Ana was the seat of a Catholicos, primate of the Persians (Marin Sanuto). In 1610 Delia Valle found a Scot, George Strachan, resident at 'Ana (to study Arabic) as physician to the amir (i. 671-681). In 1835 the steamer " Tigris " of the English Euphrates expedition went down in a hurricane just above "Ana, near where Julian's force had'suffered from a similar storm. Delia Valle described 'Ana as the chief Arab town on the Euphrates, an importance which it owes to its position on one of the routes from "the west to Bagdad; Texeira said that the power of its amir extended to Palmyra (early 17th century); but Olivier found the ruling prince with only twenty-five men in his service, the town becoming more depopulated every day from lack of protection from the Arabs of the desert. Von Oppenheim (1893) reported that Turkish troops having been recently stationed at the place, it had no longer to pay blackmail (huwwa) 1 Steph. Byz. (sub Tupos) says that Arrian calls Anatha Tipos. 2 Texeira (1610) says that "Anna" lay on both banks of the river, and so Delia Valle (i. 671). 3 Ass. Deeds and Doc. nos. 23, 168, 228, 385. The characters used are DlS TU, which may mean Ana-tu. to the Arabs. F. R. Chesney reported some 1800 houses, 2 mosques and 16 water-wheels; W. F. Ainsworth (1835) reported the Arabs as inhabiting the N. W. part of the town, the Christians the centre, and the Jews the S.E.; Delia Valle (1610) found some sun-worshippers still there. Modern 'Ana lies from W. to E. on the right bank along a bend of the river just before it turns S. towards Hit, and presents an attractive appearance. It extends, chiefly as a single street, for several miles along a narrow strip of land between the river and a ridge of rocky hills._ The houses are separated from one another by fruit gardens. 'Ana marks the boundary between the olive (N.) and the date (S.). Arab poets celebrated its wine (Yaqut, iii. 593 f.), and Mustaufi (8/i4th century) tells of the fame of its palm-groves. In the river, facing the town, is a succession of equally productive islands. The most easterly contains the ruins of the old castle, whilst the remains of the ancient Anatho extend from this island for about 2 m. down the left bank. Coarse cloth is almost the only manufacture. Bibliography. — In addition to the authorities cited above may be mentioned: G. A. Olivier, Voyage dans I' empire othoman, Gfc, iii. 450-459 (1807) ; Carl Ritter, Erdkunde von Asien, vii. b., pp. 716- 726 (1844); W. F. Ainsworth, Euphrates Expedition, i. 401-418 (1888). For a map see sheet 5 of the atlas accompanying Chesney 's work. (H. W. H.) ANAHEIM, a city of Orange county, California, U.S.A., about 54 m. S.E. of Los Angeles, about 12 m. from the Pacific Ocean, and about 3 m. from the Santa Ana river. (1900) 1456; (1910) 2628. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa F6, and the Southern Pacific railways. It lies in a fine fruit region, in which oranges, lemons, apricots, grapes and walnuts are raised. The plain on which it is laid out, now fertile and well- watered, was originally an arid waste. Water for irrigation is obtained from the Santa Ana river, about 15 m. above the nearest point along the river to the city. The city itself has an area of only i| sq. m., and in 1908 the population of the district, including that of the city, was estimated at 5000. The principal manu- factures are dried and canned fruits, wine, beer, and agricultural implements. Anaheim is of particular interest as the earliest of various settlements in southern California in which co-opera- tion has made possible the establishment of intensive fruit culture in semi-desert regions. In 1857 fifty Germans (mostly mechanics) organized in San Francisco the Los Angeles Vineyard Association and bought 1165 acres of land here which could be irrigated from the Santa Ana river; each member took posses- sion of a 20 acre share only when gradual improvement had made everything ready for occupancy and the tracts had been dis- tributed by lot, with bonuses or rebates to equalize them in value to the drawers. This ended the co-operative feature of the enterprise, which was never communistic except that its irrigat- ing canal remained common property. The settlement was uninterruptedly successful, and was influential as a pioneer experiment. Anaheim was incorporated as a town in 1870; this incorporation, was revoked in 1872; in 1878 the town was incor- porated again; and in 1888 Anaheim received a city charter. ANAHUAC, a geographical district of Mexico, limited by the traditional and vaguely defined boundaries of an ancient Indian empire or confederation of that name previous to the Spanish conquest. The word is said to signify " country by the waters " in the old Aztec language; hence the theory that Anahuac was located on the sea coast. One of the theories relating to the location of Anahuac describes it as all the plateau region of Mexico, with an area equal to three-fourths of the republic, and extending between the eastern and western coast ranges from Rio Grande to the isthmus of Tehuantepec. A more exact description, however, limits it to the great plateau valley in which the city of Mexico is located, between 18 40' and 20 30' N. lat., about 200 m. long by 75 m. wide, with an average eleva- tion of 7500 ft., and a mean temperature of 62 . The accepted meaning of the name fits this region as well as any on the sea coast, as the lakes of this valley formerly covered one-tenth of its area. The existence of the name in southern Utah, United States, and on the gulf coast of Mexico, has given rise to theories of other locations and wider bounds for the old Indian empire. 912 ANALCITE— ANALYSIS ANALCITE, a commonly occurring mineral of the zeolite group. It crystallizes in the cubic system, the common form being the icositetrahedron (211), either alone (fig. 1) or in combination with the cube (100); sometimes the faces of the cube predominate in size, and its corners are each replaced by three small triangular faces representing the icositetrahedron (fig. 2). Although cubic in form, analcite usually shows feeble double refraction, and is thus optically anomalous. This feature of analcite has been much studied, Sir David Brewster in 1826 being the earliest investigator. Crystals of analcite are often perfectly colourless and transparent with a brilliant glassy lustre, but some are opaque and white or pinkish-white. The hardness of the mineral is 5 to 5I, and its specific gravity is 2-25. Chemically, analcite is a hydrated sodium and aluminium silicate, NaAlSioOe+HjO; small amounts of the sodium being sometimes replaced by calcium or by potassium. The water of crystallization is readily expelled by heat, with modification of the optical characters of the crystals. Before the blowpipe the mineral readily fuses with intumescence to a colourless glass. It is decomposed by acids with separation of gelatinous silica. ff^wS Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Analcite usually occurs, associated with other zeolitic minerals, lining amygdaloidal cavities in basic volcanic rocks such as basalt and melaphyre, and especially in such as have undergone alteration by weathering; the Tertiary basalts of the north of Ireland frequently contain cavities lined with small brilliant crystals of analcite. Larger crystals of the same kind are found in the basalt of the Cyclopean Islands (Scogli de' Ciclopi or Faraglioni) N.E. of Catania, Sicily. Large opaque crystals of the pinkish-white colour are found in cavities in melaphyre at the Seisser Alpe near Schlern in southern Tirol. In all such cases the mineral is clearly of secondary origin, but of late years another mode of occurrence has been recognized, analcite having been found as a primary constituent of certain igneous rocks such as monchiquite and some basalts. The irregular grains, of which it has the form, had previously been mistaken for glass. Owing to the fact that analcite often crystallizes in cubes, it was long known as cubic zeolite or as cuboite. The name now in use was proposed in 1797 in the form analcime, by R. J. Hauy, in allusion to the weak (avdSxis) electrification of the mineral produced by friction. Euthallite is a compact, greenish analcite, produced by the alteration of elaeolite at various localities in the Langesund-f jord in southern Norway. Eudno- phite, from the same region, was originally described as an orthorhombic mineral dimorphous with analcite, but has since been found to be identical with it. Cluthalite, from the Clyde (Clutha) valley, is an altered form of the mineral. (L. J. S.) ANALOGY (Gr. avakoyla, proportion), a term signifying, (1) in general, resemblance which falls short of absolute similarity or identity. Thus by analogy, the word "loud," originally applied to sounds, is used of garments which obtrude themselves on the attention; all metaphor is thus a kind of analogy. (2) Euclid used the term for proportionate equality; but in mathe- matics it is now obsolete except in the phrase, " Napier's Analogies " in spherical trigonometry (see Napier, John). (3) In grammar, it signifies similarity in the dominant character- istics of a language, derivation, orthography and so on. (4) In logic, it is used of arguments by inference from resemblances between known particulars to other particulars which are not observed. Under the name of " example " (7rapa.5fl.7jua) the process is explained by Aristotle (Prior Anal. ii. 4) as an inference which differs from induction (q.v.) in having a particular, not a general, conclusion; i.e. if A is demonstrably like B in certain respects, it may be assumed to be like it in another, though the latter is not demonstrated. Kant and his followers state the distinction otherwise, i.e. induction argues from the possession of an attribute by many members of a class that all members of the class possess it, while analogy argues that, because A has some of B's qualities, it must have them all (cf. Sir Wm. Hamilton, Lectures on Logic, ii. 165-174, for a slight modification of this view). J. S. Mill very properly rejects this artificial distinction, which is in practice no distinction at all; he regards induction and analogy as generically the same, though differing in the demonstrative validity of their evidence, i.e. induction proceeds on the basis of scientific, causal connexion, while analogy, in absence of proof, temporarily accepts a probable hypothesis. In this sense, analogy may obviously have ? universal conclusion. This type of inference is of the greates value in physical science, which has frequently and quite legiti mately used such conclusions until a negative instance has disproved or further evidence confirmed them (for a list of typical cases see T. Fowler's edition of Bacon's Nov. Org. Aph. ii. 27 note). The value of such inferences depends on the nature of the resemblances on which they are based and on that of the differences which they disregard. If the resemblances are small and unimportant and the differences great and fundamental, the argument is known as " False Analogy." The subject is dealt with in Francis Bacon's Novum Organum, especially ii. 27 (see T. H. Fowler's notes) under the head of Instantiae conformes sive proportionatae. Strictly the argument by analogy is based on similarity of relations between things, not on the similarity of things, though it is, in general, extended to cover the latter. See works on Logic, e.g. J. S. Mill, T. H. Fowler, W. S. Jevons. For Butler's Analogy and its method see Butler, Joseph. The term was used in a special sense by Kant in his phrase, "Analogies of Experience," the third and most important group in his classification of the a priori elements of knowledge. By it he understood the fundamental laws of pure natural science under the three heads, substantiality, causality, reciprocity (see F. Paulsen, /. Kant, Eng. trans. 1902, pp. 188 ff.). ANALYSIS (Gr. ava and \vtiv, to break up into parts), in general, the resolution of a whole into its component elements; opposed to synthesis, the combining of separate elements or minor wholes into an inclusive unity. It differs from mere " disintegration " in proceeding on a definite scientific plan. In grammar, analysis is the breaking up of a sentence into subject, predicate, object, &c. (an exercise introduced into English schools by J. D. Morell about 1852) ; so the analysis of a book or a lecture is a synopsis of the main points. The chief technical uses of the word, which retains practically the same meaning in all the sciences, are in (1) philosophy, (2) mathematics, (3) chemistry. (1) Logical analysis is the process of examining into the connotation of a concept or idea, and separating the attributes from the whole and each other. It, therefore, does not increase knowledge, but merely clarifies and tests it. In this sense Kant distinguished an analytic from a synthetic judgment, as one in which the predicate is involved in the essence of the subject. Such judgments are also known as verbal, as opposed to real or ampliative judgments. The processes of synthesis and analysis though formally contradictory are practically supple- mentary; thus to analyse the connotation is to synthesize the denotation of a term, and vice versa; the process of knowledge involves the two methods, analysis being the corrective of synthetic empiricism. In a wider sense the whole of formal logic is precisely the analysis of the laws of thought. Ana- lytical psychology is distinguished from genetic and empirical psychology inasmuch as it proceeds by the method of introspective investigation of mental phenomena instead of by physiological or psycho-physical experiment. For the relation between analysis and synthesis on the one hand, and deduction and induction on the other, see Induction. (2) In mathematics, analysis has two distinct meanings, conveniently termed ancient and modern. Ancient analysis, ANALYST— ANAPA 9 X 3 as described by Pappus, related chiefly to geometrical problems, and is the method of reasoning from the solution, as taken for granted, to consequences which are known to be true, whereas synthesis reasons from known data to the solution. (See Geometry.) Modern analysis is practically coeval with Descartes, the founder of " analytical geometry," although the calculus of general quantities had previously been termed analysis. Many mathematical subjects are now included under this name, and are treated in the following articles: — Geometry, Analytical; Infinitesimal Calculus; Differential Equation; Varia- tions, Calculus of; Curve; Surface; Function; Spheri- cal Harmonics; Series; Fourier's Series; Groups, Theory of; Probability. (3) In Chemistry, the word analysis was introduced by Robert Boyle to denote the determination of the composition of sub- stances. (See Chemistry, Analytical). ANALYST, in modern times, a person professionally skilled in chemical analysis. He may be called upon, in the discharge of his profession, to analyse a wide range of substances. Apart from private practitioners and those engaged in large manufac- turing concerns, analysts employed by public bodies are termed public analysts. In most large manufacturing establishments there is usually a staff of analysts, whose duty it is primarily to exercise constant watchfulness over the processes of manufacture, to test the purity of the substances used, as well as that of the final products. The services of analysts are constantly required in judicial enquiries, sometimes in purely criminal cases, some- times in civil proceedings, such as offences against the customs or excise or under the various British Food and Drugs Acts. In the case of criminal proceedings, the services of the official analyst attached to the British Home Office are employed. The inland revenue department has a laborator}' at Somerset House, with a staff of analysts, who are engaged in analysing for excise and other purposes. Under the Fertilizers and Feeding Stuffs Act 1893, the Board of Agriculture employs an agricultural chemist, whose duty is the analysis of fertilizers and feeding stuffs. A " public analyst " is an analyst appointed by a local authority for the purposes of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts. He must be possessed of competent medical, chemical and micro- scopical knowledge to analyse all articles of food and drink (see Adulteration) . ANALYTIC (the adjective of " analysis," q.v.), according with, or consisting in, the method of separating a whole into its parts, the opposite of synthetic. For analytic chemistry, analytic language, &c, see the articles under the noun-headings. The title of ava'KvTLKa or Analytics was given by Aristotle to his treatises on logic. ANAMALAI HILLS, a range of mountains in southern India, in the Coimbatore district of Madras, lying between io° 13' and io° 31' N. lat., and between 76 52' and 77 23' E. long., forming a portion of the Western Ghats, after this range has been broken by the Palghat Pass, south of the Nilgiris. They really consist of a forest-clad and grassy tableland, with summits rising about 8000 ft.; the Anaimudi mountain, which is the highest in southern India, having an altitude of 8850 ft. Their geological formation is metamorphic gneiss, veined with felspar and quartz, and interspersed with reddish porphyrite. The lower slopes yield valuable teak and other timber; and some land has been taken up for coffee planting. The only inhabitants are a few wild tribes who live by hunting and collecting jungle produce. ANAMORPHOSIS (a Gr. word, derived from dva, back, and ixopri, form: the second o in the Greek is long, but in English the pronunciation varies), a deformation or distortion of appearance; in drawing, the representation of an object as seen, for instance, altered by reflexion in a mirror; in botany, e.g. in the case of fungi or lichens, an abnormal change giving the appearance of a different species. 'ANAN BEN DAVID, a Persian Jew of the 8th century, and founder within Judaism of the sect of Qaraites (Karaites) which set itself in opposition to the rabbinic tradition. 'Anan was an unsuccessful candidate for the dignity of Exilarch, and thus his opposition to the rabbanite Jews was political as well as theo- logical. His secession occurred at a moment when the time was ripe for a reaction against rabbinism, and 'Anan became the rallying point for many opponents of tradition. (See Qaraites.) ANANDA, one of the principal disciples of the Buddha (q.v.) . He has been called the beloved disciple of the Buddhist story. He was the first cousin of the Buddha, and was devotedly attached to him. Ananda entered the Order in the second year of the Buddha's ministry, and became one of his personal attendants, accompanying him on most of his wanderings and being the interlocutor in many of the recorded dialogues. He is the subject of a special panegyric delivered by the Buddha just before his death (Book of the Great Decease, v. 38) ; but it is the panegyric of an unselfish man, kindly, thoughtful for others and popular; not of the intellectual man, versed in the theory and practice of the Buddhist system of self-culture. So in the long list of the disciples given in the Anguttara (i. xiv.) where each of them is declared to be the chief in some gift, Ananda is mentioned five times (which is more often than any other), but it is as chief in conduct and in service to others and in power of memory, not in any of the intellectual powers so highly prized in the community. This explains why he had not attained to arahat- ship; and in the earliest account of the convocation said to have been held by five hundred of the principal disciples immediately after the Buddha's death, he was the only one who was not an arahat (Cullavagga, book xi.). In later, accounts this incident is explained away. Thirty-three verses ascribed to Ananda are preserved in a collection of lyrics by the principal male and female members of the order (Thera Gatha, 1017-1050). They show a gentle and reverent but simple spirit. (T. W. R. D.) ANANIAS, the Gr. form of Hananiah, or Ananiah, a name occurring several times in the Old Testament and Apocrypha (Neh. iii. 23, 1 Ch. xxv. 23, Tob. v. 12. &c), and three times in the New Testament. Special mention need be made only of the bearers of the name in the New Testament. (1) A member of the first Christian community, who, with his wife Sapphira, was miraculously punished by Peter with sudden death for hypocrisy and falsehood (Acts v. 1-10; cf. Josh. vii. 1 ff.). (2) A disciple at Damascus who figures in the story of the con- version and baptism of Paul (Acts ix. 10-17, xx ii- 12-16). (3) Son of Nedebaios (Jos. Ant. xx. 5. 2), a high priest who presided during the trial of Paul at Jerusalem and Caesarea (Acts xxiii. 2, xxiv. 1-5). He officiated as high priest from about a.d. 47 to 59. Quadratus, governor of Syria, accused him of being responsible for acts of violence. He was sent to Rome for trial (a.d. 52), but was acquitted by the emperor Claudius. Being a friend of the Romans, he was murdered by the people at the beginning of the Jewish war. ANANTAPUR, a town and district of India, in the Madras presidency. The town has a station on the Madras railway, 62 m. S.E. from Bellary. Pop. (1901) 7938. The district of Anantapur was constituted in 1882 out of the unwieldy district of Bellary. It has an area of 5557 sq. m., and in its northern and central portions is a high plateau, generally undulating, with large granite rocks or low hill ranges rising here and there above its surface. In the southern portion of the district the surface is more hilly, the plateau there rising to 2600 ft. above the sea. There is a remarkable fortress rock at Gooty, 2171 ft. above the sea, and a similar but larger rock at Penukonda, with an elevation equal to that of Bangalore, about 3100 ft. Gooty fortress was a stronghold of the Mahrattas, but was taken from them by Hyder Ali. In 1 789 it was ceded by Tippoo to the nizam, and in 1800 the nizam ceded the district of Anantapur with others to the British in pay- ment for a subsidiary British force. The population in 1901 was 788,254, showing an increase of 8 % in the decade. The principal crops are millet, rice, other food grains, pulse, oil seeds and cotton. There are several steam factories for pressing cotton. Two railways traverse the district. ANAPA, a seaport town of Russia, in the government of Kuban, on the N. coast of the Black Sea, 45 m. S.E. from the Strait of Yenikale or Kerch, giving access to the Sea of Azov. It 9H ANAPAEST— ANARCHISM was originally built in 1781 as a frontier fortress of the Turks against Russia. Three times captured by the Russians, in 1791, 1807 and 1828, and twice restored by them, in 1792 and 1812, it was finally left in their hands by the treaty of Adrianople in 1829. During the Crimean War its fortifications were destroyed (1855) by the Russians themselves. Pop. (1897) 6676. ANAPAEST (from Gr. ava-rraio-Tos, reversed), a metrical foot consisting of three syllables, the first two short and the third long and accented; so called as the reverse of a dactyl, which has the first a long syllable, followed by two short ones. An anapaestic verse is one which only contains, or is mostly made up of, anapaestic feet. ANARCHISM (from the Gr. av-, and apxi?, contrary to authority), the name given to a principle or theory of life and conduct under which society is conceived without government — harmony in such a society being obtained, not by submission to law, or by obedience to any authority, but by free agreements concluded between the various groups, territorial and professional, freely constituted for the sake of production and consumption, as also for the satisfaction of the infinite variety of needs and aspirations of a civilized being. In a society developed on these lines, the voluntary associations which already now begin to cover all the fields of human activity would take a still greater extension so as to substitute themselves for the state in all its functions. They would represent an interwoven network, com- pose I of an infinite variety of groups and federations of all sizes and degrees, local, regional, national and international — temporary or more or less permanent — for all possible purposes: production, consumption and exchange, communications, sanitary arrangements, education, mutual protection, defence of the territory, and so on; and, on the other side, for the satisfaction of an ever-increasing number of scientific, artistic, literary and sociable needs. Moreover, such a society would represent nothing immutable. On the contrary — as is seen in organic life at large — harmony would (it is contended) result from an ever-changing adjustment and readjustment of equili- brium between the multitudes of forces and influences, and this adjustment would be the easier to obtain as none of the forces would enjoy a special protection from the state. If, it is contended, society were organized on these principles, man would not be limited in the free exercise of his powers in productive work by a capitalist monopoly, maintained by the state; nor would he be limited in the exercise of his will by a fear of punishment, or by obedience towards individuals or metaphysical entities, which both lead to depression of initiative and servility of mind. He would be guided in his actions by his own understanding, which necessarily would bear the impres- sion of a free action and reaction between his own self and the ethical conceptions of his surroundings. Man would thus be enabled to obtain the full development of all his faculties, intellectual, artistic and moral, without being hampered by overwork for the monopolists, or by the servility and inertia of mind of the great number. He would thus be able to reach full individualization, which is not possible either under the present system of individualism, or under any system of state- socialism in the so-called Volkstaat (popular state). The Anarchist writers consider, moreover, that their conception is not a Utopia, constructed on the a priori method, after a few desiderata have been taken as postulates. It is derived, they maintain, from an analysis of tendencies that are at work already, even though state socialism may find a temporary favour with the reformers. The progress of modern technics, which wonder- fully simplifies the production of all the necessaries of life; the growing spirit of independence, and the rapid spread of free initiative and free understanding in all branches of activity — including those which formerly were considered as the proper attribution of church and state — are steadily reinforcing the no-government tendency. As to their economical conceptions, the Anarchists, in common with all Socialists, of whom they constitute the left wing, maintain that the now prevailing system of private ownership in land, and our capitalist production for the sake of profits, represent a monopoly which runs against both the principles of justice and the dictates of utility. They are the main obstacle which prevents the successes of modern technics from being brought into the service of all, so as to produce general well-being. The Anarchists consider the wage-system and capitalist production altogether as an obstacle to progress. But they point out also that the state was, and continues to be, the chief instrument for permitting the few to monopolize the land, and the capitalists to appropriate for themselves a quite disproportionate share of the yearly accumulated surplus of production. Consequently, while combating the present monopolization of land, and capitalism altogether, the Anarchists combat with the same energy the state, as the main support of that system. Not this or that special form, but the state altogether, whether it be a monarchy or even a republic governed by means of the referendum. The state organization, having always been; both in ancient and modern history (Macedonian empire, Roman empire, modern European states grown up on the ruins of the autonomous cities), the instrument for establishing monopolies in favour of the ruling minorities, cannot be made to work for the destruction of these monopolies. The Anarchists consider, therefore, that to hand over to the state all the main sources of economical life — the land, the mines, the railways, banking, insurance, and so on — as also the management of all the main branches of industry, in addition to all the functions already accumulated in its hands (education, state-supported religions, defence of the territory, &c), would mean to create a new instrument of tyranny. State capitalism would only increase the powers of bureaucracy and capitalism. True progress lies in the direction of decentralization, both territorial and functional, in the development of the spirit of local and personal initiative, and of free federation from the simple to the compound, in lieu of the present hierarchy from the centre to the periphery. In common with most Socialists, the Anarchists recognize that, like all evolution in nature, the slow evolution of society is followed from time to time by periods of accelerated evolution which are called revolutions; and they think that the era of revolutions is not yet closed. Periods of rapid changes will follow the periods of slow evolution, and these periods must be taken advantage of — not for increasing and widening the powers of the state, but for reducing them, through the organization in every township or commune of the local groups of producers and consumers, as also the regional, and eventually the international, federations of these groups. In virtue of the above principles the Anarchists refuse to be party to the present state organization and to support it by infusing fresh blood into it. They do not seek to constitute, and invite the working men not to constitute, political parties in the parliaments. Accordingly, since the foundation of the International Working Men's Association in 1864-1866, they have endeavoured to promote their ideas directly amongst the labour organizations and to induce those unions to a direct struggle against capital, without placing their faith in parlia- mentary legislation. The Historical Development of Anarchism. — The conception of society just sketched, and the tendency which is its dynamic expression, have always existed in mankind, in opposition to the governing hierarchic conception and tendency — now the one and now the other taking the upper hand at different periods of history. To the former tendency we owe the evolution, by the masses themselves, of those institutions — the clan, the village community, the gild, the free medieval city — by means of which the masses resisted the encroachments of the con- querors a^id the power-seeking minorities. The same tendency asserted itself with great energy in the great religious movements of medieval times, especially in the early movements of the reform and its forerunners. At the same time it evidently found its expression in the writings of some thinkers, since the times of Lao-tsze, although, owing to its non-scholastic and popular origin, it obviously found less sympathy among the scholars than the opposed tendency. As has been pointed out by Prof. Adler in his Geschichte des ANARCHISM 9i5 Sozialismus und Kommunismus, Aristippus (b. c. 430 B.C.), one of the founders of the Cyrenaic school, already taught that the wise must not give up their liberty to the state, and in reply to a question by Socrates he said that he did not desire to belong either to the governing or the governed class. Such an attitude, however, seems to have been dictated merely by an Epicurean attitude towards the life of the masses. The best exponent of Anarchist philosophy in ancient Greece was Zeno (342-267 or 270 B.C.), from Crete, the founder of the Stoic philosophy, who distinctly opposed his conception of a free community without government to the state-Utopia of Plato. He repudiated the omnipotence of the state, its inter- vention and regimentation, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the moral law of the individual — -remarking already that, while the necessary instinct of self-preservation leads man to egotism, nature has supplied a corrective to it by providing man with another instinct — that of sociability. When men are reasonable enough to follow their natural instincts, they will unite across the frontiers and constitute the Cosmos. They will have no need of law-courts or police, will have no temples and no public worship, and use no money — free gifts taking the place of the exchanges. Unfortunately, the writings of Zeno have not reached us and are only known through fragmentary quotations. However, the fact that his very wording is similar to the wording now in use, shows how deeply is laid the tendency of human nature of which he was the mouth-piece. In medieval times we find the same views on the state expressed by the illustrious bishop of Alba, Marco Girolamo Vida, in his first dialogue De dignitate reipublicae (Ferd. Cavalli, in Mem. dell' Istituto Veneto, xiii.; Dr E. Nys, Researches in the History of Economics). But it is especially in several early Christian movements, beginning with the 9th century in Armenia, and in the preachings of the early Hussites, particularly Chojecki, and the early Anabaptists, especially Hans Denk (cf. Keller, Ein Apostel der Wiedertaufer), that one finds the same ideas forcibly expressed — special stress being laid of course on their moral aspects. Rabelais and Fenelon, in their Utopias, have also expressed similar ideas, and they were also current in the 18th century amongst the French Encyclopaedists, as may be concluded from separate expressions occasionally met with in the writings of Rousseau, from Diderot's Preface to the Voyage of Bougainville, and so on. However, in all probability such ideas could not be developed then, owing to the rigorous censorship of the Roman Catholic Church. These ideas found their expression later during the great French Revolution. While the Jacobins did all in their power to centralize everything in the hands of the government, it appears now, from recently published documents, that the masses of the people, in their municipalities and " sections," accomplished a considerable constructive work. They appro- priated for themselves the election of the judges, the organization of supplies and equipment for the army, as also for the large cities, work for the unemployed, the management of charities, and so on. They even tried to establish a direct correspondence between the 36,000 communes of France through the inter- mediary of a special board, outside the National Assembly (cf. Sigismund Lacroix, Actes de la commune de Paris). It was Godwin, in his Enquiry concerning Political Justice (2 vols., 1793), who was the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of Anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his remarkable work. Laws, he wrote, are not a product of the wisdom of our ancestors: they are the product of their passions, their timidity, their jealousies and their ambition. The remedy they offer is worse than the evils they pretend to cure. If and only if all laws and courts were abolished, and the decisions in the arising contests were left to reasonable men chosen for that purpose, real justice would gradually be evolved. As to the state, Godwin frankly claimed its abolition. A society, he wrote, can perfectly well exist without any government: only the communities should be small and perfectly autonomous. Speaking of property, he stated that the rights of every one " to every substance capable of contributing to the benefit of a human being " must be regulated by justice alone: the substance must go " to him who most wants it." His conclusion was Communism. Godwin, however, had not the courage to maintain his opinions. He entirely rewrote later on his chapter on property and mitigated his Communist views in the second edition of Political Justice (8vo, 1796). Proudhon was the first to use, in 1840 (Qu'est-ce que Id pro- pri&U? first memoir), the name of Anarchy with application to the no-government state of society. The name of " Anarchists " had been freely applied during the French Revolution by the Girondists to those revolutionaries who did not consider that the task of the Revolution was accomplished with the overthrow of Louis XVI., and insisted upon a series of economical measures being taken (the abolition of feudal rights without redemption, the return to the village communities of the communal lands enclosed since 1669, the limitation of landed property to 120 acres, progressive income-tax, the national organization of exchanges on a just value basis, which already received a begin- ning of practical realization, and so on). Now Proudhon advocated a society without government, and used the word Anarchy to describe it. Proudhon repudiated, as is known, all schemes of Communism, according to which mankind would be driven into communistic monasteries or barracks, as also all the schemes of state or state-aided Socialism which were advocated by Louis Blanc and the Collectivists. When he proclaimed in his first memoir on property that " Property is theft," he meant only property in its present, Roman-law, sense of " right of use and abuse " ; in property-rights, on the other hand, understood in the limited sense of possession, he saw the best protection against the encroachments of the state. At the same time he did not want violently to dispossess the present owners of land, dwelling-houses, mines, factories and so on. He preferred to attain the same end by rendering capital incapable of earning interest; and this he proposed to obtain by means of a national bank, based on the mutual confidence of all those who are engaged in production, who would agree to exchange among themselves their produces at cost-value, by means of labour cheques representing the hours of labour required to produce every given commodity. Under such a system, which Proudhon described as " Mutuellisme," all the exchanges of services would be strictly equivalent. Besides, such a bank would be enabled to lend money without interest, levying only something like 1 %, or even less, for covering the cost of administration. Every one being thus enabled to borrow the money that would be required to buy a house, nobody would agree to pay any more a yearly rent for the use of it. A general " social liquidation " would thus be rendered easy, without violent expropriation. The same applied to mines, railways, factories and so on. In a society of this type the state would be useless. The chief relations between citizens would be based on free agreement and regulated by mere account keeping. The contests might be settled by arbitration. A penetrating criticism of the state and all possible forms of government, and a deep insight into all economic problems, were well-known characteristics of Proudhon's work. It is worth noticing that French mutualism had its precursor in England, in William Thompson, who began by mutualism before he became a Communist, and in his followers John Gray {A Lecture on Human Happiness, 1825; The Social System, 1831) and J. F. Bray {Labour's Wrongs and Labour's Remedy, 1839). It had also its precursor in America. Josiah Warren, who was born in 1798 (cf. W. Bailie, Josiah Warren, the First American Anarchist, Boston, 1900), and belonged to Owen's " New Harmony," considered that the failure of this enterprise was chiefly due to the suppression of individuality and the lack of initiative and responsibility. These defects, he taught, were inherent to every scheme based upon authority and the com- munity of goods. He advocated, therefore, complete individual liberty. In 1827 he opened in Cincinnati a little country store which was the first " Equity Store," and which the people called 9-i 6 ANARCHISM " Time Store," because it was based on labour being exchanged hour for hour in all sorts of produce. " Cost — the limit of price," and consequently " no interest," was the motto of his store, and later on of his " Equity Village," near New York, which was still in existence in 1865. Mr Keith's " House of Equity " at Boston, founded in 1855, is also worthy of notice. While the economical, and especially the mutual-banking, ideas of Proudhon found supporters and even a practical applica- tion in the United States, his political conception of Anarchy found but little echo in France, where the Christian Socialism of Lamennais and the Fourierists, and the State Socialism of Louis Blanc and the followers of Saint-Simon, were dominating. These ideas found, however, some temporary support among the left-wing Hegelians in Germany, Moses Hess in 1843, an d Karl Griin in 1845, who advocated Anarchism. Besides, the authori- tarian Communism of Wilhelm Wei tling having given origin to opposition amongst the Swiss working men, Wilhelm Marr gave expression to it in the 'forties. On the other side, Individualist Anarchism found, also in Germany, its fullest expression in Max Stirner (Kaspar Schmidt), whose remarkable works (Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum and articles contributed to the Rheinische Zeitung) remained quite overlooked until they were brought into prominence by John Henry Mackay. Prof. V. Basch, in a very able introduction to his interesting book, L'lndividualisme anarchiste: Max Stirner (1904), has shown how the development of the German philosophy from Kant to Hegel, and " the absolute " of Schelling and the Geist of Hegel, necessarily provoked, when the anti-Hegelian revolt began, the preaching of the same " absolute " in the camp of the rebels. This was done by Stirner, who advocated, not only a complete revolt against the state and against the servitude which authori- tarian Communism would impose upon men, but also the full liberation of the individual from all social and moral bonds — the rehabilitation of the " I," the supremacy of the individual, complete " a-moralism," and the " association of the egotists." The final conclusion of that sort of Individual Anarchism has been indicated by Prof. Basch. It maintains that the aim of all superior civilization is, not to permit all members of the com- munity to develop in a normal way, but to permit certain better endowed individuals " fully to develop," even at the cost of the happiness and the very existence of the mass of mankind. It is thus a return towards the most common individualism, advocated by all the would-be superior minorities, to which indeed man owes in his history precisely the state and the rest, which these individualists combat. Their individualism goes so far as to end in a negation of their own starting-point, — to say nothing of the impossibility for the individual to attain a really full development in the conditions of oppression of the masses by the " beautiful aristocracies." His development would remain uni-lateral. This is why this direction of thought, notwithstanding its un- doubtedly correct and useful advocacy of the full development of each individuality, finds a hearing only in limited artistic and literary circles. Anarchism in the International Working Men's Association. — A general depression in the propaganda of all fractions of Socialism followed, as is known, after the defeat of the uprising of the Paris working men in June 1848 and the fall of the Republic. All the Socialist press was gagged during the reaction period, which lasted fully twenty years. Nevertheless, even Anarchist thought began to make some progress, namely in the writings of Bellegarrique (Cceurderoy), and especially Joseph Dejacque (Les Lazar&ennes, L'Humanisphere, an Anarchist- Communist Utopia, lately discovered and reprinted). The Socialist movement revived only after 1864, when some French working men, all " rnutualists," meeting in London during the Universal Exhibition with English followers of Robert Owen, founded the International Working Men's Association. This association developed very rapidly and adopted a policy of direct economical struggle against capitalism, without interfering in the political parliamentary agitation, and this policy was followed until 1871. However, after the Franco-German War, when the International Association was prohibited in France after tin Uprising of the Commune, the German working men, who hao received manhood suffrage for elections to the newly constituted imperial parliament, insisted upon modifying the tactics of the International, and began to build up a Social-Democratic political party. This soon led to a division in the Working Men's Association, and the Latin federations, Spanish, Italian, Belgian and Jurassic (France could not be represented), constituted among themselves a Federal union which broke entirely with the Marxist general council of the International. Within these federations developed now what may be described as modern Anarchism. After the names of " Federalists " and " Anti- authoritarians " had been used for some time by these federations the name of " Anarchists," which their adversaries insisted upon applying to them, prevailed, and finally it was revindicated. Bakunin (q.v.) soon became the leading spirit among these Latin federations for the development of the principles of Anarchism, which he did in a number of writings, pamphlets and letters. He demanded the complete abolition of the state, which — -he wrote— is a product of religion, belongs to a lower state of civilization, represents the negation of liberty, and spoils even that which it undertakes to do for the sake of general well- being. The state was an historically necessary evil, but its complete extinction will be, sooner or later, equally necessary; Repudiating all legislation, even when issuing from universal suffrage, Bakunin claimed for each nation, each region and each commune, full autonomy, so long as it is not a menace to its neighbours, and full independence for the individual, adding that one becomes really free only when, and in proportion as, all others are free. Free federations of the communes would constitute free nations. As to his economical conceptions, Bakunin described himself, in common with his Federalist comrades of the International (Cesar De Paepe, James Guillaume Schwitzguebel) , a " Collecti- vist Anarchist " — not in the sense of Vidal and Pecqueur in the 'forties, or of their modern Social-Democratic followers, but to express a state of things in which all necessaries for production are owned in common by the Labour groups and the free com- munes, while the ways of retribution of labour, Communist or otherwise, would be settled by each group for itself. Social revolution, the near approach of which was foretold at that time by all Socialists, would be the means of bringing into life the new conditions. The Jurassic, the Spanish, and the Italian federations and sections of the International Working Men's Association, as also' the French, the German and the American Anarchist groups, were for the next years the chief centres of Anarchist thought and propaganda. They refrained from any participation in parliamentary politics, and always kept in close contact with the Labour organizations. However, in the second half of the 'eighties and the early 'nineties of the 19th century, when the influence of the Anarchists began to be felt in strikes, in the 1 st of May demonstrations, where they promoted the idea of a general strike for an eight hours' day, and in the anti-militarist propaganda in the army, violent prosecutions were directed against them, especially in the Latin countries (including physical torture in the Barcelona Castle) and the United States (the execution of five Chicago Anarchists in 1887). Against these prosecutions the Anarchists retaliated by acts of violence which in their turn were followed by more executions from above, and new acts of revenge from below. This created in the general public the impression that violence is the substance of Anarchism, a view repudiated by its supporters, who hold that in reality violence is resorted to by all parties in proportion as their open action is obstructed by repression, and exceptional laws render them outlaws. (Cf . Anarchism and Outrage, by C. M. Wilson, and Report of the Spanish Atrocities Committee, in " Freedom Pam- phlets"; A Concise History of the Great Trial of the Chicago Anarchists, by Dyer Lum (New York, 1886); The Chicago Martyrs: Speeches, &C.). 1 1 It is important to remember that the term " Anarchist " is inevitably rather loosely used in public, in connexion with the authors ANARCHISM 9*7 Anarchism continued to develop, partly in the direction of Proudhonian " Mutuellisme," but chiefly as Communist-Anar- chism, to which a third direction, Christian-Anarchism, was added by Leo Tolstoy, and a fourth, which might be ascribed as literary-Anarchism, began amongst some prominent modern writers. The ideas of Proudhon, especially as regards mutual banking, Corresponding with those of Josiah Warren, found a considerable following in the United States, creating quite a school, of which the main writers are Stephen Pearl Andrews, William Grene, Lysander Spooner (who began to write in 1850, and whose unfinished work, Natural Law, was full of promise), and several others, whose names will be found in Dr Nettlan's Bibliographic de I'anarchie. A prominent position among the Individualist Anarchists in America has been occupied by Benjamin R. Tucker, whose journal Liberty was started in 1881 and whose conceptions are a combination of those of Proudhon with those of Herbert Spencer. Starting from the statement that Anarchists are egotists, strictly speaking, and that every group of individuals, be it a secret league of a few persons, or the Congress of the United States, has the right to oppress all mankind, provided it has the power to do so, that equal liberty for all and absolute equality ought to be the law, and " mind every one your own business " is the unique moral law of Anarchism, Tucker goes on to prove that a general and thorough application of these principles would be beneficial and would offer no danger, because the powers of every individual would be limited by the exercise of the equal rights of all others. of a certain class of murderous outrages, and that the same looseness of definition often applies to the professions of " Anarchism " made by such persons. As stated above, a philosophic Anarchist would repudiate the connexion. And the general public view which regards Anarchist doctrines indiscriminately is to that extent a confusion of terms. But the following resume of the chief modern so-called " Anarchist " incidents is appended for convenience in stating the facts under the heading where a reader would expect to find them. Between 1882 and 1886, in France, Prince Kropotkin, Louise Michel and others were imprisoned. In England, Most, one of the German Anarchist leaders, founded Die Freiheit, and, for defending in it the assassination of Alexander II. at St Petersburg, was sen- tenced to eighteen months' imprisonment with hard labour. After this he moved to the United States, and re-established his paper there in New York, in May 1 886. During this period there were several Anarchist congresses in the United States. In one at Albany, in 1878, the revolutionary element, led by Justus Schwab, broke away from the others; at Allegheny City, in 1879, again there was a rupture between the peaceful and the revolutionary sections. The Voice of the People at St Louis, the Arbeiter Zeitung at Chicago, and the Anarchist at Boston, were the organs of the revolutionary element. In 1883, at Pittsburg, a congress of twenty-eight delegates, representing twenty-two towns, drew up an address to the working men of America. The programme it proposed was as follows: — First, Destruction of the existing class rule by all means, i.e. energetic, relentless, revolutionary and international action. Second, Establishment of a free society, based upon co-operative organization of production. Third, Free exchange of equivalent products by and between the productive organizations, without commerce and profit-mongery. FouHh, Organization of education on a secular, scientific and equal basis for both sexes. Fifth, Equal rights for all, without distinction of sex or race. Sixth, Regulation of all public affairs by free contracts between the autonomous (independent) communes and associations, resting on a federalistic basis. This, together with an appeal to the working men to organize, was published in Chicago, November 1883, by a local committee of four, representing French, Bohemian, German and English sections, the head of the last being August Spies, who was hanged in 1887 for participation in the Haymarket affair in Chicago, 4th May 1886. This affair was the culmination of a series of encounters between the Chicago working men and the police, which had covered several years. The meeting of 4th May was called by Spies and others to protest against the action of the police, by whom several working men had been killed in collisions growing out of the efforts to intro- duce the eight hours' day. The mayor of the city attended the meeting, but, finding it peaceful, went home. The meeting was subsequently entered by the police and commanded to disperse. A bomb was thrown, several policemen being killed and a number ■wounded. For this crime eight men were tried in one panel and condemned, seven — Spies, Parsons, Engel, Fischer, Fielden, Schwab, and Ling — to death, and one — Neebe — to imprisonment for fifteen He further indicated (following H. Spencer) the difference which exists between the encroachment on somebody's rights and resistance to such an encroachment; between domination and defence: the former being equally condemnable, whether it be encroachment of a criminal upon an individual, or the encroach- ment of one upon all others, or of all others upon one; while resistance to encroachment is defensible and necessary. For their self-defence, both the citizen and the group have the right to any violence, including capital punishment. Violence is also justified for enforcing the duty of keeping an agreement. Tucker thus follows Spencer, and, like him, opens (in the present writer's opinion) the way for reconstituting under the heading of " defence " all the functions of the state. His criticism of the present state is very searching, and his defence of the rights of the individual very powerful. As regards his economical views B. R. Tucker follows Proudhon. The Individualist Anarchism of the American Proudhonians finds, however, but little sympathy amongst the working masses. Those who profess it — they are chiefly " intellectuals " — soon realize that the individualization they so highly praise is not attainable by individual efforts, and either abandon the ranks of the Anarchists, and are driven into the Liberal individualism of the classical economists, or they retire into a sort of Epicurean a-moralism, or super-man-theory, similar to that of Stirner and Nietzsche. The great bulk of the Anarchist working men prefer the Anarchist-Communist ideas which have gradually evolved out of the Anarchist Collectivism of the International Working Men's Association. To this direction belong — to name only the better years. The sentences on Fielden and Schwab were commuted by Governor Oglesby to imprisonment for life, on the recommendation of the presiding judge and the prosecuting attorney. Ling com- mitted suicide in jail, and Spies, Parsons, Engel and Fischer were hanged, nth November 1887. On 26th June 1893 an unconditional pardon was granted the survivors, Fielden, Schwab and Neebe, by Governor Altgeld. The reasons for the pardon were stated by the governor to be that, upon an examination of the records he found that the jury had not been drawn in the usual manner, but by a special bailiff, who made his own selection and had summoned a ' prejudiced jury "; that the " state had never discovered who it was that threw the bomb which killed the policemen, and the evidence does not show any connexion whatever between the de- fendants and the man who did throw it," ... or that this man " ever heard or read a word coming from the defendants, and conse- quently fails to show that he acted on any advice given by them." Judge Gary, the judge at the trial, published a defence of its pro- cedure in the Century Magazine., vol. xxiii p. 803. A number of outbreaks in later years were attributed to the propa- ganda of reform by revolution, like those in Spain and France in 1892, in which Ravachol was a prominent figure. In 1893 a bomb was exploded in the French Chamber of Deputies by Vaillant. The spirit of these men is well illustrated by the reply which Vaillant made to the judge who reproached him for endangering the lives of innocent men and women: " There can be no innocent bour- geois." In 1894 there was an explosion in a Parisian cafe, and another in a theatre at Barcelona. For the latter outrage six men were executed. President Carnot of the French Republic was assassinated by an Italian at Lyons in the same year. The empress Elizabeth of Austria was assassinated in September 1898. These events, all associated by the public with " Anarchism," led to the passage by the United States Congress of a law, in 1894, to keep out foreign Anarchists, and to deport any who might be found in the country, and also to the assemblage of an international conference in Rome, in 1898, to agree upon some plan for dealing with these revolutionists. It was proposed that their offences should no longer be classed as political, but as common-law crimes, and be made subject to extradition. The suppression of the revolutionary press and the international co-operation of the police were also suggested. The results of the conference were not, however, published; and the question of how to deal with the campaign against society fell for a while into abeyance. The attempt made by the youth Sipido on the (then) prince of Wales at Brussels in 1900 recalled attention to the subject. The acquittal of Sipido, and the failure of the Belgian government to see that justice was done in an affair of such international importance, excited considerable feeling in England, and was the occasion of a strongly-worded note from the British to the Belgian government. The murder of King Humbert of Italy in July 1900 renewed the outcry against Italian Anarchists. Even greater 'horror and indignation were excited by the assassination of President McKinley by Czolgoscz on the 6th of September 1901, at Buffalo, U.S.A. And a particularly dastardly attempt was made to blow up the young king and queen of Spain on their wedding-day in 1906. (Ed. E.B.) 918 ANARCHISM known exponents of Anarchism — Elisee Reclus, Jean Grave, Sebastien Faure, Emile Pouget in France; Enrico Malatesta and Covelli in Italy; R. Mella, A. Lorenzo, and the mostly unknown authors of many excellent manifestos in Spain ; John Most amongst the Germans; Spies, Parsons and their followers in the United States, and so on; while Domela Nieuwenhuis occupies an intermediate position in Holland. The chief Anarchist papers which have been published since 1 880 also belong to that direction ; while a number of Anarchists of this direction have joined the so-called Syndicalist movement — the French name for the non-political Labour movement, devoted to direct struggle with capitalism, which has lately become so prominent in Europe. As one of the Anarchist-Communist direction, the present writer for many years endeavoured to develop the following ideas: to show the intimate, logical connexion which exists between the modern philosophy of natural sciencesandAnarchism ; to put Anarchism on a scientific basis by the study of the tendencies that are apparent now in society and may indicate its further evolution; and to work out the basis of Anarchist ethics. As regards the substance of Anarchism itself, it was Kropotkin's aim to prove that Communism — at least partial — has more chances of being established than Collectivism, especially in communes taking the lead, and that Free, or Anarchist-Com- munism is the only form of Communism that has any chance of being accepted in civilized societies; Communism and Anarchy are therefore two terms of evolution which complete each other, the one rendering the other possible and acceptable. He has tried, moreover, to indicate how, during a revolutionary period, a large city — if its inhabitants have accepted the idea — ■ could organize itself on the lines of Free Communism; the city guaranteeing to every inhabitant dwelling, food and clothing to an extent corresponding to the comfort now available to the middle classes only, in exchange for a half-day's, or a five-hours' work; and how all those things which would be considered as luxuries might be obtained by every one if he joins for the other half of the day all sorts of free associations pursuing all possible aims — educational, literary, scientific, artistic, sports and so on. In order to prove the first of these assertions he has analysed the possibilities of agriculture and industrial work, both being combined with brain work. And in order to elucidate the main factors of human evolution, he has analysed the part played in history by the popular constructive agencies of mutual aid and the historical role of the state. Without naming himself an Anarchist, Leo Tolstoy, like his predecessors in the popular religious movements of the 15 th and 16th centuries, Chojecki, Denk and many others, took the Anarchist position as regards the state and property rights, deducing his conclusions from the general spirit of the teachings of the Christ and from the necessary dictates of reason. With all the might of his talent he made (especially in The Kingdom of God in Yourselves) a powerful criticism of the church, the state and law altogether, and especially of the present property laws. He describes the state as the domination of the wicked ones, supported by brutal force. Robbers, he says, are far less dangerous than a well-organized government. He makes a searching criticism of the prejudices which are current now concerning the benefits conferred upon men by the church, the state and the existing distribution of property, and from the teachings of the Christ he deduces the rule of non-resistance and the absolute condemnation of all wars. His religious arguments are, however, so well combined with arguments borrowed from a dispassionate observation of the present evils, that the anarchist portions of his works appeal to the religious and the non-religious reader alike. It would be impossible to represent here, in a short sketch, the penetration, on the one hand, of Anarchist ideas into modern literature, and the influence, on the other hand, which the libertarian ideas of the best comtemporary writers have exercised upon the development of Anarchism. One ought to consult the ten big volumes of the Supplement UtUraire to the paper La r&voltc and later the Temps nouveaux, which contain repro- ductions from the works of hundreds of modern authors express- ing Anarchist ideas, in order to realize how closely Anarchism is connected with all the intellectual movement of our own times. J. S. Mill's Liberty, Spencer's Individual versus The Slate, Marc Guyau's Morality without Obligation or Sanction, and Fouillee's La morale, I'art et la religion, the works of Multatuli (E. Douwes Dekker), Richard Wagner's Art and Revolution, the works of Nietzsche, Emerson, W. Lloyd Garrison, Thoreau, Alexander Herzen, Edward Carpenter and so on; and in the domain of fiction, the dramas of Ibsen, the poetry of Walt Whitman, Tolstoy's War and Peace, Zola's Paris and Le travail, the latest works of Merezhkovsky, and an infinity of works of less known authors, — are full of ideas which show how closely Anarchism is interwoven with the work that is going on in modern thought in the same direction of enfranchisement of man from the bonds of the state as well as from those of capitalism. Bibliography. — William Godwin, An Enquiry concerning Political Justice and its Influence on General Virtue and. Happiness, 1st edition, 2 vols. (1793). Mutualism: — John Gray, A Lscture on Human Happiness (1825); The Social System, a Treatise on the Principles of Exchange ( 1 83 1 ) ; Proudhon, Qu'est-ce que la propriete ? ler memoir e (1840) (Eng. trans, by B. Tucker); Idee generate sur la revolution (1851); Confession d'un revolutionnaire (1849); Contradictions economiques (1846); Josiah Warren, Practicable Details of Equitable Commerce (New Yoik, 1852); True Civilization (Boston, 1863); Stephen Pearl Andrews, The Science of Society (1851); Cost, the Limit of Price; Moses Hess, " Sozialismus und Communismus, Philosophic der That " (on Herwegh's Ein-und-Zwanzig Bogen aus der Schweiz, 1843); Karl Griin, Die soziale. Bewegung in Frankreich und Belgien(i845) ; W. Marr, Dasjunge DeutscHland (1845). Anarch- ist Individualism: — Max Stirner (J. K. Schmidt), Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum (1845) (Fr. trans., 1900) ; J. H. Mackay, Max Stirner, sein Leben und sein Werk (1898) ; V. Basch, V Individualisme anarchiste (1904). Transition period : — J. Dejacque, Les Lazareennes (1851); Le Libertaire, weekly, New York, 1858-1861, containing L'Humanisphere (re-edited at Brussels, Bibl. des temps nouveaux). Anarchist Collectivism of the International: — The papers Egalite, Progres (Locle), Solidarite; James Guillaume, Idies sur V organisation sociale (1876); Bulletin de la federation^urassienne (1872-1879); A. Schwitzguebel, CEuvres; Paul Brousse\ Le Suffrage universel (1874) ; V'Etat a Versailles et dans V association internationale (1874) ; newspaper L' Avant-garde (suppressed 1878) ; Arthur Arnould, L'£tat et la revolution (1877); Histoire populaire de la commune (3 vols., 1878) ; Cesar de Paepe, in Rive gauche and La liberte (1867- 1883). Ma riy others are in the Comptes rendus of the congresses of the International Working Men's Association. All these ideas, conceived as a whole, may be found in Bakunin's Federalisme, socialisme ehanti-theologisme, published first in portions under the names of L'Empire knouto-germanique, Dieu et I'etat, The State-Idea and Anarchy (Russian), and only now reproduced in full in his CEuvres (Paris, 1905 and seq.) ; Sozialpolitischer Briefwechsel (1894); Statuts de I'alliance internationale (1868); Proposition motivee au comite central de la ligue de la paix etdela liberte(i868). The famous Revolutionary Catechism attributed to Bakunin, was not his work. Biographie von Michael Bakunin, by Dr M. Nettlan, 3 large vols., contains masses of letters, &c. (hectographed in 50 copies; in all chief libraries). Modern Anarchism. — The best sources are the collections of newspapers which, although compelled sometimes to change their names, were run for considerable lengths of time and are appearing still: J. Most, Freiheit, since 1878; Le Revolle — La Revolte — Temps nouveaux, since 1878; Domela Nieuwenhuis, Recht voor Allen, since 1878; Freedom, since 1886; Le Libertaire; Pouget's Pere Pesuard; Reveil-Risveglio; see Nettlan's Bibliographic These papers and a great number of pamphlets are indispensable for those who intend to know anarchism, as the works published in book form are not numerous. Of the latter only a few will be mentioned : — Elisee Reclus, Evolution and Revolution, many editions in all languages; " Anarchy by an Anarchist," in Contemp. Review (May, 1884); The Ideal and Youth (1895); Jean Grave, La Societe au lendemain de la revolution, many editions since 1882; La Societe mourante et I'anarchie (1893); L' Autonomic selon la science (1882); La SocietS future (1895); V Anarchic, son but, ses moyens; Sebastien Faure, La Douleur universelle (1892); A. Hamon, Les Hommes et les theories de I'anarchie (1893) ; Psychologie de V anarchisle-socialiste (1895); Enrico Malatesta, Fra Contadini, transl. in all languages — Eng. trans. A Talk about Anarchist Communism, in " Freedom Pamphlets" (1891); Anarchy (do. 1892); Au cafe; and many other Italian pamphlets, as also several papers started at variot; times in Italy under different names: F. S. Merlino, Socialismo c Monopolismo? (1887). Pamphlets,. reviews and papers by P. Gori L. Molinari, E. Covelli, &c. The manifestos of the Spanish Federa- tions contain excellent expositions of Anarchism; cf. also many books, pamphlets and papers by J. Llunas y Pujals, J. Serrano y Oteiza, Ricardo Mella, A. Lorenzo, &c. John Most, the paper ANASTASIUS— ANATASE 919 Freiheil, of which a few articles only have been reprinted as pamphlets in the Internationale Biblioihek (" The Deistic Pestilence," " The Beast of Property " in English) ; Memoiren, 3 fascicules. F. Domela Nieuwenhuis, Le Socialisme en danger (1895) ; C. Malato, Philosophie de I'anarchie (1890); Charlotte Wilson, Anarchism (" Fabian Tracts," 4); Anarchism and Violence (" Freedom Pam- phlets ") ; Albert Parsons, Anarchism, its Philosophy and Scientific Basis (Chicago, 1888); The Chicago Martyrs: Speeches in Court; P. Kropotkin, Paroles a" un revolte (1884); Conquest of Bread (1906) (1st French ed. in 1890) ; Anarchist Morality ; Anarchy ; its Philosophy and Ideals ; A narchist Communism ; The State, its Historic Role ; and other " Freedom Pamphlets "; Fields, Factories and Workshops (5th popular edition, 1807) ; Mutual Aid: a Factor of Evolution (1904). Modern Individualist Anarchists: — B. Tucker, the paper Liberty (1892 sqq.); Instead of a Book, by one too busy to write one (Boston, 1893); Dyer Lum, Social Problems (1883); Lysander Spooner, Natural Law, or the Science of Justice (Boston, 1891). Religious Anarchists : — Leo Tolstoy, The Kingdom of God in Your- selves ; My Faith ; Confession ; & c. The best work on Anarchism, and in fact the only one written with full knowledge of the Anarchist literature, and quite fairly, is by a German judge Dr Paul Eltzbacher, Anarchismus (transl. in all chief European languages, except English). Prof. Adler's article " Anarch- ismus " in Conrad's Handworterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, vol. i., is less accurate for modern times than for the earlier periods. G. v. Zenker, Der Anarchismus (1895); and Prof. Edmund Bernatzik, " Der Anarchismus," in Schmoller's Jahrbuch, may also be men- tioned — the remainder being written with absolute want of know- ledge of the subject. A most important work is the reasoned Bibliographie de I'anarchie, by Dr M. Nettlan (Brussels, 1897, 8vo, 294 ff.), written with a full knowledge of the subject and its immense literature. (P. A. K.) ANASTASIUS, the name of four popes. Anastasius I., pope from 399-401. Heitwaswho condemned the writings of Origen shortly after their translation into Latin. Anastasius II., pope from 496-498. He lived in the time of the schism of Acacius Of Constantinople. He showed some tendency towards conciliation, and thus brought upon himself the lively reproaches of the author of the Liber ponliftcalis. On the strength of this tradition, Dante has placed this pope in hell. Anastasius III., pope from 911-913, was a Roman by birth. Practically nothing is recorded of him, his pontificate falling in the period when Rome was in the power of the Roman nobles. Anastasius IV. was pope from 11 53 to 11 54. He was a Roman named Conrad, son of Benedictus, and at the time of his election, on the 9th of July 1153, was cardinal bishop of Sabina. He had taken part in the double election of 11 30, had been one of the most determined opponents of Anacletus II. and, when Innocent II. fled to France, had been left behind as his vicar in Italy. During his short pontificate, however, he played the part of a peacemaker; he came to terms with the emperor Frederick I. in the vexed question of the appoint- ment to the see of Magdeburg and closed the long quarrel, which had raged through four pontificates, about the appointment of William Fitzherbert (d. 1 1 54) — commonly known as St William of York — to the see of York, by sending him the pallium, in spite of the continued opposition of the powerful Cistercian order. Anastasius died on the 3rd of December 11 54, and was succeeded by Cardinal Nicholas of Albano as Adrian IV. ANASTASIUS I. (c. 430-518), Roman emperor, was born at Dyrrhachium not later than a.d. 430. At the time of the death of Zeno (491), Anastasius, a palace official {silentiarius) , held a very high character, and was raised to the throne of the Roman empire of the East, through the choice of Ariadne, Zeno's widow, who married him shortly after his accession. His reign, though afterwards disturbed by foreign and intestine wars and religious distractions, commenced auspiciously. He gained the popular favour by a judicious remission of taxation, and displayed great vigour and energy in administering the affairs of the empire. The principal wars in which Anastasius was engaged were those known as the Isaurian and the Persian. The former (492-496) was stirred up by the supporters of Longinus, the brother of Zeno. The victory of Cotyaeum in 493 " broke the back " of the revolt, but a guerilla warfare continued in the Isaurian mountains for some years longer. In the war with Persia (502- 505), Theodosiopolis and Amida were captured by the enemy, but the Persian provinces also suffered severely and the Romans recovered Amida.. Both adversaries were exhausted when peace was made (506) on the basis of status quo. Anastasius afterwards built the strong fortress of Daras to hold Nisibis in check. The Balkan provinces were devastated by invasions of Slavs and Bulgarians; to protect Constantinople and its vicinity against them he built the " Anastasian wall," extending from the Propontis to the Euxine. The emperor was a convinced Monophysite, but his ecclesiastical policy was moderate; he endeavoured to maintain the principle of the Henolikon of Zeno and the peace of the church. It was the uncompromising attitude of the orthodox extremists, and the rebellious demonstra- tions of the Byzantine populace, that drove him in 51 2 to abandon this policy and adopt a monophysitic programme. His con- sequent unpopularity in the European provinces was utilized by an ambitious man, named Vitalian, to organize a dangerous rebellion, in which he was assisted by a horde of " Huns " (514-515); it was finally suppressed by a naval victory won by the general Marinus. The financial policy of Anastasius was so prudent and economical that it gained him a reputation for avarice and contributed to his unpopularity. He died in 518. Authorities. — Sources: Joshua the Stylite, Chronicle, ed. Wright, with English translation, Cambridge, 1882; Marcellinus, Chronicle; Zachariah of Mytilene, Chronicle (Eng. trans, by Hamilton and Brooks, London, 1899); Evagrius, Ecclesiastical History; John Lydus, De Magistratibus; John Malalas, Chronicle. Modern works: Gibbon, Decline and Fall, vol. iv. (ed. Bury); Bury, Later Roman Empire, vol. i. ANASTASIUS II. (d. 721), Roman emperor in the East, whose original name was Artemius, was raised to the throne of Con- stantinople by the voice of the senate and people in a.d. 713, on the deposition of Philippicus, whom he had served in the capacity of secretary. The empire was threatened by the Saracens both by land and sea, and Anastasius sent an army under Leo the Isaurian, afterwards emperor, to defend Syria; adopted wise and resolute measures for the defence of his capital; attempted to reorganize the discipline of the army; and equipped and despatched to Rhodes a formidable naval force, with orders not only to resist the approach of the enemy, but to destroy their naval stores. The troops of the Opsikian province, resenting the emperor's strict measures, mutinied, slew the admiral, and proclaimed Theodosius, a person of low extraction, emperor. After a six months' siege, Constantinople was taken by Theodosius; and Anastasius, who had fled to Nicaea, was compelled to submit to the new emperor, and, retiring to Thessalonica, becameamonk (716). In 721 he headed a revolt against Leo, who had succeeded Theodosius, and receiving a considerable amount of support, laid siege to Con- stantinople; but the enterprise failed, and Anastasius, falling into Leo's hands, was put to death by his orders. Authorities. — Sources: Theophanes, Chronicle; Nicephorus Patriarches, Breviarium. Modern works : Gibbon, Decline and Fall, vol. v. (ed. Bury) ; Bury, Later Roman Empire, vol. ii. ANASTOMOSIS (a Greek word in which the second is long, from avaoTOixovv, to furnish with a mouth or outlet) , the inter- communication between two vessels; a word used in vegetable and animal anatomy for the communication between channels (arteries and veins) containing fluid, and also for the crossing between the veins or branches of leaves, trees, insect-wings or river-connexions, and by analogy in art-design. ANATASE, one of the three mineral forms of titanium dioxide. It is always- found as small, isolated and sharply developed crystals, and like rutile, a more commonly occurring modification of titanium dioxide, it crystallizes in the tetragonal system; but, although the degree of symmetry is the same for both, there is no relation between the interfacial angles of the two minerals, except, of course, in the prism-zone of 45° and 90 . The common pyramid lin} (fig. 1) of anatase, 1 parallel to the faces of which there are perfect cleavages, has an angle over the polar edge of 82° 9', the corresponding angle (1 1 1) : (11 1) of rutile being 56 52!'. It was on account of this steeper pyramid of anatase that the mineral was named, by R. J. Hauy in 1801, from the Gr. Avdratris, "extension," the vertical axis of the crystals being longer than in rutile. There are also important differences 1 For the notation see Crystallography. 920 ANATHEMA— ANATOMY Fig. i. Fig. 2. between the physical characters of anatase and rutile; the former is not quite so hard (H=s^-6) or dense (sp. gr. = 3-o); it is optically negative, rutile being positive; and its lustre is even more strongly adamantine or metallic-adamantine than that of rutile. Two types or habits of anatase crystals may be distinguished. The commoner occurs as simple acute double pyramids {111} (fig. i) with an indigo-blue to black colour and steely lustre. Crystals of this kind are abundant at Le Bourg d'Oisans in Dauphine, where they are associated with rock-crystal, felspar and axinite in crevices in granite and mica-schist. Similar crystals, but of microscopic size, are widely distributed in sedi- mentary rocks, such as sandstones, clays and slates, from which they may be separ- ated by washing away the lighter constituents of the powdered rock. Crystals of the second type have numerous pyra- midal faces de- veloped, and they are usually flatter or sometimes pris- matic in habit (fig. 2); the colour is honey - yellow to brown. Such crystals closely resemble xenotime in appearance and, indeed, were for a long time supposed to belong to this species, the special name wiserine being applied to them. They occur attached to the walls of crevices in the gneisses of the Alps, the Binnenthal near Brieg in canton Valais, Switzerland, being a well-known locality. When strongly heated, anatase is converted into rutile, changing in specific gravity to 4-1; naturally occurring pseudo- morphs of rutile after anatase are also known. Crystals of anatase have been artificially prepared by several methods; for instance, by the interaction of steam and titanium chloride or fluoride. Another name commonly in use for this mineral is octahedrite, a name which, indeed, is earlier than anatase, and given because of the common (acute) octahedral habit of the crystals. Other names, now obsolete, are oisanite and dauphinite, from the well-known French locality. (L. J. S.) ANATHEMA (from Gr. avaridevai, to lift up), literally an offering, a thing set aside. The classical Greek form avdfhma (Lat. anathema) was the technical term for a gift (cf. donarium, oblatio) made to a god either in gratitude or with a view to propitiation. Thus at Athens the Thesmothetae (perhaps all the archons) made a vow that, should they break any law, they would dedicate a life-size gilt statue in the temple at Delphi. Similarly, of spoils taken in war, a part, generally a tenth, was dedicated to the god of the city (e.g. to Athena); to this class probably belong the trophies erected by the victors on the field of battle; sometimes a captured ship was placed upon a hill as an offering to Poseidon (Neptune). Persons who had recovered from an illness offered anathemata in the temples of Asclepius (Aesculapius); those who had escaped from ship- wreck offered their clothes, or, if these had been lost, a lock of hair, to Neptune (Hor. Odes, i. 5. 13; Virg. Aeneid, xii. 768). The latter offering was very commonly made by young men and girls, especially young brides. Works of art of all kinds and the implements of a craftsman giving up his work were likewise dedicated. Such presents were far more common, as also more valuable, among the Greeks than among the Romans. Similar practices were prevalent, to an extent hardly realized, among the Christians up to the middle ages and even later. Just as the ancients hung their offerings on trees, temple columns and the images of the gods, so offerings were made to the Cross, to the Virgin Mary and on altars generally. In the form anathSma, the word is used in the Septuagint, the New Testament and ecclesiastical writers as the equivalent of the Hebrew herem, which is commonly translated " accursed thing" (A.V.) or "devoted thing" (R.V.; cf. the Roman devotio). In Hebrew the root h-r-m means to " set apart," " devote to Yahweh," for destruction; but in Arabic it means simply to separate or secli}de (cf. "harem"). The idea of destruction or perdition is thus a secondary meaning of the word, which gradually lost its primary sense of consecration. In the New Testament, though it is used in the sense of " offering " (Luke xxi. 5), it generally signifies " separated " from the church, i.e. " accursed " (cf. Gal. i. 8 ff.; 1 Cor. xvi. 22), and it became the regular formula of excommunication from the time of the council of Chalcedon in 451, especially against heretics, e.g. in the canons of the council of Trent and those of the Vatican council of 1870. See Excommunication; Penance. The expression maranatha (" the Lord cometh "), which follows anathema in 1 Cor. xvi. 22, is often erroneously quoted as though it were an amplification of the curse. ANATOLI, JACOB (c .1194-1256), Hebrew translator from the Arabic. He was invited to Naples by the enlightened ruler Frederick II., and under this royal patronage and in association with Michael Scot, made Arabic learning accessible to Western readers. Among his most important services were translations of works by Averroes. ANATOLIA (Gr. avaroXr], sunrise, i.e. eastern land), in ancient geography, the country east of the Aegean, i.e. Asia Minor. It was the name of one of the three themes (provinces) into which Phrygia was divided in the military reorganization of the East Roman empire. It is now used (by the Turks in the form (AnadBli) to denote a division of the Turkish empire, practically coincident with Asia Minor (q.v.). ANATOMY (Gr. avamfiri, from ava-rinvew, to cut up), literally dissection or cutting asunder, a term always used to denote the study of the structure of living things; thus there is animal anatomy (zootomy) and vegetable anatomy (phytotomy). Animal anatomy may include the study of the structure of different animals, when it is called comparative anatomy or animal morphology, or it may be limited to one animal only, in which case it is spoken of as special anatomy. From a utilitarian point of view the study of Man is the most important division of special anatomy, and this human anatomy may be approached from different points of view. From that of the medical man it consists of a knowledge of the exact form, position, size and relationship of the various structures of the human body in health, and to this study the term descriptive or topographical human anatomy is given, though it is often, less happily, spoken of as Anthropotomy. An accurate knowledge of all the details of the human body takes years of patient observation to gain and is possessed by only a few. So intricate is man's body that only a small number of professional human anatomists are complete masters of all its details, and most of them specialize on certain parts, such as the brain, viscera, &c; contenting themselves with a good working knowledge of the rest. Topographical anatomy must be learned by each person for himself by the repeated dissection and inspection of the dead human body. It is no more a science than a pilot's knowledge is, and, like that knowledge, must be exact and available in moments of emergency. From the morphological point of view, however, human anatomy is a scientific and fascinating study, having for its object the discovery of the causes which have brought about the existing structure of Man, and needing a knowledge of the allied sciences of embryology or ontogeny, phylogeny and histology. Pathological or morbid anatomy is the study of diseased organs, while sections of normal anatomy, applied to various purposes, receive special names such as medical, surgical, gynaecological, artistic and superficial anatomy. The com- parison of the anatomy of different races of mankind is part of the science of physical anthropology or anthropological anatomy. In the present edition of this work the subject of anatomy is treated systematically rather than topographically. Each anatomical article contains first a description of the structures of an organ or system (such as nerves, arteries, heart, &c), as it HISTORY] ANATOMY 921 is found in Man; and this is followed by an account of the development or embryology and comparative anatomy or morphology, as far as vertebrate animals are concerned; but only those parts of the lower animals which are of interest in explaining Man's structure are here dealt with. The articles have a twofold purpose; first, to give enough details of man's structure to make the articles on physiology, surgery, medicine and pathology intelligible; and, secondly, to give the non-expert inquirer, or the worker in some other branch of science, the chief theories on which the modern scientific groundwork of anatomy is built. The following separate anatomical articles will be found under their own headings:— Alimentary canal. Arteries. Brain. Coelom and serous membranes. Connective tissues. Diaphragm. Ductless glands. Ear. Nervous system. Nerve. Olfactory system. Pharynx. Pancreas. Placenta. Reproductive system. Respiratory system. Epithelial, endothelial and glan- Scalp. dular tissues. Skeleton. Eye. Skin and Exoskeleton. Heart. Skull. Joints. Spinal cord. Liver. Teeth. Lymphatic system. Tongue. Mammary gland. Urinary system. Mouth and salivary glands. Vascular system. Muscular system. Veins. History of Anatomy 1 In tracing the history of the origin of anatomy, it may be justly said that more learning than judgment has been displayed. Some writers claim for it the highest antiquity, and pretend to find its first rudiments alternately in the animal sacrifices of the shepherd kings, the Jews and other ancient nations, and in the art of embalming as practised by the Egyptian priests. 2 Even the descriptions of wounds in the Iliad have been supposed adequate to prove that in the time of Homer mankind had distinct notions of the structure of the human body. Of the first it may be said that the rude information obtained by the slaughter of animals for sacrifice does not imply profound anatomical knowledge; and those who adduce the second as evidence are deceived by the language of the poet of the Trojan War, which, distinguishing certain parts by their ordinary Greek epithets, as afterwards used by Hippocrates, Galen and all anatomists, has been rather too easily supposed to prove that the poet had studied systematically the structure of the human frame. With not much greater justice has the cultivation of anatomical knowledge been ascribed to Hippocrates, who, because he is universally allowed to be the father of medicine, has also been thought to be the creator of the science of anatomy. Of 1 The article in the 9th edition of this Encyclopaedia, dealing with the history of anatomy, and written by the late Dr Craigie of Edin- burgh, has gained such a just reputation as the classical work on the subject in the English language that it is substantially repro- duced. Here and there points of special or biographical interest are drawn attention to in the shape of footnotes, but any reader interested in the subject would do well to consult, with this article, the work of R. R. von Toply, Studien zur Geschichle tier Anatomie im Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1898). In addition to this Professor A. Macalister has published a series of articles, under the head of " Archaeologia Anatomica," in the Journal of Anatomy and Physi- ology. These are written from a structural rather than a biblio- graphical point of view, and will be found under the following headings: " Atlas and Epistropheus," /. Anat. vol. xxxiii. p. 204; "Veins of Forearm," vol. xxxiii. p. 343; " Poupart's Ligament," vol. xxxiii. p. 493; " Tendo-Achillis," vol. xxxiii. p. 676; " Parotid," vol. xxxv. p. 117; " Trochanter," vol. xxxv. p. 269. 2 The oldest anatomical treatise extant is an Egyptian papyrus probably written sixteen centuries before our era. It shows that the heart, vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys, ureters and bladder were recog- nized, and that the blood-vessels were known to come from the heart. Other vessels are described, some carrying air, some mucus, while two to the right ear are said to carry the breath of life, and two to the left ear the breath of death. See A. Macalister, " Archaeologia Anatomica," J. Anat. and Phys. vol. xxxii. p. 775. But see also the article Omen. the seven individuals of the family of the Heracleidae who bore this celebrated name, the second, who was the son of Heraclides and Phenarita, and grandson of the first Hippocrates, was indeed distinguished as a physician of crates. great observation and experience, and the first who appreciated the value of studying accurately the phenomena, effects and terminations of disease. It does not appear, however, notwithstanding the vague and general panegyrics of J. Riolan, Bartholin, D. le Clerc, and A. Portal, that the anatomical know- ledge of this illustrious person was either accurate or profound. Of the works ascribed to Hippocrates, five only are genuine. Most of them were written either by subsequent authors of the same name, or by one or other of the numerous impostors who took advantage of the zealous munificence of the Ptolemies, by fabricating works under that illustrious name. Of the few which are genuine, there is none expressly devoted to anatomy; and of his knowledge on this subject the only proofs are to be found in the exposition of his physiological opinions, and his medical or surgical instructions. From these it appears that Hippocrates had some accurate notions on osteology, but that of the structure of the human body in general his ideas were at once superficial and erroneous. In his book on injuries of the head, and in that on fractures, he shows that he knew the sutures of the cranium and the relative situation of the bones, and that he had some notion of the shape of the bones in general and of their mutual connexions. Of the muscles, of the soft parts in general, and of the internal organs, his ideas are confused, indistinct and erroneous. The term d>\k\l/ he seems, in imitation of the colloquial Greek, to have used generally to signify a blood-vessel, without being aware of the distinction of vein and artery; and the term b.prr\pia, or air-holder, is restricted to the windpipe. He appears to have been unaware of the existence of the nervous chords; and the term nerve is used by him, as by Grecian authors in general, to signify a sinew or tendon. On other points his views are so much combined with peculiar physiological doctrines, that it is impossible to assign them the character of anatomical facts; and even the works in which these doctrines are contained are with little probability to be ascribed to the second Hippocrates. If, however, we overlook this difficulty, and admit what is con- tained in the genuine Hippocratic writings to represent at least the sum of knowledge possessed by Hippocrates and his immediate descendants, we find that he represents the brain as a gland, from which exudes a viscid fluid; that the heart is muscular and of pyramidal shape, and has two ventricles separated by a partition, the fountains of life — and two auricles, receptacles of air; that the lungs consist of five ash-coloured lobes, the substance of which is cellular and spongy, naturally dry, but refreshed by the air; and that the kidneys are glands, but possess an attractive faculty, by virtue of which the moisture of the drink is separated and descends into the bladder. He distinguishes the bowels into colon and rectum (d apxos). The knowledge possessed by the second Hippocrates was transmitted in various degrees of purity to the descendants and pupils, chiefly of the family of the Heracleidae, who succeeded him. Several of these, with feelings of grateful affection, appear to have studied to preserve the written memory of his instructions, and in this manner to have contributed to form part of that collection of treatises which have long been known to the learned world under the general name of the Hippocratic writings. Though composed, like the genuine remains of the physician of Cos, in the Ionian dialect, all of them differ from these in being more diffuse in style, more elaborate in form, and in studying to invest their anatomical and medical matter with the fanciful ornaments of the Platonic philosophy. Hippocrates had the merit of early recognizing the value of facts apart from opinions, and of those facts especially which lead to general results; and in the few genuine writings which are now extant it is easy to perceive that he has recourse to the simplest language, expresses himself in terms which, though short and pithy, are always precise and perspicuous, and is averse to the introduction of philosophical dogmas. Of the greater part of the writings collected under his name, on the contrary the general character 922 ANATOMY [HISTORY is verboseness, prolixity and a great tendency to speculative opinions. For these reasons, as well as for others derived from internal evidence, while the Aphorisms, the Epidemics and the works above mentioned, bear distinct marks of being the genuine remains of Hippocrates, it is impossible to regard the book Ilept vaios avdp6)irov as entirely the composition of that physician; and it appears more reasonable to view it as the work of some one of the numerous disciples to whom the author had communi- cated the results of his observation, which they unwisely attempted to combine with the philosophy of the Platonic school and their own mysterious opinions. Among those who aimed at this distinction, the most fortunate in the preservation of his name is Polybus, the son-in-law of the physician of Cos. This person, who must not be r u3 ' confounded with the monarch of Corinth, immortalized by Sophocles in the tragic story of Oedipus, is represented as a recluse, severed from the world and its enjoyments, and devoting himself to the study of anatomy and physiology, and to the composition of works on these subjects. To him has been ascribed the whole of the book on the Nature of the Child and most of that On Man; both physiological treatises interspersed with anatomical sketches. His anatomical information, with which we are specially concerned, appears to have been rude and inaccurate, like that of his preceptor. He represents the large vessels of the body as consisting of four pairs; the first proceeding from the head by the back of the neck and spinal cord to the hips, lower extremities and outer ankle; the second, consisting of the jugular vessels (ai ayin8es) , proceeding to the loins, thighs, hams and inner ankle; the third proceeding from the temples by the neck to the scapula and lungs, and thence by mutual intercrossings to the spleen and left kidney, and the liver and right kidney, and finally to the rectum; and the fourth from the fore-part of the neck to the upper extremities, the fore-part of the trunk, and the organs of generation. This specimen of the anatomical knowledge of one of +he most illustrious of the Hippocratic disciples differs not essentially from that of Syennesis, the physician of Cyprus, and Diogenes, the philosopher of Apollonia, two authors for the preservation of whose opinions we are indebted to Aristotle. They may be admitted as representing the state of anatomical knowledge among the most enlightened men at that time, and they only show how rude and erroneous were their ideas on the structure of the animal body. It may indeed, without injustice, be said that the anatomy of the Hippocratic school is not only erroneous, but fanciful and imaginary in often substituting mere supposition and assertion for what ought to be matter of fact. From this censure it is impossible to exempt even the name of Plato himself, for whom some notices in the Timaeus on the structure of the animal body, as taught by Hippocrates and Polybus, have pro- cured a place in the history of the science. Amidst the general obscurity in which the early history of anatomy is involved, only two leading facts may be admitted with certainty. The first is, that previous to the time of Aristotle there was no accurate knowledge of anatomy; and the second, that all that was known was derived from the dissection of the lower animals only. By the appearance of Aristotle this species of knowledge, which was hitherto acquired in a desultory and irregular manner, began to be cultivated systematically and with a definite object ; and among the services which the philosopher of Stagira rendered to mankind, one of the greatest and most substantial is, that he was the founder of Comparative Anatomy, and was the first to apply its facts to the elucidation of zoology. The works of this ardent and original naturalist show that his zootomical know- ledge was extensive and often accurate; and from several of his descriptions it is impossible to doubt that they were derived from frequent personal dissection. Aristotle, who was born 384 years before the Christian era, or in the first year of the 99th Olympiad, was at the age of thirty-nine requested by Philip to undertake the education of his son Alexander. During this period it is said he composed several works on anatomy, which, however, are now lost. The military expedition of his royal Aristotle. pupil into Asia, by laying open the animal stores of that vast and little-known continent, furnished Aristotle with the means of extending his knowledge, not only of the animal tribes, but of their structure, and of communicating more accurate and distinct notions than were yet accessible to the world. A sum of 800 talents, and the concurrent aid of numerous intelligent assistants in Greece and Asia, were intended to facilitate his researches in composing a system of zoological knowledge; but it has been observed that the number of instances in which he was thus compelled to trust to the testimony of other observers led him to commit errors in description which personal observa- tion might have enabled him to avoid. The first three books of the History of Animals, a treatise consisting of ten books, and the four books on the Parts of Animals, constitute the great monument of the Aristotelian Anatomy. From these we find that Aristotle was the first who corrected the erroneous statements of Polybus, Syennesis and Diogenes regarding the blood-vessels, which they made, as we have seen, to arise from the head and brain. These he represents to be two in number, placed before the spinal column, the larger on the right, the smaller on the left, which, he also remarks, is by some called aorta (aoprh), the first time we observe that this epithet occurs in the history. Both he represents to arise from the heart, the larger from the largest upper cavity, the smaller or aorta from the middle cavity, but in a different manner and forming a narrower canal. He also distinguishes the thick, firm and more tendinous structure of the aorta from the thin and membranous structure of vein. In describing the distribution of the latter, however, he confounds the vena cava and pulmonary artery, and, as might be expected, he confounds the ramifications of the former with those of the arterial tubes in general. While he represents the lung to be liberally supplied with blood, he describes the brain as an organ almost destitute of this fluid. His account of the distribution of the aorta is wonderfully correct. Though he does not notice the coeliac, and remarks that the aorta sends no direct branches to the liver and spleen, he had observed the mesenteric, the renal and the common iliac arteries. It is nevertheless singular that though he remarks particularly that the renal branches of the aorta go to the substance and not the pelvis (kolXLo) of the kidney, he appears to mistake the ureters for branches of the aorta. Of the nerves (vevpa) he appears to have the most confused notions. Making them arise from the heart, which he says has nerves (tendons) in its largest cavity, he represents the aorta to be a nervous or tendinous vein (vevp&8ris ^>X^). By and by, afterwards saying that all the articulated bones are connected by nerves, he makes them the same as ligaments. He distinguishes the windpipe or air-holder (aprrjpla) from the oesophagus, because it is placed before the latter, because food or drink passing into it causes distressing cough and suffocation, and because there is no passage from the lung to the stomach. He knew the situation and use of the epiglottis, seems to have had some indistinct notions of the larynx, represents the windpipe to be necessary to convey air to and from the lungs, and appears to have a tolerable understanding of the structure of the lungs. He repeatedly represents the heart, the shape and site of which he describes accurately, to be the origin of the blood-vessels, in opposition to those who made them descend from the head; yet, though he represents it as full of blood and the source and fountain of that fluid, and even speaks of the blood flowing from the heart to the veins, and thence to every part of the body, he say? nothing of the circular motion of the blood. The diaphragm he distin- guishes by the name dia^cafia, and wr6f co/ia. With the liver and spleen, and the whole alimentary canal, he seems well acquainted. The several parts of the quadruple stomach of the ruminating animals are distinguished and named; and he even traces the relations between the teeth and the several forms of stomach, and the length or brevity, the simplicity or complication of the intestinal tube. Upon the same principle he distinguishes the jejunum (^ vrjani), or the empty portion of the small intestines in animals (rd 'evrepov \eirrbv), the caecum (rv\6v ti Kcd ojKudes), the colon (to kuXov), and the sigmoid flexure HISTORY] ANATOMY 923 ((jTtvwrtpov koX el\iy fitvov) . The modern epithet of rectum is the literal translation of his description of the straight progress (ei>8v) of the bowel to the anus (tpuiktSs). He knew the nasal cavities and the passage from the tympanal cavity of the ear to the palate, afterwards described by B. Eustachius. He distinguishes as -" partes similares " those structures, such as bone, cartilage, vessels, sinews, blood, lymph, fat, flesh, which, not confined to one locality, but distributed throughout the body generally, we now term the tissues or textures, whilst he applies the term " partes dissimilares " to the regions of the head, neck, trunk and extremities. Next to Aristotle occur the names of Diodes of Carystus and Praxagoras of Cos, the last of the family of the Asclepiadae. The latter is remarkable for being the first who distinguished the arteries from the veins, and the author of the opinion that the former were air-vessels. Hitherto anatomical inquiry was confined to the examination of the bodies of brute animals. We have, indeed, no testimony of the human body being submitted to examination previous drtaa"' to tne time °* Erasistratus and Herophilus; and it is school. vain to look for authentic facts on this point before the foundation of the Ptolemaic dynasty of sovereigns in Egypt. This event, which, as is generally known, succeeded the death of Alexander, 320 years before the Christian era, collected into one spot the scattered embers of literature and science, which were beginning to languish in Greece under a weak and distracted government and an unsettled state of society. The children of her divided states, whom domestic discord and the uncertainties of war rendered unhappy at home, wandered into Egypt, and found, under the fostering hand of the Alexandrian monarchs, the means of cultivating the sciences, and repaying with interest to the country of Thoth and Osiris the benefits which had been conferred on the infancy of Greece by Thales and Pythagoras. Alexandria became in this manner the reposi- tory of all the learning and knowledge of the civilized world; and while other nations were sinking under the effects of internal animosities and mutual dissensions, or ravaging the earth with the evils of war, the Egyptian Greeks kept alive the sacred flame of science, and preserved mankind from relapsing into their original barbarism. These happy effects are to be ascribed in an eminent degree to the enlightened government and liberal opinions of Ptolemy Soter, and his immediate successors Phila- delphus and Euergetes. The two latter princes, whose authority was equalled only by the zeal with which they patronized science and its professors, were the first who enabled physicians to dissect the human body, and prevented the prejudices of ignorance and superstition from compromising the welfare of the human race. To this happy circumstance Herophilus and Erasistratus are indebted for the distinction of being known to posterity as the first anatomists who dissected and described the parts of the human body. Both these physicians flourished under Ptolemy Soter, and probably Ptolemy Philadelphus, and were indeed the principal supports of what has been named in medical history the Alexandrian School, to which their reputation seems to have attracted numerous pupils. But though the concurrent testi- mony of antiquity assigns to these physicians the merit of dis- secting the human body, time, which wages endless war with the vanity and ambition of man, has dealt hardly with the monu- ments of their labours. As the works of neither have been preserved, great uncertainty prevails as to the respective merits of these ancient anatomists; and all that is now known of their anatomical researches is obtained from the occasional notices of Galen, Oribasius and some other writers. From these it appears that Erasistratus recognized the valves of the heart, and distinguished them by the names of tricuspid and sigmoid; that he studied particularly the shape and structure of the brain, and its divisions, and cavities, and membranes, and likened the convolutions to the folds of the jejunum; that he first formed a distinct idea of the nature of the nerves, which he made issue from the brain; and that he discovered lymphatic vessels in the mesentery, first in brute animals, and afterwards, it is said, in man. He appears also to Erasis- tratus. have distinguished the nerves into those of sensation and those of motion. Of Herophilus it is said that he had extensive anatomical knowledge, acquired by dissecting not only brutes but human bodies. Of these he probably dissected more than any of his predecessors or contemporaries. Devoted phiius. to the assiduous cultivation of anatomy, he appears to have studied with particular attention those parts which were least understood. He recognized the nature of the pulmonary artery, which he denominates arterious vein ; he knew the vessels of the mesentery, and showed that they did not go to the vena portae, but to certain glandular bodies; and he first applied the name of twelve-inch or duodenum (8o}5tKa.8a.KTv\os) to that part of the alimentary canal which is next to the stomach. Like Erasistratus, he appears to have studied carefully the configuration of the brain; and though, like him, he distinguishes the nerves into those of sensation and those of voluntary motion, he adds to them the ligaments and tendons. A tolerable descrip- tion of the liver by this anatomist is preserved in the writings of Galen. He first applied the name of choroid or vascular membrane to that which is found in the cerebral ventricles; he knew the straight venous sinus which still bears his name; and to him the linear furrow at the bottom of the fourth ventricle is indebted for its name of calamus scriptorius. The celebrity of these two great anatomists appears to have thrown into the shade for a long period the names of all other inquirers; for, among their numerous and rather celebrated successors in the Alexandrian school, it is impossible to recognize a name which is entitled to distinction in the history of anatomy. In a chasm so wide it is not uninteresting to find, in one who combined the characters of the greatest orator and philosopher of Rome, the most distinct traces of attention to anatomical knowledge. Cicero, in his treatise De Nalura Deorum, in a short sketch of physiology, such as it was taught by Aristotle and his disciples, introduces various anatomical notices, from which the classical reader may form some idea of the state of anatomy at that time. The Roman orator appears to have formed a pretty distinct idea of the shape and connexions of the windpipe and lungs; and though he informs his readers that he knows the alimentary canal, he omits the details through motives of delicacy. In imitation of Aristotle, he talks of the blood being conveyed by the veins {venae) , that is, blood-vessels, through the body at large; and, like Praxagoras, of the air inhaled by the lungs being conveyed through the arteries. Aretaeus, though chiefly known as a medical author, makes some observations on the lung and the pleura, maintains the glandular structure of the kidney, and describes the anastomoses or communications of the capillary extremities of the vena cava with those of the portal vein. The most valuable depository of the anatomical knowledge of these times is the work of Celsus, one of the most judicious medical authors of antiquity. He left, indeed, no express anatomical treatise; but from the introductions to the 4th and 8th books of his work, De Medicina, with incidental remarks in the 7 th, the modern reader may form very just ideas of his anatomical attainments. From these it appears that Celsus was well acquainted with the windpipe and lungs and the heart; with the difference between the windpipe and oesophagus (stomachus), which leads to the stomach (venlriculus) ; and with the shape, situation and relations of the diaphragm. He enumerates also the principal facts relating to the situation of the liver, the spleen, the kidneys and the stomach. He appears, however, to have been unaware of the distinction of duodenum or twelve-inch bowel, already admitted by Herophilus, and represents the stomach as directly connected by means of the pylorus with the jejunum or upper part of the small intestine. The 7th and 8th books, which are devoted to the consideration of those diseases which are treated by manual operation, contain sundry anatomical notices necessary to explain the nature of the diseases or mode of treatment. Of these, indeed, the merit is unequal; and it is not wonderful that the ignorance of the day prevented Celsus from understanding rightly the mechanism of Celsus. 924 ANATOMY [HISTORY the pathology of hernia. He appears, however, to have formed a tolerably just idea of the mode of cutting into the urinary bladder; and even his obstetrical instructions show that his knowledge of the uterus, vagina and appendages was not con- temptible. It is in osteology, however, that the information of Celsus is chiefly conspicuous. He enumerates the sutures and several of the holes of the cranium, and describes at great length the superior and inferior maxillary bones and the teeth. With a good deal of care he describes the vertebrae and the ribs, and gives very briefly the situation and shape of the scapula, humerus, radius and ulna, and even of the carpal and metacarpal bones, and then of the different bones of the pelvis and lower extremities. He had formed a just idea of the articular connexions, and is desirous to impress the fact that none is formed without cartilage. From his mention of many minute holes (multa et tenuia foramina) in the recess of the nasal cavities, it is evident that he was acquainted with the perforated plate of the ethmoid bone; and from saying that the straight part of the auditory canal becomes flexuous and terminates in numerous minute cavities (multa et tenuia foramina diducitur), it is inferred by Portal that he knew the semicircular canals. Though the writings of Celsus show that he cultivated ana- tomical knowledge, it does not appear that the science was much studied by the Romans; and there is reason to believe that, after the decay of the school of Alexandria, it languished in neglect and obscurity. It is at least certain that the appearance of Marinus during the reign of Nero is mentioned by authors as an era remarkable for anatomical inquiry, and that this person is distinguished by Galen as the restorer of a branch of knowledge which had been before him suffered to fall into undeserved neglect. From Galen also we learn that Marinus gave an accurate account of the muscles, that he studied particularly the glands, and that he discovered those of the mesentery. He fixed the number of nerves at seven; he observed the palatine nerves, which he rated as the fourth pair; and described as the fifth the auditory and facial, which he regards as one pair, and the hypoglossal as the sixth. Not long after Marinus appeared Rufus (or Ruffus) of Ephesus, a Greek physician, who in the reign of Trajan was much attached to physiology, and as a means of cultivating this science studied Comparative Anatomy and made sundry experiments on living animals. Of the anatomical writings of this author there remains only a list or catalogue of names of different regions and parts of the animal body. He appears, however, to have directed attention particularly to the tortuous course of the uterine vessels, and to have recognized even at this early period the Fallopian tube. He distinguishes the nerves into those of sensation and those of motion. He knew the re- current nerve. His name is further associated with the ancient experiment of compressing in the situation of the carotid arteries the pneumogastric nerve, and thereby inducing insensibility and loss of voice. Of all the authors of antiquity, however, none possesses so just a claim to the title of anatomist as Claudius Galenus, the Oaten, celebrated physician of Pergamum, who was born about the 130th year of the Christian era, and lived under the reigns of Hadrian, the Antonines, Commodus and Severus. He was trained by his father Nicon (whose memory he embalms as an eminent mathematician, architect and astronomer) in all the learning of the day, and initiated particularly into the mysteries of the Aristotelian philosophy. In an order somewhat whimsical he afterwards studied philosophy successively in the schools of the Stoics, the Academics, the Peripatetics and the Epicureans. When he was seventeen years of age, his father, he informs us, was admonished by a dream to devote his son to the study of medicine; but it was fully two years after that Galen entered on this pursuit, under the auspices of an instructor whose name he has thought proper to conceal. Shortly after he betook himself to the study of anatomy under Satyrus, a pupil of Quintus, and of medicine under Stratonicus, a Hippocratic physician, and Aeschrion, an empiric. He had scarcely attained the age of twenty when he had occasion to deplore the loss of the Rufus. first and most affectionate guide of his studies; and soon after he proceeded to Smyrna to obtain the anatomical instructions of Felops, who, though mystified by some of the errors of Hip- pocrates, is commemorated by his pupil as a skilful anatomist. After this he appears to have visited various cities distinguished for philosophical or medical teachers; and, •finally, to have gone to Alexandria with the view of cultivating more accurately and intimately the study of anatomy under Heraclianus. Here he remained till his twenty-eighth year, when he regarded himself as possessed of all the knowledge then attainable through the medium of teachers. He now returned to Pergamum to exercise the art which he had so anxiously studied, and received, in his twenty-ninth year, an unequivocal testimony of the confidence which his fellow-citizens reposed in his skill, by being intrusted with the treatment of the wounded gladiators; and in this capacity he is said to have treated wounds with success which were fatal under former treatment. A seditious tumult appears to have caused him to form the resolution of quitting Pergamum and proceeding to Rome at the age of thirty-two. Here, how- ever, he remained only five years; and returning once more to Pergamum, after travelling for some time, finally settled in Rome as physician to the emperor Commodus. The anatomical writings ascribed to Galen, which are numerous, are to be viewed not merely as the result of personal research and information, but as the common depository of the anatomical knowledge of the day, and as combining all that he had learnt from the several teachers under whom he successively studied with whatever personal investigation enabled him to acquire. It is on this account not always easy to distinguish what Galen had himself ascertained by personal research from that which was known by other anatomists. This, however, though of moment to the history of Galen as an anatomist, is of little consequence to the science itself; and from the anatomical remains of this author a pretty just idea may be formed both of the progress and of the actual state of the science at that time. The osteology of Galen is undoubtedly the most perfect of the departments of the anatomy of the ancients. He names and distinguishes the bones and sutures of the cranium nearly in the same manner as at present. Thus, he notices the quadrilateral shape of the parietal bones; he distinguishes the squamous, the styloid, the mastoid and the petrous portions of the temporal bones; and he remarks the peculiar situation and shape of the sphenoid bone. Of the ethmoid, which he omits at first, he after- wards speaks more at large in another treatise. The malar he notices under the name of zygomatic bone; and he describes at length the upper maxillary and nasal bones, and the connexion of the former with the sphenoid. He gives the first clear account of the number and situation of the vertebrae, which he divides into cervical, dorsal and lumbar, and distinguishes from the sacrum and coccyx. Under the head Bones of the Thorax, he enumerates the sternum, the ribs (at xXeupat), and the dorsal vertebrae, the connexion of which with the former he designates as a variety of diarthrosis. The description of the bones of the extremities and their articulations concludes the treatise. Though in myology Galen appears to less advantage than in osteology, he nevertheless had carried this part of anatomical knowledge to greater perfection than any of his predecessors. He describes a frontal muscle, the six muscles of the eye and a seventh proper to animals; a muscle to each ala nasi, four muscles of the lips, the thin cutaneous muscle of the neck, which he first termed platysma myoides or muscular expansion, two muscles of the eyelids, and four pairs of muscles of the lower jaw — the temporal to raise, the masseter to draw to one side, and two depressors, corresponding to the digastric and internal pterygoid muscles. After speaking of the muscles which move the head and the scapula, he adverts to those by which the windpipe is opened and shut, and the intrinsic or proper muscles of the larynx and hyoid bone. Then follow those of the tongue, pharynx and neck, those of the upper extremities, the trunk and the lower extremities successively; and in the course of this description he swerves so little from the actual facts that most of the names by which he distinguishes the principal muscles have been HISTORY] ANATOMY 9*5 retained by the best modern anatomists. It is chiefly in the minute account of these organs, and especially in reference to the minuter muscles, that he appears inferior to the moderns. The angiological knowledge of Galen, though vitiated by the erroneous physiology of the times and ignorance of the separate usfs of arteries and veins, exhibits, nevertheless, some ac- curate facts which show the diligence of the author in dissection. Though, in opposition to the opinions of Praxagoras and Erasis- t>atus, he proved that the arteries in the living animal contain not air but blood, it does not appear to have occurred to him to 'letermine in what direction the blood flows, or whether it was movable or stationary. Representing the left ventricle of the heart as the common origin of all the arteries, though he is misled by the pulmonary artery, he nevertheless traces the distribution of the branches of the aorta with some accuracy. The vena azygos also, and the jugular veins, have contributed to add to the confusion of his description, and to render his angiology the most imperfect of his works. In neurology we find him to be the author of the dogma that the brain is the origin of the nerves of sensation, and the spinal cord of those of motion; and he distinguishes the former from the latter by their greater softness or less consistence. Though he admits only seven cerebral pairs, he has the merit of distin- guishing and tracing the distribution of the greater part of both classes of nerves with great accuracy. His description of the brain is derived from dissection of the lower animals, and his distinctions of the several parts of the organ have been retained by modern anatomists. His mode of demonstrating this organ, which indeed is clearly described, consists of five different steps. In the first the bisecting membrane — i.e. the falx (nvvt-y^ Sixorofioma) — and the connecting blood-vessels are removed; and the dissector, commencing at the anterior extremity of the great fissure, separates the hemispheres gently as far as the torcular, and exposes a smooth surface {rfiv x&pa-v rvKwSr] wws owrav), the mesolobe of the moderns, or the middle band. In the second he exposes by successive sections the ventricles, the choroid plexus and the middle partition. The third exhibits the pineal body (croi^a Ko>vott,8ts) or conarium, concealed by a membrane with numerous veins, meaning that part of the plexus which is now known by the name of velum interpositum, and a complete view of the ventricles. The fourth unfolds the third ventricle (jl% aXhr) rpirq KoiKLa), the communication between the two lateral ones, the arch-like body (a£>na xf/aKiSotides) fornix, and the passage from the third to the fourth ventricle. In the fifth he gives an accurate description of the relations of the third and fourth ventricle, of the situation of the two pairs of eminences, nates (7X0117-0.) and testes (5i5u/ua or opx«s), the scolecoid or worm-like process, anterior and posterior, and lastly the linear furrow, called by Herophilus calamus scriptorius. In the account of the thoracic organs equal accuracy may be recognized. He distinguishes the pleura by the name of inclosing membrane {vfirjv wrefojKtitt, membrana succingens), and remarks its similitude in structure to that of the peritoneum, and the covering which it affords to all the organs. The pericardium also he describes as a membranous sac with a circular basis corresponding to the base of the heart and a conical apex; and after an account of the tunics of the arteries and veins, he speaks shortly of the lung, and more at length of the heart, which, however, he takes some pains to prove not to be muscular, because it is harder, its fibres are differently arranged, and its action is incessant, whereas that of muscle alternates with the state of rest; he gives a good account of the valves and of the vessels; and notices especially the bony ring formed in the heart of the horse, elephant and other large animals. The description of the abdominal organs, and of the kidneys and urinary apparatus, is still more minute, and in general accurate. Our limits, however, do not permit us to give any abstract of them; and it is sufficient in general to say that Galen gives correct views of the arrangement of the peritoneum and omentum, and distinguishes accurately the several divisions of the alimentary canal and its component tissues. In the liver, which he allows to receive an envelope from the peritoneum, he admits, in imitation of Erasistratus, a proper substance or parenchyma, interposed between the vessels, and capable of removal by suitable dissection. His description of the organs of generation is rather brief, and is, like most of his anatomical sketches, too much blended with physiological dogmas. This short sketch may communicate some idea of the condition of anatomical knowledge in the days of Galen, who indeed is justly entitled to the character of rectifying and digesting, if not of creating, the science of anatomy among the ancients. Though evidently confined, perhaps entirely by the circumstances of the times, to the dissection of brute animals, so indefatigable and judicious was he in the mode of acquiring knowledge, that many of his names and distinctions are still retained with advantage in the writings of the moderns. Galen was a practical anatomist, and not only describes the organs of the animal body from actual dissection, but gives ample instructions for the proper mode of exposition. His language is in general clear, his style as correct as in most of the authors of the same period, and his manner is animated . Few passages in early science are indeed so interesting as the description of the process for demonstrating the brain and other internal organs which is given by this patient and enthusiastic observer of nature. To some it may appear absurd to speak of anything like good anatomical description in an author who writes in the Greek language, or anything like an interesting and correct manner in a writer who flourished at a period when taste was depraved or extinct and literature cor- rupted — when the philosophy of Antoninus and the mild virtues of Aurelius could do little to soften the iron sway of Lucius Verus and Commodus; but the habit of faithful observation in Galen seems to have been so powerful that in the description of material objects, his genius invariably rises above the circumstances of his age. Though not so directly connected with this subject, it is nevertheless proper to mention that he appears to have been the first anatomist who can be said, on authentic grounds, to have attempted to discover the uses of organs by vivisection and experiments on living animals. In this manner he ascertained the position and demonstrated the action of the heart; and he mentions two instances in which, in consequence of disease or injury, he had an opportunity of observing the motions of this organ in the human body. In short, without eulogizing an ancient author at the expense of critical justice, or com- mending his anatomical descriptions as superior to those of the moderns, it must be admitted that the anatomical writings of the physician of Pergamum form a remarkable era in the history of the science; and that by diligence in dissection and accuracy in description he gave the science a degree of importance and stability which it has retained through a lapse of many centuries. The death of Galen, which took place at Pergamum in the seventieth year of his age and the 200th of the Christian era, may be regarded as the downfall of anatomy in ancient times. After this period we recognize only two names of any celebrity in the history of the science — those of Soranus and Oribasius, with the more obscure ones of Meletius and Theophilus, the latter the chief of the imperial guard of Heraclius. Soranus, who was an Ephesian, and flourished under the emperors Trajan and Hadrian, distinguished himself by his researches on the female organs of generation. He appears to have dissected the human subject; and this perhaps is one reason why his descriptions of these parts are more copious and more accurate than those of Galen, who derived his knowledge from the bodies of the lower animals. He denies the existence of the hymen, but describes accurately the clitoris. Soranus the anatomist must be distinguished from the physician of that name, who was also a native of Ephesus. Oribasius, who was born at Pergamum, is said to have been at once the friend and physician of the emperor Julian, and to have contributed to the elevation of that apostate to oribasius the imperial throne. For this he appears to have suffered the punishment of a temporary exile under Valens and Valentinian; but was soon recalled, and lived in great honour till the period of his death (387). By le Clerc, Oribasius is regarded as a compiler; and indeed his anatomical writings bear so close 926 ANATOMY [HISTORY i. correspondence with those of Galen that the character is not altogether groundless. In various points, nevertheless, he has rendered the Galenian anatomy more accurate; and be has distinguished himself by a good account of the salivary glands, which were overlooked by Galen. To the same period generally is referred the Anatomical Introduction of an anonymous author, first published in 1618 by Lauremberg, and afterwards by C. Bernard. It is to be regarded as a compilation formed on the model of Galen and Oribasius. The same character is applicable to the treatises of Meletius and Theophilus. The decline indicated by these languid efforts soon sank into a state of total inactivity; and the unsettled state of society during the latter ages of the Roman empire was extremely unfavourable to the successful cultivation of science. The sanguinary conflicts in which the southern countries of Europe were repeatedly engaged with their northern neighbours between the 2nd and 8th centuries tended gradually to estrange their minds from scientific pursuits; and the hordes of . barbarians by which the Roman empire was latterly overrun, while they urged them to the necessity of making hostile resistance, and adopting means of self-defence, introduced such habits of ignorance and barbarism, that science was almost universally forgotten. While the art of healing was professed only by some few ecclesiastics or by itinerant practitioners, anatomy was utterly neglected; and no name of anatomical celebrity occurs to diversify the long and uninteresting period commonly dis- tinguished as the dark ages. Anatomical learning, thus neglected by European nations, is believed to have received a temporary cultivation from the Arabian Asiatics. Of these, several nomadic tribes, known Physl- to Europeans under the general denomination of Arabs nans. an( j Saracens, had gradually coalesced under various leaders; and by their habits of endurance, as well as of enthusi- astic valour in successive expeditions against the eastern division of the Roman empire, had acquired such military reputation as to render them formidable wherever they appeared. After a century and a half of foreign warfare or internal animosity, under the successive dynasties of the Omayyads and Abbasids, in which the propagation of Islam was the pretext for the extinction of learning and civilization, and the most remorseless system of rapine and destruction, the Saracens began, under the latter dynasty of princes, to recognize the value of science, and especially of that which prolongs life, heals disease and alleviates the pain of wounds and injuries. The caliph Mansur combined with his official knowledge of Moslem law the successful cultiva- tion of astronomy; but to his grandson Mamun, the seventh prince of the line of the Abbasids, belongs the merit of under- taking to render his subjects philosophers and physicians. By the directions of this prince the works of the Greek and Roman authors were translated into Arabic; and the favour and muni- ficence with which literature and its professors were patronized speedily raised a succession of learned Arabians. The residue of the rival family of the Omayyads, already settled in Spain, was prompted by motives of rivalry or honourable ambition to adopt the same course; and while the academy, hospitals and library of Bagdad bore testimony to the zeal and liberality of the Abbasids, the munificence of the Omayyads was not less conspicuous in the literary institutions of Cordova, Seville and Toledo. Notwithstanding the efforts of the Arabian princes, however, and the diligence of the Arabian physicians, little was done for anatomy, and the science made no substantial acquisition. The Koran denounces as unclean the person who touches a corpse; the rules of Islam forbid dissection; and whatever their instructors taught was borrowed from the Greeks. Abu- Bekr Al-Rasi, Abu-Ali Ibn-Sina, Abul-Qasim and Abul Walid ibn Rushd, the Rhazes, Avicenna, Abulcasis and Averroes of European authors, are their most celebrated names in medicine; yet to none of these can the historian with justice ascribe any anatomical merit. Rhazes has indeed left descriptions of the eye, of the ear and its meatus, and of the heart; and Avicenna, Abul-Qasim and Averroes give anatomical descriptions of the parts of the human body. But of these the general character is, that they are copies from Galen, sometimes not very just, and in all instances mystified with a large proportion of the fanciful and absurd imagery and inflated style of the Arabian writers. The chief reason of their obtaining a place in anatomical history is, that by the influence which their medical authority enabled them to exercise in the European schools, the nomen- clature which they employed was adopted by European ana- tomists, and continued till the revival of ancient learning restored the original nomenclature of the Greek physicians. Thus, the cervix, or nape of the neck, is nucha; the oesophagus is meri; the umbilical region is sumen or sumac; the abdomen is myrach; the peritoneum is siphac; and the omentum, zirbus. From the general character now given justice requires that we except Abdallatif, the annalist of Egyptian affairs. This author, who maintains that it is impossible to learn anatomy from books, and that the authority of Galen must yield to personal inspection, informs us that the Moslem doctors did not neglect opportunities of studying the bones of the human body in cemeteries; and that he himself, by once examining a collection of bones in this manner, ascertained that the lower jaw is formed of one piece; that the sacrum, though sometimes composed of several, is most generally of one; and that Galen is mistaken when he asserts that these bones are not single. The era of Saracen learning extends to the 13th century; and after this we begin to approach happier times. The univer- sity of Bologna, which, as a school of literature and law, was already celebrated in the 12 th century, Bologna. became, in the course of the following one, not less distinguished for its medical teachers. Though the misgovern- ment of the municipal rulers of Bologna had disgusted both teachers and students, and given rise to the foundation of similar institutions in Padua and Naples, — and though the school of Salerno, in the territory of the latter, was still in high repute, — it appears, from the testimony of M. Sarti, that medicine was in the highest esteem in Bologna, and that it was in such per- fection as to require a division of its professors into physicians, surgeons, physicians for wounds, barber-surgeons, oculists and even some others. Notwithstanding these indications of refine- ment, however, anatomy was manifestly cultivated rather as an appendage of surgery than a branch of medical science; and according to the testimony of Guy de Chauliac, the cultiva- tion of anatomical knowledge was confined to Roger of Parma, Roland, Jamerio, Bruno, and Lanfranc or Lanfranchi of Milan; and this they borrowed chiefly from Galen. In this • state matters appear to have proceeded with the medical school of Bologna till the commencement of the 14th century, when the circumstance of possessing a teacher Mondino of originality enabled this university to be the agent cf as great an improvement in medical science as she had already effected in jurisprudence. This era, indeed, is distinguished for the appearance of Mondino (Mundinus), under whose zealous cultivation the science first began to rise from the ashes in which it had been buried. This father of modern anatomy, who taught in Bologna about the year 1315, quickly drew the curiosity of the medical profession by well-ordered demonstra- tions of the different parts of the human body. In 13 15 he dis- sected and demonstrated the parts of the human body in two female subjects; and in the course of the following year he accomplished the same task en the person of a single female. But while he seems to have had sufficient original force of intellect to direct his own route, J. Riolan accuses him of copying Galen; and it is certain that his descriptions are corrupted by the barbarous leaven of the Arabian schools, and his Latin defaced by the exotic nomenclature of Avicenna and Rhazes. He died, according to G. Tiraboschi, in 1325. Mondino divides the body into three cavities {ventres), the upper containing the animal members, as the head, the lower containing the natural members, and the middle containing the spiritual members. He first describes the anatomy of the lower cavity or the abdomen, then proceeds to the middle or HISTORY ANATOMY 927 thoracic organs, and concludes with the upper, comprising the head and its contents and appendages. His general manner is to notice shortly the situation and shape or distribution of textures or membranes, and then to mention the disorders to which they are subject. The peritoneum he describes under the name of siphac, in imitation of the Arabians, the omentum under that of zirbus, and the mesentery or eucharus as distinct from both. In speaking of the intestines he treats first of the rectum, then the colon, the left or sigmoid flexure of which, as well as the transverse arch and its connexion with the stomach, he particularly remarks; then the caecum or monoculus, after this the small intestines in general under the heads of ileum and jejunum, and latterly the duodenum, making in all six bowels. The liver and its vessels are minutely, if not accurately, ex- amined; and the cava, under the name chilis, a corruption from the Greek no'Cki), is treated at length, with the emulgents and kidneys. His anatomy of the heart is wonderfully accurate; and it is a remarkable fact, which seems to be omitted by all subsequent authors, that his description contains the rudiments of the circulation of the blood. " Postea vero versus pulmonem est aliud orificium venae arterialis, quae portal sanguinem ad pulmonem a corde; quia cum pulmo deserviat cordi secundum modum dictum, ut ei recompenset, cor ei transmittit sanguinem per hanc venam, quae vocatur vena arterialis; est vena, quia portat sanguinem, et arterialis, quia habet duas tunicas; et habet duas tunicas, primo quia vadit ad membrum quod existit in continuo motu, et secundo quia portat sanguinem valde subtilem et cholericum." The merit of these distinctions, however, he afterwards destroys by repeating the old assertion that the left ventricle ought to contain spirit or air, which it generates from the blood. His osteology of the skull is erroneous. In his account of the cerebral membranes, though short, he notices the principal characters of the dura mater. He describes shortly the lateral ventricles, with their anterior and posterior cornua, and the choroid plexus as a blood-red substance like a long worm. He then speaks of the third or middle ventricle, and one posterior, which seems to correspond with the fourth; and describes the infundibulum under the names of lacuna and emboton. In the base of the organ he remarks, first, two mammillary caruncles, the optic nerves, which he reckons the first pair; the oculo- muscular, which he accounts the second; the third, which appears to be sixth of the moderns; the fourth; the fifth, evidently the seventh; a sixth, the nervus vagus; and a seventh, which is the ninth of the moderns. Notwithstanding the misrepresenta- tions into which this early anatomist was betrayed, his book is valuable, and has been illustrated by the successive commentaries of Alessandro Achillini, Jacopo Berengario and Johann Dryander (1500-1560). Matthew de Gradibus, a native of Gradi, a town in Friuli, near Milan, distinguished himself by composing a series of treatises on the anatomy of various parts of the human body (1480). He is the first who represents the ovaries of the female in the correct light in which they were subsequently regarded by Nicolas Steno or Stensen (1638-1687). Objections similar to those already urged in speaking of Mondino apply to another eminent anatomist of those times. Gabriel de Zerbis, who flourished at Verona towards the con- clusion of the 15th century, is celebrated as the author of a system in which he is obviously more anxious to astonish his readers by the wonders of a verbose and complicated style than to instruct by precise and faithful description. In the vanity of his heart he assumed the title of Medicus Theoricus; but though, like Mondino, he derived his information from the dissection of the human subject, he is not entitled to the merit either of describing truly or of adding to the knowledge previously acquired. He is superior to Mondino, however, in knowing the olfactory nerves. Eminent in the history of the science, and more distinguished than any of this age in the history of cerebral anatomy, Achillini of Bologna (1463-1512), the pupil and commentator of Mondino, appeared at the close of the 15th century. Though a follower of the Arabian school, the assiduity with AcMHfa/. which he cultivated anatomy has rescued his name from the inglorious obscurity in which the Arabian doctors have in general slumbered. He is known in the history of anatomical discovery as the first who described the two tympanal bones, termed malleus and incus. In 1503 he showed that the tarsus consists of seven bones; he rediscovered the fornix and the infundibulum; and he was fortunate enough to observe the course of the cerebral cavities into the inferior cornua, and to remark peculiarities to which the anatomists of a future age did not advert. He mentions the orifices of the ducts, afterwards described by Thomas Wharton (1610-1673). He knew the ileo-caecal valve; and his description of the duodenum, ileum and colon shows that he was better acquainted with the site and disposition of these bowels than any of his predecessors or contemporaries. Not long after, the science boasts of one of its most distin- guished founders. Berengario, commonly called Berenger of Carpi, in the Modenese territory, flourished at Bologna _ at the beginning of the 16th century. In the annals of medicine his name will be remembered not only as the most zealous and eminent in cultivating the anatomy of the human body, but as the first physician who was fortunate enough to calm the alarms of Europe, suffering under the ravages' of syphilis, then raging with uncontrollable virulence. In the former character he surpassed both predecessors and contem- poraries; and it was long before the anatomists of the following age could boast of equalling him. His assiduity was indefatig- able; and he declares that he dissected above one hundred human bodies. He is the author of a compendium, of several treatises which he names Introductions (Isagogae), and of com- mentaries on the treatise of Mondino, in which he not only rectifies the mistakes of that anatomist, but gives minute and in general accurate anatomical descriptions. He is the first who undertakes a systematic view of the several textures of which the human body is composed; and in a pre-- liminary commentary he treats successively of the anatomical characters and properties of fat, of membrane in general (pan- niculus), of flesh, of nerve, of villus or fibre (filum), of ligament, of sinew or tendon, and of muscle in general. He then proceeds to describe with considerable precision the muscles of the abdomen, and illustrates their site and connexions by woodcuts which, though rude, are spirited, and show that anatomical drawing was in that early age beginning to be understood. In his account of the peritoneum he admits only the intestinal division of that membrane, and is at some pains to prove that Gentilis Fulgineus, who justly admits the muscular division also, is in error. In his account of the intestines he is the first who mentions the vermiform process of the caecum; he remarks the yellow tint communicated to the duodenum by the gall-bladder; and he recognizes the opening of the common biliary duct into the duodenum (quidam porus portans choleram) . In the account of the stomach he describes the several tissues of which that organ is composed, and which he represents to be three, and a fourth from the peritoneum; and afterwards notices the rugae of its villous surface. He is at considerable pains to explain the organs of generation in both sexes, and gives a long account of the anatomy of the foetus. He was the first who recognized the larger proportional size of the chest in the male than in the female, and conversely the greater capacity of the female than of the male pelvis. In the larynx he discovered the two arytenoid cartilages. He gives the first good description of the thymus; distinguishes the oblique situation of the heart; describes the pericardium, and maintains the uniform presence of pericardial liquor. He then describes the cavities of the heart; but perplexes himself, as did all the anatomists of that age, about the spirit supposed to be contained. The aorta he properly makes to arise from the left ventricle; but confuses himself with the arteria venalis, the pulmonary vein, and the vena arterialis, the pul- monary artery. His account of the brain is better. He gives a minute and clear account of the ventricles, remarks the corpus striatum, and has the sagacity to perceive that the choroid plexus consists of veins and arteries; he then describes the middle 01 928 ANATOMY [HISTORY third ventricle, the infundibulum or lacuna of Mondino, and the pituitary gland; and lastly, the passage to the fourth ventricle, the conarium or pineal gland, and the fourth or posterior ventricle itself, the relations of which he had studied accurately. He rectifies the mistake of Mondino as to the olfactory or first pair of nerves, gives a good account of the optic and others, and is entitled to tne praise of originality in being the first observer who contradicts the fiction of the wonderful net and indicates the principal divisions of the carotid arteries. He enumerates the tunics and humours of the eye, and gives an account of the internal ear, in which he notices the malleus and incus. Italy long retained the distinction of giving birth to the first eminent anatomists in Europe, and the glory she acquired in the names of Mondino, Achillini, Berenger and N. Massa, school- was destined to become more conspicuous in the labours of R. Columbus, G. Fallopius and Eustachius. While Italy, however, was thus advancing the progress of science, the other nations of Europe were either in profound ignorance or in the most supine indifference to the brilliant career of their zealous neighbours. The 16th century had commenced before France began to acquire anatomical distinction in the names of Jacques Dubois, Jean Fernel and Charles Etienne; and even these cele- brated teachers were less solicitous in the personal study of the animal body than in the faithful explanation of the anatomical writings of Galen. The infancy of the French school had to contend with other difficulties. The small portion of knowledge which had been hitherto diffused in the country was so inadequate to eradicate the prejudices of ignorance, that it was either difficult or absolutely impossible to procure human bodies for the purposes of science; and we are assured, on the testimony of A. Vesalius and other competent authorities, that the practical part of ana- tomical instruction was obtained entirely from the bodies of the lower animals. The works of the Italian anatomists were un- known ; and it is a proof of the tardy communication of know- ledge that, while the structure of the human body had been taught in Italy for more than a century by Mondino and his followers, these anatomists are never mentioned by Etienne, who flourished long after. Such was the aspect of the times at the appearance of Jacques Dubois (1478-1555), who, under the Romanized name of Jacobus Sylvius, according to the fashion of the day, has been fortunate in acquiring a reputation to which his re- searches do not entitle him. For the name of Dubois the history of anatomy, it is said, is indebted to his inordinate love of money. At the instance of his brother Francis, who was professor of eloquence in the college of Tournay at Paris, he devoted himself to the study of the learned languages and mathematics; but discovering that these elegant accomplishments do not invariably reward their cultivators with the goods of fortune, Dubois betook himself to medicine. After the acquisition of a medical degree in the university of Montpellier, at the ripe age of fifty-one Dubois returned to Paris to resume a course of anatomical instruction. Here he taught anatomy to a numerous audience in the college of Trinquet; and on the departure of Vidus Vidius for Italy was appointed to succeed that physician as professor of surgery to the Royal College. His character is easily estimated. With greater coarseness in his manners and language than even the rude state of society in his times can palliate, with much varied learning and considerable eloquence, he was a blind, indiscriminate and ir- rational admirer of Galen, and interpreted the anatomical and physiological writings of that author in preference to giving demonstrations from the subject. Without talent for original research or discovery himself, his envy and jealousy made him detest every one who gave proofs of either. We are assured by Vesalius, who was some time his pupil, that his manner of teaching was calculated neither to advance the science nor to rectify the mistakes of his predecessors. A human body was never seen in the theatre of Dubois; the carcases of dogs and other animals were the materials from which he taught; and so difficult even was it to obtain human bones, that unless Vesalius and his fellow-students had collected assiduously from the Innocents and other cemeteries, they must have committed Dubois. numerous errors in acquiring the first principles. This assertion, however, is contradicted by J. Riolan, and afterwards by K. P. J. Sprengel and T. Lauth, the last of whom decidedly censures Vesalius for this ungrateful treatment of his instructor. It is certain that opportunities of inspecting the human body were by no means so frequent as to facilitate the study of the science. Though his mention of injections has led some to suppose him the discoverer of that art, he appears to have made no substantial addition to the information already acquired; and the first acknowledged professor of anatomy to the university of Paris appears in history as one who lived without true honour and died without just celebrity. He must not be confounded with Franciscus Sylvius (de le Boe), who is mentioned by F. Ruysch and M. V. G. Malacarne as the author of a particular method of demonstrating the brain. Almost coeval may be placed Charles Etienne (1 503-1 564), a younger brother of the celebrated printers, and son to Henry, who Hellenized the family name by the classical utienae appellation of Stephen (St^oto). It is uncertain whether he taught publicly. But his tranquillity was disturbed, and his pursuits interrupted, by the oppressive persecutions in which their religious opinions involved the family; and Charles Etienne drew the last breath of a miserable life in a dungeon in 1564. Etienne, though sprung of a family whose classical taste has been their principal glory, does not betray the same servile imitation of the Galenian anatomy with which Dubois is charged. He appears to have been the first to detect valves in the orifice of the hepatic veins. He was ignorant, however, of the researches of the Italian anatomists; and his description of the brain is inferior to that given sixty years before by Achillini. His comparison of the cerebral cavities to the human ear has persuaded F. Portal that he knew the inferior cornua, the hippocampus and its prolongations; but this is no reason for giving him that honour to the detriment of the reputation of Achillini, to whom, so far as historical testimony goes, the first knowledge of this fact is due. The researches of Etienne into the structure of the nervous system are, however, neither useless nor inglorious; and the circumstance of demonstrating a canal through the entire length of the spinal cord, which had neither been suspected by contemporaries nor noticed by successors till J. B. Senac (1693-1770) made it known, is sufficient to place him high in the rank of anatomical discoverers. The French anatomy of the 16th century was distinguished by two circumstances unfavourable to the advancement of the science — extravagant admiration of antiquity, with excessive confidence in the writings of Galen, and the general practice of dissecting principally the bodies of the lower animals. Both these errors were much amended, if not entirely removed, by the exertions of a young Fleming, whose appearance forms a conspicuous era in the history of anatomy. Andreas Vesalius, (1 514-1564), a native of Brussels, after acquiring at Louvain the ordinary classical attainments of the day, began at the age of fourteen to study anatomy under the auspices of Dubois. Though the originality of his mind soon led him to abandon the prejudices by which he was environed, and take the most direct course for attaining a knowledge of the structure of the human frame, he neither underrated the Galenian anatomy nor was indolent in the dissection of brute animals. The difficulties, however, with which the practical pursuit of human anatomy was beset in France, and the dangers with which he had to contend, made him look to Italy as a suitable field for the cultivation of the science; and in 1536 we find him at Venice, at once pursuing the study of human anatomy with the utmost zeal, and requested, ere he had attained his twenty-second year, to demonstrate publicly in the university of Padua. After remaining here about seven years, Vesalius went by express invitation to Bologna, and shortly afterwards to Pisa; and thus professor in three universities, he appears to have carried on his anatomical investigations and instructions alternately at Padua, Bologna and Pisa, in the course of the same winter. It is on this account that Vesalius, though a Fleming by birth and trained originally in the French school, belongs, as an anatomist, to the Italian, and may be Vesalius. HISTORY] ANATOMY 929 viewed as the, first of an illustrious line of teachers by whom the anatomical reputation of that country was in the course of the 16th century raised to the greatest eminence. Vesalius is known as the first author of a comprehensive and systematic view of human anatomy. The knowledge with which his dissections had furnished him proved how many errors were daily taught and learned under the broad mantle of Galenian authority; and he perceived the necessity of a new system of anatomical instruction, divested of the omissions of ignorance and the misrepresentations of prejudice and fancy. The early age at which he effected this object has been to his biographers the theme of boundless commendation; and we are told that he began at the age of twenty-five to arrange the materials he had collected, and accomplished his task ere he had completed his 28th year. Soon after this period we find him invited as imperial physician to the court of Charles V., where he was occupied in the duties of practice and answering the various charges which were un- ceasingly brought against him by the disciples of Galen. After the abdication of Charles he continued at court in great favour with his son Philip II. To this he seems to have been led princi- pally by the troublesome controversies in which his anatomical writings had involved him. It is painful to think, however, that even imperial patronage bestowed on eminent talents does not ensure immunity from popular prejudice; and the fate of Vesalius will be a lasting example of the barbarism of the times, and of the precarious tenure of the safety even of a great physician. On the preliminary circumstances authors are not agreed; but the most general account states that when Vesalius was dissecting, with the consent of his kinsmen, the body of a Spanish grandee, it was observed that the heart still gave some feeble palpitations when divided by the knife. The immediate effects of this outrage to human feelings were the denunciation of the anatomist to the Inquisition; and Vesalius escaped the severe treatment of that tribunal only by the influence of the king, and by promising to perform a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. He forthwith pro- ceeded to Venice, from which he sailed with the Venetian fleet, under James Malatesta, for Cyprus. When he reached Jerusalem, he received from the Venetian senate a message requesting him again to accept the Paduan professorship, which had become vacant by the death of his friend and pupil Fallopius. His destiny, however, which pursued him fast, suffered him not again to breathe the Italian air. After struggling for many days with the adverse winds in the Ionian Sea, he was wrecked on the island of Zante, where he quickly breathed his last in such penury that unless a liberal goldsmith had defrayed the funeral charges, his remains must have been devoured by beasts of prey. At the time of his death he was scarcely fifty years of age. To form a correct estimate of the character and merits of Vesalius, we must not compare him, in the spirit of modern perfection, with the anatomical authors either of later times or of the present day. Whoever would frame a just idea of this anatomist must imagine, not a bold innovator without academical learning, not a genius coming from a foreign country, unused to the forms and habits of Catholic Europe, nor a wild reformer, blaming indiscriminately everything which accorded not with his opinion; but a young student scarcely emancipated from the authority of instructors, whose intellect was still influenced by the doctrines with which it had been originally imbued, — a scholar strictly trained in the opinions of the time, living amidst men who venerated Galen as the oracle of anatomy and the divinity of medicine, — exercising his reason to estimate the soundness of the instructions then in use, and proceeding, in the way least likely to offend authority and wound prejudice, to rectify errors, and to establish on the solid basis of observation the true elements of anatomical science. Vesalius has been denominated the founder of human anatomy; and though we have seen that in this career he was preceded with honour by Mondino and Berenger, still the small proportion of correct observation which their reverence for Galen and Arabian doctrines allowed them to communicate, will not in a material degree impair the original merits of Vesalius. The errors which he rectified and the additions which he made are so numerous, I.30 Eusta- chius. that it is impossible, in such a sketch as the present, to com- municate a just idea of them. Besides the first good description of the sphenoid bone, he showed that the sternum consists of three portions and the sacrum of five or six; and described accurately the vestibule in the interior of the temporal bone. He not only verified the observation of Etienne on the valves of the hepatic veins, but he described well the vena azygos, and discovered the canal which passes in the foetus between the umbilical vein and the vena cava, since named ductus venosus. He described the omentum, and its connexions with the stomach, the spleen and the colon; gave the first correct views of the structure of the pylorus; remarked the small size of the caecal appendix in man; gave the first good account of the mediastinum and pleura and the fullest description of the anatomy of the brain yet advanced. He appears, however, not to have understood well the inferior recesses; and his account of the nerves is con- fused by regarding the optic as the first pair, the third as the fifth and the fifth as the seventh. The labours of Vesalius were not limited to the immediate effect produced by his own writings. His instructions and examples produced a multitude of anatomical inquirers of different characters and varied celebrity, by whom the science was extended and rectified. Of these we cannot speak in detail; but historical justice requires us to notice shortly those to whose exertions the science of anatomy has been most indebted. The first that claims attention on this account is Bartolomeo Eustachi of San Severino, near Salerno, who though greatly less fortunate in reputation than his contemporary Vesalius, divides with him the merit of creating the science of human anatomy. He extended the knowledge of the internal ear by rediscovering and describing correctly the tube which bears his name; and if we admit that G. F. Ingras- sias anticipated him in the knowledge of the third bone of the tympanal cavity, the stapes, he is still the first who described the internal and anterior muscles of the malleus, as also the stapedius, and the complicated figure of the cochlea. He is the first who studied accurately the anatomy of the teeth, and the phenomena of the first and second dentition. The work, however, which demonstrates at once the great merit and the unhappy fate of Eustachius is his Anatomical Engravings, which, though completed in 1552, nine years after the impression of the work of Vesalius, the author was unable to publish. First com- municated to the world in 17 14 by G. M. Lancisi, afterwards in 1744 by Cajetan Petrioli, again in 1744 by B. S. Albinus, and subsequently at Bonn in 1790, the engravings show that Eustachius had dissected with the greatest care and diligence, and taken the utmost pains to give just views of the shape, size and relative position of the organs of the human body. The first seven plates illustrate the history of the kidneys and some of the facts relating to the structure of the ear. The eighth represents the heart, the ramifications of the vena azygos, and the valve of the vena cava, named from the author. In the seven subsequent plates is given a succession of different views of the viscera of the chest and abdomen. The seventeenth contains the brain and spinal cord; and the eighteenth more accurate views of the origin, course and distribution of the nerves than had been given before. Fourteen plates are devoted to the muscles. Eustachius did not confine his researches to the study of relative anatomy. He investigated the intimate structure of organs with assiduity and success. What was too minute for unassisted vision he inspected by means of glasses. Structure which could not be understood in the recent state, he unfolded by maceration in different fluids, or rendered more distinct by injection and exsiccation. The facts unfolded in these figures are so important that it is justly remarked by Lauth, that if the author himself had been fortunate enough to publish them, anatomy would have attained the perfection of the 18th century two centuries earlier at least. Their seclusion for that period in the papal library has given celebrity to many names which would have been known only in the verification of the discoveries of Eustachius. II 93° ANATOMY [HISTORY Aranzi. M. R. Columbus and G. Fallopius were pupils of Vesalius. Columbus, as his immediate successor in Padua, and afterwards Columbus as professor at Rome, distinguished himself by rectify- ing and improving the anatomy of the bones; by giving correct accounts of the shape and cavities of the heart, of the pulmonary artery and aorta and their valves, and tracing the course of the blood from the right to the left side of the heart; by a good description of the brain and its vessels, and by correct understanding of the internal ear, and the first good account of the ventricles of the larynx. Fallopius, who, after being professor at Pisa in 1548, and at Padua in 1551, died at the age of forty, studied the general Faliooius anatomy of the bones; described better than hereto- fore the internal ear, especially the tympanum and its osseous ring, the two fenestras and their communication with the vestibule and cochlea; and gave the first good account of the stylo-mastoid hole and canal, of the ethmoid bone and cells, and of the lacrymal passages. In myology he rectified several mistakes of Vesalius. He also devoted attention to the organs of generation in both sexes, and discovered the utero-peritoneal canal which still bears his name. Osteology nearly at the same time found an assiduous culti- vator in Giovanni FilippoIngrassias(i 545-1 58b), a learned Sicilian lairrassias physician, who, in a skilful commentary on the osteo- logy of Galen, corrected numerous mistakes. He gave the first distinct account of the true configuration of the sphenoid and ethmoid bones, and has the merit of first describing (1546) the third bone of the tympanum, called stapes, though this is also claimed by Eustachius and Fallopius. The anatomical descriptions of Vesalius underwent the scrutiny of various inquirers. Those most distinguished by the importance and accuracy of their researches, as well as the temperate tone of their observations, were Julius Caesar Aranzi (1 530-1 589), anatomical professor for thirty-two years in the university of Bologna, and Constantio Varoli, physician to Pope Gregory XIII. To the former we are indebted for the first correct account of the anatomical peculiarities of the foetus, and he was the first to show that the muscles of the eye do not, as was falsely imagined, arise from the dura mater but from the margin of the optic hole. He also, after considering the anatomical relations of the cavities of the heart, the valves and the great vessels, corroborates the views of Columbus regarding the course which the blood follows in passing from the right to the left side of the heart. Aranzi is the first anatomist who describes distinctly the inferior cornua of the ventricles of the cerebrum, who recognizes the objects by which they are distinguished, and who gives them the name by which they are still known {hippocampus) ; and his account is more minute and perspicuous than that of the authors of the subsequent century. He speaks at large of the choroid plexus, and gives a particular description of the fourth ventricle, under the name of cistern of the cerebellum, as a discovery of his own. Italy, though rich in anatomical talent, has probably few greater names than that of Constantio Varoli (b. 1543) of Bologna. Though he died at the early age of thirty-two, he acquired a reputation not inferior to that of the most eminent of his contemporaries. He is now known chiefly as the author of an epistle, inscribed to Hieronymo Mercuriali, on the optic nerves, in which he describes a new method of dissect- ing the brain, and communicates many interesting particulars relating to the anatomy of the organ. He observes the threefold division of the inferior surface or base, defines the limits of the anterior, middle and posterior eminences, as marked by the com- partments of the skull, and justly remarks that the cerebral cavities are capacious, communicate with each other, extending first backward and then forward, near the angle of the pyramidal portion of the temporal bone, and that they are folded on them- selves, and finally lost above the middle and inferior eminence of the brain. He appears to have been aware that at this point they communicate with the exterior or convoluted surface. He recognized the impropriety of the term corpus callosum, seems to have known the communication called afterwards foramen VaroIIus. Monroianum, and describes the hippocampus more minutely than had been previously done. Among the anatomists of the Italian school, as a pupil of Fallopius, Eustachius and U. Aldrovandus, is generally enumer- ated Volcher Coiter (b. 1534) of Groningen. He distinguished himself by accurate researches on the cartilages, the bones and the nerves, recognized the value of morbid anatomy, and made experiments on living animals to ascertain the action of the heart and the influence of the braiif. The Fruiefull and Necessary Briefe Worke of John Halle 1 (1565) and The Englisheman's Treasure by Master Thomas Vicary (1586), 2 English works published at this time, are tolerable compilations from former authors, much tinged by Galenian and Arabian distinctions. A more valuable compendium than either is, however, that of John Banister (1578), entitled The Historie of Man, from the most approved Anathomistes in this Present Age. The celebrity of the anatomical school of Italy was worthily maintained by Hieronymo Fabricio of Acquapendente, who, in imitation of his master Fallopius, laboured to render p a ft ric/us anatomical knowledge more precise by repeated dissections, and to illustrate the obscure by researches on the structure of animals in general. In this manner he investigated the formation of the foetus, the structure of the oesophagus, stomach and bowels, and the peculiarities of the eye, the ear and the larynx. The discovery, however, on which his surest claims to eminence rest is that of the membranous folds, which he names valves, in the interior of veins. Several of these folds had been observed by Fernel, Sylvius and Vesalius; and in 1547 G. B. Canani observed those of the vena azygos; but no one appears to have offered any rational conjecture on their use, or to have traced them through the venous system at large, until Fabricius in 1574, upon this hypothesis, demonstrated the presence of these valvular folds in all the veins of the extremities. Fabricius, though succeeded by his pupil Julius Casserius of Placenza, may be regarded as the last of that illustrious line of anatomical teachers by whom the science was so successfully studied and taught in the universities of Italy. The discoveries which each made, and the errors which their successive labours rectified, tended gradually to give anatomy the character of a useful as well as an accurate science, and to pave the way for a discovery which, though not anatomical but physiological, is so intimately connected with correct knowledge of the shape and situation of parts, that it exercised the most powerful influence on the future progress of anatomical inquiry. This was the knowledge of the circular motion of the blood — a fact which though obscurely conjectured by Aristotle, Nemesius, Mondino and Berenger, and partially taught by Servetus, Columbus, Andreas Caesalpinus and Fabricius, it was nevertheless reserved to William Harvey fully and satisfactorily to demonstrate. Mondino believed that the blood proceeds from the heart to the lungs through the vena arterialis or pulmonary artery, and that the aorta conveys the spirit into the blood through all parts of the body. This doctrine was adopted with little modification by Berenger, who further demonstrated the existence and opera- tion of the tricuspid valves in the right ventricle, and of the sigmoid valves at the beginning of the pulmonary artery and aorta, and that there were only two ventricles separated by a solid impervious septum. These were afterwards described in greater detail by Vesalius, who nevertheless appears not to have been aware of the important use which might be made of this knowledge. It was the Spaniard Michael Servet or Servetus (born in 1509, burnt in 1553) who in his treatise De servetus. Trinitalis Erroribus, published at Haguenau in 1531, first maintained the imperviousness of the septum, and the 1 An interesting article on the character and work of the Maidstone surgeon, John Halle, by E. Barclay Smith, will be found in the /. A nat. and Pays. vol. xxxiv. p. 275. 2 It has been pointed out by Dr J. F. Payne that Vicary's work is merely an abridged copy of an unpublished English anatomical treatise of the 14th century. The name of the author is unknown, but internal evidence shows that he was a London surgeon. The manuscript was written in English in 1392. See British Medical Journal, January 25, 1896. HISTORY] ANATOMY 931 transition of the blood by what he terms an unknown route, namely, from the right ventricle by the vena arteriosa (pulmonary artery) to the lungs, and thence into the arteria venosa or pul- monary vein and left auricle and ventricle, from which, he adds afterwards, it is conveyed by the aorta to all parts of the body. 1 Though the leading outlines, not only of the pulmonary or small but even of the great circulation, were sketched thus early by one who, though a philosopher, was attached to the church, it was only in his work De Re Anatomica, published at Venice in 1559, that Columbus formally and- distinctly announced the circular course of the blood as a discovery of his own; and main- tained, in addition to the imperviousness of the septum, the fact that the arteria venalis (pulmonary vein) contains, not air, but blood mixed with air brought from the lungs to the left ventricle of the heart, to be distributed through the body at large. Soon after, views still more complete of the small or pulmonary circulation were given by Andreas Caesalpinus (15 19-1603) of Arezzo, who not only maintained the analogy between pfaus ' t ^ le structure 0I tne arterious vein or pulmonary artery and the aorta, and that between the venous artery or pulmonary veins and veins in general, but was the first to remark the swelling of veins below ligatures, and to infer from it a refluent motion of blood in these vessels. The discoveries of Aranzi and Eustachius in the vessels of the foetus tended at first to perplex and afterwards to elucidate some of these notions. At length it happened that, between the years 1598 and 1600, a young Englishman, William Harvey, pursuing his anatomical studies at Padua under Fabricius, learnt from that anatomist the existence of the valves in the veins of the extremities, and undertook to ascertain the use of these valves by experimental inquiry. It is uncertain whether he learnt from the writings of Caesalpinus the fact observed by that author of the tumescence of a vein below the ligature, but he could not fail to be aware, and indeed he shows that he was aware, of the small circulation as taught by Servetus and Columbus. Combining these facts already known, he, by a series of well-executed experiments, demonstrated clearly the existence, not only of the small, but of a general circulation from the left side of the heart by the aorta and. its subdivisions, to the right side by the veins. This memorable truth was first announced in the year 1619. It is unnecessary here to consider the arguments and facts by which Harvey defended his theory, or to notice the numerous assaults to which he was exposed, and the controversies in which his opponents wished to involve him. It is sufficient to say that, after the temporary ebullitions of spleen and envy had 1 The passage of Servetus is so interesting that our readers may feel some curiosity in perusing it in the language of the author; and it is not unimportant to remark that Servetus appears to have been led to think of the course of the blood by the desire of explaining the manner in which the animal spirits were supposed to be generated : — " Vitalis spiritus in sinistro cordis ventriculo suam originem habet, juvantibus maxime pulmonibusad ipsius perfectionem. Est spiritus tenuis, caloris vi elaboratus, flavo colore, ignea potentia, ut sit quasi ex puriore sanguine lucens, vapor substantiam continens aquae, aeris, et ignis. Generatur ex facta in pulmone commixtione inspirati aeris cum elaborato subtili sanguine, quem dexter ventriculus sinistro com- municat. Fit autem communicatio haec, non per parietem cordis medium, ut vulgo creditur, sed magno artificio a dextro cordis ventri- culo, longo per pulmones ductu agitatur sanguis subtilis; a pulmoni- bus praeparatur, flavus efficitur, et a vena arteriosa in arteriam venosam transfunditur. Deinde in ipsa arteria venosa, inspirato aeri miscetur et exspiratione a fuligine expurgatur; atque ita tandem a sinistro cordis ventriculo totum mixtum per diastolen attrahitur, apta supellex, ut fiat spiritus vitalis. Quod ita per pulmones fiat com- municatio et praeparatio, docet conjunctio varia, et communicatio venae arteriosae cum arteria venosa in pulmonibus. Confirmat hoc magnitudo insignis venae arteriosae, quae nee talis nee tanta esset facta, nee tantam a corde ipso vim purissimi sanguinis in pulmones emitteret, ob solum eorum nutrimentum; nee cor pulmonibus hac ratione serviret, cum praesertimantea inembryone solerent pulmones ipsi aliunde nutriri, ob membranulas illas seu valvulas cordis, usque ad horum nativitatem ; ut docet Galenus, &c. Itaque ille spiritus a sinistro cordis ventriculo arterias totius corporis deinde transfunditur, ita ut qui tenuior est, superiora petit, ubi magis elaboratur, praecipue in plexu retiformi, sub basi cerebri sito, ubi ex vitali fieri incipit animalis, ad propriam rationalis animae rationem accedens." — De Triniiate, lib. v. subsided, the doctrine of the circular motion of the blood was admitted by all enlightened and unprejudiced persons, and finally was universally adopted as affording the most satisfactory explanation of many facts in anatomical structure which were either misunderstood or entirely overlooked. The inquiries to which the investigation of the doctrine gave rise produced numerous researches on the shape and structure of the heart and its divisions, of the lungs, and of the blood-vessels and their distribution. Of this description were the researches of Nicolas Steno on the structure of the heart, the classical work of Richard Lower, the dissertation of J. N. Pechlin, the treatise of Raymond Vieussens, the work of Marcello Malpighi on the structure of the lungs, several sketches in the writings of John Mayow, and othet treatises of less moment. Systematic treatises of anatomy began to assume a more instructive form, and to breathe a more philosophical spirit. The great work of Adrian Spigelius, which appeared in 1627, two years after the death of the author, contains indeed no proof that he was aware of the valuable generalization of Harvey; but in the institutions of Caspar Bartholinus, as republished and improved by his son Thomas in 1651, the anatomical descriptions and explanations are given with reference to the new doctrine. A still more unequivocal proof of the progress of correct anatomical knowledge was given in the lectures delivered by Peter Dionis, at the Jardin Royal of Paris, in 1673 and the seven following years, in which that intelligent surgeon gave most accurate demonstrations of all the parts composing the human frame, and especially of the heart, its auricles, ventricles and valves, and the large vessels connected with it and the lungs. These demonstrations, first published in 1690, were so much esteemed that they passed through seven editions in the space of thirty years, and were translated into English. The progress of anatomical discovery continued in the mean- time to advance. In the course of the 16th century Eustachius, in studying minutely the structure of the vena azygos, had recognized in the horse a white vessel full of watery fluid, connected with the internal jugular vein, on the left side of the vertebral column, corresponding accurately with the vessel since named thoracic duct. Fallopius also described vessels belonging to the liver distinct from arteries and veins; and similar vessels appear to have been noticed by Nicolaus Massa (1499-1569). The nature and properties of these vessels were, however, entirely unknown. On the 23rd of July 1622 Gaspar Aselli, pro- fessor of anatomy at Pavia, while engaged in demonstrat- ing the recurrent nerves in a living dog, first observed numerous white delicate filaments crossing the mesentery in all directions; and though he took them at first for nerves, the opaque white fluid which they shed quickly convinced him that they were a new order of vessels. The repetition of the experiment the following day showed that these vessels were best seen in animals recently fed; and as he traced them from the villous membrane of the intestines, and observed the valves with which they were liberally supplied, he inferred that they were genuine chyliferous vessels. By confounding them with the lymphatics, he made them proceed to the pancreas and liver — a mistake which appears to have been first rectified by Francis de le Boe. The discovery of Aselli was announced in 1627; and the following year, by means of the zealous efforts of Nicolas Peiresc, a liberal senator of Aix, the vessels were seen in the person of a felon who had eaten copiously before execution, and whose body was inspected an hour and a half after. In 1629 they were publicly demonstrated at Copenhagen by Simon Pauli, and the same year the thoracic duct was observed by Jacques Mentel (1599-1670) for the first time since it was described by Eustachius. Five years after ( 1634) , John Wesling, professor of anatomy and surgery at Venice, gave the first delineation of the lacteals from the human subject, and evinced more accurate knowledge than his predecessors of the thoracic duct and the lymphatics.. Nathaniel Highmore 1 in 1637 demonstrated unequivocally the difference between the lacteals and the mesenteric veins; and though some perplexity 1 Highmore was a physician practising at Sherborne all his life (1613-1685). AselU. 932 ANATOMY [HISTORY was occasioned by the discovery of the pancreatic duct by Christopher Wirsung, this mistake was corrected by Thomas Bartholinus; and the discovery by Jean Pecquet in 1647 of the common trunk of the lacteals and lymphatics, and of the course which the chyle follows to reach the blood, may be regarded as the last of the series of isolated facts by the generalization of which the extent, distribution and uses of the most important organs of the animal body were at length developed. To complete the history of this part of anatomical science one step yet remained — the distinction between the lacteals and JoyWte lymphatics, and the discovery of the termination of the latter order of vessels. The honour of this discovery is divided between George Joyliffe (1621-1658), an English ana- tomist, and Olaus Rudbeck (1630-1702), a young Swede. The former, according to the testimony of Francis Glisson and Thomas Wharton, was aware of the distinct existence of. the lymphatics in 1650, and demonstrated them as such in 1652. It is neverthe- less doubtful whether he knew them much before the latter period ; and it is certain that Rudbeck observed the lymphatics of the large intestines, and traced them to glands, on the 27th of January 1651, after he had, in the course of 1650, made various erroneous conjectures regarding them, and, like others, attempted to trace them to the liver. The following year he demonstrated them in presence of Queen Christina, and traced them to the thoracic duct, and the latter to the subclavian vein. Their course and distribu- tion were still more fully investigated by Thomas Bartholinus, Wharton, J. Swammerdam and G. Blaes, the last two of whom recognized the existence of valves; while Antony Nuck of Leiden, by rectifying various errors of his predecessors, and adding several new and valuable observations, rendered this part of anatomy much more precise than formerly. After this period anatomists began to study more minutely the organs and textures. Francis Glisson 1 distinguished himself by a minute description of the liver (1654), and a clearer account of the stomach and intestines, than had yet been given. Thomas Wharton 2 investigated the structure of the glands with particular care; and though rather prone to indulge in fanciful generaliza- tion, he developed some interesting views of these organs; while Walter Charleton (1610-1707), who appears to have been a person of great genius, though addicted to hypothesis, made some good remarks on the communication of the arteries with the veins, the foetal circulation and the course of the lymphatics. But the circumstance which chiefly distinguished the history of anatomy at the beginning of the 17th century was the appear- ance of Thomas Willis 3 (1621-1675), who rendered himself eminent not only by good researches on the brain and nerves, but by many judicious observations on the structure of the lungs, the intestines, the blood-vessels and the glands. His anatomy of the brain and nerves is so minute and elaborate, and abounds so much in new information, that the reader is struck by the immense chasm between the vague and meagre notices of his predecessors and the ample and correct descriptions of Willis. This excellent work, however, is not the result of his own personal and unaided exertions; and the character of Willis derives additional lustre from the candid avowal of his obligations to Sir Christopher Wren and Thomas Millington, and, above all, to the diligent researches of his fellow-anatomist Richard Lower. Willis was the first who numbered the cranial nerves in the order in which they are now usually enumerated by anatomists. His observation of the connexion of the eighth pair with the slender nerve which issues from the beginning of the spinal cord is known to all. He remarked the parallel lines of the mesolobe, afterwards minutely described by Felix Vicq d'Azyr (1748-1794). He seems to have recognized the communication of the convoluted surface of the brain and that between the lateral cavities beneath the fornix. He described the corpora striata and optic thalami; 1 Glisson was for forty years professor of physic at Cambridge. 2 Wharton was a graduate both of Oxford and Cambridge, and physician to St Thomas's Hospital. ' Willis was Sedleian professor of natural philosophy in Oxford in 1660. Later he practised in London. Willis. the four orbicular eminences, with the bridge, which he first named annular protuberance; and the white mammillary eminences, behind the infundibulum. In the cerebellum he remarks the arborescent arrangement of the white and grey matter, and gives a good account of the internal carotids, and the communications which they make with the branches of the basilar artery. About the middle of the 17 th century R. Hooke and Nehemiah Grew employed the simple microscope in the minute examination of plants and animals; and the Dutch philosopher A. Leeuwen- hoek with great acuteness examined microscopically the solids and fluids of the body, recognized the presence of scales in the cuticle, and discovered the corpuscles in the blood and milk, and the spermatozoa in the seminal fluid. The researches of Malpighi also tended greatly to improve the knowledge of minute Matolghl. ' structure. He gave the first distinct ideas on the organization of the lung, and the mode in which the bronchial tubes and vessels terminate in that organ. By the microscope he traced the transition of the arteries into the veins, and saw the movements of the blood corpuscles in the capillaries, fie endeavoured to unfold,by dissection and microscopic observation, the minute structure of the brain. He studied the structure of bone, he traced the formation and explained the structure of the teeth; and his name is to this day associated with the discovery of the deeper layer of the cuticle and the Malpighian bodies in the spleen and kidney. In these difficult inquiries the observations of Malpighi are in general faithful, and he may be regarded as the founder of histological anatomy. Nicolas Steno, or Stensen, described with accuracy (1660) the lacrymal gland and passages, and rediscovered the parotid duct. L. Bellini studied the structure of the kidneys, and described the tongue and tonsils with some care; and Charles Drelincourt laboured to investigate the changes effected on the uterus by impregnation, and to elucidate the formation of the foetus. The science might have derived still greater advantages from the genius of Regnier de Graaf, who investigated with accuracy the structure of the pancreas and of the organs of generation in both? sexes, had he not been cut off at the early age of thirty-two. Lastly, Wepfer, though more devoted to morbid anatomy, made, nevertheless, some just observations on the anatomical disposi- tion of the cerebral vessels, the glandular structure of the liver, and the termination of the common duct in the duodenum. The appearance of Frederic Ruysch, who was born in 1638, became professor of anatomy at Amsterdam in 1665 and' died in that city in 1731, gave a new impulse to anatomi- cal research, and tended not only to give the science greater precision, but to extend its limits in every direction. The talents of Ruysch are said to have been developed by accident. To repel the audacious and calumnious aspersions with which Louis de Bils attacked de le Boe and van Home, Ruysch published his tract on the valves of the lymphatics, which completely established his character as an anatomist of originality and research. This, however, is the smallest of his services' to the science. The art of injecting, which had been originally attempted by Eustachi and Varoli, and was afterwards rudely practised by Glisson, Bellini and Willis, was at length carried to greater perfection by de Graaf and Swammerdam, the former of whom injected the spermatic vessels with mercury and variously coloured liquors; while the latter, by employing melted wax with other ingredients, made the first approach to the refinements of modern anatomy. By improving this idea of using substances which, though solid, may be rendered fluid at the period of injecting, Ruysch carried this art to the highest perfection. By the application of this happy contrivance he was enabled to demonstrate the arrangement of minute vessels in the interior of organs which had escaped the scrutiny of previous anatomists. Scarcely a part of the human body eluded the penetration of his syringe; and his discoveries were proportionally great. His account of the valves of the lymphatics, of the vessels of the lungs, and their minute structure; his researches on the vascular structure of the skin, of the bones, and their epiphyses, and their Ruysch. HISTORY] ANATOMY 933 mode of growth and union; his observations on the spleen, the glans penis, the clitoris, and the womb impregnated and unimpregnated, were but a limited part of his anatomical labours. He studied the minute structure of the brain; he demonstrated the organization of the choroid plexus; he de- scribed the state of the hair when affected with Polish plait; he proved the vascular structure of the teeth; he injected the dura mater, the pleura, the pericardium and peritoneum; he unfolded the minute structure of the conglomerate glands; he investigated that of the synovial apparatus placed in the interior of the joints; and he discovered several curious par- ticulars relating to the lacteals, the lymphatics and the lymphatic glands. Meanwhile, H. Meibomius rediscovered (1670) the palpebral glands, which were known to Casserius; Swammerdam studied the action of the lungs, described the structure of the human uterus, and made numerous valuable observations on the coeca and pancreatoid organs of fishes; and Th. Kerckring laid the foundation of a knowledge of the process of ossification. John Conrad B runner, in the course of experiments on the pancreas, discovered (1687) the glands of the duodenum named after him, and J. Conrad Peyer (1677-1681) described the solitary and agminated glands of the intestinal canal. Leonard Tassin, distinguished for original observation, rendered the anatomical history of the brain more accurate than heretofore, and gave particular accounts of the intestinal tube, the pancreatic duct and the hepatic ligaments (1678). That France might not be without participation in the glory of advancing the progress of anatomical knowledge, the names Duverae °^ J ose P n Guichard Duverney and Vieussens are commemorated with distinction. Duverney, born in 1648, and first introduced into public life in 1676 in the Royal Academy of Sciences, decorated with the honorary title of professor of anatomy to the dauphin, and appointed in 1679 professor at the Jardin Royal, distinguished himself by the first accurate account of the organ of hearing, and by his dissections of several animals at the academy supplied valuable materials for the anatomical details of the natural history of animals published by that learned body. He appears to have been the first who demonstrated the fact that the cerebral sinuses open into the jugular veins, and to have been aware that the former receives the veins of the brain and are the venous receptacles of the organ. He understood the cerebral cavities and their mode of communication; distinguishes the posterior pillars of the vault from the pedes hippocampi; recognizes the two plates of the septum lucidum; and, what is still more remarkable, he first indicates distinctly the discussation of the anterior pyramids, of the medulla oblongata— a fact afterwards verified by the researches of Mistichelli, F. P. du Petit and G.D. Santorini. He studied the ganglions attentively, and gives the first distinct account of the formation, connexions and distribution of the intercostal nerves. It is interesting to remark that his state- ment that the veins or sinuses of the spinal cord terminate in the vena azygos was verified by the subsequent researches of G. Dupuytren (1777-1835) and G. Breschet (1784-1845), which showed that the vertebral veins communicate by means of the intercostal and superior lumbar veins with the azygos and hemi-azygos. His account of the structure of bones and of the progress of ossification is valuable. He recognized the vascular structure of the spleen, and described the excretory ducts of the prostate gland, the verumontanum, and the ante- prostates. One of the circumstances which at this time tended consider- ably to the improvement of anatomical science was the attention with which Comparative Anatomy was beginning to be cultivated. In ancient times, and at the revival of letters, the dissection of the lower animals was substituted for that of the human body; and the descriptions of the organs of the latter were too often derived from the former. The obloquy and contempt in which this" abuse involved the study of animal anatomy caused it to be neglected, or pursued with indifference, for more than two centuries, during which anatomists confined their descriptions, Collins. at least very much, to the parts of the human body. At this period, however, the prejudice against Comparative Anatomy began to subside; and animal dissection, though not substituted for that of the human body, was employed, as it ought always to have been, to illustrate obscurities, to determine doubts and to explain difficulties, and, in short, to enlarge and rectify the knowledge of the structure of animal bodies generally. For this revolution in its favour, Comparative Anatomy was in a great measure indebted to the learned societies which were established about this time in the different countries of Europe. Among these, the Royal Society of London, embodied by charter by Charles II. in 1662, and the Academy of Sciences of Paris, founded in 1666 by J. B. Colbert, are undoubtedly entitled to the first rank. Though later in establishment, the latter institution was distinguished by making the first great efforts in favour of Comparative Anatomy; and Claude Perrault, Pecquet, Duverney and Jean Mery, by the dissections of rare animals obtained from the royal menagerie, speedily supplied valuable materials for the anatomical naturalist. In England, Nehemiah Grew, Edward Tyson 1 and Samuel Collins 2 cultivated the same department with diligence and success. Grew has left an interesting account of the anatomical peculiarities of the intestinal canal in various animals; Tyson, in the dissection of a porpoise, an opossum and an orang outang, adduces some valuable illustrations of the comparative differences between the structure of the human body and that of the lower animals; Collins has the merit of conceiving, and executing on an enlarged plan, a comprehensive system, embodying all the information then extant (1685). With the aid of Tyson and his own researches, which were both extensive and accurate, he composed a system of anatomical knowledge in which he not only gives ample and accurate descriptions of the structure of the human body, and the various morbid changes to which the organs are liable, but illustrates the whole by accurate and interesting sketches of the peculiarities of the lower animals. The matter of this work is so excellent that it can only be ascribed to ignorance that it has received so little attention. Though regarded as a compilation, and though indeed much of the human anatomy is derived from Vesalius, it has the advantage of the works pub- lished on the continent at that time, that it embodies most of the valuable facts derived from Malpighi, Willis and Vieussens. The Comparative Anatomy is almost all original, the result of personal research and dissection; and the pathological observations, though occasionally tinged with the spirit of the times, show the author to have been endowed with the powers of observation and judicious reflexion in no ordinary degree. About this time also we recognize the first attempts to study the minute constitution of the tissues, by the combination of the microscope and the effects of chemical agents. Bone furnished the first instance in which this method was put in use; and though Gagliardi, who undertook the inquiry, had fallen into some mistakes which it required the observation of Malpighi to rectify, this did not deter Clopton Havers 3 and Nesbitt, 4 in England, and Courtial, H. L. Duhamel-Dumonceau and Delasone, and afterwards Herissant, in France, from resuming the same train of investigation. The mistakes into which these ana- tomists fell belong to the imperfect method of inquiry. The facts which they ascertained have been verified by recent experiment, and constitute no unessential part of our knowledge of the structure of bone. Ten years after the publication of the work of Collins, Ridley, 6 another English anatomist, distinguished himself by a monograph (1695) on the brain, which, though not free from errors, contains, nevertheless, some valuable observations. Ridley is the first 1 Tyson was a graduate both of Oxford and Cambridge. He was reader of anatomy at Surgeons' Hall, London. 2 Collins was an M. D. of Padua, Oxford and Cambridge. He was physician in ordinary to Charles II. 3 Havers was a London physician, and died in 1702. 4 Robert Nesbitt (d. 1761) studied at Leiden and practised as a physician in London. 'Humphrey Ridley (1653-1708) was a London physician who studied at Leiden. 934 ANATOMY [HISTORY who distinguishes by name the restiform processes, or the posterior pyramidal eminences. He recognized the figure of the four eminences in the human subject; he remarked the mam- millary bodies; and he discovered the sinus which passes under his name. Raymond Vieussens, by the publication of his great work on neurography in 1684, threw new light on the configuration and Vieussens structure of the brain, the spinal cord and the nerves; and gave a description of the arrangement and dis- tribution of the latter more precise than heretofore. Of the formation and connexions of the sympathetic nerve especially he gave views which have been generally adopted by subsequent anatomists. His new arrangement of the vessels, published in 1705, contains several curious opinions. His observations on the structure of the heart, published in 1706, and enlarged in 171 5, exhibit the first correct views of the intimate structure of an organ which afterwards was most fully developed by the labours of G. M. Lancisi and J. B. Senac. To the same period (1685-1697) belong the rival publications of G. Bidloo 1 and William Cowper, the latter of whom, however, stained a reputation otherwise good by publishing as his own the engravings of the former. Cowper further distinguished himself by a minute account of the urethral glands, already known to Columbus and Mery; by a good description of the intestinal glands, discovered by Brunner and Peyer; and by demon- strating the communication of the arteries and veins of the mesentery. The anatomical genius of Italy, which had slumbered since the death of Malpighi, was destined once more to revive in Lancisi, A. M. Valsalva, and his illustrious pupils G. D. Santorini and J. B. Morgagni. Valsalva especially distinguished himself by his description of the structure of the ear, which, in possessing still greater precision and minuteness than that of Duverney, is valuable in setting the example of rendering anatomy altogether Saatorlni. a sc ' ence of description. Santorini, who was professor at Venice, was no unworthy friend of Valsalva and Morgagni. His anatomical observations, which relate to the muscles of the face, the brain and several of the nerves, the ducts of the lachrymal gland, the nose and its cavities, the larynx, the viscera of the chest and belly, and the organs of generation in the two sexes, furnish beautiful models of essays, distinguished for perspicuity, precision and novelty, above anything which had then appeared. These observations, indeed, which bear the impress of accurate observation and clear conception, may be safely compared with any anatomical writings which have appeared since. Those on the brain are particularly interesting. Morvagai. Morgagni, though chiefly known as a pathological anatomist, did not neglect the healthy structure. His Adversaria, which appeared between 1706 and 1719, and his Epistles, published in 1728, contain a series of observations to rectify the mistakes of previous anatomists, and to determine the characters of the healthy structure of many parts of the human body. Many parts he describes anew, and indicates facts not previously observed. All his remarks show how well he knew what true anatomical description ought to be. In this respect, indeed, the three anatomists now mentioned may be said to have anticipated their contemporaries nearly a century; for, while other authors were satisfied with giving loose and inaccurate or meagre notices of parts, with much fanciful supposition, Valsalva, Santorini and Morgagni laboured to determine with precision the anatomical characters of the parts which they describe. The same character is due to J. B. Winslow (1669-1760), a native of Denmark, but, as pupil and successor of Duverney, as winslow. we ^ as a convert t° Catholicism, naturalized in France, and finally professor of anatomy at the Royal Gardens. His exposition of the structure of the human body is distinguished for being not only the first treatise of descriptive anatomy, divested of physiological details and hypothetical explanations foreign to the subject, but for being a close description derived from actual objects, without reference to the writings of previous 'Bidloo was a Dutch anatomist and Cowper a London surgeon. anatomists. About the same time W. Cheselden in London, the first Alexander Monro in Edinburgh, and B. S. Albinus in Leiden, contributed by their several treatises to render anatomy still more precise as a descriptive science. The Osteograpkia of the first-mentioned was of much use in directing attention to the study of the skeleton and the morbid changes to which it is liable. This work, however, magnificent as it was, was excelled by that of Albinus, who in 1747 published engravings, executed Albinus. by Jan Wandelaar (1691-1759), of the bones and muscles, which had never been surpassed in accuracy of outline or beauty of execution. The several labours of Albinus, indeed, constitute an important era in the history of the science. He was the first who classified and exhibited the muscles in a proper arrangement, and applied to them a nomenclature which is still retained by the consent of the best anatomists. He gives a luminous account of the arteries and veins of the intestines, represents with singular fidelity and beauty the bones of the foetus, inquires into the structure of the skin and the cause of its colour in different races; represents the changes incident to the womb in different periods of pregnancy, and describes the relations of the thoracic duct and the vena azygos with the contiguous parts. Besides these large and magnificent works, illustrated by the most beautiful engravings, six books of Academical Annotations were the fruits of his long and assiduous cultivation of anatomy. These contain valuable remarks on the second structure and morbid deviations of numerous parts of the human body. Albinus found a worthy successor in his pupil Albert von Haller (1708-1777), who, with a mind imbued with every depart- ment of literature and science, directed his chief atten- Hatter tion, nevertheless, to the cultivation of anatomical and physiological knowledge. Having undertaken at an early age (twenty-one) to illustrate, with commentaries, the physiological prelections of his preceptor H. Boerhaave, he devoted himself assiduously to the perusal of every work which could tend to facilitate his purpose; and, as he found numerous erroneous or imperfect statements, and many deficiencies to supply, he under- took an extensive course of dissection of human and animal bodies to obtain the requisite information. During the seventeen years he was professor at Gottingen, he dissected 400 bodies, and inspected their organs with the utmost care. The result of these assiduous labours appeared at intervals in the form of dissertations by himself, or under the name of some one of his pupils, finally published in a collected shape between 1746 and 1751 (Disputationes Anatomicae Selectiores), andin eight numbers of most accurate and beautiful engravings, representing the most important parts of the human body, e.g. the diaphragm, the uterus, ovaries and vagina, the arteries of the different regions and organs, with learned and critical explanatory observations. He verified the observations that in the foetus the testicles lie in the abdomen, and showed that their descent into the scrotum may be complicated with the formation of congenital hernia. Some years after, when he had retired from his academical duties at Gottingen, he published between 1757 and 1765 the large and elaborate work which, with singular modesty, he styled Elements of Physiology. This work, though professedly devoted to physio- logy, rendered, nevertheless, the most essentially services to anatomy. Haller, drawing an accurate line of distinction between the two, gave the most clear, precise and complete descriptions of the situation, position, figure, component parts and minute structure of the different organs and their appendages> The results of previous and coeval inquiry, obtained by extensive reading, he sedulously verified by personal observation; and though he never rejected facts stated on credible authorities, he in all cases laboured to ascertain their real value by experiment. The anatomical descriptions are on this account not only the most valuable part of his work, but the most valuable that had then or for a long time after appeared. It is painful, nevertheless, to think that the very form in which this work is composed, with copious and scrupulous reference to authorities, made it be regarded as a compilation only; and that the author was compelled to show, bv a list of his personal researches, HISTORY] ANATOMY 935 that the most learned work ever given to the physiologist was also the most abundant in original information. With the researches of Haller it is proper to notice those of his contemporaries, Jehn Frederick Meckel, J. N. Lieberkiihn, and his pupil John Godfrey Zinn. The first, who was professor of anatomy at Berlin, described the Casserian ganglion, the first pair of nerves and its distribution and that of the facial nerves generally, and discovered the spheno-palatine ganglion (1748- 1 7 5 1 ) . He made some original and judicious observations on the tissue of the skin and the mucous net (1753-1757); and above all, he recognized the connexion of the lymphatic vessels with the veins — a doctrine which, after long neglect, was revived by Vincent Fohmann (1794-1837) and Lippi. He also collected several valuable observations on the morbid states of the heart and brain. Lieberkiihn published in 1745 a dissertation on the villi and glands of the small intestines. Zinn, who was professor of medicine at Gottingen, published a classical treatise on the eye (1755), which demonstrated at once the defects of previous inquiries, and how much it was possible to elucidate, by accurate research and precise description, the structure of one of the most important organs of the human frame. It was republished after his death by H. A. Wrisberg (1780). About the same time J. Weitbrecht gave a copious and minute account of the ligaments, and J. Lieutaud (1703-1780), who had already laboured to rectify many errors in anatomy, described with care the structure and relations of the heart and its cavities, and rendered the anatomy of the bladder very precise, by describing the triangular space and the mammillary eminence at its neck. The study of the minute anatomy of the tissues, which had originally been commenced by Leeuwenhoek, Malpighi and Ruysch, began at this period to attract more general attention. Karl August von Bergen had already demonstrated (1732) the general distribution of cellular membrane, and showed that it not only incloses every part of the animal frame, but forms the basis of every organ — a doctrine which was adopted and still more fully expanded (1757) by his friend Haller, in opposition to what was asserted by Albinus, who maintains that each part has a proper tissue. William Hunter at the same time gave a clear and W Hunter i n S emous statement of the difference between cellular membrane and adipose tissue (1757), in which he maintained the general distribution of the former, and represented it as forming the serous membranes, and regulating their physio- logical and pathological properties — doctrines which were after- wards confirmed by his brother John Hunter. A few years after, the department of general anatomy first assumed a substantial form in the systematic view of the membranes and their mutual connexions traced by Andrew Bonn of Amsterdam. In his inaugural dissertation De Continuationibus Membra- narum, published at Leiden in 1763, this author, after some preliminary observations on membranes in general and their structure, and an exposition of that of the skin, traces its transition into the mucous membranes and their several divisions. He then explains the distribution of the cellular membrane, the aponeurotic expansions, and the periosteum and perichon- drium, by either of which, he shows, every bone of the skeleton is invested and connected. He finally gives a very distinct view of the arrangement of the internal membranes of cavities, those named serous and fibro-serous, and the manner of their dis- tribution over the contained organs. This essay, which is a happy example of generalization, is remarkable for the interesting general views of the structure of the animal body which it exhibits; and to Bonn belongs the merit of sketching the first outlines of that system which it was reserved for the genius of M. F. X. Bichat to complete and embellish. Lastly, T. de Bordeu, in an elaborate essay (1767) on the mucous tissue, or cellular organ, as he terms it, brought forward some interesting views of the constitution, 'nature and extent of the cellular membrane. Though anatomy was hitherto cultivated with much success as illustrating the natural history and morbid states of the human body, yet little had been done for the elucidation of local diseases, and the surgical means by which they may be successfully treated. The idea of applying anatomical knowledge directly to this A. Boon. purpose appears to have originated with Bernardin Genga, a Roman surgeon, who published in 1672, at Rome, a work entitled Surgical Anatomy, or the Anatomical History of the Bones and Muscles of the Human Body, with the Description of the Blood- vessels. This work, which reached a second edition in 1687, is highly creditable to the author, who appears to have studied intimately the mutual relations of different parts. It is not im- probable that the example of Genga led J. Palfyn, a surgeon at Ghent, to undertake a similar task about thirty years after (1718- 1726). For this, however, he was by no means well qualified; and the work of Palfyn, though bearing the name of Surgical Anatomy, is a miserable compilation, meagre in details, inaccurate in description, and altogether unworthy of the honour of being republished, as it afterwards was by Antony Petit. While these two authors, however, were usefully employed in showing what was wanted for the surgeon, others were occupied in the collection of new and more accurate facts. Albinus, indeed, ever assiduous, had, in his account of the operations of Rau, given some good sketches of the relative anatomy of the bladder and urethra ; and Cheselden had already, in his mode of cutting into the urinary bladder, shown the necessity of an exact knowledge of the relations of contiguous parts. The first decided application, however, of this species of anatomical research it was reserved for a Dutch anatomist of the 18th century to make. Peter Camper, professor of anatomy at Amsterdam, published in 1 760 and 1762 his anatomico- camper. pathological demonstrations of the'parts of the human arm and pelvis, of the diseases incident to them, and the mode of relieving them by operation, and explained with great clearness the situation of the blood-vessels, nerves and important muscles. His remarks on the lateral operation of lithotomy, which contain all that was then known on the subject, are exceedingly interest- ing and valuable to the surgeon. It appears, further, that he was the first who examined anatomically the mechanism of ruptures, his delineations of which were published in 1801 by S. T. Sommerring. Camper also wrote some important memoirs on Comparative Anatomy, and he was the author of a well-known work on the Relations of Anatomy to the Fine Arts. The attention of anatomists was now directed to the elucidation of the most obscure and least explored parts of the human frame — the lymphatic vessels and the nerves. Although, since the first discovery of the former by Aselli, Rudbeck and Pecquet, much had been done, especially by Ruysch, Nuck, Meckel and Haller, many points, notwithstanding, relating to their origin and distribution in particular organs, and in the several classes of animals, were imperfectly ascertained or entirely unknown. William Hunter investigated their arrangement, and proposed the doctrine that they are absorbents; u unten and John Hunter, who undertook to demonstrate the truth of this hypothesis by experiment, discovered, in 1758, lymphatics in the neck in birds. As the doctrine re- quired the existence of this order of vessels, not only in quad- rupeds and birds but in reptiles and fishes, the inquiry attracted attention among the pupils of Hunter; and William Hewson 1 at length communicated, in December 1768, to the Hewson. Royal Society of London an account of the lac teals and lymphatics in birds, fishes and reptiles, as he had discovered and demonstrated them. The subject was about the same time investigated by the second Alexander Monro, who indeed claimed the merit of discovering these vessels in the classes of animals now mentioned. But whatever researches this anatomist may have instituted, Hewson, by communicating his observations to the Royal Society, must be allowed to possess the strongest as well as the clearest claim to discovery. The same author, in 1774, gave the first complete account of the anatomical peculiarities of the lymphatic system in man and other animals, and thereby supplied an important gap in this department. Hewson is the first who distinguishes the lymphatics into two orders — the superficial and the deep — both in the extremities and in the internal organs. He also studied the structure of the 1 Hewson was a partner with William Hunter in the Windmili Street School of Anatomy. 93 6 ANATOMY [HISTORY Cruik' shaak. intestinal villi, in which he verified the observations of Lieberkiihn; and he made many important observations on the corpuscles of the lymph and blood. He finally applied his anatomical discoveries to explain many of the physiological and pathological phenomena of the animal body. Ten years after, John Sheldon, another pupil of Hunter, gave a second history and description of the lymphatics, which, though divested of the charm of novelty, contains many interesting anatomical facts. He also examined the structure of the villi. Lastly, Cruikshank; 1 in 1786, published a valuable history of the anatomy of the lymphatic system, in which he maintains the accuracy of the Hunterian doctrine, that the lymphatics are the only absorbents; gave a more minute account than heretofore of these vessels, of their coats and valves; and explained the structure of the lymphatic glands. He also injected the villi, and examined them microscopically, verifying most of the observations of Lieberkiihn. The origin of the lymphatics he maintains rather by inference than direct demonstration. To these three works, though in other respects very excellent, it is a considerable objection that the anatomical descriptions are much mixed with hypothetical speculation and reasonings on properties, and that the facts are by no means always distinguished from mere matters of opinion. At the same time J. G. Haase published an account of the lymphatics of the skin and intestines, and the plexiform nets of the pelvis. To complete this sketch o'f the history of the anatomy of the lymphatic system, it may be added that Paolo Mascagni, Mascasni wn0 ^ a< ^ been engaged from the year 1777 to 1781 in the same train of investigation, first demonstrated to his pupils several curious facts relating to the anatomy of the lymphatic system. When at Florence in 1782 he made several preparations, at the request of Peter Leopold, grand duke of Tuscany; and when the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris announced the anatomy of this system for their prize essay appointed for March 1784, Mascagni resolved on communicating to the public the results of his researches — the first part of his commentary, with four engravings. Anxiety, however, to complete his preparations detained him at Florence till the close of 1785; and from these causes his work did not appear till 1787. These delays, however, unfavourable as they were to his claims of priority to Sheldon and Cruikshank, were on the whole advantageous to the perfection of his work, which is not only the most magnificent, but also the most complete that ever was published on the lymphatics. In his account of the vessels and their valves he confirms some of Hewson's observations and rectifies others. Their origin he proves by inference much in the same manner as Cruikshank; but he anticipates this author in the account of the glands, and he gives the most minute description of the superficial and deep lymphatics, both in the members and in the internal organs. General accounts of the nerves had been given with various degrees of accuracy by Willis, Vieussens, Winslow, and the first Monro; and the subject had been much rectified and improved by the indefatigable Haller. The first example of minute de- scriptive neurography was given in 1748 by John Frederick Meckel, whose account of the fifth pair and of the nerves of the face will long remain a lasting proof of accuracy and research. The same subject was investigated in 1765 by Hirsch and in 1777 by Wrisberg. In 1766 Metzger examined the origin, distribution and termination of the first pair — a point which was afterwards very minutely treated by A. Scarpa 2 in his anatomical disquisitions, published in 1780; and the internal nerves of the nostrils were examined in 1791 by Haase. The optic nerve, which had been studied originally by Varoli, and afterwards by Mery, Duverney, J. F. Henkel, Moeller, Hein and Kaldschmid, was examined with extreme accuracy, with the other nerves of the organ of vision, by Zinn in his elaborate 1 W. Cruikshank followed W. Hunter as lecturer at the Windmill Street school. * Scarpa was professor of anatomy at Modena and Pavia. 19th century. treatise. The phrenic nerves and the oesophageal branches of the vagus were studied by Haase ; the phrenic, the abdominal and the pharyngeal nerves, by Wrisberg; those of the heart most minutely by Andersch; and the origins, formation and distribution of the intercostal nerves, by Iwanov, C. G. Ludwig, and Girardi. The labours of these anatomists, however, were eclipsed by the splendid works of Walter (1783) on the nerves of the chest and belly ; and those of Scarpa (1794) on the distribu- tion of the eighth pair and splanchnic nerves in general. In minuteness of description and in beauty of engraving these works have not yet been equalled, and will never perhaps be surpassed. About the same time, Scarpa, so distinguished in every branch of anatomical research, investigated the minute structure of the ganglions and plexuses. The anatomy of the brain itself was also studied (1780) with great attention by the second Monro, M. V. G. Malacarne and Vicq d'Azyr. Lastly, the anatomy of the gravid uterus, which had been originally studied by Albinus, Roederer and Smellie, was again illustrated (1774) most completely by William Hunter, whose engravings will remain a lasting memorial of scientific zeal and artistic talent. The perfection which anatomical science attained in the last ten years of the 18th and during the 19th century is evinced not only in the improved character of the systems published by anatomists, but in the enormous advance which has taken place in the knowledge of the minute structure of the animal tissues, of the development of the tissues and organs, and of the modifications in form and structure exhibited by various groups of animals. The first who gave a good modern system was R. B. Saba tier; but his work was speedily eclipsed by the superior merits of the treatises of Sommerring, Bichat and Portal. The excellent work by Samuel Thomas Sommerring, originally published in the German language, between the years 1791 and „ 1 796 ; then in the Latin language, between the years riAg; 1794 and 1800; and in a second edition in the German language in 1800 and 1801, maintaining the high character which it first possessed for clear arrangement, accurate descrip- tion and general precision, was, between the years 1841 and 1844. republished in eight volumes at Leipzig by Th. L. W. Bischoff, F. G. J. Henle, E. H. Huschke, Theile, G. G. Valentin, Vogel, and R. Wagner, with suitable additions, and a large amount of new and accurate information. In this edition Rudolph Wagner gives, in the first division of the first volume, the life, correspondence and literary writings of Sommerring; and in the second volume the anatomy of the bones and ligaments. The third volume contains the anatomy of the muscles and the vascular system by Theile. G. G. Valentin devotes one volume, the fourth, to the minute anatomy of the nervous system and its parts, as disclosed by careful examination by the microscope; and it must be allowed that the author has been at great pains to present just views of the true anatomy of the brain, the spinal cord, the nervous branches and the ganglia. In the fifth volume, E. H. Huschke of Jena gives the anatomical history of the viscera and the organs of the senses, a department which had been left in some degree incomplete in the original, but for one division of which the author had left useful materials in his large figures already mentioned. In the sixth volume, an entire and complete system of general anatomy, deduced from personal observation and that of other careful observers, the materials being in general new, and in all instances confirmed and rectified is given by F. G. J. Henle. The seventh volume contains the history of the process of development in mammalia and man, by Th. L. W. Bischoff. The eighth volume treats of the patho- logical anatomy of the human body, by Julius Vogel, but contains only the first division, relating to the generalities of the subject. This, which is probably the most accurate as it is the most elaborate system of anatomical knowledge up to the date of its publication in 1844, was translated into the French language by Jourdan, and published in 1846 under the name of Encyclopidie anatomique. The eighth volume was translated into English in the year 1847. MODERN HUMAN] ANATOMY 937 Blehat. The Anatomie genirale of M. F. X. Bichat is a monument of his philosophical genius which will last as long as the structure and functions of the human body are objects of interest. His Anatomie descriptive is distinguished by clear and natural arrangement, precise and accurate description, and the general ingenuity with which the subject is treated. The physiological observations are in general correct, often novel, and always highly interesting. It is unfortunate, however, that the ingenious author was cut off prematurely during the preparation of the third volume. The later volumes are, however, pervaded with the general spirit by which the others are im- pressed, and are highly creditable to the learning, the judgment and the diligence of P. J. Roux and M. F. R. Buisson. The system of A. Portal is a valuable and correct digest of anatomical and French pathological knowledge, which, in exact literary systematic information, is worthy of the author of the Histoire aaato- £ e l' anatomie et de la chirurgie, and, in accuracy of descriptive details, shows that Portal trusted not to the labours of his predecessors only. A. Boyer published in 1803 a complete treatise on descriptive anatomy. H. Cloquet formed, on the model of the Anatomie descriptive of Bichat, a system in which he avails himself of the literature and precision of Sommerring and the details of Portal. An English translation of this work was prepared by Dr Robert Knox. Jean Cruveilhier published in 1834- 183 5 a good general treatise on descriptive anatomy, which was translated into English, and published as a part of The Library of Medicine. Cruveilhier's treatise has passed through several editions. The most elaborate work of the French school is the great treatise of M. J. Bourgery, consisting of four divisions, on descriptive, general, surgical and philosophical anatomy (1832-1854). These are beautifully illustrated. Modern Human Anatomy (Anthropotomy) The history of modern human anatomy in Great Britain begins with the time at which the dissection of the human body became part of the training of students of medicine, and this is one of the greatest debts, though by no means the best recognized, of the many which medical science owes to that remarkable man William Hunter. Before his time the anatomy professors of the most celebrated schools both at home and abroad used one or at most two subjects to illustrate their courses of lectures, and were in the habit of demonstrating the performance of surgical operations not on human bodies but on those of lower animals. Few students dissected the human body, because for such dissection they had no opportunities. The English law, since the time of Henry VIII., allowed only the bodies of persons executed for murder to be dissected, and the supply seems to have been sufficient for the humble needs of the time. The reformation of this antiquated and imperfect system took place in 1747, when Hunter established complete courses of anatomical lectures and opened a school for dissection. The practice of dissection grew so rapidly that by about 1793 there were 200 regular anatomy students in London, while in 1823 their number was computed at about 1000. Of course the supply of murderers was not enough for all these students, and the very fact that only murderers were allowed for this purpose made people bitterly hostile to the bodies of their relations and friends being dissected. In accounting for the great aversion which there has always been from dissection in England, it should be remembered that, although capital punishment was the penalty for very many offences at the beginning of the 19th century, only the bodies of murderers were handed over to the anatomists. When once the absolute necessity of a surgeon's having a good knowledge of anatomy was realized, bodies had to be procured at any hazard, and the chief method was to dig them up as soon as possible after their burial. This practice of exhumation or " body-snatching " on a large scale seems to have been peculiar to Great Britain and America, and not to have been needed on the continent of Europe. In France, Italy, Portugal and Austria no popular objection was raised to the bodies of friendless people, who died in hospitals, or of those whose burial was paid for by the state, being dissected, provided a proper religious service was held over them. In Germany it was obligatory that the bodies of all people unable to pay for their burials, all dying in prisons, all suicides and public women should be given up. In all these countries the supply was most ample, exhumation was unknown, and the cost of learning anatomy to the students was very moderate. In Great Britain the earlier exhumations seem to have caused very little popular concern; Hunter, it is said, could manage to get the body of any person he wanted, were it that of giant, dwarf, hunchback or lord, but later, when the number of students increased very rapidly, the trade of " resurrection man " became commoner, and attracted the lowest dregs of the vicious classes. It is computed that in 1828 about 200 people were engaged in it in London alone, though only a few gained their entire livelihood by it. In the first half of the 18th century, and for some time afterwards, the few dissections which were undertaken were carried out in the private houses of medical men. In 1702 a rule was passed at St Thomas's Hospital preventing the surgeons or pupils from dissecting bodies there without the express permission of the treasurer, but by 1780 this rule seems to have lapsed, and a definite dissecting-room was established, an example which" was soon followed by Guy's and St Bartholomew's. In the early years of the 19th century the number of students increased so rapidly that a good many private anatomy schools grew up, and in 1828 we find that the total list of London dis- secting rooms comprised those of Guy's, London, St Bartholo- mew's and St Thomas's hospitals, the Webb Street school of Mr Grainger, the Aldersgate school of Mr Tyrrell, the Windmill Street school where Caesar Hawkins and Herbert Mayo lectured, and the schools of Messrs. Bennett, Carpue, Dermott and Sleigh. These schools needed and, it seems, obtained nearly 800 bodies a year in the years about 1823, when there were nearly 1000 students in London, and it is recorded that bodies were even sent to Edinburgh and Oxford. When it is realized that the greater number of these were ex- humed, it is easy to understand how hostile the public feeling became to the body-snatchers or " resurrection men," and also in a modified form to the teachers of anatomy and medical students. This was increased by the fact that it soon, became well known that many of the so-called resurrection men only used their calling as a cloak for robbery, because, if they were stopped with a horse and cart by the watch at night, the presence of a body on the top of stolen goods was sufficient to avert suspicion and search. It is in many places suggested, though not definitely stated, that the Home Office authorities under- stood how absolutely necessary it was that medical students should learn the details of the human body, on which they would be called to operate, and that the police had instructions not to interfere more than was necessary with the only method by which that education could be supplied, however unlawful it might be. So emboldened and careless did these body-snatchers become, and so great was the demand for bodies, that they no longer confined themselves to pauper graves, but took the remains of the wealthier classes, who were in a position to resent it more effectually; often they did not even take the trouble to fill in the graves after rifling their contents, and, in con- sequence, many sextons, who no doubt had been bribed, lost their posts, and men armed with firearms watched the London burial-places at night. The result of this was that the " resurrec- tion men " had to go farther afield, and their occupation was attended with considerable danger, so that the price of a body gradually rose from £2 to about £14, which seems the maximum ever paid. In addition to this heavy sum the anatomical teachers had to pay the fines of the exhumers when they were caught, or to support their families when they were imprisoned. By 1828 the annual supply of bodies had dropped to about 450, and about 200 English students were forced each year to go to Paris for their anatomical instruction. There they could get a body for about seven francs and could also be taught by English anatomists who settled in that city for the purpose. As early as about 1 810 an anatomical society was formed, to 938 ANATOMY {MODERN HUMAN impress on the government the necessity for an alteration in the law, and among the members we find the names of John Aber- nethy, Charles Bell, Everard Home, Benjamin Brodie, Astley Cooper and Henry Cline. It was owing to the exertions of this body that in 1828 a select committee was appointed by the government to report on the whole question, and to the minutes of evidence taken before this body the reader is referred for further details. The report of this committee led to the Anatomy Act of 1832, but there can be little doubt that its passage through the House was expedited by the recent discovery and arrest of the infamous William Burke and William Hare, who, owing to the extreme difficulty of procuring subjects for dissection in Edinburgh and the high price paid for them, had made a practice of enticing men to their lodgings and then drugging and suffocating them in order to sell their bodies to Dr Knox. Hare turned king's evidence but Burke was executed. (See MacGregor's History of Burke and Hare, 1884, Lonsdale's Life and Writings of Robert Knox, 1870. Many further details connected with the condition of anatomy, especially in Dublin, before the passing of the Anatomy Act, wili be found in Memoirs of James Macartney by Professor A. Macalister, F.R.S.) The bill to legalize and regulate the supply of subjects for dissection did not pass without considerable opposition. In 1829 the College of Surgeons petitioned against it, and it was withdrawn in the House of Lords owing to the opposition of the archbishop of Canterbury, but in 1832 a new Anatomy Bill was introduced, which, though violently opposed by Messrs Hunt, Sadler and Vy vyan, was supported by Macaulay and O'Connell, and finally passed the House of Lords on the 19th of July 1832. This is the act which governs the practice of anatomy in the British Isles up to the present day, and which has only been slightly modified as to the time during which bodies may be kept unburied in the schools. It provides that any one intend- ing to practise anatomy must obtain a licence from the home secretary. As a matter of fact only one or two teachers in each institution take out this licence and are known as licensed teachers, but they accept the whole responsibility for the proper treatment of all bodies dissected in the building for which their licence is granted. Watching over these licensed teachers, and receiving constant reports from them, are four inspectors of anatomy, one each for England, Scotland, Ireland and London, who report to the home secretary and know the whereabouts of every body which is being dissected. The main clause of the act is the seventh, which says that a person having lawful possession of a body may permit it to undergo anatomical examination provided no relative objects; the other clauses are subsidiary and detail the methods of carrying this into effect. In clause 16, however, the old act of Henry VIII. is repealed and the bodies of murderers are no longer to be given up for dissection after execution. There can be little doubt that this act has worked well and with a minimum of friction; it at once did away with body-snatching and crimes like those of Burke and Hare. No licensed teacher now could or would receive a body without a medical certificate and a warrant from the inspector of anatomy, and, when the bodies are buried, a proper religious service, according to the creed professed during fife, is provided. The great majority of bodies are those of unclaimed poor in the workhouse in- firmaries, but a few are obtained each year from the general hospitals. Occasionally a well-to-do person, following the example of Jeremy Bentham, leaves his body for the advance- ment of science, but even then, if his relatives object, it is not received. The ample supply of subjects obtained by legitimate means which the anatomy act provided was followed by the opening of anatomical schools at all the great London hospitals and the universities, with the result that anatomical research was stimulated and text-books embodying the latest discoveries were brought out. It is wonderful, however, how much descrip- tive anatomy was taught in the days before text-books were common and how much of what is essential to the study of surgery and medicine the students knew. In looking through an old book of anatomical questions and answers dated 181 2, one is struck by the fact that any one working through them with the body would probably pass an average modern anatomical examination to-day. The various phases which anatomy in the British Isles has passed through have also been experienced in America, though it is difficult to compare the two countries owing to the fact that each state in the Union makes its own laws as to dissection, and that these vary considerably. The first anatomy act worthy of the name was that of Massachusetts, and was passed in 183 1, one year before the British act. There is reason to believe, however^ that, in some states, all the evils of body-snatching existed up to the end of the 19th century. In some more enlightened states, such as Pennsylvania and Massachusetts, the modern acts are in advance of the British in that they are mandatory instead of permissive, and their compulsory nature is found rather to reduce than to increase public opposition to dissection. A study of the history of anatomy in the United States during the 19th century furnishes an instructive lesson on the futility: of attempting to suppress dissection by legislation and on the serious and some- times terrible crimes to which any such attempt naturally leads. It also teaches that, when unclaimed bodies must be given up and must be treated reverently and buried decently, there is less friction than when public boards have the right of arbitrarily refusing to allow their unclaimed dead to be used for the service of the living. In all the important countries of Europe, with the exception of Russia and Turkey, anatomy acts exist. They almost all differ from the British act in being mandatory instead of per- missive; in other words, certain unclaimed bodies must be given up to the schools of anatomy. As a rule these come from the general hospitals, but sometimes, as in Germany, Austria and Sweden, suicides are received and form a considerable part of the whole number. Even where executed criminals are available they nowadays form a negligible contribution, but the unclaimed bodies of people dying in prison are provided for in the French, Belgian, Norwegian, Swedish, German and Italian regulations, and in Paris they form an important element of the supply. In Russia several attempts to gain an anatomy act have been made, but have always been opposed by those in authority, and there is good reason to believe that bodies are procured by bribing hospital and mortuary attendants. It is said that the army contributes a large percentage of the total number. In Turkey no facilities for dissecting the dead body exist, as the practice is against the Mahbmmedan religion; the German pathologists in Turkey, however, insist on making post mortem examinations. In the British colonies anatomical regulations vary a good deal; some- times, as in New South Wales, the act is founded on that of Great Britain and is permissive, but in Victoria the minister may authorize the medical officer of any public institution supported wholly or in part by funds from the general revenue to permit unclaimed bodies to be dissected, provided the persons, during life had not expressed a wish against it. This act in its working is equivalent to a mandatory one, since the power of refusing bodies is not left in the hands of, in this respect, uneducated poor law guardians. In the early years of the 19th century Sir Charles Bell's work on human anatomy is by far the most important in the British Isles. He wrote the article on the nerves in his brother John Bell's work on the anatomy of the human body, as well as his own classical works on the anatomy of expression, the hand and the arteries; but his chief work was the discovery of the difference between motor and sensory nerves. Sir Astley Cooper brought out his beautifully illustrated monograph on hernia in 1807. Besides these, the Edinburgh school had contributed the system- atic treatises of Andrew Fyf e, John Bell, the third Monro and John Gordon. In 1828 appeared the first edition of Quain's Anatomy, written by Jones Quain. This monumental work, which is still among the very first of English, text-books, has run through ten editions, and is of even greater value to the teacher and researcher than to the medical student, because of its SUPERFICIAL AND ARTISTIC] ANATOMY 939 excellent bibliographies and the way in which it has been kept abreast of modern morphological knowledge by its various editors. Hardly any of the original work now remains. In 1858 another famous text-book on systematic anatomy appeared, written by Henry Gray, and this has always been particularly popular with students both in Great Britain and in America; it pays more attention to the surgical applications of anatomy than to the scientific and morphological side, and has reached its sixteenth edition. The Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology, edited by Dr Robert Todd from 1835 to 1859, which contained articles on both human and comparative anatomy, is now somewhat out of date, but did much for the advancement of the science when it appeared. In 1893 a text-book written by several authors and edited by Henry Morris appeared. It has run through three editions and is especially popular in America. The latest English system- atic work of first-rate importance is the splendid compilation edited by D. J. Cunningham (1902) and written, with one or two exceptions, by pupils of the veteran anatomist Sir William Turner. It is dedicated to him and will long serve as a memento of the work which he has done in training anatomists for the whole of the British empire. Besides these systematic treatises, many dissecting manuals have been published. The earliest were the Dublin Dissector and the London Dissector; others still in use are those of G. V. Ellis, C. Heath, D. J. Cunningham, and J. Cleland and J. Mackay. In 1889 Professor A. Macalister published a book on anatomy, which combined the advantages of a text-book with those of a dissecting guide. In America the English text-books are largely used in addition to that edited by F. H. Gerrish. There is a special American edition of Gray. Many systematic works on modern anatomy have come from Germany. J. F. Meckel, J. C. Rosenmuller, C. F. Krause, G. F. Hildebrandt, J. Hyrtl, H. Luschka and A. Meyer have all pub- lished works which have made their mark, but by far the most important, and, as some consider, still the best of all anatomical text-books, is that of F. G. J. Henle, professor of anatomy in Got- tingen, which was completed in 1873. The beautiful illustrations of frozen specimens of the body brought out by W. Braune added a great deal to the student's opportunities of learning the relations of the various structures, and are largely used all over the world. Rudinger's Anatomy also contains many plates showing various sections, but the most complete text-book in the German language is that by Prof. Karl von Bardeleben of Jena; this is in eight volumes and contains notices of the latest literature on de- scriptive and morphological anatomy by the most prominent German anatomists. In addition to these W. Spalteholz and C. Toldt have brought out valuable atlases. In France J. Testut's and Poirier's anatomies, both of great excellence and beautifully illustrated, are the ones in common use. There are two epoch-making dates in the history of modern English anatomy besides that of the passing of the Anatomy Act in 1832. The first of these is 1867, when the first volume of the Journal of Anatomy and Physiology appeared. This afforded a medium for English anatomists to publish their original work, besides containing valuable reviews and notices of books and work published abroad; it has appeared quarterly without a break since that time, and was long under the immediate direction of Sir William Turner. The second date is 1887, when the Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland was founded through the exertions of Mr C. B. Lockwood. It meets three times a year in London and once, in the summer, at some provincial school. It numbers some one hundred and fifty members, and enables anatomists from the whole British empire to meet one another and discuss subjects of common interest. Its first president was Prof. Murray Humphry of Cambridge, and its official organ is the Journal of Anatomy and Physiology. No account of modern anatomical work would be complete without drawing attention to the great mass of special periodical literature containing the records of original work which are being published. It is said that some three or four thousand articles on anatomy appear in six hundred journals each year. To mention a few of these, in addition to the British Journal of Anatomy and Physiology there is an American Journal of Anatomy, the French Bulletin et mimoires de la societe anatomique, and La journal de I'anatotnie et de la physiologie, and the German Inter- nationale Monatschrift fur Anatomie und Physiologie, Anatom- ischer Anzeiger, Waldeyer's Archiv fiir Anatomie und Physiologie, Schwalbe's Zeitschrift fiir Morphologie und Anlhropologie, Gegenbaur's Morphologisches Jahrbuch, edited by Ruge, and Merkel's Analomische Hefte. Unfortunately the outlook of anatomy in Great Britain is not altogether satisfactory. The number of subjects for dissection has since 1895 been steadily diminishing, especially in London. This is due partly to the modern system of insuring lives for small sums and so decreasing the number of unclaimed bodies, and partly to the fact that, owing to the permissive nature of the British Anatomy Act, several boards of guardians will not allow even Unclaimed bodies to be used for dissection and for the teaching of operative surgery. It is not popularly understood that a dearth of bodies means not only a check to abstract science, but a serious handicap to medical education, which must react more upon the poor than upon the rich, since the latter can afford to pay for the services of medical men educated abroad, where no difficulties are placed in the way of their learning fully the structure of the body they have to treat in disease. (F. G. P.) Anatomy — Superficial and Artistic The objects of the study of superficial anatomy are to show, first, the form and proportions of the human body and, second, the surface landmarks which correspond to deeper structures hidden from view. This study blends imperceptibly with others, such as physical anthropology, physiognomy, phrenology and palmistry, but whereas these deal chiefly with variations, superficial anatomy is concerned with the type. With regard to the proportions of the body the artist and anatomist approach the subject from a slightly different point of view. The former, by a process of artistic selection, seeks the ideal and adopts the proportions which give the most pleasing effect, while the latter desires to know only the mean of a large series of measurements. The scheme which Dr Paul Richer suggests(Anatomie artistique, Paris, 1890), and Professor Arthur Thomsonapproves(y4wato»jy for Art Students, 1896), is to divide the whole body into head-lengths, of which seven and a half make up the stature. Four of these are above the fork and three and a half below (see figs. 1 and 2). Of the four above, one forms the head and face, the second reaches from the chin to the level of the nipples, the third from the nipples to the navel, and the fourth from there to the fork. By dividing these into half-heads other points can be determined; for instance the middle of the first head-length corresponds to the eyes, the middle of the second to the shoulder, of the fourth to the top of the hip-joint, and of the fifth to the knee-joint. The elbow-joint, when the arms are by the side, is a little above the lower limit of the third head-length, whilst the wrist is opposite the very centre of the stature, three head-lengths and three-quarters from the crown or the soles. The tips of the fingers reach a little below the middle of the fifth head-length. (In fig. 1 the fingers are bent.) By making the stature eight head-lengths instead of seven and a half the artistic effect is increased, as it is also by slightly lengthening the legs in proportion to the body. Approximate average breadth measurements are two heads for the greatest width of the shoulders, one and a half for the greatest width of the hips, one for the narrowest part of the waist, and three-quarters for the breadth of the head on a level with the eyes. The relation of superficial landmarks to deep structures cannot be treated here in full detail, but the chief points may be indicated. Certain parts of the head may easily be felt through the skin. If the finger is run along the upper margin of the orbit, the notch for the supraorbital nerve may usually be felt at the junction of the inner and middle thirds. At the outer end of 94-0 ANATOMY [SUPERFICIAL AND ARTISTIC the margin is its junction with the malar bone, and this easily felt point is known as the external angular process. The junction of the frontal and nasal bones at the root of the nose is the nasion, while at the back of the skull the external occipital protuberance or inion is felt and marks the position of the torcular Herophili, where the venous sinuses meet. The zygoma may be felt running back from the malar bone to just in front of the ear, and two fingers' breadth above 'the middle of it marks the pterion, a very important point in the localization of intracranial structures. It corresponds to the anterior branch of the middle meningeal artery, to the Sylvian point where the three limbs of the fissure of Sylvius diverge, to the middle cerebral artery, the central lobe of the brain or island of Reil, and the anterior part of the corpus striatum. The fissure of Sylvius can be marked out by drawing a line from the external angular process back through the Sylvian point to the lower part of the parietal eminence. Fig. i. a, Serratus magnus. /3, Deltoid. •y, Biceps. 5, Poupart's ligament. t, Patella. T.P. Transpyloric plane. S.C. Subcostal plane. I.T. Intertubercular plane. P, Fig. 2. Dimple over posterior superior spine of ilium. Lower angle of scapula. External head of triceps. Depression over great tro- chanter. Popliteal space. Gastrocnemius. The scale between the figures represents head-lengths. The position of the sulcus of Rolando is important because of the numerous cortical centres which lie close to it. For practical purposes it may be mapped out by taking the superior Rolandic point, f in. behind the bisection of a line drawn from the nasion to the inion over the vault of the skull, and joining that to the inferior Rolandic point, which is just above the line of the fissure of Sylvius and i in. behind the Sylvian point. The external parieto-occipital fissure, which forms the boundary between the parietal and occipital lobes of the brain, is situated practically at the lambda, which is a hand's breadth (2! in.) above the inion. The lateral sinus can be mapped out by joining the inion to the asterion, a point two-thirds of the distance from the lambda to the tip of the mastoid process; thence the sinus curves down- ward and forward toward the tip of the mastoid process. A point i in. horizontally backward from the top of the external auditory meatus will always strike it. Cranio-cerebral topography has been dealt with by Broca, Bischoff , Turner, Fere, Pozzi, Giacomini, Ecker, Hefftler and Hare. Among the more recent papers are those of R. W. Reid (Lancet, 27th Sep- tember 1884), W. Anderson and G. Makins (Lancet, 13th July 1889), Prof. Chiene (detailed in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy), V. Horsley (Am. Journal Med. Sci., 1887), G. Thane and R. Godlee (Quain's Anatomy— appendix to loth edition). D. J. Cunningham discusses the whole question in his " Contribution to the Surface Anatomy of the Cerebral Hemispheres " (Cunningham Memoirs, No. vii. R. Irish Academy, Dublin, 1892), and he has prepared a series of casts to illustrate it. The Face. — On the front of the face a line drawn down from the supraorbital notch between the bicuspid teeth to the side of the chin will cut the exit of the second division of the fifth nerve from the infraorbital foramen, a quarter of an inch below the infraorbital margin, and also the exit of the third division of the fifth at the mental foramen, midway between the upper and lower margins of the body of the jaw. In practice it will be found that the angle of the mouth at rest usually corresponds to the interval between the bicuspid teeth. The skin of the eyelids is very thin, and is separated from the subjacent fibrous tarsal plates by the orbicularis palpebrarum muscle. On everting the lids the delicate conjunctival membrane is seen, and between this and the tarsal plates lie the meibomian glands, which can be faintly seen as yellowish streaks. From the free edges of the eyelids come the eyelashes, between which many large sweat- glands open, and when one of these is inflamed it causes a " stye." Internally the two eyelids form a little recess called the internal canthus, occupied by a small red eminence, the caruncula lachrymalis, just external to which a small vertical fold of conjunctiva may often be seen, called the plica semilunaris, representing the third eyelid of birds and many mammals. By gently drawing down the lower eyelid the lower punctum may be seen close to the caruncula; it is the pinhole opening into the lower of the two canaliculi which carry away the tears to the lachrymal sac and duct. On the side of the face the facial artery may be felt pulsating about an inch in front of the angle of the jaw; it runs a tortuous course to near the angle of the mouth, the angle of the nose and the inner angle of the eye; in the greater part of its course its vein lies some distance behind it. The parotid gland lies between the ramus of the jaw and the mastoid process; anteriorly it overlaps the masseter to form the socia parotidis, and just below this its duct, the duct of Stensen, runs forward to pierce the buccinator and open into the mouth opposite the second upper molar tooth. The line of this duct may be marked out by joining the lower margin of the tragus to a point midway between the lower limit of the nose and the mouth. The facial or seventh nerve emerges from the skull at the stylo- mastoid foramen just in front of the root of the mastoid process; in the parotid gland it forms a network called the pes anserinus, after which it divides into six branches which radiate over the face to supply the muscles of expression. The Neck. — In the middle line below the chin can be felt the body of the hyoid bone, just below which is the prominence of the thyroid cartilage called " Adam's apple," better marked in men than in women. Still lower the cricoid cartilage is easily felt, while between this and the suprasternal notch the trachea and isthmus of the thyroid gland may be made out. At the side the outline of the sterno-mastoid muscle is the most striking mark; it divides the anterior triangle of the neck from the posterior. The upper part of the former contains the submaxillary gland, which lies just below the posterior half of the body of the jaw. The line of the common and the external carotid arteries may be marked by joining the sterno-clavicular articulation to the angle of the jaw. The eleventh or spinal accessory nerve corresponds to a line drawn from a point midway between the angle of the jaw and the mastoid process to the middle of the posterior border of the sterno-mastoid muscle and thence across the posterior triangle to the deep surface of the trapezius. The external jugular vein can usually be seen through the skin; it runs in a line drawn from the angle of the jaw to the middle of the clavicle, and close to it are some small lymphatic glands. The anterior jugular vein is smaller, and runs down about half an inch from the middle line of the neck. The clavicle or collar-bone forms the lower limit of the neck, and laterally the outward slope of the neck to the shoulder is caused by the trapezius muscle. The Chest. — It is important to realize thai the snape of the SUPERFICIAL AND ARTISTIC] ANATOMY 941 chest does not correspond to that of the bony thorax which encloses the heart and lungs; all the breadth of the shoulders is due to the shoulder girdle, and contains the axilla and the head of the humerus. In the middle line the suprasternal notch is seen above, while about three fingers' breadth below it a transverse ridge can be felt, which is known as Ludovic's angle and marks the junction between the manubrium and gladiolus of the sternum. Level with this line the second ribs join the sternum, and when these are found the lower ribs may be easily counted in a moderately thin subject. At the lower part of the sternum, where the seventh or last true ribs join it, the ensiform cartilage begins, and over this there is often a depression popularly known as the pit of the stomach. The nipple in the male is situated in front of the fourth rib or a little below; vertically it lies a little external to a line drawn down from the middle of the clavicle; in the female it is not so constant. A little below it the lower limit of the great pectoral muscle is seen running upward and outward to the axilla; in the female this is obscured by the breast, which extends from the second to the sixth rib vertically and from the edge of the sternum to the mid-axillary line later- ally. The female nipple is surrounded for half an inch by a more or less pigmented disc, the areola. The apex of a normal heart is in the fifth left intercostal space, three and a half inches from the mid-line. The A bdomen. — In the mid-line a slight furrow extends from the ensiform cartilage above to the symphysis pubis below; this marks the linea alba in the abdominal wall, and about its middle point is the umbilicus or navel. On each side of it the broad recti muscles can be seen in muscular people. The outline of these muscles is interrupted by three or more transverse depressions indicating the lineae transversae in the recti; there is usually one about the ensiform cartilage, one at the umbilicus, and one between; sometimes a fourth is present below the umbilicus. The upper lateral limit of the abdomen is the sub- costal margin formed by the cartilages of the false ribs (8, 9, 10) joining one another; the lower lateral limit is the anterior part of the crest of the ilium and Poupart's ligament running from the anterior superior spine of the ilium to the spine of the pubis (see fig. 1, <5); these lower limits are marked by definite grooves. Just above the pubic spine is the external abdominal ring, an opening in the muscular wall of the abdomen for the spermatic cord to emerge in the male. The most modern method of mark- ing out the abdominal contents is to draw three horizontal and two vertical lines; the highest of the former is the transpyloric lineof C. Addison (fig. i,T.P.), which is situated half-way between the suprasternal notch and the top of the symphysis pubis; it often cuts the pyloric opening of the stomach an inch to the right of the mid-line. The hilum of each kidney is a little below it, while its left end approximately touches the lower limit of the spleen. It corresponds to the first lumbar vertebra behind. The second line is the subcostal (fig. 1, S.C.), drawn from the lowest point of the subcostal arch (tenth rib) ; it corresponds to the upper part of the third lumbar vertebra, and is an inch or so above the umbilicus; it indicates roughly the transverse colon, the lower ends of the kidneys, and the upper limit of the trans- verse (3rd) part of the duodenum. The third line is called the intertubercular (fig. 1, I.T.), and runs across between the two rough tubercles, which can be felt on the outer lip of the crest of the ilium about two and a half inches from the anterior superior spine. This line corresponds to the body of the fifth lumbar vertebra, and passes through or just above the ileo-caecal valve where the small intestine joins the large. The two vertical or mid-Poupart lines are drawn from the point midway between the anterior superior spine and the pubic symphysis on each side vertically upward to the costal margin. The right one is the most valuable, as the ileo-caecal valve is situated where it cuts the intertuber- cular line, while the orifice of the vermiform appendix is an inch lower down. At its upper part it meets the transpyloric line at the lower margin of the ribs, usually the ninth, and here the gall- bladder is situated. The left mid-Poupart line corresponds in its upper three-quarters to the inner edge of the descending colon. The right subcostal margin corresponds to the lower limit of the liver, while the right nipple is about half an inch above the upper limit of this viscus. The Back. — There is a well-marked furrow stretching all the way down the middle line of the back from the external occipital protuberance to the cleft of the buttocks. In this the spinous processes of the vertebrae can be felt, especially if the model bend forward. The cervical spines are difficult to feel, except the seventh and sometimes the second, and although the former is called the vertebra prominens, its spine is less easily felt than is that of the first thoracic. In practice it is not very easy to identify any one spine with certainty: one method is to start from the prominent first thoracic and to count down ; another is to join the lower angles of the two scapulae (fig. 2, 7) when the arms are hanging down, and to take the spine through which the line passes as the seventh. The spinal furrow is caused by the prominence of the erector spinae muscles on each side; these become less well marked as they run upward. The outlines of the scapulae can be well seen; they cover the ribs from the second to the seventh inclusive. The scapular spine is quite subcutaneous, and can be followed upward and outward from the level of the third thoracic spine to the acromion, and so to the outer end of the clavicle. On the lower margin of the acromion is a little tubercle known as the metacromial process or acromial angle, which is very useful for taking measurements from. The tip of the twelfth rib may usually be felt about two inches above the middle of the iliac crest, but this rib is very variable in length. The highest point of the iliac crest corresponds to the fourth lumbar spine, while the posterior superior iliac spine is on a level with the second sacral vertebra. This posterior superior spine is not easily felt, owing to the ligaments attached to it, but there is usually a little dimple in the skin over it (fig. 2 , ft) . By drawing horizontal lines through the 1st, 3rd and 5th lumbar spines, the transpyloric, subcostal and intertubercular lines or planes may be reproduced behind and the same viscera localized. The Arm. — Running downward and outward from the inner half of the clavicle, where that bone is convex forward, is the clavicular part of the pectoralis major, while from the outer third of the bone, where it is concave forward, is the clavicular part of the deltoid ; between these two muscles is an elongated triangular gap with its base at the clavicle, and here the skin is somewhat depressed, while the cephalic vein sinks between the two muscles to join the axillary vein. The tip of the coracoid process is situated just under cover of the inner edge of the deltoid, one inch below the junction between the outer and middle thirds of the clavicle. The deltoid muscle (fig. 1, |3) forms the prominence of the shoulder, and its convex outline is due to the presence of the head of the humerus deep to it; when this is dislocated the shoulder becomes flattened. The pectoralis major forms the anterior fold of the axilla or armpit, the posterior being formed by the latissimus dorsi and teres major muscles. The skin of the floor of this space is covered with hair in the adult, and contains many large sweat glands. The axillary vessels and brachial plexus of nerves lie in the outer wall, while on the inner wall are the serrations of the serratus magnus muscle, the outlines of some of which are seen on the side of the thorax, through the skin, when the arm is raised (fig. 1, a). Below the edge of the pectoralis major, the swelling of the biceps (fig. 1, y) begins to be visible, and this can easily be traced into its tendon of insertion, which reaches below the level of the elbow joint. On each side of the biceps is the external and internal bicipital furrow, in the latter of which the brachial artery may be felt and compressed. The median nerve is here in close relation to the artery. At the bend of the elbow the two condyles of the humerus may be felt; the inner one projects beneath the skin, but the outer one is obscured by the rounded outline of the brachio-radialis muscle. The superficial veins at the bend of the elbow are very conspicuous; they vary a good deal, but the typical arrangement is an M, of which the radial and ulnar veins form the uprights, while the outer oblique bar is the median cephalic and the inner oblique the median basilic vein. At the divergence of these two the median vein comes up from the front of the forearm, while 942 ANATOMY [SUPERFICIAL AND ARTISTIC the two vertical limbs are continued up the arm as the cephalic and basilic, the former on the outer side, the latter on the inner. On the back of the arm the three heads of the triceps are distin- guishable, the external forming a marked oblique swelling when the forearm is forcibly extended and internally rotated (fig. 2,5). In the upper part of the front of the forearm the antecubital fossa or triangle is seen; its outer boundary is the brachio-radialis, its inner the pronator radii teres, and where these two join below is the apex. In this space are three vertical structures — externally the tendon of the biceps, just internal to this the brachial artery, and still more internally the median nerve. Coming from the inner side of the biceps tendon the semi -lunar fascia may be felt; it passes deep to the median basilic vein and superficial to the brachial artery, and in former days was a valuable protection to the artery when unskilful operators were bleeding from the median basilic vein. About the middle of the forearm the fleshy parts of the superficial flexor muscles cease, and only the tendons remain, so that the limb narrows rapidly. In front of the wrist there is a superficial plexus of veins, while deep to this two tendons can usually be made to start up if the wrist be forcibly flexed; the outer of these is the flexor carpi radialis, which is the physician's guide to the radial artery where the pulse is felt. If the finger is slipped to the outer side of this tendon, the artery, w T hich here is very superficial, can be felt beating. The inner of the two tendons is the palmaris longus, though it is not always present. On cutting down between these two the median nerve is reached. The wrist joint may be marked out by feeling the styloid process of the radius on the outer side, and the styloid process of the ulna on the inner side behind, and joining these two by a line convex upward. The superficial appearance of the palm of the hand is described in the article on Palmistry; with regard to anatomical landmarks the superficial palmar arterial arch is situated in the line of the abducted thumb, while the deep arch is an inch nearer the wrist. The digital nerves correspond to lines drawn from the clefts of the fingers toward the wrist. On the back of the forearm the olecranon process of the ulna is quite subcutaneous, and during extension of the elbow is in a line with the two condyles, while between it and the inner condyle lies the ulnar nerve, here known popularly as the " funny bone." From the olecranon process the finger may be run down the posterior border of the ulna, which is subcutaneous as far as the styloid process at the lower end. On the dorsum of the hand is a plexus of veins, deep to which the extensor tendons are seen on extending the fingers. When the thumb is extended, two tendons stand out very prominently, and enclose a triangular space between them which is sometimes known as the "anatomical snuffbox "; the outer of these is the tendon of the extensor brevis, the inner of the extensor longus pollicis. Situated deeply in the space is the radial artery, covered by the radial vein. On the dorsum of the hand there is a plexus of veins, and deep to these the tendons of the extensor longus digitorum stand out when the wrist and fingers are extended. Tlte Leg. — Just below Poupart's ligament (fig. i, 5), a tri- angular depression with its apex downward may be seen in muscular subjects; it corresponds to Scarpa's triangle, and its inner border is the tendon of the adductor longus, which is easily felt if the model forcibly adducts the thigh. In this triangle the superficial inguinal glands may be made out. The head of the femur lies just below the centre of Poupart's ligament. The sartorius muscle forms the outer boundary of the triangle, and may be traced from the anterior superior spine obliquely down- ward and inward, across the front of the thigh, to the inner side of the knee. The two vasti muscles are well marked, the internal being the lower and forming with the sartorius the rounded bulging above the inner side of the knee. The internal saphenous vein runs superficially up the inner side of the thigh from behind the internal condyle to the femur to the saphenous opening in the deep fascia, the top of which is an inch horizontally outward from the spine of the pubis. On the other side of the thigh , a groove runs down which corresponds to the ilio-tibial band, a thickening of the fascia lata or deep fascia; the lower end of this leads to the head of the fibula. On the front of the thigh, below the sartorius, the rectus muscle makes a prominence which leads down to the patella, the outlines of which bone are very evident (fig. i, e). The only part of the femur besides the great trochanter which is superficial is the lower end, and this forms the two condyles for articulation with the tibia. If the posterior part of the inner condyle be joined to the mid-point between the anterior superior spine and the symphysis pubis, when the thigh is externally rotated, the line will correspond in its upper two- thirds to that of the common and superficial femoral arteries, the former occupying the upper inch and a half. The common femoral vein lies just internal to its artery, while the anterior crural nerve is a quarter of an inch external to the latter. The rounded mass of the buttock is formed by the gluteus maximus muscle covered by fat; the lower horizontal boundary is called the fold of the nates, and does not correspond exactly to the lower edge of the muscle. At the side of the buttock is a de- pression (fig. 2, e) where the great trochanter of the femur can be felt; a line, named after Nelaton, drawn from the anterior superior spine to the tuberosity of the ischium, passes through the top of this. On the back of the thigh the hamstrings form a distinct swelling; below the middle these separate to enclose the diamond-shaped popliteal space (fig. 2, f), the outer ham- strings or biceps being specially evident, while, on the inner side, the tendons of the semi-tendinosus and semi-membranosus can be distinguished. The external popliteal nerve may be felt just behind the biceps tendon above the head of the fibula. On the front of the leg, below the knee, the ligamentum patellae is evident, leading down from the patella (fig. i, e) to the tubercle of the tibia. From this point downward the anterior border of the tibia or shin is subcutaneous, as is also the internal surface of the tibia. Internal to the skin is the fleshy mass made by the tibialis anticus and extensor longus digitorum muscles. At the inner side of the ankle the internal malleolus is subcutaneous, while on the outer side the tip of the external malleolus is rather lower and farther back. Both this malleolus and the lower quarter of the shaft of the fibula are subcutaneous, and this area, if traced upward, is continuous with a furrow on the outer side of the leg which separates the anterior tibial from the peroneal groups of muscles, and eventually leads to the subcu- taneous head of the fibula. At the back of the leg the two heads of the gastrocnemius form the calf, the inner one (fig. 2, 77) being larger than the outer. Between the two, in the mid-line of the calf, the external saphenous vein and nerve lie, while lower down they pass behind the external malleolus to the outer side of the foot. The internal saphenous vein and nerve lie just behind the internal border of the tibia, and below pass in front of the internal malleolus. At the level of the ankle-joint the tibialis posticus and flexor longus digitorum tendons lie just behind the internal malleolus, while the peroneus longus and brevis are behind the external. Running down to the heel is the tendo Achillis with the plantaris on its inner side. On the dorsum of the foot the musculo-cutaneous nerve may be seen through the skin in thin people when the toes are depressed; it runs from the anterior peroneal furrow, already described, to all the toes, except the cleft between the two inner ones. There is also a venous arch to be seen, the two extremities of which pass respec- tively into the external and internal saphenous veins. The long axis of the great toe, even in races unaccustomed to boots, runs forward and outward, away from the mid-line between the two feet, so that perfectly straight inner sides to boots are not really anatomical. The second toe in classical statues is often longer than the first, but this is seldom seen in Englishmen. On the outer side of the sole the skin is often in contact with the ground all along, but on the inner side the arch is more marked, and, except in flat-footed people, there is an area in which the sole does not touch the ground at all. For further details of surface anatomy see Anatomy for Art Students, by A. Thomson (Oxford,. 1896); Harold Stiles's article in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy (Young J. Pentland, 1902) ; G. Thane and R. Godlee's Appendix to Quain' s Anatomy (Longmans, Green & Co., 1896); Surface Anatomy, by B. Windle and Manners Smith (H. K. Lewis, 1896) ; Landmarks and Surface Markings of ANATTO— ANAXARCHUS 943 the Human Body, by L. B. Rawling (H. K. Lewis, 1906) ; Surface Anatomy, by T. G. Moorhead (Bailliere, Tindall & Cox, 1905). No one interested in the subject should omit to read an article on " Art in its relation to Anatomy," by W. Anderson, British Medical Journal, 10th August 1895. (F. G. P.) ANATTO (possibly a native American name, with many variants such as annatto, arnotto), a colouring matter produced from the seeds of Bixa orellana (natural order Flacourtiaceae) , a small tree which grows in Central and South America. The seeds are surrounded with a thin coating of a waxy pulp, which is separated from them by washing in water, passing the liquid through a sieve and allowing the suspended pulp to deposit. The water is then drained away and the paste dried, till it is a thick, stiff, unctuous mass. In this state it has a dark orange-red colour and is known as " roll " or " flag " amotto, according to the form in which it is put up, but when further dried it is called^ " cake " arnotto. Arnotto is much used by South American Indians for painting their bodies; among civilized communities its principal use is for colouring butter, cheese and varnishes. It yields a fugitive bright orange colour, and is to some extent used alone, or in conjunction with other dyes, in the dyeing of silks and in calico printing. It contains a yellow colouring matter, bixin, Ci 6 H 2 60 2 . ANAXAGORAS, Greek philosopher, was born probably about the year 500 B.C. (Apollodorus ap. Diog. Laert. ii. 7.) At his native town of Clazomenae in Asia Minor, he had, it appears, some amount of property and prospects of political influence, both of which he surrendered, from a fear that they would hinder his search after knowledge. Nothing is known of his teachers; there is no reason for the theory that he studied under Her- motimus of Clazomenae, the ancient miracle-worker. In early manhood (c. 464-462 B.C.) he went to Athens, which was rapidly becoming the headquarters of Greek culture. There he is said to have remained for thirty years. Pericles learned to love and admire him and the poet Euripides derived from him an enthu- siasm for science and humanity. Some authorities assert that even Socrates was among his disciples. His influence was due partly to his astronomical and mathematical eminence, but still more to the ascetic dignity of his nature and his superiority to ordinary weaknesses — traits which legend has embalmed. It was he who brought philosophy and the spirit of scientific inquiry from Ionia to Athens. His observations of the celestial bodies led him to form new theories of the universal order, and brought him into collision with the popular faith. He attempted, not without success, to give a scientific account of eclipses, meteors, rainbows and the sun, which he described as a mass of blazing metal, larger than the Peloponnesus; the heavenly bodies were masses of stone torn from the earth and ignited by rapid rotation. The ignorant polytheism of the time could not tolerate such explanation, and the enemies of Pericles used the superstitions of their countrymen as a means of attacking him in the person of his friend. Anaxagoras was arrested on a charge of contravening the established dogmas of religion (some say the charge was one of Medism) , and it required all the eloquence of Pericles to secure his acquittal. Even so he was forced to retire from Athens to Lampsacus (434-433 B.C.) , where he died about 428 B.C., honoured and respected by the whole city. It is difficult to present the cosmical theory of Anaxagoras in an intelligible scheme. All things have existed in a sort of way from the beginning. But originally they existed in infinitesi- mally small fragments of themselves, endless in number and in- extricably combined throughout the universe. All things existed in this mass, but in a confused and indistinguishable form. There were the seeds (' ecovrov), a thing of finer texture, alike in all its manifestations and every- where the same. This subtle agent, possessed of all knowledge and power, is especially seen ruling in all the forms of life. Its first appearance, and the only manifestation of it which Anaxa- goras describes, is Motion. It originated a rotatory movement in the mass (a movement far exceeding the most rapid in the world as we know it), which, arising in one corner or point, gradually extended till it gave distinctness and reality to the aggregates of like parts. But even after it has done its best, the original intermixture of things is not wholly overcome. No one thing in the world is ever abruptly separated, as by the blow of an axe, from the rest of things. The name given to it signifies merely that in that congeries of fragments the particular " seed " is preponderant. Every a of this present universe is only a by a majority, and is also in lesser number b, c, d. It is noteworthy that Aristotle accuses Anaxagoras of failing to differentiate between vovs and ^/vxv, while Socrates (Plato, Phaedo, 98 b) objects that his vovs is merely a deus ex machina to which he refuses to attribute design and knowledge. Anaxagoras proceeded to give some account of the stages in the process from original chaos to present arrangements. The division into cold mist and warm ether first broke the spell of confusion. With increasing cold, the former gave rise to water, earth and stones. The seeds of life which continued floating in the air were carried down with the rains and produced vegeta- tion. Animals, including man, sprang from the warm and moist clay. If these things be so, then the evidence of the senses must be held in slight esteem. We seem to see things coming into being and passing from it; but reflection tells us that decease and growth only mean a new aggregation (crvy- tcpiais) and disruption (5i&Kpiil3o\oi or dju0t * ~mPosed of Stockless Anchor. three maln P arts > the shank and crown which form one forging, and the two flukes or arms which are separate castings. A bolt passes through the crown of the anchor, connecting the flukes to it; to prevent the flukes working off the connecting through bolt, two smaller bolts pass through the flukes at right angles to the through bolt and are recessed half their diameter into it. Fig. 8 represents the starboard bow of H.M.S. " New Zealand " Fig. 8.— Starboard Bow of H.M.S. " New Zealand.' (16,350 tons) with lower and sheet (spare) anchors stowed. To let go a stockless anchor (fig. 9) the cable or capstan holder C is unscrewed, and in practice it is found desirable to knock off the bottle screw-slip A, allowing the weight of the anchor to be taken by the inner slip A' (Blake's stopper). Stern, stream and kedge anchors are usually stowed with special davits. A portable anchor suitable for small yachts is the invention of Mr Louis Moore; the shank passes through the crown of the anchor like the handle of a pickaxe and the stock over the head of the shank. At the end of the stock are loose pawls. There are no keys or bolts, and the only fastening is for the cable. The anchor takes to pieces readily and stows snugly. In 1890 Colonel Bucknill also invented a portable anchor for small yachts. Iron buoy-sinkers (fig. 10), as used by the London Trinity House Corporation, weigh from 8 to 40 cwt.; the specified weight is cast on them in large raised figures, and the cast and wrought irons used are of special quality, of which samples are previously submitted to the engineer-in-chief. The anchors supplied to ships of the British navy are required A. A'. D. C. C. Fig. 9. — Forecastle of H.M.S. " New Zealand." Bottle or screw-slip. B. Slip or Blake's stopper. F. Bitts. H. Cable or Capstan-holders. S. Centre line capstan. R. Deck or navel pipes. Fairleads for wire hawsers. Hawse-pipes. Stopper-bolts. Rollers. Fig. 10. — Iron Buoy- Sinker. to withstand a certain tensile strain, expressed in tons, propor- tionate to their weights in cwts. New anchors are supplied by contractors, but repairs are made in H.M. dockyards, a record of its repairs being stamped on each anchor. In the Anchors and Cables Act 1899 a list is given of authorized testing-establishments, with their dis- tinctive marks and charges, and testing- houses for foreign-owned vessels are enumerated in Table 22 of Lloyd's Register of British and Foreign Shipping. Cast-steel anchors, in addition to the statutory tests, are sub- jected to percussive, hammering and bending tests, and are stamped " annealed steel." (J. W. D.) ANCHOVY {Engraulis encrasicholus) , a fish of the herring family, easily distinguished by its deeply-cleft mouth, the angle of the gape being behind the eyes. The pointed snout extends beyond the lower jaw. The ash resembles a sprat in having a forked tail and a single dorsal fin, but the body is round and slender. The maximum length is 85 in. Anchovies are abundant in the Mediterranean, and are regularly caught on the coasts of Sicily, Italy, France and Spain. The range of the species also extends along the Atlantic coast of Europe to the south of Norway. In winter it is common off Devon and Cornwall, but has not hitherto been caught in such numbers as to be of com- mercial importance. Off the coast of Holland in summer it is more plentiful, entering the Zuider Zee in such numbers as to give rise to a regular and valuable fishery. It is also taken in the estuary of the Scheldt. There is reason to believe that the anchovies found at the western end of the English Channel in November and December are those which annually migrate from the Zuider Zee and Scheldt in autumn, returning thither in the following spring; they must be held to form an isolated stock, for none come up from the south in summer to occupy the English Channel, though the species is resident on the coast of Portugal. The explanation appears to be that the shallow and landlocked waters of the Zuider Zee, as well as the sea on the Dutgh coast, become raised to a higher temperature in summer than any part of the sea about the British coasts, and that there- fore anchovies are able to spawn and maintain their numbers in these waters. Their reproduction and development were first described by a Dutch naturalist from observations made on the shores of the Zuider Zee. Spawning takes place in June and July, and the eggs, like those of the majority of marine fishes, are buoyant and transparent, but they are peculiar in having an elongated, sausage-like shape, instead of being globular. They resemble those of the sprat and pilchard in having a segmented yolk and there is no oil globule. The larva is hatched two or 95o ANCIEN REGIME— ANCILLON three days after the fertilization of the egg, and is very minute and transparent. In August young specimens i| to 3! in. in length have been tak~n in the Zuider Zee, and these must be held to have been derived from the spawning of the previous summer. There is no evidence to decide the question whether all the young anchovies as well as the adults leave the Zuider Zee in autumn, but, considering the winter temperature there, it is probable that they do. The eggs have also been obtained from the Bay of Naples, and near Marseilles, also off the coast of Holland, and once at least off the coast of Lancashire. The occurrence of anchovies in the English Channel has been carefully studied at the laboratory of the Marine Biological Association at Plymouth. They were most abundant in 1889 and 1890. In the former year considerable numbers were taken off Dover in drift nets of small mesh used for the capture of sprats. In the follow- ing December large numbers were taken together with sprats at Torquay. In November 1890 a thousand of the fish were obtained in two days from the pilchard boats fishing near Ply- mouth; these were caught near the Eddystone. When taken in British waters anchovies are either thrown away or sent to the market fresh with the sprats. If salted in the proper way, they would doubtless be in all respects equal to Dutch anchovies, if not to those imported from Italy. The supply, however, is small and inconstant, and for this reason English fish-curers have not learnt the proper way of preparing them. The so-called " Nor- wegian anchovies " imported into England in little wooden kegs are nothing but sprats pickled in brine with bay-leaves and whole pepper. (J. T. C.) ANCIEN REGIME, The, a French phrase commonly used, even by English writers, to denote the social and political system established in France under the old monarchy, which was swept away by the Revolution of 1789. The phrase is generally appli- cable only to France, for in no other country, with perhaps the exception of Japan, has there been in modern times so clearly marked a division between "the old order" and the new. ANCIENT (also spelt Antient; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before), old or in olden times. "Ancient history" is distinguished from medieval and modern, generally as meaning before the fall of the western Roman empire. In English legal history, " ancient " tenure or demesne refers to what was crown property in the time of Edward the Confessor or William the Conqueror. "The Ancient of days " is a Biblical phrase for God. In the London Inns of Court the senior barristers used to be called "ancients." From the 16th to the 18th century the word was also used, by confusion with "ensign," i.e. flag or standard-bearer, for that military title, as in the case of Shakespeare's " ancient Pistol " ; but this use has nothing to do with "ancient" meaning "old." ANCIENT LIGHTS, a phrase in English law for a negative easement (q.v.) consisting in the right to prevent the owner or occupier of an adjoining tenement from building or placing on his own land anything which has' the effect of illegally obstructing or obscuring the light of the dominant tenement. At common law a person, who opens a window in his house, has a natural right to receive the flow of light that passes through it. But his neighbour is not debarred thereby from building on his own land even though the effect of his action is to obstruct the flow of light thus obtained. Where, however, a window had been opened for so long a time as to constitute immemorial usage in law, the light became an "ancient light" which the law protected from disturbance. The Prescription Act 1832 created a statutory prescription for light. It provided (s. 3) that " when the access and use of light to and for " (any building) " shall have been actually enjoyed therewith for the full period of 20 years with- out interruption, the right theretoshall be deemed absolute and indefeasible, any local usage or custom to the contrary notwith- standing, unless it shall appear that the same was enjoyed by some consent or agreement, expressly made or given for that purpose by deed or writing." The statute does not create an absolute or indefeasible right immediately on the expiration of twenty years. Unless and until the dominant owner's claim is brought into question (s. 4) no absolute or indefeasible title can arise under the act. The dominant owner has only an inchoate right to avail himself under the act of the twenty years' uninterrupted enjoyment, if his claim is brought into question. But in the meantime, however long the enjoyment may have been, his right is just the same, and the origin of his right is just the same as if the act had never been passed. These principles were laid down in 1904 by the House of Lords in the leading case of Colls v. Home & Colonial Stores Ltd. (1904 A.C. 179). They overrule an earlier view propounded by Lord Westbury in 1865 (Tapling v. Jones, n H.L.C. 290) that the Prescription Act 1832 had abrogated the common law prescription as to light, that the right to "ancient lights" now depends upon positive enactment alone, and does not require, and ought not to be rested on, any fiction of a "lost grant" (see Easement). There has been much difference of judicial opinion as to what constitutes an actionable interference with " ancient lights." On the one hand, the test has been prescribed that if an angle of 45° — uninterrupted sky light— was left, the easement was not interfered with, and, while this is not a rule of law, it is a good rough working criterion. On the other hand, it was held in effect by the Court of Appeal in the case of Colls v. Home &* Colonial Stores Ltd. (1902; 1 Ch. 302) that to constitute an actionable obstruction of ancient lights it was sufficient if the light was sensibly less than it was before. The House of Lords, however, in the same case (1904 A. C. 179) overruled this view, and held that there must be a substantial privation of light enough to render the occupation of the house or building uncomfortable according to the ordinary notions of mankind and (in the case of business premises) to prevent the plaintiff from carrying on his business as beneficially as before. See also Kine v. Jolly (1905; 1 Ch. 480). There is, in Scots law, no special doctrine as to " ancient lights." The servitude of light in Scotland is simply the Roman servitude non officiendi luminibus vcl prospectui (see Easement and Roman Law). The same observation applies to the Code Civil and other European Codes based on it. The doctrine as to ancient lights does not prevail generally in the United States (consult Ruling Cases, under "Air"). ANCILLARY (from the Lat. ancilla, a handmaid), an adjective meaning "subordinate to" or "merely helping," as opposed to "essential." By Thackeray and some other writers it is also employed rather affectedly in its primary meaning of "pertaining to a maid-servant." ANCILLON, CHARLES (1659-1715), one of a distinguished family of French Protestants, was born on the 28th of July 1659, at Metz. His father, David Ancillon (1617-1692), was obliged to leave France on the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and became pastor of the French Protestant community in Berlin. Charles Ancillon studied law at Marburg, Geneva, and Paris, where he was called to the bar. At the request of the Huguenots at Metz, he pleaded its cause at the court of Louis XIV., urging that it should be excepted in the revocation of the edict of Nantes, but his efforts were unsuccessful, and he joined his father in Berlin. He was at once appointed by the elector Frederick "juge et directeur de colonie de Berlin." He had before this published several works on the revocation of the edict of Nantes and its consequences, but his literary capacity was mediocre, his style stiff and cold, and it was his personal character rather than his reputation as a writer that earned him the confidence of the elector. In 1687 he was appointed head of the so-called Acadimie des nobles, the principal educational establishment of the state; later on, as councillor of embassy, he took part in the negotiations which led to the assumption of the title of king by the elector. In 1699 he succeeded Pufendorf as historiographer to the elector, and the same year replaced his uncle Joseph Ancillon as judge of all the French refugees in Brandenburg. He died on the 5th of July 1715. Ancillon's chief claim to remem- brance is the work that he did for education in Prussia, and the share he took, in co-operation with Leibnitz, in founding the Academy of Berlin. Of his fairly numerous works the only one still of value is the Histoire de I'etablissement des Francais rejugiis dans les Stats de Brandebourg (Berlin, 1690). ANCILLON— ANCONA 95 1 ANCILLON, JOHANN PETER FRIEDRICH (1766-1837), Prussian historian and statesman, great-grandson of Charles Ancillon, was born at Berlin on the 30th of April 1766. He studied theology at Geneva, and after finishing his course was appointed minister to the French community at Berlin. At the same time his reputation as a historical scholar secured him the post of professor of history at the military academy. In 1793 he visited Switzerland, and in 1796 France, and published the impressions gathered during his travels in a series of articles which he afterwards collected under the title of Melanges de liiterature et de philosophic (1801). Ancillon took rank among the most famous historians of his day by his next work, Tableau des revolutions du systeme politique de P Europe depuis le X V" siecle (1803, 4 vols.; new ed., 1824), which gained him the eulogium of the Institute of France, and admission to the Academy of Berlin. It was the first attempt to recognize psychological factors in historical movements, but otherwise its importance was exaggerated. Its " sugary optimism, unctuous phraseology and pulpit logic " appealed, however, to the reviving pietism of the age succeeding the Revolution, and these qualities, as well as his eloquence as a preacher, early brought Ancillon into notice at court. In 1808 he was appointed tutor to the royal princes, in 1809 councillor of state in the department of religion, and in 1810 tutor of the crown prince (afterwards Frederick William IV.), on whose sensitive and dreamy nature he was to exercise a power- ful but far from wholesome influence. In October 1814, when his pupil came of age, Ancillon was included by Prince Harden- berg in the ministry, as privy councillor of legation in the department of foreign affairs, with a view to utilizing his supposed gifts as a philosophical historian in the -preparation of the pro- jected Prussian constitution. But Ancillon's reputed liberalism was of too invertebrate a type to survive the trial of actual contact with affairs. The practical difficulty of the constitutional problem gave the " court parson " — as Gneisenau had con- temptuously called him — excuse enough for a change of front which, incidentally, would please his exalted patrons. He covered his defection from Hardenberg's liberal constitu- tionalism by a series of " philosophical " treatises on the nature of the state and of man, and became the soul of the reactionary movement at the Berlin court, and the faithful henchman of Metternich in the general politics of Germany and of Europe. In 1817 Ancillon became a councillor of state, and in 1818 director of the political section of the ministry for foreign affairs under Count Bernstorff. In his chief's most important work, the establishment of the Prussian Zollverein, Ancillon had no share, while the entirely subordinate role played by Prussia in Europe during this period, together with the personal part taken by the sovereign in the various congresses, gave him little scope for the display of any diplomatic talents he may have possessed. During this time he found plentiful leisure to write a series of works on political philosophy, such as the Nouveaux essais de politique et de philosophie (Paris, 1824). In May 1831 he was made an active privy councillor, was appointed chief of the department for the principality of Neuchatel, in July became secretary of state for foreign affairs, and in the spring of 1S32, on Bernstorff's retirement, succeeded him as head of the ministry. By the German public, to whom Ancillon was known only through his earlier writings and some isolated protests against the " demagogue-hunting " in fashion at Berlin, his advent to power was hailed as a triumph of liberalism. They were soon undeceived. Ancillon had convinced himself that the rigid class distinctions of the Prussian system were the philosophically ideal basis of the state, and that representation " by estates " was the only sound constitutional principle; his last and indeed only act of importance as minister was his collaboration with Metternich in the Vienna Final Act of the 12th of June 1834, the object of which was to rivet this system upon Germany forever. He died on the 19th of April 1S37, the last of his family. His historical importance lies neither in his writings nor in his political activity, but in his personal influence at the Prussian court, and especially in its lasting effect on the character of Frederick William IV. See C. A. L. P. Varnhagen von Ense, Blatter aus der preussischen Geschichte, 5 vols. (Leipzig, 1868-1869); ib. Tagebilcher, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1861); H. O. Treitschke, Deutsche Geschichte (Leipzig, 1 879-1 894), and essay on Ancillon in Preussische Jahrbiicher for April 1872; Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, s.v. (Leipzig, 1875). ANCON, a small village and bathing-place on the coast of Peru, 22 m. N. of Lima by rail. The bay is formed by two projecting headlands and is one of the best on the coast. It has a gently sloping beach of fine sand and has been a popular bathing- place since the time of President Balta, although the country behind it is arid and absolutely barren. At some time previous to the discovery of America, Ancon had a large ab- original population. Traces of terraces on the southern headland can still be seen, and the sand-covered hills and slopes overlooking the bay contain extensive burial-grounds which were systematic- ally explored in 1875 by Messrs W. Reiss and A. Stiibel (see Reiss-and Stiibel's The Necropolis of Ancon in Peru, translated by A. H. Keane, 3 vols., Berlin, 1880-1887). In modern times Ancon has been the scene of several important historical events. Its anchorage was used by Lord Cochrane in 1820 during his attacks on Callao; it was the landing-place of an invading Chilean army in 1838; it was bombarded by the Chileans in 1880; and in 1883 it was the meeting-place of the Chilean and Peruvian commissioners who drew up the treaty of Ancon, which ended the war between Chile and Peru. ANCON (from the Gr. ayicwv), the anatomical name for " elbow "; " ancones " in architecture are the projecting bosses left on stone blocks or on drums of columns, to allow of their being either hoisted aloft or rubbed backwards and forwards to obtain a fine joint; the term is also given by Vitruvius to the trusses or console brackets on each side of the doorway of a Greek or Roman building which support the cornice over the same. A particular sort of sheep, with short crooked forelegs, is called " ancon " sheep. ANCONA, ALESSANDRO (1835- ), Italian critic and man of letters, was born at Pisa on the 20th of February 1835, of a wealthy Jewish family, and educated in Florence; at the age of eighteen he published his essay on the life and work of the philosopher Tommaso Campanella. In 1855 Ancona went to Turin, nominally to study law, but in reality to act as inter- mediary between the Tuscan Liberals and Cavour; he was an intimate friend of Luigi Carlo Farini (q.v.) and represented Tuscany in the Societa Nazionale. On the fall of the Austrian dynasty in Tuscany (April 27, 1859) he returned to Florence, where he edited the newly founded newspaper La Nazione. In 1 86 1 he was appointed professor of Italian literature at the university of Pisa. Among his works the following may be mentioned: Opera di Tommaso Campanella, 2 vols. (Turin, 1854) ; Sacre Rappresentazioni dei secoli XIV., XV., e XVI. (3 vols., Florence, 1872); Origini del Teatro in Italia (2 vols., Florence, 1877); La Poesia popolare italiana (Livorno, 1878), besides several volumes of literary essays, editions of the works of Dante and other early Italian writers, &c. ANCONA, a seaport and episcopal see of the Marches, Italy, capital of the province of Ancona, situated on the N.E. coast of Italy, 185 m. N.E. of Rome by rail and 132 m. direct, and 127 m. S.E. of Bologna. Pop. (1901) 56,835. The town is finely situated on and between the slopes of the two extremities of the promontory of Monte Conero, Monte Astagno to the S., occupied by the citadel, and Monte Guasco to the N., on which the cathedral stands (300 ft.). The latter, dedicated to S. Ciriaco, is said to occupy the site of a temple of Venus, who is mentioned by Catullus and Juvenal as the tutelary deity of the place. It was consecrated in n 28 and completed in 1189. Some writers suppose that the original church was in the form of a Latin cross and belonged to the 8th century. An early restoration was completed in 1234. It is a fine Romanesque building in grey stone, built in the form of a Greek cross, with a dodecagona! dome over the centre slightly altered by Maigaritone d' Arezzo in 1270. The facade has a Gothic portal, ascribed to Giorgio da Corno ('1228). which was intended to have a. lateral arch on ea>~h 952 ANCREN RIWLE— ANCRUM side. The interior, which has a crypt in each transept, in the main preserves its original character. It has ten columns which are attributed to the temple of Venus, and there are good screens of the 1 2th century, and other sculptures. In the dilapidated episcopal palace Pope Pius II. died in 1464. An interesting church is S. Maria della Piazza, with an elaborate arcaded facade (12 10). The Palazzo del Comune, with its lofty arched sub- structures at the back, was the work of Margaritone d' Arezzo, but has been since twice restored. There are also several fine late Gothic buildings, among them the churches of S. Francesco and S. Agostino, the Palazzo Benincasa, and the Loggia dei Mercanti, all by Giorgio Orsini, usually called da Sebenico (who worked much at Sebenico, though he was not a native of it), and the prefecture, which has Renaissance additions. The portal of S. Maria della Misericordia is an ornate example of early Renais- sance work. The archaeological museum contains interesting pre-Roman objects from tombs in the district, and two Roman beds with fine decorations in ivory (E. Brizio, in Notizie* degli scavi, 1902, 437, 478). To the east of the town is the harbour, now an oval basin of 990 by 880 yards, the finest harbour on the S. W. coast of the Adriatic, and one of the best in Italy. It was originally protected only by the promontory on the N., from the elbow-like shape of which (Gk. ayncov) the ancient town, founded by Syracusan refugees about 390 B.C., took the name which it still holds. Greek merchants established a purple factory here (Sil. Ital. viii. 438). Even in Roman times it kept its own coinage with the punning device of the bent arm holding a palm branch, and the head of Aphrodite on the reverse, and continued the use o£ the Greek language. When it became a Roman colony is doubtful. 1 It was occupied as a naval station in the Illyrian war of 178 B.C. (Liv. xli. 1). Caesar took possession of it immediately after crossing the Rubicon. Its harbour was of considerable importance in imperial times, as the nearest to Dalmatia, 2 and was enlarged by Trajan, who constructed the north quay, his architect being Apollodorus of Damascus. At the beginning of it stands the marble triumphal arch with a single opening, and without bas-reliefs, erected in his honour in a.d. 115 by tne senate and people. Pope Clement II. prolonged the quay, and an inferior imitation of Trajan's arch was set up; he also erected a lazaretto at the south end of the harbour, n o w a sugar refinery, Vanvitelli being the architect-in-chief. The southern quay was built in 1880, and the harbour is now pro- tected by forts on the heights, while the place is the seat of the 7th army corps. The port of Ancona was entered in 1904 by 869 steamships and 600 sailing vessels, with a total tonnage of 961,612 tons. The main imports were coal, timber, metals, jute. The main exports were asphalt and calcium carbide. Sugar refining and ship- building are carried on. Ancona is situated on the railway between Bologna and Brindisi, and is also connected by rail with Rome, via Foligno and Orte. After the fall of the Roman empire Ancona was successively attacked by the Goths, Lombards and Saracens, but recovered its strength and importance. It was one of the cities of the Pentapolis under the exarchate of Ravenna, the other four being Fano, Pesaro, Senigallia and Rimini, and eventually became a semi-independent republic under the protection of the popes, until Gonzaga took possession of it for Clement VII. in 1532. From 1797 onwards, when the French took it, it frequently appears in history as an important fortress, until Lamoriciere capitulated here on the 29th of September i860, eleven days after his defeat at Castelfidardo. (T. As.) ANCREN RIWLE, a Middle English prose treatise written for a small community of three religious women and their servants at Tarent Raines (Tarrant Crawford), at the junction of the Stour and the Tarrant, Dorset. It was generally supposed to 1 Scanty remains of the ancient town walls, of a gymnasium near the harbour and of the amphitheatre are still extant. 2 It was connected by a road with the Via Flaminia at Nuceria (Norcera), a distance of 70 m. date from the first quarter of the 13th century, but Pro- fessor E. Kolbing is inclined to place the Corpus Christi MS. about the middle of the 12 th century. The house of Tarrant was founded by Ralph de Kahaines, and greatly enriched about 1 230 by Richard Poor, bishop successively of Chichester, Salis- bury and Durham, who was born at Tarrant and died there in 1237. At the time when the Ancren Riwle was addressed to them the anchoresses did not belong to any of the monastic orders, but the monastery was under the Cistercian rule before 1266. 3 There are extant seven English MSS. of the work, and one Latin, the Latin version being generally supposed to be a translation. The Latin MS., Regula Anachoritarum sive de vita solitaria (Magdalen College, Oxford, No. 67, fol. 50) has a prefatory note : — Hie incipit prohemium venerabilis patris magistri Simonis de Gandavo, episcopi Sarum, in librum de vita solitaria, quern scripsit sororibus suis anachoritis apud Tarente. But Bishop Simon of Ghent, who died in 1315, could not have written the book, if it dates, at latest, from the early 13th century. It has been tentatively attributed to Richard Poor, who was connected with Tarrant, and was actually a benefactor of the monastery. But the adoption of Prof. Kolbing's early date would almost destroy Poor's claim. The Ancren Riwle is written in a simple, non-rhetorical style. The severity of the doctrine of self-renunciation is softened by the affectionate tone in which it is inculcated. The book contains rules for the conduct of the anchoresses, and gives liturgical directions for divine service; but the greater part of it is taken up with the purely spiritual side of religion. The rules for the restraint of the senses, for confession and penance, are sub- ordinated to the central idea of the supreme importance of purity of heart and the love of Christ. The last chapter deals with the domestic affairs and administration of the monastery. Incident- ally the writer gives a picture of the manners and ideas of the time, and provides an account of the doctrine then generally accepted in the English church. A ncren Riwle was edited for the Camden Society by the Rev. James Morton in 1843 from the Cotton MS. (Nero A xiv.). Acollation'of this text with the MS. by E. Kolbing is printed in the Jahrbuch fiir romanische u. engl. Spr. und Lit. xv. 180 seq. (1876). The Ancren Riwle (ed. Abbot F. A. Gasquet, 1905) is available for the ordinary reader in The King's Classics. There are three English MSS. of Ancren Riwle in the Cottonian collection in the British Museum, numbered Nero A xiv., Titus D xviii., and Cleopatra C vi. Nero A xiv. is written in pure south-western dialect. Portions of this text are printed in Henry Sweet's First Middle English Primer (Oxford, 2nd ed., 1895), which contains a grammatical introduction. MS. 402 in the library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, contains the earliest version of Ancren Riwle, entitled Ancren Wisse, and dating (according to E. Kolbing in Englische Studien, 1886, vol. ix. 116) from about 1 150. The language shows considerable traces of the Midland dialect. MS. 234 in Caius College, Cambridge, contains a considerable portion of the Ancren Riwle, but does not follow the order of the other MSS. For its exact contents see Kolbing, in Englische Studien, iii. 535 (1880). A more recently discovered version in Magdalene College, Cambridge, in MS. Pepys 2498, is entitled The Recluse, and is abridged and differently arranged. It is written in English of the latter half of the 14th century (see A. C. Paues in Englische Studien, xxx. 344-346, 1902). A Latin version (Cotton MS. Vitellius E vii.), and a French copy {ibid. F vii.) were seriously damaged in the fire at Ashburnham House, but both MSS. have been recently restored. The Latin MS. (Codex lxvii.) at Magdalen College, Oxford, is probably a copy of another Latin text, for it contains obvious slips. See also R. Wiilker, " Ueber die Sprache der Ancren Riwle und die der Homilie: Hali Meidenhad," in Beitrdge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur (Halle, 1874, i. 209), giving an analysis of the differences in dialect between the two works; and Edgar Elliott Bramlette, " The Original Language of the Ancren Riwle," in Anglia, xv. 478-498, arguing in favour of a -Latin original. ANCRUM, a village on Ale or Alne Water (a tributary of the Teviot), Roxburghshire, Scotland, 2 m. W. of Jedfoot Bridge station on the Roxburgh- Jedburgh branch of the North British railway. Pop. (1901) 973. The earlier forms of the name, " Alnecrumba," " Ankrom " and " Alnecrom," indicate its Gaelic derivation from crom, "crooked" — "the crook or bend of the 3 For information on the subject of Tarent Kaines see Sir W. Dugdale, Monasticon Anglicanum (new ed., 1846), vol. v. 619 et seq. ANCUS MARCIUS— ANCYRA 953 Alne." The village is of considerable antiquity, and was formerly held by the see of Glasgow. Its cross, said to date from the time of David I., is one of the best preserved crosses in the Border counties. Ancrum Moor, 2 m. N.W., was the scene of the battle in which, on the 17th of February 1545, the Scots under the earl' of Angus, Sir Walter Scott of Buccleuch, and Norman Leslie, defeated 5000 English, whose leaders, Sir Ralph Evers or Eure and Sir Brian Latoun or Layton, were slain. A Roman road, 24 ft. broad, forms the N.E. boundary of the parish of Ancrum. ANCUS MARCIUS (640-616 B.C.), fourth legendary king of Rome. Like Numa, his reputed grandfather, he was a friend of peace and religion, but was obliged to make war to defend his territories. He conquered the Latins, and a number of them he settled on the Aventine formed the origin of the Plebeians. He fortified the Janiculum, threw a wooden bridge across the Tiber, founded the port of Ostia, established salt-works and built a prison. Ancus Marcius is merely a duplicate of Numa, as is shown by his second name, Numa Marcius, the confidant and pontifex of Numa, being no other than Numa Pompilius himself, represented as priest. The identification with Ancus is shown by the legend which makes the latter a bridge-builder (pontifex), the constructor of the first wooden bridge over the Tiber. It is in the exercise of his priestly functions that the resemblance is most clearly shown. Like Numa, Ancus died a natural death. See Livy i. 32, 33; Dion Halic. iii. 36-45; Cicero, De Republica, ii. 18. For a critical examination of the story see Schwegler, Romische Geschichte, bk. xiii. ; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, Credibility of Early Roman History, ch. xi. ; W. Ihne, History of Rome, i. ; R. Pais, Storia di Roma, i. (1898). who considers that the name points to the personification of the cult of Mars, and that the military achievements of Ancus are anticipations of later events. ANCYLOPODA, or Ancylodactyla, an apparently primitive extinct subordinal group of Ungulata showing certain resem- blances to the Perissodactyla, both as regards the cheek-teeth and the skeleton, but broadly distinguished by the feet being of an edentate type, carrying long curved and cleft terminal claws. From this peculiar structure of the feet it would seem that the weight of the body was mainly carried on their outer sides, as in Edentates. The group is typified by Chalicotherium, of which the original species was discovered in the Lower Pliocene strata of Eppelsheim, Hesse-Darmstadt, in 1825, and named on the evidence of the teeth, the limbs being subsequently described as Macrotherium. The skull is short, with a dental formula of *■$"> c - 1 "j P-i- m -i, but in fully adult animals most of the front teeth were shed. The molar teeth recall those of Palaeosyops (see Titanotherudae) . Remains referred to Chalicotherium have been also obtained from the Lower Pliocene and Upper Miocene strata of Greece, Hungary, India, China and North America. A skull from Pikermi, near Mt. Pentelikon, Attica, shows the absence in the adult state of upper and lower incisors and upper canines, much the same condition being indicated in an Indian skull. There were three toes to each foot, and the femur lacked a third trochanter. Macrotherium, which is typically from the Middle Miocene of Sansan, in Gers, France, may indicate a distinct genus. Limb- bones nearly resembling those of Macrotherium, but relatively stouter, have been described from the Pliocene beds of Attica and Samos as Ancyiotherium. In America the names Moro- therium and Moropus have been applied to similar bones, on the belief that they indicated edentates. Macrotherium magnum must have been an animal of about 9 ft. in length. The South American genus Homalodontotherium is often placed in the Ancylopoda, but reasons against this view are given in the article Litopterna. Professor H. F. Osborn considers that the Ancylopoda are directly descended from the Condylarthra. See also H. F. Osborn, " The Ancylopoda Chalicotherium and Artionyx.," Amer. Nat. (1893), p. 118, and " Artionyx, a NewGenusof Ancylopoda," Bull. Amer. Mus. vol. v. p. I (1893). [N.B. — Artionyx was subsequently found to be an Artiodactyle.] (R. L.*) ANCYRA (mod. AngSra, q.v.), an ancient city of Galatia in Asia Minor, situated on a tributary of the Sangarius. Originally a large and prosperous Phrygian city on the Persian Royal Road, Ancyra became the centre of the Tectosages, one of the three Gaulish tribes that settled permanently in Galatia about 232 B.C. The barbarian occupation dislocated civilization, and the town sank to a mere village inhabited chiefly by the old native popula- tion who carried on the arts and crafts of peaceful life, while the Gauls devoted themselves to war and pastoral life (see Galatia). In 189 B.C. Ancyra was occupied by Cn. Manlius Vulso, who made it his headquarters in his operations against the tribe. In 63 B.C. Pompey placed it (together with the Tectosagan territory) under one chief, and it continued under native rule till it became the capital of the Roman province of Galatia in 25 B.C. By this time the population included Greeks, Jews, Romans and Romanized Gauls, but the town was not yet Hellenized, though Greek was spoken. Strabo (c. a.d. 19) calls it not a city, but a fortress, implying that it had none of the institutions of the Graeco-Roman city. Inscriptions and coins show that its civil- ization consisted of a layer of Roman ideas and customs super- imposed on Celtic tribal characteristics, and that it is not until c. a.d. 150 that the true Hellenic spirit begins to appear. Christianity was introduced (from the N. or N.W.) perhaps as early as the 1st century, but there is no shred of evidence that the Ancyran Church (first mentioned a.d. 192) was founded by St Paul or that he ever visited northern Galatia. The real great- ness of the town dates from the time when Constantinople became the metropolis of the Roman world: then its geographical situation raised it to a position of importance which it retained throughout the middle ages. See further Angora (i). The modern town contains many remains of the Roman and Byzantine periods. The most important monument is the Augusteum, a temple of white marble erected to " Rome and Augustus " during the lifetime of that emperor by the common council or diel of the three Galatian tribes. The temple was afterwards converted into a church, and in the 16th century a fine mosque was built against its S. face. On the walls of the temple is engraved the famous Monumentum Ancyranum, a long inscription in Latin and Greek describing the Res gestae divi Augusti; the Latin portion being inscribed on the inner left-hand wall of the pronaos, the Greek on the outside wall of the naos (cella). The inscription is a grave and majestic narrative of the public life and work of Augustus. The original was written by the emperor in his 76th year (a.d. 13-14) to be engraved on two bronze tablets placed in front of his mausoleum in Rome, and as a mark of respect to his memory a copy was inscribed on the temple walls by the council of the Galatians. Thus has been preserved an absolutely unique historical document of great importance, recounting (1) the numerous public offices and honours conferred on him, (2) his various benefactions to the state, to the plebs and to his soldiers, and (3) his military and administrative services to the empire. Bibliography. — C. Ritter, Erdkunde von Asien, vol. xviii.(i837- 1859); Hamilton, Researches in A. M. (1842); Texier, Descrip. de I'Asie Min. (1839-1849); Perrot, Explor. de la Galatie (1862); Humann and Puchstein, Reisen in Kleinasien (1890). For Mon. Ancyr., Mommsen, Res gestae divi Augusti (1883) ; and Inscr. graecae ad res Romanas pertinentes, iii. (1902). For coins, Brit. Museum Catal., Galatia (1899); Babelon-Reinach, Recueil general d A. M. See also under Galatia. (J. G. C. A.) Synod of Ancyra. — An important ecclesiastical synod was held at Ancyra, the seat of the Roman administration for the province of Galatia, in a.d. 314. The season was soon after Easter; the year may be safely deduced from the fact that the first nine canons are intended to repair havoc wrought in the church by persecution, which ceased after the overthrow of Maximinus in 313. The tenth canon tolerates the marriages of deacons who previous to ordination had reserved the right to take a wife; the thirteenth forbids chorepiscopi to ordain presbyters or deacons; the eighteenth safeguards the right of the people in objecting to the appointment of a bishop whom they do not wish. See Mansi, ii. 514 ff. The critical text of R. B. Rackham (Oxford, 1891), Studio- btblica et ecclesiastica, iii. 139 ff., is conveniently re- printed in Lauchert 29 ff. H. R. Percival translates and comments on an old text in the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (2nd series), xiv. 61 ff. An elaborate discussion is found in Hefele, Concilien- geschichte (2nd ed.), i. 219 ff. (English translation, i. 199 ff.); more briefly in Herzog-Hauck (3rd ed.), i. 497. For full titles see Council. (W. W. R.*) 954 ANDALUSIA— ANDALUSITE ANDALUSIA, or Andalucia, a captaincy-general, and formerly a province, of southern Spain; bounded on the N. by Estremadura and New Castile, E. by Murcia and the Mediterranean Sea, S. by the Mediterranean and Atlantic, and W. by Portugal. Pop. (1900) 3,563,606; area, 33,777 sq. m. Andalusia was divided in 1833 into the eight provinces of Almeria, Cadiz, Cordova, Granada, Jaen, Huelva, Malaga and Seville, which are described in separate articles. Its ancient name, though no longer used officially, except to designate a military district, has not been superseded in popular speech by the names of the eight modern divisions. Andalusia consists of a great plain, the valley of the Guadal- quivir, shut in by mountain ranges on every side except the S.W., where it descends to the Atlantic. This lowland, which is known as Andalucia Baja, or Lower Andalusia, resembles the valley of the Ebro in its slight elevation above sea-level (300-400 ft.), and in the number of brackish lakes or fens, and waste lands (despoblados) impregnated with salt, which seem to indicate that the whole surface was covered by the sea at no distant geological date. The barren tracts are, however, exceptional and a far larger area is richly fertile. Some districts, indeed, such as the Vega of Granada, are famous for the luxuri- ance of their vegetation. The Guadalquivir- (q.v.) rises among the mountains of Jaen and flows in a south-westerly direction to the Gulf of Cadiz, receiving many considerable tributaries on its way. On the north, its valley is bounded by the wild Sierra Morena; on the south, by the mountains of the Mediterranean littoral, among which the Sierra Nevada (q.v.), with its peaks of Mulhacen(n,42i ft.)andVeleta(i 1,148 ft.), is the most conspicu- ous. These highlands, with the mountains of Jaen and Almeria on the east, constitute Andalucia Alta or Upper Andalusia. No part of Spain has greater natural riches. The sherry produced near Jerez de la Frontera, the copper of the Rio Tinto mines and the lead of Almeria are famous. But the most note- worthy characteristics of the province are, perhaps, the brilliancy of its climate, the beauty of its scenery (which ranges in character from the alpine to the tropical), and the interest of its art and antiquities. The climate necessarily varies widely with the altitude. Some of the higher mountains are covered with perpetual snow, a luxury which is highly prized by the inhabit- ants of the valleys, where the summer is usually extremely hot, and in winter the snow falls only to melt when it reaches the ground. Here the more common European plants and trees give place to the wild olive, the caper bush, the aloe, the cactus, the evergreen oak, the orange, the lemon, the palm and other productions of a tropical climate. On the coasts of the Mediter- ranean about Marbella and Malaga, the sugar-cane is successfully cultivated. Silk is produced in the same region. Agriculture is in a very backward state and the implements used are most primitive. The chief towns are Seville (pop. 1900, 148,315), which may be regarded as the capital, Malaga (130,109), Granada (75,900), Cadiz (69,382), Jerez de la Frontera (63,473), Cordova (58,275) and Almeria (47,326). Andalusia has never been, like Castile or Aragon, a separate kingdom. Its history is largely a record of commercial and artistic development. The Guadalquivir valley is often, in part at least, identified with the biblical Tarshish and the classical Tartessus, a famous Phoenician mart. The port of Agadir or Gaddir, now Cadiz, was founded as early as 1100 B.C. Later Carthaginian invaders came from their advanced settlements in the Balearic Islands, about 516 B.C. Greek merchants also visited the coasts. The products of the interior were conveyed by the native Iberians to the maritime colonies, such as Abdera (Adra), Calpe (Gibraltar) or Malaca (Malaga), founded by the foreign merchants. The Punic wars transferred the supreme power from Carthage to Rome, and Latin civilization was established firmly when, in 27 B.C., Andalusia became the Roman province of Baetica — so called after its great waterway, the Baelis (Guadalquivir). In the 5th century the province was overrun by successive invaders — Vandals, Suevi and Visigoths — from the first of whom it may possibly derive its name. The forms Vandalusia and Vandalitia are undoubtedly ancient; many authorities, however, maintain that the name is derived from the Moorish Andalus or Andalosh, " Land of the West." The Moors first entered the province in 711, and only in 1492 was their power finally broken by the capture of Granada. Their four Andalusian kingdoms, Seville, Jaen, Cordova and Granada, developed a civilization unsurpassed at the time in Europe. An extensive literature, scientific, philosophical and historical, with four world-famous buildings — the Giralda and Alcazar of Seville, the Mezquita or cathedral of Cordova and the Alhambra at Granada — are its chief monuments. In the 16th and 17 th centuries, painting replaced architecture as the distinctive art of Andalusia; and many of the foremost Spanish painters, including Velazquez and Murillo, were natives of this province. Centuries of alien domination have left their mark upon the character and appearance of the Andalusians, a mixed race, who contrast strongly with the true Spaniards and possess many oriental traits. It is impossible to estimate the influence of the elder conquerors, Greek, Carthaginian and Roman; but there are clear traces of Moorish blood, with a less well-defined Jewish and gipsy strain. The men are tall, handsome and well-made, and the women are among the most beautiful in Spain; while the dark complexion and hair of both sexes, and their peculiar dialect of Spanish, so distasteful to pure Castilians, are indisput- able evidence of Moorish descent. Their music, dances and many customs, come from the East. In general, the people are lively, good-humoured and ready-witted, fond of pleasure, lazy and extremely superstitious. In the literature and drama of his country, the Andalusian is traditionally represented as the Gascon of Spain, ever boastful and mercurial; or else as a picaresque hero, bull-fighter, brigand or smuggler. Andalusia is still famous for its bull -fighters; and every outlying hamlet has its legends of highwaymen and contraband. In addition to the numerous works cited under the heading Spain, see Curiosidades historicas de Andalucia, by N. Diaz de Escovar (Malaga, 1900) ; Histoire de la conquete de I Andalousie, by O. Houdas (Paris, 1889); Andalousie el Portugal (Paris, 1886); El. Folk-Lore Andaluz (Seville, 1883); and Nobleza de Andalucia, by G. Argote de Molina (Seville, 1588). ANDALUSITE, a mineral with the same chemical composition as cyanite and sillimanite, being a basic aluminium silicate, Al 2 Si05. As in sillimanite, its crystalline form is referable to the orthorhombic system. Crystals of andalusite have the form of almost square prisms, the prism-angle being 89 12'; they are terminated by a basal plane and some- times by small dome-faces. As a rule the crystals are roughly developed and rude colum- nar masses are common, these being frequently altered partially to kaolin or mica. Such crystals, opaque, and of a greyish or brownish colour, occur abundantly in the mica-schist of the Lisens Alp near Innsbruck in Tirol, while the first noted of the many localities of the mineral is in /J* Andalusia, from which place the mineral (J|j derives its name. The unaltered mineral is a^^ found as transparent pebbles with topaz ^B in the gem-gravels of the Minas Novas n district, in Minas Geraes, Brazil. These \E8 pebbles are usually green but sometimes (9^ reddish-brown in colour, and are remarkable vfi§ for their very strong dichroism, the same fj^ pebble appearing green or reddish-brown «■ according to the direction in which it is fs£i viewed. Such specimens make very effective \gm gem-stones, the degree of hardness of the £5£) mineral (H. = 7|) being quite sufficient for \jf this purpose. Its specific gravity is 3-18; it is unattacked by acids and is infusible before the blowpipe. Andalusite is typically a mineral of i(te~ metamorphic origin, occurring most fre- quently in altered clay-slates and crystalline schists, near the junction of these with masses of intrusive igneous rocks such as th Fig. 1. Fig. 2. — Trans- verse sections of a crystal of Chiasto- ANDAMAN ISLANDS 955 granite. It has been recognized also, however, as a primary- constituent of granite itself. A curious variety of andalusite known as chiastolite is specially characteristic of clay-slates near a contact with granite. The elongated prismatic crystals enclose symmetrically arranged wedges of carbonaceous material, and in cross-section show a black cross on a greyish ground. Cross-sections of such crystals are polished and worn as amulets or charms. Crystals of a size suitable for this purpose are found in Brittany and the Pyrenees, while still larger specimens have been found recently in South Australia. The name chiastolite is derived from the Greek XiatrTos, crossed or marked with the letter x : cross-stone and made are earlier names, the latter having been given on account of the resemblance the cross-section of the stone bears to the heraldic macula or mascie. (L. J. S.) ANDAMAN ISLANDS, a group of islands in the Bay of Bengal. Large and small, they number 204, and lie 590 m. from the mouth of the Hugh, 120 m. from Cape Negrais in Burma, the nearest point of the mainland, and 340 m. from the northern extremity of Sumatra. Between the Andamans and Cape Negrais intervene two small groups, Preparis and Cocos; between the Andamans and Sumatra lie the Nicobar Islands, the whole group stretching in a curve, to which the meridian forms a tangent between Cape Negrais and Sumatra; and though this curved line measures 700 m., the widest sea space is about 91 m. The extreme length of the Andaman group is 219 m. with an extreme width of 32 m. The main part of it consists of a band of five chief islands, so closely adjoining and overlapping each other that they have long been known collectively as " the great Andaman." The axis of this band, almost a meridian line, is 156 statute miles long. The five islands are in order from north to south: North Andaman (51 m. long); Middle Andaman (59 m.); South Andaman (49 m.); Baratang, running parallel to the east of the South Andaman for 17 m. from the Middle Andaman; arid Rutland Island (n m.). Four narrow straits part these islands: Austin Strait, between North and Middle Andaman; Homfray's Strait between Middle Andaman and Baratang, and the north extremity of South Andaman; Middle (or Anda- man) Strait between Baratang and South Andaman; and Macpherson Strait between South Andaman and Rutland Island. Of these only the last is navigable by ocean-going vessels. Attached to the chief islands are, on the extreme N., Landfall Islands, separated by the navigable Cleugh Passage; Interview Island, separated by the very narrow but navigable Interview Passage, off the W. coast of the Middle Andaman; tne Labyrinth Island off the S.W. coast of the South Andaman, through which is the safe navigable Elphinstone Passage; Ritchie's (or the Andaman) Archipelago off the E. coast of the South Andaman and Baratang, separated by the wide and safe Diligent Strait and intersected by Kwangtung Strait and the Tadma Juru (Strait). Little Andaman, roughly 26 m. by 16, forms the southern extremity of the whole group and lies 31m. S. of Rutland Island across Duncan Passage, in which lie the Cinque and other islands, forming Manners Strait, the main commercial highway between the Andamans and the Madras coast. Besides these are a great number of islets lying off the shores of the main islands. The principal outlying islands are the North Sentinel, a dangerous island of about 28 sq. m., lying about 18 m. off the W. coast of the South Andaman; the remarkable marine volcano, Barren Island (1150 ft.), quiescent for more than a century, 71 m. N.E. of Port Blair; and the equally curious isolated mountain, the extinct volcano of Narcondam, rising 2330 ft. out of the sea, 71 m. E. of the North Andaman. The land area of the Andaman Islands is 2508 sq. m. About 18 m. to the W. of the Andamans are the dangerous Western Banks and Dalrymple Bank, rising to within a few fathoms of the surface of the sea and forming, with the two Sentinel Islands, the tops of a line of submarine hills parallel to the Andamans. Some 40 m. distant to the E. is the Invisible Bank, with one rock just awash; and 34 m. S.E. of Narcondam is a submarine hill rising to 377 fathoms below the surface of the sea. Narcondam, Barren Island and the Invisible Bank, a great danger of these seas, are in a line almost parallel to the Andamans inclining towards them from north to south. Topography. — The islands forming Great Andaman consist of a mass of hills enclosing very narrow valleys, the whole covered by an exceedingly dense tropical jungle. The hills rise, especially on the east coast, to a considerable elevation: the chief heights being in the North Andaman, Saddle Peak (2400 ft.); in the Middle Andaman, Mount Diavolo behind Cuthbert Bay (1678 ft.) ; in the South Andaman, Koiob (1505 ft.), Mount Harriet (1 193 ft.) and the Cholunga range (1063 ft.); and in Rutland Island, Ford's Peak (1422 ft.). Little Andaman, with the exception of the extreme north, is practically flat. There are no rivers and few perennial streams in the islands. The scenery is every- where strikingly beautiful and varied, and the coral beds of the more secluded bays in its harbours are conspicuous for their exquisite colouring. Harbours. — The coasts of the Andamans are deeply indented, giving existence to a number of safe harbours and tidal creeks, which are often surrounded by mangrove swamps. The chief harbours, some of which are very capacious, are (starting north- wards from Port Blair, the great harbour of South Andaman) on the E. coast: Port Meadows, Colebrooke Passage, Elphin- stone Harbour (Homfray's Strait), Stewart Sound and Port Cornwallis. The last three are very large. On the W. coast: Temple Sound, Interview Passage, Port Anson or Kwangtung Harbour (large), Port Campbell (large), Port Mouat and Mac- pherson Strait. There are besides many other safe anchorages about the coast, notably Shoal Bay and Kotara Anchorage in the South Andaman; Cadell Bay and the Turtle Islands in the North Andaman; and Outram Harbour and Kwangtung Strait in the archipelago. The whole of the Andamans and the out- lying islands were completely surveyed topographically by the Indian Survey Department under Colonel Hobday in 1883-1886, and the surrounding seas were charted by Commander Carpenter in 1888-1889. Geology. — The Andaman Islands, in conjunction with the other groups mentioned above, form part of a lofty range of submarine mountains, 700 m. long, running from Cape Negrais in the Arakan Yoma range of Burma, to Achin Head in Sumatra. This range separates the Bay of Bengal from the Andaman Sea; and it contains much that is geologically characteristic of the Arakan Yoma, and formations common also to the Nicobars and to Sumatra and the adjacent islands. The older rocks are early Tertiary or late Cretaceous but there are no fossils to indicate age. The newer rocks, common also to the Nicobars and Sumatra, are in Ritchie's Archipelago chiefly and contain radiolarians and foraminifera. There is coral along the coasts everywhere, and the Sentinel Islands are composed of the newer rocks with a super- structure of coral. A theory of a still continuing subsidence of the islands was formed by Kurz in 1866 and confirmed by Oldham in 1884. Signs of its continuance are found on the east coast in several places. Barren Island is a volcano of the general Sunda group which includes also the Pegu group to which Narcondam belongs. Barren Island was last in eruption in 1803, but there is still a thin column of steam from a sulphur bed at the top and a variable hot spring at the point where the last outburst of lava flowed into the sea. Climate. — Rarely affected by a cyclone, though within the influence of practically every one that blows in the Bay of Bengal, the Andamans are of the greatest importance because of the accurate information relating to the direction and intensity of storms which can be communicated from them better than from any other point in the bay, to the vast amount of shipping in this part of the Indian Ocean. Trustworthy information also' regarding the weather which may be expected in the north and east of India, is obtained at the islands, and this proves of the utmost value to the controllers of the great trades dependent upon the rainfall. A well-appointed meteorological station has been established at Port Blair since 1868. Speaking generally, the climate of the Andamans themselves may be described as normal for tropical islands of similar latitude. It is warm always, but tempered by pleasant sea-breezes; very hot when 956 ANDAMAN ISLANDS the sun is northing; irregular rainfall, but usually dry during the north-east, and very wet during the south-west monsoon. Not only does the rainfall at one place vary from year to year, but there is an extraordinary difference in the returns for places quite close to one another. The official figures in inches for the station at Port Blair, which is situated in by far the driest part of the settlement, were: — • 1895- 1896. 1897- 1898. 1899. - ' 1900. 1901. 125-64 107-28 136-41 127-22 87-01 83-28 132-50 A tidal observatory has also been maintained at Port Blair since 1880. Flora. — A section of the Forest Department of India has been established in the Andamans since 1883, and in the neighbour- hood of Port Blair 156 sq. m. have been set apart for regular forest operations which are carried on by convict labour. The chief timber of indigenous growth is padouk {Pterocarpus dalber- gioid.es) used for buildings, boats, furniture, fine joinery and all purposes to which teak, mahogany, hickory, oak and ash are applied. This tree is widely spread and forms a valuable export to European markets. Other first-class timbers are koko (Albizzia lebbek), white chuglam (Terminalia biaiata), black chuglam (Myrislica irya), marble or zebra wood (Diospyros kurzii) and satin-wood {Murray a exotica), which differs from the satin- wood of Ceylon {Chloroxylon sw-ietenia) . All of these timbers are used for furniture and similar purposes. In addition there are a number of second-and third-class timbers, which are used locally and for export to Calcutta. Gangaw {Messuaf erred) the Assam iron-wood, is suitable for sleepers; and didu (Bombax insigne) is used for tea-boxes and packing-cases. Among the imported flora are tea, Siberian coffee, cocoa, Ceara rubber (which has not done well), Manila hemp, teak, cocoanut and a number of ornamental trees, fruit-trees, vegetables and garden plants. Tea is grown in considerable quantities and the cultivation is under a department of the penal settlement. The general character of the forests is Burmese with an admixture of Malay types. Great mangrove swamps supply unlimited fire-wood of the best quality. The great peculiarity of Andaman flora is that, with the exception of the Cocos islands, no cocoanut palms are found in the archipelago. Fauna. — Animal life is generally deficient throughout the Andamans, especially as regards mammalia, of which there are only nineteen separate species in all, twelve of these being peculiar to the islands. There is a small pig (Sus andamanensis) , important to the food of the people, and a wild cat (Paradoxurus tytleri); but the bats(sixteen species) and rats(thirteen species) constitute nearly three-fourths of the known mammals. This paucity of animal life seems inconsistent with the theory that the islands were once connected with the mainland. Most of the birds also are derived from the distant Indian region, while the Indo- Burmese and Indo-Malayan regions are represented to a far less degree. Rasorial birds, such as peafowl, junglefowl, pheasants and partridges, though well represented in the Arakan hills, are rare in the islands; while a third of the different species found are peculiar to the Andamans. Moreover, the Andaman species differ from those of the adjacent Nicobar Islands. Each group has its distinct harrier-eagle, red-cheeked paroquet, oriole, sun- bird and bulbul. Fish are very numerous and many species are peculiar to the Andaman seas. Turtles are abundant and supply the Calcutta market. Of imported animals, cattle, goats, asses and dogs thrive well, ponies and horses indifferently, and sheep badly, though some success has been achieved in breeding them. Population. — The Andaman Islands, so near countries that have for ages attained considerable civilization and have been the seat of great empires, and close to the track of a great commerce which has gone on at least 2000 years, are the abode of savages as low in civilization as almost any known on earth. Our earliest notice of them is in a remarkable collection of early Arab notes on India and China (a.d. 851) which accurately represents the view entertained of this- people by mariners down to modern times. " The inhabitants of these islands eat men alive. They are black, with woolly hair, and in their eyes and countenances there is something quite frightful .... They go naked and have no boats. If they had, they would devour all who passed near them. Sometimes ships that are windbound and have ex- hausted their provision of water, touch here and apply to the natives for it; in such cases the crews sometimes fall into the hands of the latter and most of them are massacred." The traditional charge of cannibalism has been very persistent; but it is entirely denied by the islanders themselves, and is now and probably always has been untrue. Of their massacres of ship- wrecked crews, even in quite modern times, there is no doubt, but the policy of conciliation unremittingly pursued for the last forty years has now secured a friendly reception for shipwrecked crews at any port of the islands except the south and west of Little Andaman and North Sentinel Island. The Andamanese are probably the relics of a negro race that once inhabited the S.E. portion of Asia and its outlying islands, representatives of which are also still to be found in the Malay Peninsula and the Philip- pines. Their antiquity and their stagnation are attested by the remains found in their kitchen-middens. These are of great age, and rise sometimes to a height exceeding 15 ft. The fossil shells, pottery and rude stone implements, found alike at the base and at the surface of these middens, prove that the habits of the islanders have not varied since a remote past, and lead to the belief that the Andamans were settled by their present inhabi- tants some time during the Pleistocene period, and certainly no later than the Neolithic age. The population is not susceptible of accurate computation, but probably it has always been small. The estimated total at a census taken in 1901 was only 2000. Though all descended from one stock, there are twelve distinct tribes of the Andamanese, each with its own clearly-defined locality, its own distinct variety of the one fundamental language and to a certain extent its own separate habits. Every tribe is divided into septs fairly well defined. The tribal feeling may be expressed as friendly within the tribe, courteous to other Anda- manese if known, hostile to every stranger, Andamanese or other. Another division of the natives is into Aryauto or long-shore-men, and the Eremtaga or jungle-dwellers. The habits and capacities of these two differ, owing to surroundings, irrespectively of tribe. Yet again the Andamanese can be grouped according to certain salient characteristics: the forms of the bows and arrows, of the canoes, of ornaments and utensils, of tattooing and of language. The average height of males is 4 ft. io| in. ; of females, 4 ft. 6 in. Being accustomed to gratify every sensation as it arises, they endure thirst, hunger, want of food and bodily discomfort badly. The skin varies in colour from an intense sheeny black to a reddish-brown on the collar-bones, cheeks and other parts of the body. The hair varies from a sooty black to dark and light brown and red. It grows in small rings, which give it the appear- ance of growing in tufts, though it is really closely and evenly distributed over the whole scalp. The figures of the men are muscular and well-formed and generally pleasing; a straight, well-formed nose and jaw are by no means rare, and the young men are often distinctly good-looking. The only artificial deformity is a depression of the skull, chiefly among one of the southern tribes, caused by the pressure of a strap used for carrying loads. The pleasing appearance natural to the men is not a characteristic of the women, who early have a tendency to stoutness and ungainliness of figure, and sometimes to pronounced prognathism. They are, however, always bright and merry, are under no special social restrictions and have considerable influence. The women's heads are shaved entirely and the men's into fantastic patterns. Yellow and red ochre mixed with grease are coarsely smeared over the bodies, grey in coarse patterns and white in fine patterns resembling tattoo marks. Tattoo- ing is of two distinct varieties. In the south the body is slightly cut by women with small flakes of glass or quartz in zigzag or lineal patterns downwards. In the north it is deeply cut by men with pig-arrows in lines across the body. The male matures when about fifteen years of age, marries when about twenty-six, begins to age when about -forty, and lives on to sixty or sixty-five if he reaches old age. Except ANDAMAN ISLANDS 957 as to the marrying age, these figures fairly apply to women. Before marriage free intercourse between the sexes is the rule, though certain conventional precautions are taken to prevent it. Marriages rarely produce more than three children and often none at all. Divorce is rare, unfaithfulness after marriage not common and incest unknown. By preference the Andamanese are exogamous as regards sept and endogamous as regards tribe. The children are possessed of a bright intelligence, which, how- ever, soon reaches its climax, and the adult may be compared in this respect with the civilized child of ten or twelve. The Andamanese are, indeed, bright and merry companions, busy in their own pursuits, keen sportsmen, naturally independent and not lustful, but when angered, cruel, jealous, treacherous and vindictive, and always unstable — in fact, a people to like but not to trust. There is no idea of government, but in each sept there is a head, who has attained that position by degrees on account of some tacitly admitted superiority and commands a limited respect and some obedience. The young are deferential to their elders. Off ences are punished by the aggrieved party. Property is communal and theft is only recognized as to things of absolute necessity, such as arrows, pigs' flesh and fire. Fire is the one thing they are really careful about, not knowing how to renew it. A very rude barter exists between tribe's of the same group in regard to articles not locally obtainable. The religion consists of fear of the spirits of the wood, the sea, disease and ancestors, and of avoidance of acts traditionally displeasing to them. There is neither worship nor propitiation. An anthropomorphic deity, Puluga, is the cause of all things, but it is not necessary to pro- pitiate him. There is a vague idea that the " soul " will go some- where after death, but there is no heaven nor hell, nor idea of a corporeal resurrection. There is much faith in dreams, and in the utterances of certain " wise men," who practise an embryonic magic and witchcraft. The great amusement of the Andamanese is a formal night dance, but they are also fond of simple games. The bows differ altogether with each group, but the same two kinds of arrows are in general use: (i) Jong and ordinary for fishing and other purposes; (2) short with a detachable head fastened to the shaft by a thong, which quickly brings pigs up short when shot in the thick jungle. Bark provides material for string, while baskets and mats are neatly and stoutly made from canes and buckets out of bamboo and wood. None of the tribes ever ventures out of sight of land, and they have no idea of steering by sun or stars. Their canoes are simply hollowed out of trunks with the adze and in no other way, and it is the smaller ones which are outrigged; they do not last long and are not good sea-boats, and the story of raids on Car Nicobar, out of sight across a stormy and sea-rippled channel, must be discredited. Honour is shown to an adult when he dies, by wrapping him in a cloth and placing him on a platform in a tree instead of burying him. At such a time the encampment is deserted for three months. The Andaman languages are extremely interesting from the philological standpoint. They are agglutinative in nature, show hardly any signs of syntactical growth though every indication of long etymological growth, give expression to only the most direct and the simplest thought, and are purely colloquial and wanting in the modifications always necessary for communication by writing. The sense is largely eked out by manner and action. Mincopie is the first word in Colebrooke's vocabulary for " Andaman Island, or native country," and the term — though probably a mishearing on Colebrooke's part for Mongebe (" I am an Onge," i.e. a member of the Onge tribe) — - has thus become a persistent book-name for the people. At- tempts to civilize the Andamanese have met with little success either among adults or children. The home established near Port Blair is used as a sort of free asylum which the native visits according to his pleasure. The policy of the government is to leave the Andamanese alone, while doing what is possible to ameliorate their condition. Penal Settlement. — The point of enduring interest as regards the Andamans is the penal system, the object of which is to turn the life-sentence and few long-sentence convicts, who alone are sent to the settlement, into honest, self-respecting men and women, by leading them along a continuous course of practice m self-help and self-restraint, and by offering them every inducement to take advantage of that practice. After ten years' graduated labour the convict is given a ticket-of-leave and becomes self- supporting. He can farm, keep cattle, and marry or send for his family, but he cannot leave the settlement or be idle. With approved conduct, however, he may be absolutely released after twenty to twenty-five years in the settlement; and throughout that time, though possessing no civil rights, a quasi-judicial procedure controls all punishments inflicted upon him, and he is as secure of obtaining justice as if free. There is an unlimited variety of work for the labouring convicts, and some of the establishments are on a large scale. Very few experts are employed in supervision; practically everything is directed by the officials, who themselves have first to learn each trade. Under the chief commissioner, who is the supreme head of the settlement, are a deputy and a staff of assistant superintendents and overseers, almost all Europeans, and sub-overseers, who are natives of India. All the petty supervising establishments are composed of convicts. The garrison consists of 140 British and 300 Indian troops, with a few local European volunteers. The police are organized as a military battalion 643 strong. The number of convicts has somewhat diminished of late years and in 1001 stood at 11,947. The total population of the settlement, consisting of convicts, their guards, the supervising, clerical and departmental staff, with the families of the latter, also a certain number of ex-convicts and trading settlers and their families, numbered 16, 106. The labouring convicts are distributed among four jails and nineteen stations; the self-supporters in thirty- eight villages. The elementary education of the convicts' children is compulsory. There are four hospitals, each under a resident medical officer, under the general supervision of a senior officer of the Indian medical service, and medical aid is given free to the whole population. The net annual cost of the settlement to the government is about £6 per convict. The harbour of Port Blair is well supplied with buoys and harbour lights, and is crossed by ferries at fixed intervals, while there are several launches for hauling local traffic. On Ross Island there is a light- house visible for 19 m. A complete system of signalling by night and day on the Morse system is worked by the police. Local posts are frequent, but there is no telegraph and the mails are irregular. History. — It is uncertain whether any of the names of the islands given by Ptolemy ought to be attached to the Andamans; yet it is probable that his name itself is traceable in the Alexan- drian geographer. Andaman first appears distinctly in the Arab notices of the 9th century, already quoted. But it seems possible that the tradition of marine nomenclature had never perished; that the 'A7a0oO Saiixovos vrjaos was really a misunderstanding of some form like Agdamdn, while Nijcroi Bapowcrai survived as Lanka Balus, the name applied by the Arabs to the Nicobars. The islands are briefly noticed by Marco Polo, who probably saw without visiting them, under the name Angamanain, seemingly an Arabic dual, " The two Angamans," with the exaggerated but not unnatural picture of the natives, long current, as dog-faced Anthropophagi. Another notice occurs in the story of Nicolo Conti (c. 1440), who explains the name to mean " Island of Gold," and speaks of a lake with peculiar virtues as existing in it. The name is probably derived from the Malay Handuman, coming from the ancient Hanuman (monkey). Later travellers repeat the stories, too well founded, of the ferocious hostility of the people; of whom we may instance Cesare Federici (1569), whose narrative is given in Ramusio, vol. iii. (only in the later editions), and in Purchas. A good deal is also told of them in the vulgar and gossiping but useful work of Captain A. Hamilton (1727). In 1 788-1 789 the government of Bengal sought to establish in the Andamans a penal colony, associated with a harbour of refuge. Two able officers, Colebrooke of the Bengal Engineers, and Blair of the sea service, were sent to survey and report. In the sequel the settlement was established by Captain Blair, in September 1789, on Chatham Island, in the S.E. bay of the Great Andaman, now called Port Blair, but then Port Cornwallis. There was much sickness, and after two years, urged by Admiral Cornwallis, 95 8 ANDANTE— ANDERSEN the government transferred the colony to the N.E. part of Great Andaman, where a naval arsenal was to be established. With the colony the name also of Port Cornwallis was transferred to this new locality. The scheme did ill; and in 1796 the govern- ment put an end to it, owing to the great mortality and the embarrassments of maintenance. The settlers were finally removed in May 1796. In 1824 Port Cornwallis was the rendez- vous of the fleet carrying the army to the first Burmese war. In 1839, Dr Heifer, a German savant employed by the Indian government, having landed in the islands, was attacked and killed. In 1844 the troop-ships " Briton " and " Runnymede " were driven ashore here, almost close together. The natives showed their usual hostility, killing all stragglers. Outrages on shipwrecked crews continued so rife that the question of occupa- tion had to be taken up again; and in 1855 a project was formed for such a settlement, embracing a convict establishment. This was interrupted by the Indian Mutiny of 1857, but as soon as the neck of that revolt was broken, it became more urgent than ever to provide such a resource, on account of the great number of prisoners falling into British hands. Lord Canning, therefore, in November 1857, sent a commission, headed by Dr F. Mouat, to examine and report. The commission reported favourably, selecting as a site Blair's original Port Cornwallis, but pointing out and avoiding the vicinity of a salt swamp which seemed to have been pernicious to the old colony. To avoid confusion, the name of Port Blair was given to the new settlement, which was established in the beginning of 1858. For some time sickness and mortality were excessively large, but the reclamation of swamp and clearance of jungle on an extensive scale by Colonel Henry Man when in charge (1 868-1 870), had a most beneficial effect, and the health of the settlement has since been notable. The Anda- man colony obtained a tragical notoriety from the murder of the viceroy, the earl of Mayo, by a Mahommedan convict, when on a visit to the settlement on the 8th of February 1872. In the same year the two groups, Andaman and Nicobar, the occupation of the latter also having been forced on the British government (in 1869) by the continuance of outrage upon vessels, were united under a chief commissioner residing at Port Blair. See Sir Richard Temple, The Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Indian Census, 1901); C. B. Kloss, In the Andamans and Nicobars (i9 3) ! E. H. Man, Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands (1883); M. V. Portman, Record of the Andamanese (n volumes MS. in India Office, London, and Home Department, Calcutta), 1893- 1898, Andamanese Manual (1887), Notes on the Languages of the South Andaman Group of Tribes (1898), and History of our Relations ■with the Andamanese (1899); S. Kurz, Vegetation of the Andamans (1867) ; G. S. Miller, Mammals of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (vol. xxiv. of the Proceedings of the National Museum, U.S.A.) ; A. L. Butler, " Birds of the Andamans and Nicobars " (Proc. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, vols. xii. and xiii.) ; and A. Alcock, A Naturalist in Indian Seas (1902). ANDANTE (Ital. for " moving' slowly," from andare, to go), a musical term to indicate pace, coming between adagio and allegro; it is also used of an independent piece of music or of the slow movement in a sonata, symphony, &c. ANDERIDA, an ancient Roman fort at Pevensey, near East- bourne in Sussex (England), built about a.d. 300 as part of a scheme of land-defence against the Saxon pirates; repaired, probably by the great Stilicho, about a.d. 400; and after the Norman Conquest utilized by William the Conqueror for a Norman castle. Its massive Roman enceinte still stands but little damaged. ANDERNACH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the left bank of the Rhine, 10 m. N.W. of Coblenz by the main line to Cologne. Pop. (1900) 7889. Viewed from the river it makes a somewhat gloomy, though picturesque, im- pression, with its parish church (a basilica dating from the 12th century, with four towers), the round watch-tower on the Rhine, old walls in places 15 ft. thick, and a famous crane (erected 1554) for lading merchandise. Among other buildings are a Gothic Minorite church (now Protestant), a town hall, and a prison, formerly the castle of the archbishops of Cologne. Andernach has considerable industries, brewing and manufactures of chemicals and perfumes, and has also a trade in corn and wine. But its most notable article of commerce is that of mill-stones, made of lava and tufa-stone, a product much used by the Dutch in the construction of their dykes. Andernach (Antunnacum) is the old Roman Castellum ante Nacum, founded by Drusus and fortified in the 3rd century a.d. In 1 109 Andernach received civic rights, passed in 1167 to the electors of Cologne, in 1253 joined the confederation of the Rhine cities and was the most southern member of the Hanseatic league. Here in 1474 a treaty was signed between the emperor Frederick III., the four electors of the Rhine and France. In 1 794 Andernach passed to France, but in 1 8 1 5 was ceded, together with the left bank of the Rhine, to Prussia. ANDERSEN, HANS CHRISTIAN (1805-1875), Danish poet and fabulist, was born at Odense, in Fiinen, on the 2nd of April 1805. He was the son of a sickly young shoemaker of twenty- two, and his still younger wife: the whole family lived and slept in one little room. Andersen very early showed signs of imaginative temperament, which was fostered by the indulgence and superstition of his parents. In 18 16 the shoe- maker died and the child was left entirely to his own devices. He ceased to go to school; he built himself a little toy- theatre and sat at home making clothes for his puppets, and reading all the plays that he could borrow; among them were those of Holberg and Shakespeare. At Easter 1819 he was confirmed at the church of St Kund, Odense, and began to turn his thoughts to the future. It was thought that he was best fitted to be a tailor; but as nothing was settled, and as Andersen wished to be an opera-singer, he took matters into his own hand and started for Copenhagen in September 1819. There he was taken for a lunatic, snubbed at the theatres, and nearly reduced to starvation, but he was befriended by the musicians Christoph Weyse and Siboni, and afterwards by the poet PYederik Hoegh Guldberg (1771-1852). His voice failed, but he was admitted as a dancing pupil at the Royal Theatre. He grew idle, and lost the favour of Guldberg, but a new patron appeared in the person of Jonas Collin, the director of the Royal Theatre, who became Andersen's life-long friend. King Frederick VI. was interested in the strange boy and sent him for some years, free of charge, to the great grammar-school at Slagelse. Before he started for school he published his first volume, The Ghost at Palnatoke's Grave (1822). Andersen, a very backward and un- willing pupil, actually remained at Slagelse and at another school in Elsinore until 1827; these years, he says, were the darkest and bitterest in his life. Collin at length consented to consider him educated, and Andersen came to Copenhagen. In 1829 he made a considerable success with a fantastic volume entitled A Journey on Foot from Holman's Canal to the East Point of Amager, and he published in the same season a farce and a book of poems. He thus suddenly came into request at the moment when his friends had decided that no good thing would ever come out of his early eccentricity and vivacity. He made little further progress, however, until 1833, when he received a small travel- ling stipend from the king, and made the first of his long European journeys. At Le Locle, in the Jura, he wrote Agnate and the Mer- man; and in October 1834 he arrived in Rome. Early in 1835 Andersen's novel, The Improvisatore, appeared, and achieved a real success; the poet's troubles were at an end at last. In the same year, 1835, the earliest instalment of Andersen's immortal Fairy Tales (Eventyr) was published in Copenhagen. Other parts, completing the first volume, appeared in 1836 and 1837. The value of these stories was not at first perceived, and they sold slowly. Andersen was more successful for the time being with a novel, O.T., and a volume of sketches, In Sweden; in 1837 he produced the best of his romances, Only a Fiddler. He now turned his attention, with but ephemeral success, to the theatre, but was recalled to his true genius in the charming miscellanies of 1840 and 1842, the Picture-Book without Pictures, and A Poet's Bazaar. Meanwhile the fame of his Fairy Tales had been steadily rising; a second series began in 1838, a third in 1845. Andersen was now celebrated throughout Europe, although in Denmark itself there was still some resistance to his pretensions. In June 1847 he paid his first visit to England, and enjoyed a ANDERSON 959 triumphal social success; when he left, Charles Dickens saw him off from.Ramsgate pier. After this Andersen continued to publish much; he still desired to excel as a novelist and a dramatist, which he could not do, and he still disdained the enchanting Fairy Tales, in the composition of which his unique genius lay. Nevertheless he continued to write them, and in 1847 and 1848 two fresh volumes appeared. After a long silence Andersen published in 1857 another romance, To be or not to be. In 1863, after a very interesting journey, he issued one of the best of his travel-books, In Spain. His Fairy Tales continued to appear, in instalments, until 1872, when, at Christmas, the last stories were published. In the spring of that year Andersen had an awkward accident, falling out of bed and severely hurting himself. He was never again quite well, but he lived till the 4th of August 1875, when he died very peacefully in the house called Rolighed, near Copenhagen. (E. G.) ANDERSON, ADAM (1692-1765), Scottish economist, was born in 1602, and died in London on the 10th of January 1765. He was a clerk for forty years in the South Sea House, where he published a work entitled Historical and Chronological Deduction of the Origin of Commerce from the Earliest Accounts to the Present Time, containing a History of the Great Commercial Interests of the British Empire (1762, 2 vols. fol.). ANDERSON, ALEXANDER (c. 1582-1620?), Scottish mathe- matician, was born at Aberdeen. In his youth he went to the continent and taught mathematics at Paris, where he published or edited, between the years 1612 and 1619, various geometrical and algebraical tracts, which are conspicuous for their ingenuity and elegance. He was selected by the executors of Franciscus Vieta to revise and edit his manuscript works, a task which he discharged with great ability. The works of Anderson amount to six thin 4to volumes, and as the last of them was published in 1619, it is probable that the author died soon after that year, but the precise date is unknown. ANDERSON, SIR EDMUND (1530-1605), English lawyer, descended from a Scottish family settled in Lincolnshire, was born in 1530 at Flixborough or Broughton in that county. After studying for a short time at Lincoln College, Oxford, he became in 1550 a student of the Inner Temple. In 1579 he was appointed serjeant-at-law to Queen Elizabeth, and also an assistant judge on circuit. As a reward for his services in the trial of Edmund Campian and his followers (1581), he was, on the death of Sir James Dyer, appointed lord chief justice of the Common Pleas (1582), and was knighted. He took part in all the leading state trials which agitated England during the latter years of Elizabeth's reign. Though a great lawyer and thoroughly impartial in civil cases, he became notorious by his excessive severity and harshness when presiding over the trials of catholics and nonconformists; more markedly so in those of Sir John Perrot, Sir Walter Raleigh, and John Udall the puritan minister. Anderson was also one of the commissioners appointed to try Mary queen of Scots in 1586. He died on the 1st of August 1605 at Eyworth in Bedfordshire. In addition to Reports of Many Principal Cases Argued and Adjudged in the Time of Queen Elizabeth in the Common Bench, published after his death, he drew up several expositions of statutes enacted in Elizabeth's reign which remain in manuscript in the British Museum. ANDERSON, ELIZABETH GARRETT (1836- ), English medical practitioner, daughter of Newson Garrett, of Aldeburgh, Suffolk, was born in 1836, and educated at home and at a private school. In i860 she resolved to study medicine, an unheard- of thing for a woman in those days, and one which was regarded by old-fashioned people as almost indecent. Miss Garrett managed to obtain some more or less irregular instruction at the Middlesex hospital, London, but was refused admission as a full student both there and at many other schools to which she applied. Finally she studied anatomy privately at the London hospital, and with some of the professors at St Andrews University, and at the Edinburgh Extra-Mural school. She had no less difficulty in gaining a qualifying diploma to practise medicine. London University, the Royal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons, and many other examining bodies refused to admit her to their examinations; but in the end the Society of Apothecaries, London, allowed her to enter for the License of Apothecaries' Hall, which she obtained in 1865. In 1866 she was appointed general medical attendant to St Mary's dispensary, a London institution started to enable poor women to obtain medical help from qualified practitioners of their own sex. The dispensary soon developed into the New hospital for women, and there she worked for over twenty years. In 1870 she obtained the Paris degree of M.D. The same year she was elected to the first London School Board, at the head of the poll for Marylebone, and was also made one of the visiting physicians of the East London hospital for children; but the duties of these two positions she found to be incompatible with her principal work, and she soon resigned them. In 1871 she married Mr J. G. S. Anderson (d. 1907), a London shipowner, but did not give up practice. She worked steadily at the develop- ment of the New hospital, and (from 1874) at the creation of a complete school of medicine in London for women. Both institutions have since been handsomely and suitably housed and equipped, the New hospital (in the Euston Road) being worked entirely by medical women, and the schools (in Hunter Street, W.C.) having over 200 students, most of them preparing for the medical degree of London University, which was opened to women in 1877. In 1897 Mrs Garrett Anderson was elected president of the East Anglian branch of the British Medical Association. In 1908 she was elected (the first lady) mayor of Aldeburgh. The movement for the admission of women to the medical profession, of which she was the indefatigable pioneer in England, has extended to every civilized country except Spain and Turkey. ANDERSON, JAMES (1662-1728), Scottish genealogist, anti- quary and historian, was born at Edinburgh on the 5th of August 1662. He was educated for the law, and became a writer to the signet in 1691. His profession gave him the opportunity of gratifying his taste for the study of ancient documents; and just before the union the Scottish parliament commissioned him to prepare for publication what remained of the public records of the kingdom, and in their last session voted a sum of £1940 sterling to defray his expenses. At this work he laboured for several years with great judgment and perseverance; but it was not completed at his death in 1728. The book was published posthumously in 1739, edited by Thomas Ruddiman, under the title Selectus Diplomalum el Numismatum Scoliae Thesaurus. The preparation of this great national work involved the author in considerable pecuniary loss; and soon after his death, the numerous plates, engraved by Sturt, were sold for £530. These plates are now lost, and the book has become exceedingly scarce. After the union of the crowns, Anderson was appointed in 1715 postmaster-general for Scotland, as some compensation for his labours; but in the political struggles of 1717 he was deprived of this office, and never again obtained any reward for his services. He died on the 3rd of April 1728. He published, during the controversy about the union, An Historical Essay showing that the Crown and King- dom of Scotland is Imperial and Independent (Edin., 1705,), and later Collections relating to the History of Mary Queen of Scotland (in 4 vols., Edin., 1727-1728). ANDERSON, JAMES (1739-1808), Scottish agriculturist and economist, was born at Hermiston, near Edinburgh, in 1739. While still a boy he undertook the working of a farm in Mid- Lothian which his family had occupied for several generations, and later he rented in Aberdeenshire a farm of 1300 acres of unimproved land. In 1783 he settled in Edinburgh, where in 1 791 he projected a weekly publication called The Bee, which was largely written by himself, and of which eighteen volumes were published. In 1797 he began to reside at Isleworth, and from 1799 to 1802 he produced a monthly publication, Recreations in Agriculture, Natural History, Arts and Miscellaneous 'Litera- ture. He was also the author of many pamphlets on agri- cultural and economical topics. He died on the 15th of October 1808. g6o ANDERSON— ANDES ANDERSON, JOHN (i 726-1 796), Scottish natural philosopher, was born at Roseneath, Dumbartonshire, in 1726. In 1756 he became professor of oriental languages in the university of Glasgow, where he had finished his education; and in 1760 he was appointed to the more congenial post of professor of natural philosophy. He devoted himself particularly to the application of science to industry, instituting courses of lectures intended especially for artisans, and he bequeathed his property for the foundation of an institution for the furtherance of technical and scientific education in Glasgow, Anderson's College, now merged in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College. He died in Glasgow on the 13th of January 1796. His Institutes of Physics, published in 1786, went through five editions in ten years. ANDERSON, MARY (1859- ), American actress, was born at Sacramento, California, on the 28th of July 1859. Her father, an officer in the Confederate service in the Civil War, died in 1863 . She was educated in various Roman Catholic institutions, and at the age of thirteen, with the advice of Charlotte Cushman, began to study for the stage, making her first appearance at Louisville, Kentucky, as Juliet in 1875. Her remarkable beauty created an immediate success, and she played in all the large cities of the United States with increasing popularity. Between 1883 and 1889 she had several seasons in London, and was the Rosalind in the performance of A s You Like It which opened the Shakespeare Memorial theatre at Stratford-on-Avon. Among her chief parts were Galatea (in W. S. Gilbert's Pygmalion and Galatea), Clarice (in his Comedy and Tragedy, written for her), Hermione, Perdita, and Julia (in The Hunchback) . In 1889 she retired from the stage and in 1890 married Antonio de Navarro, and settled in England. See William Winter's Stage Life of Mary Anderson (New York, 1886), and her own A Few Memories (New York, 1896). ANDERSON, RICHARD HENRY (1821-1879), American soldier, was born in South Carolina on the 7th of October 182 1. Graduating at West Point in 1842, he served in the Mexican War (in which he won the brevet of first lieutenant) and in the Kansas troublesof 1856-1857, becomingfirstlieutenant in 1848 and captain in 1855. At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 he resigned his commission in the U.S. army, and entered the Confederate service as a brigadier-general, being promoted major-general in August 1862 and lieutenant-general in May 1864. With the exception of a few months spent with the army under Bragg in 1862, Anderson's service was wholly in the Army of Northern Virginia. Under Lee and Longstreet he served as a divisional commander in nearly every battle from 1862 to 1864, winning especial distinction at Chancellorsville and Gettysburg. When Longstreet was wounded at the battle of the Wilderness, Ander- son succeeded him in command of the 1st corps, which he led in the subsequent battles. His services at the battle of Spott- sylvania (q.v.) were most important. He remained with the army, as a corps commander, to the close of the war, after which he retired into private life. He died at Beaufort S.C. on the 26th of June 1879. ANDERSON, ROBERT (1750-1830), Scottish author and critic, was born at Carnwath, Lanarkshire, on the 7th of January 1750. He studied first divinity and then medicine at the uni- versity of Edinburgh, and subsequently, after some experience as a surgeon, took the degree of M.D. at St Andrews in 1778. He began to practise as a physician at Alnwick, but he became financially independent by his marriage with the daughter of Mr John Gray, and abandoned his profession for a literary life in Edinburgh. For several years his attention was occupied with his edition of The Works of the British Poets, with Prefaces Biographical and Critical (14 vols. 8vo, Edin., 1 792-1807). His other publications were, The Miscellaneous Works of Tobias Smollett, M.D., with Memoirs of his Life and Writings (Edin., 1796); Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D., with Critical Observations on his Works (Edin., 1815); The Works of John Moore, M.D^ with Memoirs of his Life and Writings (Edin., 7 vols., 1820); and The Grave and other Poems, by Robert Blair; to which are pre- fixed some Account of his Life and Observations on his Writings (Edin., 1826). Dr Anderson died at Edinburgh on the 20th of February 1830. ANDERSON, a city and the county-seat of Madison county, Indiana, U.S.A., situated on the west fork of the White river, about 35 m. N.E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1880) 4126; (1S90) 10,741; (1900) 20,178, of whom 1081 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 22,476. It is served by the Central Indiana, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Pittsburg, Chicago & St Louis railways, and also by the Indiana Union Traction System (electric), the general offices and central power plant of which are situated there. Its importance as a manu- facturing centre is due to its location in the natural gas region. In 1905 Anderson ranked first among the cities of the state in the manufacture of carriage and wagon material, and iron and steel. Among its many other manufactures are glass and glass- ware, paper, strawboards, crockery and tiles. In 1905 the total factory product was valued at $8,314,760. There is a good public library; much attention has been devoted to public improvements; and the water works and the electric lighting plants are owned and operated by the city. In connexion with the water works there is a good filtration plant. First settled about 1822, Anderson was incorporated in 1865. ANDERSONVILLE, a village of Sumter county, Georgia, U.S.A., in the S.W. part of the state, about 60 m. S. W . of Macon, on the Central of Georgia railway. Pop. (1910) 174. from November 1863 until the close of the Civil War it was the seat of a Confederate military prison. A tract of i6| acres of land near the village was cleared of trees and enclosed with a stockade. Prisoners began to arrive in February 1864, before the prison was completed and before adequate supplies had been received, and in May their number amounted to about 12,000. In June the stockade was enlarged so as to include 265 acres, but the congestion was only temporarily relieved, and in August the number of prisoners exceeded 32,000. No shelter had been provided for the inmates: the first arrivals made rude sheds from the debris of the stockade; the others made tents of blankets and other available pieces of cloth, or dug pits in the ground. Owing to the slender resources of the Confederacy, the prison was frequently short of food, and even when this was sufficient in quantity it was of a poor quality and poorly prepared on account of the lack of cooking utensils. The water supply, deemed ample when the prison was planned, became polluted under the congested conditions. During the summer of 1864 the prisoners suffered greatly from hunger, exposure and disease, and in seven months about a third of them died. In the autumn, after the capture of Atlanta, all the prisoners who could be moved were sent to Millen, Georgia and Florence, South Carolina. At Millen better arrangements prevailed, and when, after Sherman began his march to the sea, the prisoners were returned to Andersonville, the conditions there were somewhat improved. During the war 49,485 prisoners were received at the Anderson- yille prison, and of these about 13,000 died. The terrible con- ditions obtaining there were due to the lack of food supplies in the Confederate States, the incompetence of the prison officials, and the refusal of the Federal authorities in 1864 to make exchanges of prisoners, thus filling the stockade with unlooked-for numbers. After the war Henry Wirz, the superintendent, was tried by a court-martial, and on the 10th of November 1865 was hanged, and the revelation of the sufferings of the prisoners was one of the factors that shaped public opinion regarding the South in the Northern states, after the close of the Civil War. The prisoners' burial ground at Andersonville has been made a national cemetery, and contains 13,714 graves of which 921 are marked " unknown." There is an impartial account of the Andersonville prison in James F. Rhodes, History of the United States (vol. v., New York, 1904). The partisan accounts are numerous; see, for instance, A. C. Hamlin, Martyria; or, Andersonville Prison (Boston, 1866); and R. R. Stevenson, The Southern Side; or, Andersonville Prison (Baltimore, 1876). ANDES, a vast mountain system forming a continuous chain of highland along the western coast of South America. It is roughly 4400 m. long, 100 m. wide in some parts, and of an ANDES 961 Tlerra del Fuego. average height of 13,000 ft. 1 The connexion of this system with that of the Rocky Mountains, which has been pointed out by many writers, has received much support from the discovery of the extensive eruptions of granite during Tertiary times, extend- ing from the southern extremity of South America to Alaska. The Andean range is composed of two great principal chains with a deep intermediate depression, in which, and at the sides of the great chains, arise other chains of minor importance, the chief of which is that called the Cordillera de la Costa of Chile. This starts from the southern extremity of the continent, and runs in a northerly direction, parallel with the coast, being broken up at its beginning into a number of islands, and afterwards forming the western boundary of the great central valley of Chile. To the north this coastal chain continues in small ridges or isolated hills along the Pacific as far as Colombia, always leaving the same valley more or less visible to the west of the western great chain. Of the two principal chains the eastern is generally called Los Andes, and the western La Cordillera, in Colombia, Peru and Bolivia, where the eastern is likewise known as Cordillera Real de los Andes, while to the south of parallel 23 S. lat. in Chile and Argentina, the western is called Cordillera de los Andes. The eastern disappears in the centre of Argentina, and it is therefore only the Cordillera de los Andes that is prolonged as far as the south-eastern extremity of the continent. The Cordillera de la Costa begins near Cape Horn, which is composed principally of crystalline rocks, and its heights are inconsiderable when compared with those of the trueCordillera of the Andes. The latter, as regards its main chain, is on the northern coast of the Beagle Channel, inTierra del Fuego, bounded on the north by the deep depression of Lake Fagnano and of Admiralty Sound. Staten Island appears to be the termination to the east. The Cordillera of the Andes in Tierra del Fuego is formed of crystalline schists, and culminates in the snow- capped peaks of Mount Darwin and Mount Sarmiento (7200 ft.), which contains glaciers of greater extent than those of Mont Blanc. The extent of the glaciers is considerable in this region, which, geographically, is more complex than was formerly supposed. Although, in the explored portion of the Fuegian chain, the volcanoes which have been mentioned from time to time have not been met with, there seem to have existed to the south, on the islands, many neo-volcanic rocks, some of which appear to be contemporaneous with the basaltic sheet that covers a part of eastern Patagonia. The insular region between Mount Sarmiento and the Cordillera de los Andes, properly so called, i.e. that which extends from Magellan Strait northwards, is not fully explored, and all that is known of it is that it is principally composed of the same rocks as the Fuegian section, and that the greater part of its upper valleys is occupied by glaciers that reach down to the sea amid dense forest. As Admiralty Sound and Lake Fagnano bound the Cordillera to the north in Tierra del Fuego, so at the eastern side of the Cordillera in the southernmost part of the continent there is a longitudinal depression which separates the Andes from some independent ridges pertaining to a secondary parallel broken chain called the pre- Cordillera. This depression is occupied in great part by a series of lakes, some of these filling transversal breaches in the range, whilst others are remains of glacial re- servoirs, bordered by morainic dams, extending as far as the eastern tableland and corresponding in these cases with trans- versal depressions which reach the Atlantic Ocean. Between the larger lakes, fed by the Andine glaciers of the eastern Argentina, s '°P e °f tne Southern Andes, are Lakes Maravilla, S2°-38° s.' 100 sq. m., and Sarmiento, 26 sq. m., 51 S. lat., which overflow into Last Hope Inlet; Argentino, 570 sq. m., 50 S. lat.; and Viedma, 450 sq. m., 49° 30' S. lat., which empty into the river Santa Cruz; the fjordian Lake San Martin, 40 S. lat., and Lakes Nansen, 18 sq. m. ; Azara, 8 sq. m.; and Belgrano, 18 sq. m., which are dependents of Lake San Martin 1 As to the specific elevations of many of the peaks mentioned in this article, various authorities differ, and it is impossible in many cases to rate one estimate as of greater value than another. I- 31 (380 sq. m.), and Lakes Pueyrredon (98 sq. m.) and Buenos Aires (700 sq. m.), which now overflow into the Pacific, through one of the remarkable inlets that are found throughout the Cordillera, the Calen Inlet, which is the largest western fjord of Patagonia. To the north of Lake Buenos Aires there is Lake Elizalde, which, while situated on the eastern slope, sends its waters to the Pacific Ocean, and Lakes Fontana (30 sq. m.) and La Plata (34 sq. m.), 45 S. lat., which feed the river Senguerr, which flows to the Atlantic. Lake General Paz (66 sq. m.) on the eastern slope of the Andes, at 44 S. lat., is the principal source of the Palena river, which cuts all the Cordillera, while Lakes Fetalauquen (20 sq.m.) Menendez (28 sq. m.), Riva- davia (10 sq. m.), and other smaller lakes, also situated between 43° 30', and 42° 30' S. lat. on the eastern slope send their waters to the Pacific by the river Fetaleufu which cuts through the Andes by a narrow gorge. The waters of Lake Puelo (18 sq. m.) likewise flow into the same ocean through the river of that name, which also cuts the Cordillera, and of which the principal affluent likewise drains the waters of a system of small lakes, the largest of which, Lake Mas- cardi, measures 1 7 sq. m., which in comparatively re- cent times formed part of the basin of Lake Nahuel- Huapi (207 sq. m.), 41 S. lat. An ex- tensive area of glacial deposits shows that a sheet of ice formerly covered the whole eastern slope to a great distance from the mountains. To the west another sheet reached at the same t'Tie the Pacific Ocean. From the Strait of Magellan up to 52° S. lat., the western slope of the Cordillera does not, properly speaking, exist. Abrupt walls overlook the Pacific, and great longitudinal and transversal channels and fjords run right through the heart of the range, cutting it generally in a direction more or less oblique to its axis, che result of movements of the earth's crust. is 962 ANDES The mountains forming the Cordillera between Magellan Strait and 41° S. lat. are higher than those previously mentioned in Tierra del Fuego. Generally composed of granite, gneiss and Palaeozoic rocks, covered in many parts by rugged masses of volcanic origin, their general height is not less than 6500 ft., while Mount Qeikie is 7 500 ft. and Mount Stokes 7 100 ft. To the north are Mounts Mayo (7600 ft.), Agassiz (10,600 ft.), and Fitzroy, in 49° S. lat. (11,120 ft.). The section from 52° to 48° S. lat. is a continuous ice-capped mountain range, and some of the glaciers extend from the eastern lakes to the western channels, where they reach the sea-leyel. The level of the lakes begins at 130 ft. at Lake Maravilla and gradually ascends to nearly 700 ft. at Lake San Martin. Passing the breach through which Lake San Martin empties itself into Calen Inlet, in 48° S. lat., is found a wide oblique opening in the range, through which flows the river Las Heras, fed by Lake Pueyrredon, which is only 410 ft. above the sea-level to the east of the Andes, while Lake Buenos Aires, immediately to the north, is 710 ft. The Andes continue to be to the west an enormous rugged mass of ice and snow of an average height of 9000 ft., sending glaciers to all the eastern fjords. Mount San Lorenzo, detached from the main chain in the pre-Cordillera,is 11,800 ft. high. Mount San Valentin (12,700 ft.) is the culminating point of the Andes in the region extending from 49° to 46° S. lat., a little north of which is the river Huemules which is followed by the breach of the river Aisen. These two rivers have emptied a large system of lakes, which in pre-Glacial times occupied the eastern zone, thus forming a region suitable for colonization in the broad valleys and hollows, where the rivers, as in the case with those in the north, cut through the Andes by narrow gaps, forming cataracts and rapids between the snowy peaks. Volcanic action is still going on in these latitudes, as the glaciers are at times covered by ashes, but the predominant rocks to the east are the Tertiary granite, while to the west gneiss, older granite and Palaeozoic rocks prevail. The highest peaks, however, seem to be of volcanic origin. Farther north, up to 41 S. lat., the water gaps are situated at a lesser distance one from the other, owing mainly to more continuous erosion, this section of the continent being the region of the maximum rainfall on the western coast to the south of the equator. Between the gaps of the river Aisen and river Cisnes or Frias, which also pierces the chain, is found a huge mountain mass, in which is situated Mount la Torre (7150 ft.). These form the continental watershed, but in this region erosion is taking place so rapidly that the day is not far distant when Lakes La Plata and Fontana, situated to the east at a height of 3000 ft. and now tributaries of the Atlantic, may become tributaries of the Pacific. Already nitrations from the former go to feed western affluents through the granitic masses; To the north of Mount la Torre flows in the river Cisnes, 44° 48' S. lat., across another water gap, continuing the range to the north with high peaks, as Alto Nevado (7350 ft.) and Cacique (7000'ft.). The glaciers reach almost the western channels, as is the case at the river Quelal. The northern glaciers, descending nearly to sea- level, are situated at 43° 40' S. lat. To the north 45 S. lat. a well-defined western longitudinal valley, at some recent time occupied by lakes and rivers, divides the Cordillera into two chains, the eastern being the main chain, to which belong Mounts Alto Nevado, Cacique, Dentista, Maldonado, Serrano, each over 7000 ft. high; and Torrecillas (7400 ft.), Ventisquero (7500 ft.), and Tronador (11,180 ft.); while the western chain, broken into imposing. blocks, contains several high volcanic peaks such as Mounts Tanteles, Corcovado, Minchimahuida, Hornopiren and Yates. The rivers Palena, with its two branches, Pico and Carrenleufu, Fetaleufu, Puelo and Manso cut the two chains, while the rivers Renihue, Bodadahue and Cochamo have their sources in the main eastern ridge. Mention has been made of active volcanoes in 51°, 49° and 47 S. lat., but these have not been properly located. The active volcanoes south of 41°, con- cerning which no doubt exists, are the Huequen, in 43 lat., and the Calbuco, both of which have been in eruption in modern times. The surroundings of Mount Tronador, consisting of Tertiary granite and basalt, form one of the most interesting regions in the Patagonian Andes for the mountaineers of the future. To the east extends the large and picturesque lake of Nahuel-Huapi, to the west is Lake Todos Los Santos (50 sq. m.), to which the access is easy and of which the scenery is of surpassing beauty. Between 41° and 38° S. lat., among other smaller lakes, are Lakes Traful (45 sq. m.), Lacar (32 sq. m.), which, properly belonging to the system of Atlantic lakes, empties itself by the only water gap that occurs in this zone of the Cordillera into the river Valdivia, a tributary of the Pacific, Lake Lolog (15 sq. m.), Huechu-lafquen (45 sq. m.), and Lake Alumine (21 sq. m.). The volcanoes of Lanin (12,140 ft.), Quetropillan (9180 ft.), Villarica (10,400 ft.), Yaimas and Tolhuaca are all more or less active; the first is in the main chain, while the others are on the western slope. The scenery in the neighbourhood is magni- ficent, the snowy cones rising from amidst woods of araucaria, and being surrounded by blue lakes. While the scenery of the western slope of the Andes is exceedingly grand, with its deep fjords, glaciers and woods, yet the severity of its climate detracts considerably from its charm. The climate of the eastern slope, however, is milder, the landscapes are magnificent, with wooded valleys and beautiful lakes. The valleys are already partly settled by colonists. Between 52° and 40° S. lat. erosion has carried the watershed of the continent from the summit of the Cordillera to the eastern plains of Patagonia. From 40° S. southward the Chile-Argentine Boundary Com- mission under Sir T. H. Holdich carried out important investiga- tions in 1902; and between 38° and 33° S. lat. the Andes were somewhat extensively explored about the close of the 19th century by Argentine and Chilean Commissions. The highest peaks in the latter section are volcanic and their eruptions have sensibly modified the character of the primitive ridges. Out- flows of lava and tufa cover the mountain sides and fill up the valleys. The Jurassic and Cretaceous formations, which in the Southern Cordillera are situated outside of the range to the east, form to a considerable extent the mass of the great range, together with quartz porphyry, the Tertiary, granite and other eruptive rocks, which have been observed along all the chain in South America up to Alaska in the north. Gneiss is seldom met with, but there are crystalline rocks, belonging chiefly to the pre-Cordillera of the eastern and to the Cordillera de la Costa on the western side. About 38° S. the Andes take a great transversal extension; there are no wide intermediate valleys between the different ridges but the main ridge is perfectly defined. Volcanic _. .. _ cones continue to predominate, the old crystalline rocks Argentina almost disappear, while the Mesozoic rocks are most from 38° s. common. The higher peaks are in the main chain, while n< "*?" the Domuyo (15,317 ft.) belongs to a lateral eastern ridge. The principal peaks between this and Mount Tupungato at 33° S. lat. are: Mount Cochico (8255 ft.), Campanario, (13,140 ft.), Peteroa (13,297 ft.), Tinguiririca, Castillo (16,535 ft.), Volcano Maipu (17,576 ft.), Alvarado (14,600 ft.), Amarillo (15,321 ft.), Volcano San Jose (19,849 ft.), Piuquenes (17,815 ft.), and Volcano Bravard (19,619 ft.). North of Maipu volcano, ascended by R. P. Giissfeldt in 1883, the Cordillera is composed of two huge principal ridges which unite and terminate in the neighbourhood of Mount Tupungato. The valley between them is 9000 ft. high; and in that part of the Cordillera are situated the highest passes south of 33° S. lat., one of which, the Piuquenes Pass, reaches 13,333 ft., whilst the ■ easiest of transit and almost the lowest is that of Pichachen (6505 ft.), which is the most frequented during winter. Mount Tupungato reaches 22,329 ft., according to Argentine measure- ment. To the north of this mountain, situated at the watershed of the Andes, extends a lofty region comprising peaks such as Chimbote (18,645 ft-) and Mount Polleras (20,266 ft.). The Pircas Pass is situated at a height of 16,962 ft. The gaps of Bermejo and Iglesia, in the Uspallata road, the best known of all the passes between Argentina and Chile, are at 13,025 ft. and 13,412 ft. altitude respectively, while the nearest peaks, those of Juncal and Tolorsa, are 19,358 and 20,140 ft. high. Mounts Tupungato, Aconcagua (23,393 ft-) and Mercedario ANDES 9 6 3 x Casfada yv Pircala' Canada Colorado after C. BurckhardJ A. Alluvium C. Cretaceous ( including upper A lower) M. Upper Jurassic (Malm) | D. Middle Jurassic f Dogger) ["""^Z^l'JlTf. L. Liassic • porphyritic conglomerate (21 ,982 ft.) are the highest peaks of the central Argentine-Chilean Andes. These three peaks are formed of eruptive rocks, sur- rounded by Jurassic beds which have undergone a thorough metamorphosis. While in the west of the Andes, from the latitude of Aconcagua, the central valley of Chile runs without any notable interruption to the south end of the continent, a valley which almost disappears to the north, leaving only some rare inflexions which are considered by Chilean geographers and geologists to be a continuation of the same valley; to the east in Argentina a longitudinal valley, perfectly characterized, runs along the eastern foot of the Cordillera, separating this from the pre- Cordillera, which is parallel to the Cordillera de la Costa of Chile. Between Aconcagua and Mercedario are the passes of Espinacito (14,803 ft.) and Los Patos or Valle Hermoso (11,736 ft.), chosen by the Argentine General San Martin, when he made his memor- able passage across the chain during the War of Independence. North of Valle Hermoso the Andean ridges, while very high, are not abrupt, and the passes are more numerous than in the south; some of them descending 10,000 ft., but most of them between 13,000 and 14,000 ft. The pass of Quebrada Grande is 12,468 ft. in altitude; Cencerro, 12,944 ft.; Mercedario, 13,206 ft.; Ojota, 14,304 ft.; Pachon, 14,485 ft. ; while Gordito is 10,318 ft. Farther north the passes are higher. Barahona Pass is 13,092 ft.; Ternera, 15,912 ft.; San Lorenzo, 16,420 ft., while the peak of the volcano reaches 18,143 ft- ; Mount Olivares, 20,472 ft.; Porongos, 19,488 ft.; Tortolas, 20,121 ft.; and Potro, 19,357 ft. As far as 28 S. lat. the Cordillera de los Andes has been prin- cipally formed by two well-defined ridges, but to the north, recent volcanic action has greatly modified its orography. Only a single line of passes characterizes the main ridge, and amongst them are the passes of Ollita (15,026 ft.), Pefias Negras (14,435 ft.), Pircas Negras (13,615 ft.), La Gallina (16,240 ft.), Tres Quebradas (15,535 ft.), and Aguita (15,485 ft.). To the north of Mount Potro the peaks in the Cordillera are not very prominent as far as the great mass of Tres Quebradas, but here are to be met with some that may be considered as amongst the highest of the whole range. Mount Aguita is 20,600 ft., and the culminating peak of those of Tres Cruces reaches 22,658 ft. To the east of the eastern longitudinal valley, at 27 S. lat., begins a high volcanic plateau between the Cordillera and the southern prolongation of the Bolivian Cordillera Real, which contains lofty summits, such as Mount Veladero (20,998 ft.) , Mount Bonete (21,980), Mount Reclus (20,670), Mount Pissis (22,146), Mount Ojo del Salado (21,653), and Incahuasi (21,719). To the north of Tres Cruces is a transversal depression in the Cordillera, which is considered to be the southern termination of the high plateau of the Puna de Atacama. The Cordillera of the Andes borders the Puna to the west, while the Bolivian Cordillera Real bounds it to the east. In that region the Cordillera Bolivia. G. Upper Jurassic Gypsum YV. Younger Volcanic Rocks OV. Older Volcanic Rocks Di. Dioritic Rocks X. Change of bearing in the Sections of the Andes is of comparatively recent origin, being principally constituted by a line of high volcanoes, the chief summits being those of Juncal, Panteon de Aliste, Azufre or Listarria(i8,636 ft.), Llullaillaco (21,720), Miniques (19,357), Socompa (19,948), Licancaur (19,685), Viscachuelas (20,605), Tapaquilcha (19,520), Oyahua (19,242), Ancaquilcha (20,275), Ota- (19,159), Mino (20,112), Sillilica (21,100), Perinacota (20,918), Sagama (22,339), Tacona (19,740), Misti (19,029); to the east closes in the inter- mediary high plateau which begins at 28 S. lat. in Argentina. The principal peaks of the Bolivian Andes and its prolongation from south to north, are Famatina, in the centre of Argentina, (20,340 ft.), Languna Blanca (18,307), Diamante (18,045), Cachi (20,000), Granadas,Lipez(i9, 680), Guadalupe (18,910), Chorolque (18,480), Cuzco (17,930), Enriaca (18,716), Junari (16,200), Michiga (17,410), Quimza-Cruz (18,280), Illimani (21,190) and Sorata (21,490). While the western range of the Cordillera is principally formed by volcanic rocks, the eastern (to the east of the range is Cerro Potosi, 15,400 ft.) Andes of Bolivia are chiefly composed of old crystalline rocks. Between the ranges in the high plateau north to 27 are numerous isolated volcanoes which have been in activity in recent times, such as Peinado (18,898 ft.), San Pedro (18,701), Antuco (19,029), Antofalla (20,014), Rincon (17,881), Pastos Grandes (17,553), Zapalegui (17, 553), Suniguira (19,258), Tahue (17,458); volcanoes which have been elevated from a lacustrine basin, which very recently occupied the whole ex- tension, and the remains of which are, in the south, the Laguna Verde, at 28 , and in the north Lake Titicaca. The discovery of great Pampean mammals in the Pleistocene beds of that region shows that this upheaval of the latter is very recent, for in the heart of the Cordillera, as well as on the west coast of Bolivia and Peru, there have been discovered, in very recent deposits, the remains of some mammals which cannot have crossed the high range as it now exists. The two Cordilleras that formed the Andes to the north of 28°S. lat. are continued in Peru. The western, which reaches an altitude of about 10,000 ft., then ceases to exist as a con- tinuous chain, there remaining only a short, high ridge, called by Edward Whymper the " Pacific range of the equator," and between this ridge and the crystalline Andean axis, the " avenue of volcanoes," to use his words, arises amidst majestic scenery. Chimborazo, which is not in the main chain, reaches 20,517 ft.; Cotopaxi (19,580), Antisana (19,260), Coyambo (19,200) are in the eastern range, with many other peaks over 16,000 ft. which still contain glaciers. Sangay (17,380 ft.), under the equator, according to Wolff, appears to be the most active volcano in the world. Pichincha (15,804 ft.) and Cotocachi (16,297 ft.) are the loftiest volcanoes of the western range. In Colombia the three principal chains are continuations of those under the equator, and show very slight traces of volcanic action, Peru- Ecuador. 9 6 4 ANDESINE— ANDESITE In the western chain, which is remarkable for its regularity, the highest peak is 11,150 ft., and the lowest pass 6725 ft. The Colombia centra l chain, separated from the western chain by the valley of the Cauca and from the eastern by the valley of the Magdalena, is unbroken; it is the more important owing to its greater altitudes and is of volcanic character. To the south, near the equator, are Mounts Arapul (13,360 ft.) and Chumbul (15,720 ft.). The volcanoes Campainero (12, 470 ft.) and Pasto (14,000 ft.) are also in that zone. Farther north is the volcano Purace, which presents a height of 16,000 ft.; then come Huila (18,000), Santa Catalina (16,170), and Tolima (18,400), Santa Isabel (16,760), Ruiz (17,390) andHervas (18,340). The eastern chain begins north of the equator at 6000 ft., gradually rises to the height of Nevado (14,146 ft.), Pan de Azucar (12,140 ft.), and in the Sierra Nevada de Cochi attains to peaks of 16,700 ft. The snow-line of the Andes is highest in parts of Peru where it lies at about 16,500 ft. Its general range from the extreme north to Patagonia is 14,000 to 15,500 ft., but along the Patagonian frontier it sinks rapidly, until in Tierra del Fuego it lies at about 4900 ft. Structure. — The structure of the Andes is least complex in the southern portion of the range. Between 33 and 36 S. the chain consists broadly of a series of simple folds of Jurassic and Cretaceous beds, It is probably separated on the east from the recent deposits of the pampas by a great fault, which, however, is always concealed by an enormous mass of scree material. The Cretaceous beds lie in a broad synclinal upon the eastern flank, but the greater part of the chain is formed of Jurassic beds, through which, on the western margin, rise the numerous andesitic volcanic centres. There is no continuous band of ancient gneiss, nor indeed of any beds older than the Jurassic. There is very little over-folding or faulting, and the structure is that of the Jura mountains rather than of the Alps. The inner or eastern ridge farther north of Argentina consists of crystalline rocks with infolded Ordovician and Cambrian beds, often overlaid unconformably by a sandstone with plant-remains (chiefly Rhaetic). In Bolivia this eastern ridge, separated from the western Cordillera by the longitudinal valley in which Lake Titicaca lies, is formed chiefly of Archaean and Palaeozoic rocks. All the geological systems,from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous, are represented and they are all strongly folded, the folds leaning over towards the west. West of the great valley the range is composed of Mesozoic beds, together with Tertiary volcanic rocks. (The Cordillera of Argentina and Chile is clearly the continuation of the western chain alone.) In Ecuador there is still an inner chain of ancient gneisses and schists and an outer chain composed of Mesozoic beds. The longitudinal valley which separates them is occupied mainly by volcanic deposits. North of Ecuador the structure becomes more complex. Of the three main chains into which the mountains are now divided, the western branch is formed mostly of Cretaceous beds; but the inner chains no longer consist exclusively of the older rocks, and Cretaceous beds take a considerable share in their formation. The great volcanoes, active and extinct, are not confined to any one zone. Sometimes they rise from the Mesozoic zone of the western Cordillera, sometimes from the ancient rocks of the eastern zone. But they all lie within the range itself and do not, as in the Carpathians and the Apennines, form a fringe^ upon the inner border of the chain. The curvature of the range around the Brazilian massif, and the position of the zone of older rocks upon the eastern flank, led Suess to the conclusion that the Andes owe their origin to an overthrust from east to west, and that the Vorland lies beneath the Pacific. In the south Wehrli and Burckhardt maintain that the thrust came from the west, and they look upon the ancient rocks of Argentina as the Vorland. In this part of the chain, however, there is but little evidence of overthrusting of any kind. Authorities. — John B. Minchin, " Journey in the Andean Tableland of Bolivia," Proceedings of Geographical Society (1882) ; Paul Giissfeldt, Reise in den centralen chileno-argentinischen Andes (Berlin, 1884) ; John Ball, Notes of a Naturalist in South America (London, 1887) ; Alfred Hettner, Reisen in den colombianischen Andeen (Leipzig, 1888); " Die Kordillere von Bogota," Peterm. Mitteilungen, civ. ( 1 892) ; Edward Whymper, Travels amongst the Great Andes of the Equator (London, 1892); Teodoro Wolff, Geografia y Geologia del Ecuador (Leipzig, 1892); E. A. Fitzgerald, The Highest Andes (London, 1899); Sir Martin Conway, " Explorations in the Bolivian Andes," Geogr. Journ. xiv. (London, 1899); The Bolivian Andes (London and New York, 1901) ; Carl Burckhardt, Expedition geologique dans la region Andine, 38°— jp° S. lot.; Leo Wehrli, " Cordillere argentino-chilienne, 40 et 41 S. lat.," Revista del Museo de La Plata (1899) ; F. P. Moreno, " Explorations in Pata- gonia," Geogr. Journ. xvi. (1900); Hans Steffen, " The Patagonian Cordillera and its Main Rivers, between 41 ° and 48°S. lat.," Geogr. Journ. (London, 1900) ; Paul Kruger, Die chilenische Renihue Expedition (Berlin, 1900); Carl Burckhardt, " Profils geologiques transversaux de la Cordillera argentino-ehilienne," Anales del Museo de La Plata (1900) ; Argentine- Chilian Boundaries in the Cordillera de los Andes, Argentine Evidence (London, 19O0); "South America; Outline of its Physical Geography," Geogr. journ. xvii. (1901); Maps of Cordillera de los Andes, Surveys of Argentine Boundary Commission; L. R. Patron, Cordillera de los Andes (Republica de Chile, Oficina des Limites) Santiago (Chile), 1903 et seq.) ; Sir T. H. Holdich, " The Patagonian Andes," Geogr. Journ. xxiii. (1904). ANDESINE, a member of the group of minerals known as plagioclase felspars, occupying a position in the isomorphous series about midway between albite (NaAlSi 3 8 ) and anorthite (CaAl 2 Si 2 0s) ; its chemical composition and physical char- acters are therefore intermediate between those of the two extremes of the series. Distinctly developed crystals or crystal- lized specimens are rarely met with, the mineral usually occurring as embedded crystals and grains in the igneous and gneissic rocks, of which it forms a component part. It occurs, for example, in the andesite of the Andes, from whence it derives its name. ANDESITE, a name first applied by C. L. von Buch to a series of lavas investigated by him from the Andes, which has passed into general acceptance as the designation of a great family of rocks playing an important part in the geology of most of the volcanic areas of the globe. Not only the Andes but most of the Cordillera of Central and North America consist very largely of andesites; they occur also in great numbers in Japan, the Philippines, Java and New Zealand. They belong to all geo- logical epochs, and are frequent among the Silurian and Devonian rocks of Britain, forming the ranges of the Cheviots, Ochils, Breidden Hills, and part of the Lake district. The well-known volcanoes, Montagne Pelee, the Souf riere of St Vincent, Krakatoa, Tarawera and Bandaisan have within recent years emitted great quantities of andesitic rocks with disastrous violence. No group of lavas is more widespread and more important from a geo- graphical standpoint than the andesites. They are typical intermediate rocks, containing on an average about 60 % of silica, but showing a considerable range of com- position. Most of them correspond to the plutonic diorites, but others more nearly represent the gabbros. Their essential distinguishing features are mineralogical and consist in the presence of much soda-lime felspar (ranging from oligoclase to bytownite and even anorthite), along with one or more of the ferro-magnesian minerals, biotite, hornblende, augite and hypers- thene. Both olivine and quartz are typically absent, though in some varieties they occur in small quantity. Orthoclase is more common than these two, but is never very abundant. The andesites have mostly a porphyritic structure, and the larger felspars and ferro-magnesian minerals are often visible to the naked eye, lying in a finer groundmass, usually crystalline, but sometimes to a large extent vitreous. When very fresh they are dark-coloured if they contain much glass, but paler in colour, red, grey or pinkish when more thoroughly crystallized. They weather to various shades of dark brown, reddish-brown, green, grey and yellow. Many of them are highly vesicular or amygda- loidal. The older (pre-Tertiary) andesites are grouped together by many German, and formerly by British petrologists, under the term porphyrites, but are distinguished only by being, as a rule, in a less fresh condition. Apart from this there are three great subdivisions of this family of rocks, the quartz-andesites or dacites, the hornblende-and biotite-andesites, and the augite and hypersthene-andesites (or pyroxene-andesites). The dacites, a term first applied by Karl Heinrich Hektor Guido Stache (b. 1833) to quartz-bearing andesite of Transylvania or Dacia, contain ANDIJAN— ANDORRA 9 6 5 primary quartz, and are the most siliceous members of the family; their quartz may appear in small blebs (or phenocrysts), or may occur only as minute interstitial grains in the ground- mass; other dacites are very vitreous (dacitic-pitchstones) . In many of their structural peculiarities they closely simulate the rhyolites, from which they differ in containing less potash and more soda, and in consequence less orthoclase felspar and more plagioclase. The hornblende- and biotite-andesites, like the dacites, have in most cases a pale colour (pink, yellow or grey), being comparatively rich in felspar. They resemble the trachytes both in appearance and in structure, but their felspar is mostly plagioclase, not sanidine. The biotite and hornblende have much the same characters in both of these groups of rocks, and are often surrounded by black borders produced by corrosion and partial resorption by the magma. A pale green augite is common in these andesites, but bronzite or hypersthene is comparatively rare. The pyroxene-andesites are darker, more basic rocks, with a higher specific gravity, and approach closely to the basalts and dolerites, especially when they contain a small amount of olivine. They are probably the commonest types of andesite, both at the present time and in former geo- logical periods. Often their groundmass consists of brownish glass, filled with small microliths of augite and felspar, and having a velvety, glistening lustre when observed in a good light (hyalopilitic structure). In addition to the accessory minerals, zircon, apatite and iron oxides, which are practically never absent, certain others occur which, on account of their rarity and importance, are of special interest. Sharply-formed little crystals of cordierite are occasion- ally found in andesites (Japan,. Spain, St Vincent, Cumberland); they seem to depend on more or less complete digestion of fragments of gneiss and other rocks in the molten lava. Garnet and sapphire have also been found in andesites, and perhaps have the same signification; a rose-red variety of epidote (withamite) is known as a secondary product in certain andesites (Glencoe, Scotland), and the famous red porphyry (porfido rosso) of the ancients is a rock of this type. Ore deposits very frequently occur in connexion with andesitic rocks (Nevada, California, Hungary, Borneo, &c.) , especially those of gold and silver. They have been laid down in fissures as veins of quartz, and the sur- rounding igneous rocks are frequently altered and decomposed in a peculiar way by the hot ascending metalliferous solutions. Andesites affected in this manner are known as propylites. The alteration is one of those post-volcanic, pneumatolytic processes, so frequent in volcanic districts. Propylitization consists in the replacement of the original minerals of the andesite by secondary products such as kaolin, epidote, mica, chlorite, quartz and chalcedony, often with the retention of the igneous structures of the rocks. In microscopic characters the andesites present considerable variety; their porphyritic felspars are usually of tabular shape with good crystalline outlines, but often filled with glass enclosures. Zonal structure is exceedingly common, and the central parts of the crystals are more basic (bytownite, &c.) than the edges (oligoclase). Sanidine occurs with considerable fre- quency, but not in notable amount. The biotite and hornblende are yellow or brown and richly pleochroic. The hypersthene is nearly always idiomorphic, with a distinct pleochroism ranging from salmon-pink to green. Augite may be green in the more acid andesites, but is pale brown in the pyroxene-andesites. The apatite is often filled with minute dust-like enclosures. In the dacites felsitic groundmasses are by no means rare, but micro- crystalline types consisting of plagioclase and sanidine with quartz are more prevalent. The hornblende- and mica-andesites have groundmasses composed mainly of acid plagioclase with little orthoclase or glassy base (pilo taxi tic groundmass). Clear brown glass with many small crystals of plagioclase and pale brown augite (hyalopilitic groundmass) is very frequent in pyroxene-andesites. Vitreous rocks belonging to all of the above groups are well known though not very common, and exhibit the perlitic, pumiceous, spherulitic and other structures, character- istic to volcanic obsidians and pitchstones. (J. S. F.) ANDIJAN, a town of Russian Turkestan, Province of Ferghana, eastern terminus of the Transcaspian railway, 84 m. by rail E.N.E. of Khokand, on the left bank of the upper Syr-darya. Altitude 1630 ft. Pop. (1900) 49,682. It was formerly the residence of the khans of Khokand, and has beautiful gardens and a large park in the middle of the town. Andijan is a centre for the trade in raw cotton and has cotton factories. All over Central Asia, West Turkestan merchants are known generally as Andijani. The town was destroyed by an earthquake on the i6th-i7th of December 1902, when 5000 persons perished and 16,000 houses were demolished. It has since been rebuilt. ANDIRON (older form anderne; med. Lat. andena, anderia), a horizontal iron bar, or bars, upon which logs are laid for burning in an open fireplace. Andirons stand upon short legs and are usually connected with an upright guard. This guard, which may be of iron, steel, copper, bronze, or even silver, is often elaborately ornamented with conventional patterns or heraldic ornaments, such as the fleur-de-lys, with sphinxes, grotesque animals, mythological statuettes or caryatides supporting heroic figures or emblems. Previously to the Italian Renaissance, andirons were almost invariably made entirely of iron and comparatively plain, but when the ordinary objects of the house- hold became the care of the artist, the metal-worker lavished skill and taste upon them, and even such a man as Jean Berain, whose fancy was most especially applied to the ornamentation of Boulle furniture, sometimes designed them. Indeed the fire-dog or chenet reached its most artistic development under Louis XIV. of France, and the first extant examples — often of cast-iron — are to be found in French museums and royal palaces. Fire-dogs, with little or no ornament, were also used in kitchens, with ratcheted uprights for the spits. Very often these uprights branched out into arms or hobs for stewing or keeping the viands hot. ANDKHUI, a town and khanate in Afghan Turkestan. The town (said to have been founded by Alexander the Great) stands between the northern spurs of the Paropamisus and the Oxus; it is 100 m. due west of Balkh on the edge of the Turkman desert. The khanate is of importance as being one of the most northern in Afghanistan, on the Russian border. Until 1820 it was sub- ject to Bokhara, but in that year Mahmud Khan besieged it for four months, took it by storm and left it a heap of ruins. To preserve himself from utter destruction the khan threw himself into the arms of the Afghans. The tract in which Andkhui stands is fertile, but proverbially unhealthy; the Persians account it " a hell upon earth " by reason of its scorching sands, brackish water, flies and scorpions. The population, estimated at 15,000, consists principally of Turkmans with a mixture of Uzbegs and a few Tajiks. The district was allotted to Afghanistan by the Russo- Afghan boundary commission of 1885. ANDOCIDES, one of the " ten " Attic orators, was born about 440 B.C. Implicated in the mutilation of the Hermae (415), although he saved his life by turning informer, he was condemned to partial loss of civil rights and went into exile. He engaged in commercial pursuits, and after two unsuccessful attempts returned to Athens under the general amnesty that followed the restoration of the democracy (403), and filled some important offices. In 391 he was one of the ambassadors sent to Sparta to discuss peace terms, but the negotiations failed, and after this time we hear no more of him. Oligarchical in his sympathies, he offended his own party and was distrusted by the democrats. Andocides was no professional orator; his style is simple and lively, natural but inartistic. Speeches extant : — De Reditu, plea for his return and removal of civil disabilities; De Mysteriis, defence against the charge of impiety in attending the Eleusinian mysteries; De Pace, advocating peace with Sparta; Contra Alcibiadem, generally considered spurious. Text: — Blass, 1880, Lipsius, 1888; De Myst., with notes by Hickie, 1885; De Red. and De Myst., with notes by Marchant, 1889; see Jebb, Attic Orators; L. L. Forman, Index Andocideus, 1897. ANDORRA, or Andorre, a small, neutral, autonomous, and semi-independent state, on the Franco-Spanish frontier, and chiefly on the peninsular side of the eastern Pyrenees. Pop. (1900) about S5°°; area about 175 sq. m. Andorra is surrounded 9 66 ANDOVER by mountains, and comprises one main valley, watered by the Gran Balira, Valira or Balire, a tributary of the Segre, which itself flows into the Ebro; with several smaller valleys, the most important being that of the Balira del Orien, which joins the Gran Balira on the left. The territory was once densely wooded, and is said to derive its name from the Moorish Aldarra, " the place thick with trees "; but almost all the forests have been destroyed for fuel. The climate is generally cold, with very severe winters. The land is chiefly devoted to pasture for the numerous flocks and herds; but on the more sheltered southern slopes it is carefully cultivated, and produces grain, potatoes, fruit and tobacco. Game and trout are plentiful; milk, butter, hams, hides and wool are exported, principally to France. The local industries are of the most primitive kind, merely domestic, as in the middle ages. Lack of capital, of coal, and of good means of communication prevents the inhabitants from making use of the iron and lead in their mountains. During the coldest winter months their com- munications are much easier with Spain than through the snow- clad passes leading into Ariege. The only roads are bridle-paths, and one municipal road by the Balira valley, connecting Andorra with the high road to Seo de Urgel and Manresa; but in 1904 France and Spain agreed to build a railway from Ax to Ripoll, which would greatly facilitate traffic. The Andorrans are a robust and well-proportioned race, of an independent spirit, simple and severe in their manners. They are all Roman Catholics. Apart from the wealthier landowners, who speak French fluently, and send their children to be educated in France, they use the Catalan dialect of Spanish. Andorra comprises the six parishes or communes of Andorra Vicilla, Canillo, Encamp, La Massana, Ordino and San Julian de Loria, which are subdivided into fifty-two hamlets or pueblos. Preserved from innovations by the mutual jealousy of rival potentates, as well as by the conservative temper of a pastoral population, Andorra has kept its medieval usages and institutions almost unchanged. In each parish two consuls, assisted by a local council, decide matters relating to roads, police, taxes, the division of pastures, the right to collect wood, &c. Such matters, as well as the general internal administration of the territory, are finally regulated by a Council General of 24 members (4 to each parish), elected since 1866 by the suff rages of all heads of families, but previously confined to an aristocracy composed of the richest and oldest families, whose supremacy had been preserved by the principle of primogeniture. A general syndic, with two inferior syndics, chosen by the Council General, constitutes the supreme executive of the state. Two viguiers — one nominated by France, and the other by the bishop of Urgel — command the militia, which consists of about 600 men, although all capable of bearing arms are liable to be called out. This force is exempt from all foreign service, and the chief office of the viguiers is the administration of criminal justice, in which their decisions, given simply accord- ing to their judgment and conscience, there being no written laws, are final. Civil cases, on the other hand, are tried in the first instance before one of the two aldermen, who act as deputies of the viguiers; the judgment of this court may be set aside by the civil judge of appeal, an officer nominated by France and the bishop of Urgel alternately; the final appeal is either to the Court of Cassation at Paris or to the Episcopal College at Urgel. The French viguier is taken from the French department of Ariege and appointed for life, but the viguier of the bishop must be an Andorran, holding office for three years and re-eligible. There are notaries and clerks, auditors for each parish elected by the heads of families, police agents and bailiffs, chosen and sworn in, like all the above officers, by the Council General. The archives are mostly kept in the " house of the valley " in the capital, Andorra Vicilla, a struggling village of 600 inhabitants. In this government house the Council General meets and has a chapel. Here also the aldermen, viguiers and judge of appeal administer justice and assemble for all purposes of administration. Two magistrates, styled rahanadores, are appointed by the Council General to see that viguiers and judges preserve the customs and privileges of Andorra. The parishes have a permanent patrol of six armed men besides the militia. Spain and the bishop of Urgel are very jealous of French encroachments, and claim to have a better right ultimately to annex the little state. In the meanwhile it continues to pay each of the suzerain powers £40 a year, levied by a tax on pastures. Andorra is the sole surviving specimen of the independence possessed in medieval times by the warlike inhabitants of many Pyrenean valleys. Its privileges have remained intact, because the suzerainty of the district became equally and indivisibly shared in 1278 between the bishops of Urgel and the counts of Foix, the divided suzerainty being now inherited by the French crown and the present bishop of Urgel; and the two powers have mutually checked innovations, while the insignificant territory has not been worth a dispute. Thus Andorra is not a republic, but is designated in official documents as the V allies el Suzerainetes. Before 1278 it was under the suzerainty of the neighbouring counts of Castelbo, to whom it had been ceded in 1 1 70 by the counts of Urgel. A marriage between the heiress of Castelbo and Roger Bernard, count of Foix, carried the rights of the above-named Spanish counts into the house of Foix, and hence subsequently to the crown of France, when the heritage of the feudal system was absorbed by the sovereign; but the bishops of Urgel claimed certain rights, which after long disputes were satisfied by the " Act of Division " executed in 1 278. The claims of the bishopric dated from Carolingian times, and the independ- ence of Andorra, like most other Pyrenean anomalies, has been traditionally ascribed to Charlemagne (742-814). Authorities. — With the exception of Etudes geographiques sur la vallee d'Andorre, by J. Blade (Paris, 1875), the standard books on Andorra deal mainly with its history and institutions. They com- prise the following: — The Valley of Andorra, translated from the French of E. B. Berthet by F. H. Deverell (Bristol, 1886) ; J. Aviles Arnau, El Pallas y Andorra (Barcelona, 1893) ; L. Dalmau de Baquer, Historia de la Republica de Andorra (Barcelona, 1849) ; C. Baudon de Mony, Origines historiques de la question d'Andorre (in the Bibliotheque de I'Mcole des Chartes, vol. 46, Paris, 1885). See also C. Baudon de Mony, Relations politiques des comtes de Foix avec la Catalogue, jusqu'au commencement du XIV" Steele (Paris, 1896). A fair map was published by A. Hartleben, of Vienna, in 1898. ANDOVER, a market-town and municipal borough in the Andover parliamentary division of Hampshire, England, 67 m. W.S.W. of London by the London & South Western railway, served also by the Midland & South Western Junction railway. Area 8663 acres. Pop. (1901) 6509. It is pleasantly situated on the river Anton, a tributary of the Test, in a hilly district. The church of St Mary replaced an ancient one in 1848; a Norman doorway is preserved from the original structure. The site of a Norman priory can be traced. Several early earthworks are seen in the vicinity, among which the circular camp on Bury Hill, S.W. of the town, is a very fine example. It is probably of British origin. Andover is the centre of a large agricultural district. Malting is carried on and there is a large iron-foundry; but the silk manufactures, once prosperous, are now extinct. The corporation consists of a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. There are numerous Roman villas in the district, but Andover itself is not a Roman site. The town, the name of which appears in the forms Andefeian, .\ndieura and Andever, probably owes much of its importance to the neighbourhood of the Roman road from Silchet,ter to Old Sarum. It is mentioned in King Edred's will, a document of doubtful authenticity, dated c. 955. Later the Witenagemot met here, and it is the traditional scene of the meeting of ^Ethelred and Olaf the Dane. Andover existtd as a borough before 1 1 76, and Henry II. exempted its inhabitants from toll and passage. In 1201 King John increased the farm paid by the burgesses, while Henry III. granted them return of writs, probate of wills and other privileges. The corporation was reconstituted in 1599 and again in 1682. From 1295 till 1305 the burgesses returned two members to parliament but then ceased to do so till 1586. After the reform of 1867 they returned only one member and in 1885 the borough was dis- franchised. A gild merchant is mentioned as early as 1175. The cattle-market was granted in 1682, and there is an ancient corn-market, probably held by prescription. The November sheep-fair dates from 1205, and the neighbouring fair at Wevhill^ ANDOVER— ANDRASSY 967 (since 1599 a part of the borough) was formerly among the most important in England. The town possessed an iron-market early in the 14th century. At that date the wool-trade also was very prosperous, and the manufactures of silk and parchment are among the extinct industries of the town. ANDOVER, a township of Essex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., pleasantly situated on the S. side of the Merrimac Valley. Pop. (1890) 6142; (1900) 6813; (1910, U. S. census) 7301. The Shawsheen river siipplies power for a considerable manu- facturing industry (twine, woollens and rubber goods being manufactured) in the villages of Andover, Ballardville and Frye. Andover, the principal village, is about 23 m. N. of Boston and is served by the western division of the Boston & Maine railway and by interurban electric railways. The township is noteworthy for its educational institutions. Abbot Academy, opened in 1829, is said to be the oldest existing academy in the United States incorporated for the education of girls alone; an art gallery, given to the academy by Mrs John Byers, was opened in 1907. Phillips Academy, opened in 1778 (incorporated in 1780), was the first incorporated academy of the state; it was founded through the efforts of Samuel Phillips (1752-1802, president of the Massachusetts senate in 1785-1787 and in 1788- 1801, and lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts in 1801-1802), by his father, Samuel Phillips (1715-1790), and his uncle, John Phillips (1719-1795), " for the purpose of instructing youth, not only in English and Latin grammar, writing, arithmetic and those sciences wherein they are commonly taught, but more especially to learn them the great end and real business of living." It is one of the largest secondary schools in New England and enjoys a wide and high reputation. An archaeological department, with an important collection in American archaeology, was founded by Robert S. Peabody and his wife in 1901. The Academy grounds include those occupied in 1 808-1909 by the Andover Theological Seminary before its removal to Cam- bridge (q.v.). Andover was settled about 1643 and was incorporated in 1646, being named from the English town of Andover, Hampshire, whence some of the chief settlers had migrated; the first settlement was made in what is now the township of North Andover (pop. 5529 in 1910), which was separated from Andover in 1855. Simon Bradstreet (1603-1697), important among the early men of Massachusetts, was one of the founders; and his wife, Anne Dudley Bradstreet (1612-1672), was the first woman versifier of America; the Bradstreet house in North Andover, said to have been built about 1667, is still standing. Andover was a prominent centre in the witchcraft trials of 1692. Elizabeth Stuart Phelps-Ward was born and lived for many years in Andover, and Harriet Beecher Stowe lived here from 1852 to 1864 and is buried here. See S. L. Bailey, Historical Sketches of Andover (Boston, 1880); John L. Taylor, Memoir of Samuel Phillips (Boston, 1856); and Philena and Phebe F. M'Keen, History of Abbot Academy (Andover, 1880). ANDRADA, DIEGO DE PAIVA DE (1528-1575), Portuguese theologian, was born at Coimbra, son of the grand treasurer of John III. His original bent was towards foreign mission. He earned distinction in 1562 at the council of Trent as envoy of King Sebastian. Between 1562 and 1567 he published many controversial tracts, especially against the Lutheran, Martin Chemnitz {q.v.). His first tract, De Societatis Jesu Origine, led to his being erroneously presumed a Jesuit (P. Alegambe, Biblioth. Scriptorum S. /., 1676, p. 177). His De Conciliorum A nctoritate was welcomed at Rome as exalting the papal authority. Posthumous were his Defensio Tridentinae Fidei, 1578 (remark- able for its learned statement of various opinions regarding the Immaculate Conception), and three sets of his sermons in Portuguese. His nephew, Diego, the younger (1586-1660), produced Chauleidos (1628) and other Latin poems, including sacred dramas; a novel, Casamenlo Perfeito (1630); and shone as a historical critic. See Bibliographic Universelle (181 1); N. Antonio, Biblioth. Hisp. Nova (1783), i. 304; and for the nephew, life by A. Dos Reys in Corp. Illust. Poet. Lai. (1745) Hi. .. ANDRADA E SYLVA, BONIFACIO JOZfi D' (1765-1838), Brazilian statesman and naturalist, was born at Villa de Santos, near Rio Janeiro. In 1800 he was appointed professor of geology at Coimbra, and soon after inspector-general of the Portuguese mines; and in 1812 he was made perpetual secretary of the Academy of Lisbon. Returning to Brazil in 1819, he urged Dom Pedro to resist the recall of the Lisbon court, and was appointed one of his ministers in 1821. When the independence of Brazil was declared, Andrada was made minister of the interior and of foreign affairs; and when it was established, he was again elected by the Constituent Assembly, but his democratic principles resulted in his dismissal from office, July 1823. On the dissolution of the Assembly in November, he was arrested and banished to France, where he lived in exile near Bordeaux till, in 1829, he was permitted to return to Brazil. But being again arrested in 1833, and tried for intriguing on behalf of Dom Pedro I., he passed the rest of his days in retirement till he died at Nictheroy in 1838. ANDRASSY, JULIUS (Gyula), Count (1823-1890), Hungarian statesman, the son of Count Karoly Andrassy and Etelka Szapary, was born at Kassa in Hungary on the 8th of March 1823. The son of a Liberal father, who belonged to the Opposition at a time when to be in opposition was to be in danger, Andrassy at a very early age threw himself into the political struggles of the day, adopting at the outset the patriotic side. Count Istvan Szechenyi w r as the first adequately to appreciate his capacity, when in 1845 the young man first began his public career as president of the society for the regulation of the waters of the Upper Theiss. In 1846 he attracted attention by his bitter articles against the government in Kossuth's paper, the Pesti Hirlap, and was returned as one of the Radical candidates to the diet of 1848, where his generous, impulsive nature made him one of the most thorough-going of the patriots. When the Croats under Jellachich invaded Hungary, Andrassy placed himself at the head of the gentry of his county, and served with distinction at the battles of Pakozd and Schwechat, as Gorgei's adjutant (Sept. 1848). Towards the end of the war Andrassy was sent to Constantinople by the revolutionary government to obtain at least the neutrality of Turkey during the struggle. After the catastrophe of Vilagos he migrated first to London and then to Paris. On the 21st of September 1851 he was hanged in effigy by the Austrian government for his share in the Hungarian revolt. He employed his ten years of exile in studying politics in what was then the centre of European diplomacy, and it is memorable that his keen eye detected the inherent weakness of the second French empire beneath its imposing exterior. Andrassy returned home from exile in 1858, but his position was very difficult. He had never petitioned for an amnesty, steadily rejected all the overtures both of the Austrian government and of the Magyar Conservatives (who would have accepted something short of full autonomy), and clung enthusiastically to the Deak party. On the 21st of December 1865 he was chosen vice- president of the diet, and in March 1866 became president of the sub-committee appointed by the parliamentary commission to draw up the Composition (commonly known as the Ausgieich) between Austria and Hungary, of which the central idea, that of the " Delegations," originated with him. It was said at that time that he was the only member of the commission who could persuade the court of the justice of the national claims. After Koniggratz he was formally consulted by the emperor for the first time. He advised the re-establishment of the constitution and the appointment of a responsible ministry. On the 17th of February 1867 the king appointed him the first constitutional Plungarian premier. It was on this occasion that Deak called him " the providential statesman given to Hungary by the grace of God." As premier, Andrassy by his firmness, amiability and dexterity as a debater, soon won for himself a commanding position. Yet his position continued to be difficult, inasmuch as the authority of Deak dwarfed that of all the party leaders, however eminent. Andrassy chose for himself the departments of war and foreign affairs. It was he who reorganized the Honved system, and he used often to say that the regulation 968 ANDRE of the military border districts was the most difficult labour of his life. On the outbreak of the Franco-German War of 1870, Andrassy resolutely defended the neutrality of the Austrian monarchy, and in his speech on the 28th of July 1870 warmly protested against the assumption that it was in the interests of Austria to seek to recover the position she had held in Germany before 1863. On the fall of Beust (6th of November 1871), Andrassy stepped into his place. His tenure of the chancellorship was epoch-making. Hitherto the empire of the Habsburgs had never been able to dissociate itself from its Holy Roman traditions. But its loss of influence in Italy and Germany, and the consequent formation of the Dual State, had at length indicated the proper, and, indeed, the only field for its diplomacy in the future — the near East, where the process of the crystalliza- tion of the Balkan peoples into nationalities was still incomplete. The question was whether these nationalities were to be allowed to become independent or were only to exchange the tyranny of the sultan for the tyranny of the tsar. Hitherto Austria had been content either to keep out the Russians or share the booty with them. She was now, moreover, in consequence of her misfortunes deprived of most of her influence in the councils of Europe. It was Andrassy who recovered for her her proper place in the European concert. First he approached the German emperor; then more friendly relations were established with the courts of Italy and Russia by means of conferences at Berlin, Vienna, St Petersburg and Venice. The recovered influence of Austria was evident in the negotia- tions which followed the outbreak of serious disturbances in Bosnia in 1875. The three courts of Vienna, Berlin The "An- an( j 5 t Petersburg had come to an understanding Note*' as t0 t ^ le ' r att -it u de in the Eastern question, and their views were embodied in the despatch, known as the " Andrassy Note," addressed on the 30th of December 1875 by Count Andrassy to Count Beust, now Austrian ambassador to the court of St James's. In it he pointed out that the efforts of the powers to localize the revolt seemed in danger of failure, that the rebels were still holding their own, and that the Ottoman promises of reform, em- bodied in various firmans, were no more than vague statements of principle which had never had, and were probably not intended to have, any local application. In order to avert the risk of a general conflagration, therefore, he urged that the time had come for concerted action of the powers for the purpose of pressing the Porte to fulfil its promises. A sketch of the more essential reforms followed: the recognition rather than the toleration of the Christian religion; the abolition of the system of farming the taxes; and, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, where the religious was complicated by an agrarian question, the conversion of the Christian peasants into free proprietors, to rescue them from their double subjection to the great Mussulman landowners. In Bosnia and Herzegovina also elected provincial councils were to be established, irremovable judges appointed and individual liberty guaranteed. Finally, a mixed commission of Mussulmans and Christians was to be empowered to watch over the carrying out of these reforms. The fact that the sultan would be responsible to Europe for the realization of his promises would serve to allay the natural suspicions of the insurgents. 1 To this plan both Great Britain and France gave a general assent, and the Andrassy Note was adopted as the basis of negotia- tions. When war became inevitable between Russia and the Porte, Andrassy arranged with the Russian court that, in case Russia prevailed, the status quo should not be changed to the detriment of the Austrian monarchy. When, however, the treaty of San Stefano threatened a Russian hegemony in the near East, Andrassy concurred with the German and British courts that the final adjustment of matters must be submitted to a European congress. At the Berlin Congress in 1878 he. was the principal Austrian plenipotentiary, and directed his efforts to diminish the gains of Russia and aggrandize the Dual Monarchy. The latter object was gained by the occupationof Bosnia-Herzegovina under a mandate from the congress. This occupation was most unpopular 1 Hertslet, Map of Europe by Treaty, No. 456, vol. iv. p. 2418. in Hungary, both for financial reasons and because of the strong philo-Turk sentiments of the Magyars, but the result brilliantly justified Andrassy's policy. Nevertheless he felt constrained to bow before the storm, and placed his resignation in the emperor's hands (8th of October 1879). The day before his retirement he signed the offensive-defensive alliance with Germany, which placed the foreign relations of Austria-Hungary once more on a stable footing. After his retirement, Andrissy continued to take an active part in public affairs both in the Delegations and in the Upper House. In 1885 he warmly supported the project for the reform of the House of Magnates, but on the other hand he jealously defended the inviolability of the Composition of 1867, and on the 5th of March 1889 in his place in the Upper House spoke against any particularist tampering with the common army. In the last years of his life he regained his popularity, and his death on the 18th of February 1890 was universally mourned as a national calamity. He was the first Magyar statesman who, for centuries, had occupied a European position. Breadth of view, swift resourcefulness, and an intimate knowledge of men and things were his distinguishing qualities as a statesman. Personally he was the most amiable of men; it has been well said that he united in himself the Magyar magnate with the modern gentleman. His motto was: " It is hard to promise, but it is easy to perform." If Deak was the architect, Andrassy certainly was the master-builder of the modern Hungarian state. By his wife, the countess Katinka Kendeffy, whom he married in Paris in 1856, Count Andrassy left two sons, and one daughter, Ilona (b. 1859), who married Count Lajos Batthyany. Both the sons gained distinction in Hungarian politics. The eldest, Tivador (Theodore) Andreas (b. 10th of July 1857), was elected vice-president of the Lower House of the Hungarian parliament in 1890. The younger, Gyula (Julius, b. 30th of June i860), became under-secretary in the Wekerle ministry in 1892; in 1893 he became minister of education, and in June 1894 was appointed minister in attendance on the king, retiring in 1895 with Wekerle; in 1898, with his elder brother, he left the Liberal party, but returned to it again after the fall of the Banffy ministry; he is the author of Ungarns Ausgleich mit Osterreich vom Jahre 1867 (Ger. ed., Leipzig, 1897), and a work in Hungarian on the origins of the Hungarian state and constitution (Budapest, 1901). See Andrassy's Speeches (Hung.) edited by Bela Lederer (Buda- pest, 1891); Memoir (Hung.) by Benjamin Kallay (Budapest, 1891); Necrology (Hung.) in the Akad. Ertesito, Evf. 14 (Budapest, 1891); Recollections of Count Andrassy (Hung.), by Mano Konyi (Budapest, 1891). (R. N. B.) ANDR& JOHN (1751-1780), British soldier, was born in London in 1751 of Genevese parents. Accident brought him in 1769 to Lichfield, where, in the house of the Rev. Thomas Seward, whose daughter Anna was the centre of a literary circle, he met the beautiful Miss Honora Sneyd. A strong attachment sprang up between the two, but their marriage was disapproved of by Miss Sneyd's family, and Andre was sent to cool his love in his father's counting-house in London and on a business tour to the continent. Commerce was, however, too tame an occupation for his ambitious spirit, and in March 1771 he obtained a com- mission in the Seventh (Royal Fusiliers), which, after travel in Germany, he joined in Canada in 1 7 74. Here his character, con- duct and accomplishments .gained him rapid promotion. Miss Sneyd in 1773 married R.L. Edgeworth, the father of the novelist, Maria Edgeworth, having previously refused Thomas Day, the author of Sand] or d and Merton; but Andre remained faithful to his love for her. In a letter to Anna Seward, written shortly after being taken prisoner by the Americans at the capitulation of St John's on the 3rd of November 1775, he states that he has been " stripped of everything except the picture of Honora, which I concealed in my mouth. Preserving this I yet think myself fortunate." Exchanged towards the close of 1776, Andre became in succession aide-de-camp, to General Grey and to the commander-in-chief of the British forces, Sir Henry Clintoiv who raised him to the rank of major and appointed him adjutant- general of the forces in 1778. Early in 1780 the American ANDREA— ANDREA DEL SARTO 969 general, Benedict Arnold (q.v.) , thinkinghimself injuriously treated by his colleagues, made overtures to the British to betray to them the important fortress of West Point on the Hudson river, the key of the American position, of which he was commandant. This seemed to Sir Henry Clinton a favourable opportunity for concluding the war, and Major Andre was appointed to negotiate with Arnold. For this purpose he landed from a vessel bearing a flag of truce and had an interview with Arnold, who delivered to him full particulars and plans of the fortress of West Point, and arranged with him to co-operate with the British during an attack which was to be made in a few days. Unfortunately for Andre, the British vessel was fired on before the negotiations were finished and obliged to drop down the river. Andre, there- fore, could not return by the way he came and was compelled to pass the night within the American lines. After making the fatal mistake of exchanging his uniform for a civilian disguise, he set out next day by land for New York, provided by Arnold with a passport, and succeeded in passing the regular American outposts undetected. Next day, however, just when all danger seemed to be over, Andre was stopped by three American militiamen, to whom hegave such contradictory answers that, in spite of Arnold's pass, they searched him and discovered in his boots the fatal proofs of his negotiations for the betrayal of West Point. Not- withstanding his offer of a large sum for his release, his captors delivered him up to the nearest American officer. Washington, although admitting that Andre was " more unfortunate than criminal," sent him before a court-martial, by which, notwith- standing a spirited defence, he was, in consequence of his own admissions, condemned to death as a spy. In spite of the protests and entreaties of Sir Henry Clinton and the threats of Arnold he was hanged at Tappan on the 2nd of October 1780. Arnold, warned by the unfortunate Andre, escaped by flight the punishment he so richly merited. The justice of Andr6's execu- tion has been a fruitful theme for discussion, but both British and American military writers are agreed that he undoubtedly acted in the character of a spy, although under orders and entirely contrary to his own feelings. Washington's apparent harshness in refusing the condemned man a soldier's death by shooting has also been censured, but it is evident that no other course was open to the American commander, since a mitigation of the sentence would have implied a doubt as to its justice. Besides courage and distinguished military talents, Major Andre was a proficient in drawing and in music, and showed considerable poetic talent in his humorous Cow-chase, a kind of parody on Chevy-chase, which appeared in three successive parts at New York, the last on the very day of his capture. His fate excited universal sympathy both in America and Europe, and the whole British army went into mourning for him. A mural sculptured monument to his memory was erected in Westminster Abbey by the British government when his remains were brought over and interred there in 182 1; and a memorial has been erected to him by Americans on the spot where he was taken. Andre's military journal, giving an interesting account of the British movements in America from June 1777 to the close of 1778, was taken to England in 1782 by General Grey, whose descendant, Earl Grey, discovered it in 1902 and disposed of it to an American gentleman. See The Life and Career of Major John Andre, fife, by Winthrop Sargent (new ed., New York, 1902); Andres Journal (Boston, Mass., The Bibliophile Society, 1904). ANDREA, GIOVANNI (1275-1348), Italian canonist, was born at Mugello, near Florence, about 1275. He studied canon law at Bologna, where he distinguished himself in this subject so much that he was made professor at Padua, and later at Pisa and Bologna, rapidly acquiring a high reputation for his learning and his moral character. Curious stories are told of him; for instance, that by way of self-mortifiCation he lay every night for twenty years on the bare ground with only a bear's skin for a covering; that in an audience he had with Pope Boniface VIII. his extraordinary shortness of stature led the pope to believe he was kneeling, and to ask him three times to rise, to the immense merriment of the cardinals; and that he had a daughter, Novella, so accomplished in law as to be able to read her father's lectures in his absence, and so beautiful, that she had to read behind a curtain lest her face should distract the attention of the students. He is said to have died at Bologna of the plague in 1348, and an epitaph in the church of the Dominicans in which he was buried, calling him Rabbi Doctorum, Lux, Censor, Normaque Morum, testifies to the public estimation of his character. Andrea wrote a Gloss on the Sixth Book of the Decretals, Glosses on the Clemen- tines and a Commentary on the Rules of Sextus. His additions to the Speculum of Durando are a mere adaptation from the Consilia of Oldradus, as is also the book De Sponsalibus et Matrimonio, from J. Anguisciola. ANDREA DEL SARTO (1487-1531). This celebrated painter of the Florentine school was born in Gualfonda, Florence, in 1487, or perhaps 1486, his father Agnolo being a tailor (sarto) : hence the nickname by which the son is constantly designated. There were four other children. The family, though of no distinction, can be traced back into the 14th century. Vannucchi has since 1677 been constantly given as the surname — according to some modern writers, without any authority. It has recently been said that the true name is Andrea d' Agnolo di Francesco di Luca di Paolo del Migliore. But this only gives, along with our painter's Christian name, the Christian names of his antecessors for five generations, and is in no way his own surname. In 1494 Andrea was put to work under a goldsmith. This occupation he disliked. He took to drawing from his master's models, and was soon transferred to a skilful woodcarver and inferior painter named Gian Barile, with whom he remained until 1498. Barile, though a coarse-grained man enough, would not stand in the way of the advancement of his promising pupil, so he recom- mended him to Piero di Cosimo as draughtsman and colourist. Piero retained Andrea for some years, allowing him to study from the famous cartoons of Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. Finally Andrea agreed with his friend Franciabigio, who was somewhat his senior, that they would open a joint shop; at a date not precisely defined they took a lodging together in the Piazza del Grano. Their first work in partnership may probably have been the " Baptism of Christ," for the Florentine Com- pagnia dello Scalzo, a performance of no great merit, the begin- ning of a series, all the extant items of which are in monochrome chiaroscuro. Soon afterwards the partnership was dissolved. From 1509 to 1514 the brotherhood of the Servites emp'oyed Andrea, as well as Franciabigio and Andrea Feltrini, the first- named undertaking in the portico of the Annunziata three frescoes illustrating the life of the Servite saint Filippo Benizzi (d. 1285). He executed them in a few months, being endowed by nature with remarkable readiness and certainty of hand and unhesitating firmness in his work, although in the general mould of his mind he was timid and diffident. The subjects are the saint sharing his cloak with a leper, cursing some gamblers, and restoring a girl possessed with a devil. The second and third works excel the first, and are impulsive and able performances. These paintings met with merited applause, and gained for their author the pre-eminent title " Andrea senza errori " (Andrew the unerring) — the correctness of the contours being particularly admired. After these subjects the painter proceeded with two others — the death of S. Filippo and the children cured by touching his garment, — all the five works being completed before the close of 1510. The youth of twenty-three was already in technique about the best fresco-painter of central Italy, barely rivalled by Raphael, who was the elder by four years. Michel- angelo's Sixtine frescoes were then only in a preliminary stage. Andrea always worked in the simplest, most typical and most trying method of fresco — -that of painting the thing once and for all, without any subsequent dry-touching. He now received many commissions. The brotherhood of the Servites engaged him to do two more frescoes in the Annunziata at a higher price; he also painted, towards 1512, an Annunciation in the monastery of S. Gallo. The " Tailor's Andrew " appears to have been an easy-going plebeian, to whom a modest position in life and scanty gains were no grievances. As an artist he must have known his own 97° ANDREA DEL SARTO value; but he probably rested content in the sense of his super- lative powers as an executant, and did not aspire to the rank of a great inventor or leader, for which, indeed, he had no vocation. He led a social sort of life among his compeers of the art, was intimate with the sculptor Rustici, and joined a jolly dining-club at his house named the Company of the Kettle, also a second club named the Trowel. At one time, Franciabigio being then the chairman of the Kettle-men, Andrea recited, and is by some regarded as having composed, a comic epic, " The Battle of the Frogs and Mice " — a rechauffe, as one may Surmise, of the Greek Batrachomyomachia, popularly ascribed to Homer. He fell in love with Lucrezia (del Fede), wife of a hatter named Carlo Recanati; the hatter dying opportunely, the tailor's son married he* on the 26th of December 1512. She was a very handsome woman and has come down to us treated with great suavity in many a picture of her lover-husband, who constantly painted her as a Madonna and otherwise; and even in painting other women he made them resemble Lucrezia in general type. She has been much less gently handled by Vasari and other biographers. Vasari, who was at one time a pupil of Andrea, describes her as faithless, jealous, overbearing and vixenish with the apprentices. She lived to a great age, surviving her husband forty years. By 1 514 Andrea had finished his last two frescoes in the court of the Servites, than which none of his works was more admired — the " Nativity of the Virgin," which shows the influence of Leonardo, Domenico Ghirlandajo and Fra Bartolommeo, in effective fusion, and the " Procession of the Magi," intended as an amplification of a work by Baldovinetti; in this fresco is a portrait of Andrea himself. He also executed at some date a much-praised head of Christ over the high altar. By November 1 51 5 he had finished at the Scalzo the allegory of Justice, and the " Baptist preaching in the desert," — followed in 1517 by " John baptizing," and other subjects. Before the end of 1516 a " Pieta. " of his composition, and afterwards a Madonna, were sent to the French court. These were received with applause; and the art-loving monarch Francis I. suggested in 1518 that Andrea should come to Paris. He journeyed thither towards June of that year, along with his pupil Andrea Sguazzella, leaving his wife in Florence, and was very cordially received, and for the first and only time in his life was handsomely remunerated. Lucrezia, however, wrote urging his return to Italy. The king assented, but only on the understanding that his absence from France was to be short; and he entrusted Andrea with a sum of money to be expended in purchasing works of art for his royal patron. The temptation of having a goodly amount of pelf in hand proved too much for Andrea's virtue. He spent the king's money and some of his own in building a house for himself in Florence. This necessarily brought him into bad odour with Francis, who refused to be appeased by some endeavours which the painter afterwards made to reingratiate himself. No serious punishment, however, and apparently no grave loss of pro- fessional reputation befell the defaulter. In 1520 he resumed work in Florence, and executed the " Faith " and " Charity " in the cloister of the Scalzo. These were succeeded by the " Dance of the Daughter of Herodias," the " Beheading of the Baptist," the " Presentation of his head to Herod," an allegory of Hope, the " Apparition of the Angel to Zacharias " (1523), and the monochrome of the Visitation. This last was painted in the autumn of 1524, after Andrea had returned from Luco in Mugello, — to which place an outbreak of plague in Florence had driven him, his wife, his step-daughter and other relatives. In 1525 he painted the very famous fresco named the " Madonna del Sacco, " a lunette in the cloisters of the Servites; this picture (named after a sack against which Joseph is represented propped) is generally accounted his master- piece. His final work at the Scalzo was the " Birth of the Baptist" (1526), executed with some enhanced elevation of style after Andrea had been diligently studying Michelangelo's figures in the sacristy of S. Lorenzo. In the following year he completed at S. Salvi, near Florence, a celebrated " Last Supper," in which all the personages seem to be portraits. This also is a very fine example of his style, though the conception of the subject is not exalted. It is the last monumental work of importance which Andrea del Sarto lived to execute. He dwelt in Florence throughout the memorable siege, which was soon followed by an infectious pestilence. He caught the malady, struggled against it with little or no tending from his wife, who held aloof, and he died, no one knowing much about it at the moment, on the 22nd of January 1 531, at the comparatively early age of forty-three. He was buried unceremoniously in the church of the Servites. Various portraits painted by Andrea are regarded as likenesses of himself, but this is not free from some doubt. One is in London, in the National Gallery, an admirable half-figure, purchased in 1862. Another is at Alnwick Castle, a young man about twenty years of age, with his elbow on a table. Another at Panshanger may perhaps represent in reality bis, pupil Domenico Conti. Another youthful portrait is in the Uffizi Gallery, and the Pitti Gallery contains more than one. Among his more renowned works not already specified are the following. The Virgin and Child, with St Francis and St John the Evangelist and two angels, now in the Uffizi, painted for the church of S. Francesco in Florence; this is termed the " Madonna di S. Francesco," or " Madonna delle Arpie," from certain figures of harpies which are decoratively introduced, and is rated as Andrea's masterpiece in oil-painting. The altar-piece in the Uffizi, painted for the monastery of S. Gallo, the " Fathers disputing on the doctrine of the Trinity " — SS. Augustine, Dominic, Francis, Lawrence, Sebastian and Mary Magdalene — a very energetic work. Both these pictures are comparatively early — towards 15 17. The " Charity " now in the Louvre (perhaps the only painting which Andrea executed while in France). The " Pieta," in the Belvedere of Vienna; this work, as well as the " Charity," shows a strong Michelangelesque influence. At Poggio a Caiano a celebrated fresco (1521) representing Julius Caesar receiving tribute, various figures bringing animals from foreign lands — a striking per- spective arrangement; it was left unfinished by Andrea and was completed by Alessandro Allori. Two very remarkable paintings (1523) containing various incidents in the life of the patriarch Joseph, executed for the Borgherini family. In the Pitti Gallery two separate compositions of the " Assumption of the Virgin," also a fine " Pieta." In the Madrid museum the " Virgin and Child," with Joseph, Elizabeth, the infant Baptist and an Archangel. In the Louvre the " Holy Family," the Baptist pointing upwards. In Berlin a portrait of his wife. In Panshanger a fine portrait named " Laura." The second picture in the National Gallery ascribed to Andrea, a " Holy Family," is by some critics regarded as the work rather of one of his scholars — we hardly know why. A very noticeable incident in the life of Andrea del Sarto relates to the copy, which he produced in 1523, of the portrait group of Leo X. by Raphael: it is now in the Naples Museum, the original being in the Pitti Gallery. Ottaviano de' Medici, the owner of the original, was solicited by Frederick II., duke of Mantua, to present it to him. Unwilling to part with so great a pictorial prize and unwilling also to disoblige the duke, Ottaviano got Andrea to make the copy, which was consigned to the duke as being the original. So deceptive was the imitation that even Giulio Romano, who had himself manipulated the original to some extent, was com- pletely taken in; and, on showing the supposed Raphael years afterwards to Vasari, who knew the facts, he could only be un- deceived wheii a private mark on the canvas was named to him by Vasari and brought under his eye. It was Michelangelo who had introduced Vasari in 1524 to Andrea's studio. He is said to have thought very highly of Andrea's powers, saying on one occasion to Raphael, " There is a little fellow in Florence who will bring sweat to your brow if ever he is engaged in great works." Andrea had true pictorial style, a very high standard of correct- ness and an enviable balance of executive endowments. The point of technique in which he excelled least was perhaps that of discriminating the varying textures of different objects and surfaces. There is not much elevation or ideality in his works — much more of reality. His chiaroscuro is not carried out accord- ing to strict rule, but is adjusted to his liking for harmony of ANDREANI— ANDREOSSY 971 colour and fused tone and transparence ; in fresco more especially his predilection for varied tints appears excessive. It may be broadly said that his taste in colouring was derived mainly from Fra Bartolommeo, and in form from Michelangelo; and his style partakes of the Venetian and Lombard, as well as the Florentine and Roman — some of his figures are even adapted from Albert Diirer. In one way or other he continued improving to the last. In drawing from nature, his habit was to sketch very slightly, making only such a memorandum as sufficed to work from. The scholars of Andrea were very numerous; but, according to Vasari, they were not wont to stay long, being domineered over by his wife; Pontormo and Domenico Puligo may be mentioned. In this account of Andrea del Sarto we have followed the main lines of the narrative of Crowe and Cavalcaselle, supple- mented by Vasari, Lanzi and others. There are biographies by Biadi (1829), by von Reumont (1831), by Baumann (1878), and by Guinness (1899). (W. M. R.) ANDREANI, ANDREA, Italian engraver on wood, in chiaro- scuro, was born at Mantua about 1540 (Brulliot says 1560) and died at Rome in 1623. His engravings are scarce and valuable, and are chiefly copies of Mantegna, Diirer and Titian. The most remarkable of his works are " Mercury and Ignorance," the " Deluge," " Pharaoh's host drowned in the Red Sea " (after Titian), the "Triumph of Caesar" (after Mantegna), and " Christ retiring from the judgment-seat of Pilate." ANDREE, KARL (1808-1875), German geographer, was born at Brunswick on the 20th of October 1808. He was educated at Jena, Gottingen and Berlin. After having been implicated in a students' political agitation he became a journalist, and in 1851 founded the Bremer Handelsblalt. From 1855, however, he devoted himself entirely to geography and ethnography, working successively at Leipzig and at Dresden. In 1862 he founded the important geographical periodical Globus. His works include Nordamerika in geographischen und geschichtlichen Umrissen (Brunswick, 1854), Geographische Wanderungen (Dresden, 1859), and Geographie des Welthandels (Stuttgart, 1867-1872). He died at Wilduhgen on the 10th of August 1875. His son Richard, born on the 26th of February 1835, followed his father's career, devoting himself especially to ethnography. He wrote numerous books on this subject, dealing notably with the races of his own country, while an important general work was Ethnographische Parallelen und Vorgleiche (Stuttgart, 1878). He also took up cartography, having a chief share in the production of the Physikalisch-statistische Atlas des deutschen Rciches (Leipzig, 1877), Allgemeine Handatlas (first ed., 1881), and other atlases; and he continued the editorship of the Globus. ANDREE, SALOMON AUGUST (1854-1897?), Swedish engineer, was born at Grenna, on Lake Vetter, on the 18th of October 1854. After education at the Stockholm technical college, he studied aeronautics, and in 1895 elaborated a plan for crossing the north polar region by a balloon which should be in some degree dirigible by sails and trailing ropes. After an abortive effort in 1896, the winds being contrary, he started with two companions from Danes Island, Spitsbergen, on the nth of July 1897. The party was never seen, again, nor is the manner of its fate known. Of several expeditions sent in search of it, the first started in November 1897, on the strength of a report of cries of distress heard by shipwrecked sailors at Spitsbergen; in 1898 and 1899 parties searched the north Asiatic coast and the New Siberia Islands; and in May 1899 Dr Nathorst headed an expedi- tion to eastern Greenland. None was successful, and only scanty information was obtained or inferred from the discovery of a few buoys (on the west of Spitsbergen, northern Norway, Iceland, &c.) which the balloonists had arranged to drop, and a message taken from a carrier pigeon despatched from the balloon two days after its ascent. There were also messages in two of the buoys, but they dated only from the day of the ascent. The others were empty. ANDREINI, FRANCESCO, Italian actor, was born at Pistoia in the last half of the 16th century. He was a member of the company of the Gelosi which Henry IV. summoned to Paris to please his bride, the young queen Marie de' Medici. His wife Isabella Andeeini (1 562-1604) was a member of her husband's company, distinguished alike for her acting and her character, — commemorated in the medal struck at Lyons in the year of her death, with her portrait on one side, and the figure of Fame on the reverse with the words aetema fama. She was also known in literature, her books including a pastoral, M irtilla (Verona, 1588), a volume of songs, sonnets and other poems (Milan, 1601), and a collection of letters, published after her death. She inspired many of the French poets, notably Isaac du Ryer (d. c. 1631). Her son Giambattista Andreini (1578-1650) was born in Florence, and had a great success as a comedian in Paris under the name of Leylio. He was a favourite with Louis XIII., and also with the public, especially as the young lover. He left a number of plays full of extravagant imagination. The best known are L'Adamo (Milan, 1613), The Penitent Magdalene (Mantua, 1617), and The Centaur (Paris, 1622). From the first of these three volumes, which are extremely rare, Italians have often asserted that Milton, travelling at that time in their country, took the idea of Paradise Lost. ANDREOSSY, ANTOINE-FRANCOIS, Count (1761-1828), French soldier and diplomatist, was born at Castelnaudary, in Languedoc, on the 6th of March 1761. He was of Italian extrac- tion, and his ancestor Francois Andreossy (1633-1688) had been concerned with Riquet in the construction of the Languedoc Canal in 1669. He had a brilliant career at the school of artillery at Metz, obtained his commission in 1781, and became captain in 1788. On the outbreak of the Revolution he adopted its principles. He saw active service on the Rhine in 1794 and in Italy in 1795, and in the campaign of 1796-97 was employed in engineer duties with the Army of Italy. He became chef de brigade in December 1796 and general of brigade in 1798, in which year he accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt. He served in the Egyptian campaign with distinction, and was selected as one of Napoleon's companions on his return to Europe. Andreossy took part in the coup d'etat of the 18th of Brumaire, and on the 6th of January 1800 was made general of division. Of particular importance was his term of office as ambassador to England during the short peace which followed the treaties of Amiens and Luneville. It had been shown (Coquille, Napoleon and England, 1904) that Andreossy repeatedly warned Napoleon that the British government desired to maintain peace but must be treated with consideration. His advice, however, was dis- regarded. When Napoleon became emperor he made Andreossy inspector-general of artillery and a count of the empire. In the war of 1805 Andreossy was employed on the headquarters staff of Napoleon. From 1808 to 1809 he was French ambassador at Vienna, where he displayed a hostility to Austria which was in marked contrast to his friendliness to England in 1802-1803. In the war of 1809, Andreossy was military governor of Vienna during the French occupation. In 1812 he was sent by Napoleon as ambassador to Constantinople, where he carried on the policy initiated by Sebastiani. In 1814 he was recalled by Louis XVIII. Andreossy now retired into private life, till the escape of his former master from Elba once again called him forth. In 1826 he was elected to the Acad&mie des Sciences, and in the following year was deputy for the department of the Aude. His numerous works included the following: — on artillery (with which arm he was most intimately connected throughout his military career), Quelques idees relatives a I'usage de I'artillerie dans I'attaque et . . . la defense des places (Metz) ; Essai sur le tir des projectiles creux (Paris, 1826); and on military history, Campagne sur le Main et la Rednitz de Varmee gallo-batave (Paris, 1802); Opera- tions des pontonniers en Italie . . . IJQ5-1JQ6 (Paris, 1843). He also wrote scientific memoirs on the mouth of the Black Sea (1818-1819); on certain Egyptian lakes (during his stay in Egypt); and in particular the history of the Languedoc Canal (Hisloire du canal du Midi, 2nd ed., Paris, 1804), the chief credit of which he claimed for his ancestor. Andreossy died at Montauban in 1828. See Marion, Notice necrologique sur le Li. -General Comte Andreossy . 972 ANDRES— ANDREW OF LONGJUMEAU ANDRES, JUAN (1740-1817), Spanish Jesuit, was born at Planes in the province of Valencia, and became professor of literature at Gandia and finally royal librarian at Naples. He died at Rome on the 12th of January 1817. He is the author of many miscellaneous treatises on science, music, the art of teach- ing the deaf and dumb, &c. But his chief work, the labour of fully twenty years, is entitled Dell' origine, progressi, e stato attuale d' ogni Letteratura (7 vols., Parma, 17823-1799). A Spanish translation by his brother Carlos appeared at Madrid between 1784 and 1806, and an abridgment in French (1838-1846) was compiled by the Jesuit Alexis Nerbonne. The original was frequently reprinted during the first half of the 19th century. See C. Sommervogel, Bibliotheque de la compagnie de Jesus, premiere partie (Brussels and Paris), vol. i. col. 342-350. ANDREW (Gr. 'Avdpias, manly), the Christian Apostle, brother of Simon Peter, was born at Bethsaida on the Lake of Galilee. He had been a disciple of John the Baptist (John i. 37-40) and was one of the first to follow Jesus. He lived at Capernaum (Mark i. 29). In the gospel story he is referred to as being present on some important occasions as one of the disciples more closely attached to Jesus (Mark xiii. 3; John vi. 8, xii. 22); in Acts there is only a bare mention of him (i. 13). Tradition relates that he preached in Asia Minor and in Scythia, along the Black Sea as far as the Volga. Hence he became a patron saint of Russia. He is said to have suffered crucifixion at Patras (Patrae) in Achaea, on a cross of the form called Crux decussata (X) and commonly known as "St Andrew's cross." According to tradition his relics were removed from Patras to Constantinople, and thence to St Andrews (see below). The apocryphal book. The Acts of Andrew, mentioned by Eusebius, Epiphanius and others, is generally attributed to Leucius the Gnostic. It was edited and published by C. Tischendorf in the Acta Aposlolorum apocrypha (Leipzig, 1821). This book, as well as a Gospel of St Andrew, was declared apocryphal by a decree of Pope Gelasius. Another version of the Andrew legend is found in the Passio Andreae, published by Max Bonnet {Supplementum II Codicis apocryphi, Paris, 1895). On this was founded an Anglo-Saxon poem (" Andreas und Elene," first published by J. Grimm, 1841; cf. C. W. Goodwin, The Anglo-Saxon Legends of S. Andreas and S. Veronica, 1851). The festival of St Andrew is held on the 30th of November. See Apocryphal Literature ; also Lipsius, Die apokryphen Apos- telgeschichten und Apostellegenden, vol. i. (1883), and Hastings' Dic- tionary of the Bible, s.v. Scottish Legends. — About the middle of the 8th century Andrew became the patron saint of Scotland. Concerning this there are several legends which state that the relics of Andrew were brought under supernatural guidance from Constantinople to the place where the modern St Andrews stands (Pictish, Muckross; Gaelic, Kilrymont). The oldest stories (preserved in the Colbertine MSS., Paris, and the Harleian MSS. in the British Museum) state that the relics were brought by one Regulus to the Pictish king Angus (or Ungus) Macfergus (c. 731- 761). The only historical Regulus (Riagail or Rule, whose name is preserved by the tower of St Rule) was an Irish monk expelled from Ireland with St Columba; his date, however, is c. 573-600. There are good reasons for supposing that the relics were origin- ally in the collection of Acca, bishop of Hexham, who took them into Pictland when he was driven from Hexham (c. 732), and founded a see, not, according to tradition, in Galloway, but on the site of St Andrews. The connexion with Regulus is, therefore, due in all probability to the desire to date the foundation of the church at St Andrews as early as possible. See A. Lang, St Andrews (London, 1893), pp. 4 ff. ; W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland ; also the article St Andrews. ANDREW II. (1175-1235), king of Hungary, son of Bela III., king of Hungary, succeeded his nephew, the infant Ladislaus III., in 1205. No other Magyar king, perhaps, was so mischievous to his country. Valiant, enterprising, pious as he was, all these fine qualities were ruined by a reckless good nature which never thought of the morrow. He declares in one of his decrees that the generosity of a king should be limitless, and he acted up to this principle throughout his reign. He gave away everything, money, villages, domains, whole counties, to the utter impoverish- ment of the treasury, thereby rendering the crown, for the first time in Hungarian history, dependent upon the great feudatories, who, in Hungary as elsewhere, took all they could get and gave as little as possible in return. In all matters of government, Andrew was equally reckless and haphazard. He is directly responsible for the beginnings of the feudal anarchy which well- nigh led to the extinction of the monarchy at the end of the 13th century. The great feudatories did not even respect the lives of the royal family, for Andrew was recalled from a futile attempt to reconquer Galicia (which really lay beyond the Hungarian sphere of influence), through the murder of his first wife Gertrude of Meran (September 24, 1213), by rebellious nobles jealous of the influence of her relatives. In 1 2 1 5 he married Iolanthe of France, but in 1 21 7 was compelled by the pope to lead a crusade to the Holy Land, which he undertook in hopes of being elected Latin emperor of Constantinople. The crusade excited no enthusiasm in Hungary, but Andrew contrived to collect 15,000 men together, whom he led to Venice; whence, not without much haggling and the surrender of all the Hungarian claims upon Zara, about two-thirds of them were conveyed to Acre. But the whole expedition was a forlorn hope. The Christian kingdom of Palestine was by this time reduced to a strip of coast about 440 sq. m. in extent, and after a drawn battle with the Turks on the Jordan (November 10), and fruitless assaults on the fort- resses of the Lebanon and on Mount Tabor, Andrew started home (January 18, 1218) through Antioch, Iconium, Constantinople and Bulgaria. On his return he found the feudal barons in the ascendant, and they extorted from him the Golden Bull (see Hungary, History). Andrew's last exploit was to defeat an invasion of Frederick of Austria in 1234. The same year he married his third wife, Beatrice of Este. Besides his three sons, Bela, Coloman and Andrew, Andrew had a daughter Iolanthe, who married the king of Aragon. He was also the father of St Elizabeth of Hungary. No special monograph for the whole reign exists, but there is a good description of Andrew's crusade in Reinhold Roehricht, 'Geschichte des Konigreiches Jerusalem (Innsbruck, 1898) . The best account of Andrew's government is in LaszloSzalay's/ftstoryo/ H ungary (Hung.), vol. i. (Leipzig and Pest, 1851-1862). (R. N. B.) ANDREW OF LONGJUMEAU (Longumeau, Lonjumel, &c), a French Dominican, explorer and diplomatist. He accom- panied the mission under Friar Ascelin, sent by Pope Innocent IV. to the Mongols in 1247; at the Tatar camp near Kars he met a certain David, who next year (1248) appeared at the court of King Louis IX. of France in Cyprus. Andrew, who was now with St Louis, interpreted to the king David's message, a real or pretended offer of alliance from the Mongol general Ilchikdai (Ilchikadai) , and a proposal of a joint attack upon the Islamic powers for the conquest of Syria. In reply to this the French sovereign despatched Andrew as his ambassador to the great Khan Kuyuk; with Longjumeau went his brother (a monk) and several others — John Goderiche, John of Carcassonne, Herbert " le sommelier," Gerbert of Sens, Robert a clerk, a certain William, and an unnamed clerk of Poissy. The party set out about the 16th of February 1249, with letters from King Louis and the papal legate, and rich presents, including a chapel-tent, lined with scarlet cloth and embroidered with sacred pictures. From Cyprus they went to the port of Antioch in Syria, and thence travelled for a year to the khan's court, going ten leagues a day. Their route led them through Persia, along the southern and eastern shores of the Caspian (whose inland character, un- connected with the outer ocean, their journey helped to demon- strate), and probably through Talas, north-east of Tashkent. On arrival at the supreme Mongol court — either that on the Imyl river (near Lake Ala-kul and the present Russo-Chinese frontier in the Altai), or more probably at or near Karakorum itself, south-west of Lake Baikal — Andrew found Kuyuk Khan dead, poisoned, as the envoy supposed, by Batu's agents. The regent-mother Ogul Gaimish (the " Camus " of Rubruquis) seems to have received and dismissed him with presents and a ANDREW— ANDREWES 973 letter for Louis IX. , the latter a fine specimen of Mongol insolence. But it is certain that before the friar had quitted "Tartary," Mangu Khan, Kuyuk's successor, had been elected. Andrew's report to his sovereign, whom he rejoined in 1251 at Caesarea in Palestine, appears to have been a mixture of history and fable; the latter affects his narrative of the Mongols' frise to greatness, and the struggles of their leader, evidently Jenghiz Khan, with Prester John; it is still more evident in the position assigned to the Tatar homeland, close to the prison of Gog and Magog. On the other hand, the envoy's account of Tatar manners is fairly accurate, and his statements about Mongol Christianity and its prosperity, though perhaps exaggerated {e.g. as to the 800 chapels on wheels in the nomadic host), are based on fact. Mounds of bones marked his road, witnesses of devastations which other historians record in detail; Christian prisoners, from Germany, he found in the heart of "Tartary" (at Talas); the ceremony of passing between two fires he was compelled to observe, as a bringer of gifts to a dead khan, gifts which were of course treated by the Mongols as evidence of submission. This insulting behaviour, and the language of the letter with which Andrew reappeared, marked the mission a failure: King Louis, says Joinville, " se repenti fort." We only know of Andrew through references in other writers: see especially William of Rubruquis in Recueil de voyages, iv. (Paris, 1839). PP- 261, 265, 279, 296, 310, 353, 363, 370; Joinville, ed. Francisque Michel (1858, &c), pp. 142, &c. ; Jean Pierre Sarrasin, in same vol., pp. 254-255 ; William of Nangis in Recueil des historiens des Gaules, xx. 359-367 ; Remusat, Memoires sur les relations politiques des princes Chretiens . . . avec les . . . Mongols (1822, &c), p. 52- (C R- B.) ANDREW, JOHN ALBION (1818-1867), American political le.ader, " war governor " of Massachusetts, was born at Wind- ham, Maine, on the 31st of May 1818. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1837, studied law in Boston, was admitted to the Suffolk bar in 1840, and practised his profession in Boston. He also took a deep interest in religious matters, was a prominent member of the Church of the Disciples (Unitarian; founded in Boston by the Rev. James Freeman Clarke), and was assistant editor for some time of The Christian World, a weekly religious paper. With ardent anti-slavery principles, he entered political life as a " Young Whig " opposed to the Mexican War; he became an active Free-Soiler in 1848, and in 1854 took part in the organization in Massachusetts of the new Republican party. He served one term, in 1858, in the state House of Representa- tives, and in 1859 declined an appointment to a seat on the bench of the state supreme court. In this year he took such an active part in raising funds to defend John Brown, then on trial in Virginia, that he aroused the suspicions of a senatorial committee investigating Brown's raid, and was summoned to Washington to tell what he knew of the affair. In i860 he was chairman of the Massachusetts delegation to the Republican national convention at Chicago, which nominated Lincoln for the presidency; and from 1861 to January 1866, throughout the trying period of the Civil War, he was governor of Massachusetts, becoming known as one of the ablest, most patriotic and most energetic of the remarkable group of "war governors" in the North. Immediately after his inauguration he began filling the militia regiments with young men ready for active service, saw that they were well drilled and supplied them with good modern rifles. As a result, Massachusetts was the only northern state in any way prepared for war when the Confederates fired on Fort Sumter; and her troops began to muster in Boston on the 16th of April, the very day after President Lincoln's call for volunteers. On the next day the Sixth Massachusetts Volunfeer Infantry started south for the defence of Washington, and was the first fully armed and equipped volunteer regiment to reach the capital. Within six days after the call, nearly four thousand Massachusetts volunteers had departed for Washington. In 1 863 , at Governor Andrew's own request, the secretary of war author- ized him to raise several regiments of negro troops, with white commissioned officers, and the Fifty-fourth Massachusetts Infantry was the first regiment of free negroes raised in the North. Governor Andrew's example was quickly followed in other states, and before the end of the year 36,000 negroes had been enrolled in the Union armies. When the war department ruled that thenegro troops were entitled to pay only as "labourers " and not as soldiers, Governor Andrew used all his influence with the president and the secretary of war to secure for them the same pay as white troops, and was finally successful. Notwithstanding his loyal support of the administration during the struggle, he did not fully approve of its conduct of the war, which he deemed shifting and timid; and it was with great reluctance that he sup- ported Lincoln in 1864 for a second term. In 1865 he rejected the more radical views of his party as to the treatment to be accorded to the late Confederate states, opposed the immediate and unconditional enfranchisement of freedmen, and, though not accepting President Johnson's views in their entirety, he urged the people of Massachusetts to give the new president their support. On retiring from the governor's office he declined the presidency of Antioch College, at Yellow Springs, Ohio, and various positions in the service of the Federal government, and resumed the practice of law, at once achieving great success. In 1865 he presided at the first national convention of this- Unitarian Church. He died suddenly of apoplexy, at Boston, on the 30th of October 1867. See Henry G. Pearson's Life of John A. Andrew (2 vols., Boston and New York, 1904). ANDREWES, LANCELOT (1555-1626), English divine, was born in 1555 in London. His family was an ancient Suffolk one; his father, Thomas, became master of Trinity House. Lancelot was sent to the Cooper's free school, Ratcliff , in the parish of Stepney, and then to the Merchant Taylors' school under Richard Mulcaster. In 1571 he was entered as a Watts scholar at Pem- broke Hall, Cambridge, where in 1574-1575 he graduated B.A., proceeding M.A. in 1578. In 1576 he had been elected fellow of Pembroke. In 1580 he took orders; in 1581 he was in- corporated M.A. at Oxford. As catechist at his college he read lectures on the Decalogue, which, both on their delivery and on their publication (in 1630), created much interest. He also gained much reputation as a casuist. After a residence in the north as chaplain to Henry Hastings, earl of Huntingdon, President of the North, he was made vicar of St Giles's, Cripple- gate, in 1588, and there delivered his striking sermons on the temptation in the wilderness and the Lord's prayer. In a great sermon on the 10th of April (Easter week) 1588, he stoutly vindicated the Protestantism of the Church of England against the Romanists, and, oddly enough, adduced " Mr Calvin " as a new writer, with lavish praise and affection. Andrewes was preferred to the prebendal stall of St Pancras in St Paul's, London, in 1 589, and on the 6th of September of the same year became master of his own college of Pembroke, being at the time one of the chaplains of Archbishop Whitgift. From 1589 to 1609 he was also prebendary of Southwell. On the 4th of March 1590, as one of the chaplains of Queen Elizabeth, he preached before her a singularly outspoken sermon, and in October gave his introductory lecture at St Paul's, undertaking to comment on the first four chapters of Genesis. These seem to have been worked up later into a compilation called The Orphan Lectures (1657). Andrewes was an incessant worker as well as preacher, and often laboured beyond his strength. He delighted to move among the people, and yet found time to meet with a society of antiquaries, of which Raleigh, Sidney, Burleigh, Arundel, the Herberts, Saville, Stow and Camden were members. In 1598 he declined the two bishoprics of Ely and Salisbury, as the offers were coupled with a proposal to alienate part of the revenues of those sees. On the 23rd of November 1600 he preached at Whitehall a remarkable sermon on justification, which gave rise to a memorable controversy. On the 4th of July 1601 he was appointed dean of Westminster and gave much attention to the school there. He assisted at the coronation of James I. and in 1604 took part in the Hampton Court conference. His name is the first on the list of divines appointed to make the authorized version of the Bible. In 1605 he was consecrated bishop of Chichester and made lord almoner. In 1609 he published Tortura Torti, a learned work which grew out of the Gunpowder 974 ANDREWS— ANDRIEUX Plot controversy and was written in answer to Bellarmine's Mallhaeus Tortus, which attacked James I.'s book on the oath of allegiance. After his translation to Ely (1609), he again controverted Bellarmine in the Responsio ad Apologiam, a treatise never answered. In 1617 he accompanied James I. to Scotland with a view to persuading the Scots that Episcopacy was preferable to Presbyterianism. In 1618 he attended the synod of Dort, and was soon after made dean of the Chapel Royal and translated to Winchester, a diocese which he ad- ministered with loving prudence and the highest success. He died on the 26th of September 1626, mourned alike by leaders in church and state. Two generations later, Richard Crashaw caught up the universal sentiment, when, in his lines " Upon Bishop Andrewes' Picture before his Sermons," he exclaims: — " This reverend shadow cast that setting sun, Whose glorious course through our horizon run, Left the dim face of this dull hemisphere, All one great eye, all drown'd in one great teare." Andrewes was distinguished in many fields. At court, though no trifler or flatterer, he was a favourite counsellor in three successive reigns, but he never meddled much in civil or temporal affairs. His learning made him the equal and the friend of Grotius, and of the foremost contemporary scholars. His preaching was a unique combination of rhetorical splendour and scholarly richness; his piety that of an ancient saint, semi-ascetic and unearthly in its self- denial. As a churchman he is typically Anglican, equally removed from the Puritan and the Roman positions. He stands in true succession to Richard Hooker in working out the principles of the English Reformation, though while Hooker argued mainly against Puritanism, Andrewes chiefly combated Romanism. A good sum- mary of his position is found in his First Answer to Cardinal Perron, who had challenged James I.'s use of the title " Catholic." His position in regard to the Eucharist is naturally more mature than that of the first reformers. " As to the Real Presence we are agreed ; our controversy is as to the mode of it. As to the mode we define nothing rashly, nor anxiously investigate, any more than in the Incarnation of Christ we ask how the human is united to the divine nature in One Person. There is a real change in the elements — we allow ut panis iam consecratus non sit panis quern natura formavit; sed, quern benedictio consecravit, et consecrando etiam immutavit " (Responsio, p. 263). Adoration is permitted, and the use of the terms " sacrifice " and " altar " maintained as being consonant with scripture and antiquity. Christ is " a sacrifice — so, to be slain; a propitiatory sacrifice — so, to be eaten " (Sermons, vol. ii. p. 296). " By the same rules that the Passover was, by the same may ours be termed a sacrifice. In rigour of speech, neither of them ; for to speak after the exact manner of divinity, there is but one only sacrifice, veri nominis, that is Christ's death. And that sacrifice but once actually performed at His death, but ever before represented in figure, from the beginning; and ever since repeated in memory to the world's end. That only absolute, all else relative to it, repre- sentative of it, operative by it. . . . Hence it is that what names theirs carried, ours do the like, and the Fathers make no scruple at it — no more need we " (Sermons, vol. ii. p. 300). As to reservation, " it needeth not : the intent is had without it," since an invalid may always have his private communion. Andrewes declares against the invocation of saints, the apparent examples in patristic literature are " rhetorical outbursts, not theological definitions." His services to his church have been summed up thus: — (1) he has a keen sense of the proportion of the faith and maintains a clear distinction between what is fundamental, needing ecclesiastical commands, and subsidiary, needing only ecclesiastical guidance and suggestion ; (2) as distinguished from the earlier protesting standpoint, e.g. of the Thirty-nine Articles, he emphasized a positive and constructive statement of the Anglican position. Literature. — Of his works the Manual of Private Devotions is the best known, for it appeals to Christians of every church. One of the many good modern editions is that by Alex. Whyte (1900). Andrewes's other works occupy eight volumes in the Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology (1841-1854). Of biographies we have those by H. Isaacson (1650), A. T. Russell (1863), R. L. Ottley (1894), and Dean Church's essay in Masters in English Theology. See also W. H. Frere, Lancelot Andrewes as a Representative of Anglican Principles (1898; Church Hist. Soc. Publications, No. 44). ANDREWS, JAMES PETTIT (c. 1737-1797), English historian and antiquary, was the younger son of Joseph Andrews, of Shaw House, Newbury, Berkshire, where he was born. He was educated privately, and having taken to the law was one of the magistrates at the police court in Queen Square, West- minster, from 1792 to his death. He developed a taste for literature, and his miscellaneous works include The Savages of Europe (London, 1764), a satire on the English which he trans- lated from the French, and Anecdotes Ancient and Modern (London, 1789), an amusing collection of gossip. His chief work was a History of Great Britain connected with the Chronology of Europe from Caesar's Invasion to Accession of Edward VI., in 2 vols. (London, 1 794-1 795). Its plan is somewhat singular, as a portion of the history of England is given on one page, and a general sketch of the contemporaneous history of Europe on the opposite page. He also wrote a History of Great Britain from Death of Henry VIII. to Accession of James VI. of Scotland, a continuation of Robert Henry's History of Great Britain, published in 1796 and again in 1806. Andrews died at Brompton on the 6th of August 1797, and was buried in Hampstead Church. He married Anne Penrose, daughter of a rector of Newbury. ANDREWS, THOMAS (1813-1885), Irish chemist and physicist, was born on the 19th of December 1813 at Belfast, where his father was a linen merchant. After attending the Belfast Academy and also the Academical Institution, he went to Glasgow in 1828 to study chemistry under Professor Thomas Thomson, and thence migrated to Trinity College, Dublin, where he gained distinction in classics as well as in science. Finally, he graduated as M.D. at Edinburgh in 1835, and settled down to a successful medical practice in his native place, also giving instruction in chemistry at the Academical Institution. Ten years later he was appointed vice-president of the newly estab- lished Queen's College, Belfast, and professor of chemistry, and these two offices he held till 1879, when failing health com- pelled his retirement. He died on the 26th of November 1885. Andrews first became known as a scientific investigator by his work on the heat developed in chemical actions, for which the Royal Society awarded him a Royal medal in 1844. Another important research, undertaken with P. G. Tait, was devoted to ozone. But the work on which his reputation mainly rests, and which best displayed his skill and resourcefulness in experi- ment, was concerned with the liquefaction of gases. He carried out a very complete inquiry into the laws expressing the relations of pressure, temperature and volume in carbonic dioxide, in particular establishing the conceptions of critical temperature and critical pressure, and showing that the gas passes from the gaseous to the liquid state without any breach of continuity. His scientific papers were published in a collected form in 1889, with a memoir by Professors Tait and Crum Brown. ANDRIA, a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Bari; 35m. W. of the town of Bari by steam tramway, and 6 m. S.S.E. of Barletta. Pop. (1901) 49,569. It was founded probably about 1046 by Peter, the first Norman count of Andria. It was a favourite residence of the emperor Frederick II., whose second and third wives, Iolanthe and Isabella of England, were buried in the cathedral dedicated to St Richard, who is believed to have come from England in 492; their tombs, however, no longer exist. There are several other fine churches of the 13th century. The Castel del Monte, 9J m. S. of Andria, was constructed by Frederick II., who frequently resided here; it is an octagonal building in two storeys with octagonal towers at each angle, and was further surrounded by three outer walls. Despite its massive and imposing exterior, its details are fine. See E. Rocchi in L'Arte, i. (1898) 121. ANDRIEU, BERTRAND (1761-1822), French engraver of medals, was born at Bordeaux. He is considered as the restorer of the art in France, which had declined after the time of Louis XIV. ; and during the last twenty years of his life he was entrusted by the French government with the execution of every work of importance. Many of his medals are figured in the Medallic History of Napoleon. ANDRIEUX, FRANQOIS GUILLAUME JEAN STANISLAS (1759-1833), French man of letters, was born at Strassburg on the 6th of May 1759. He was educated at Strassburg and pro- ceeded to Paris to study law. There he became a close friend of Collin d'Harleville. He became secretary to the duke of Uzes, and practised at the bar, but his attention was divided between his profession and literature. His plays are of the 1 8th century style, comedies of intrigue, but they rank with those of Collin d'Harleville among the best of the period next to those of Beaumarchais. Les Etourdis, his best comedy, ANDRISCUS— ANDRONICUS I. 975 was represented in 1788 and won for the author the praise of La Harpe. Andrieux hailed the beginning of the Revolution with delight and received a place under the new government, but at the beginning of the Terror he retreated to Mevoisins, the patrimony of his friend Collin d'Harleville. Under the Convention he was made civil judge in the Court of Cassation, and was one of the original members of the Institute. A moderate statesman, he was elected secretary and finally president of the Tribunat, but with other of his colleagues he was expelled for his irreconcilable attitude towards the establishment of the civil code. On his retirement he again turned to write for the stage, producing Le TrSsor and Moliere avec ses amis in 1804. He became librarian to Joseph Bonaparte and to the Senate, was professor of grammar and literature at the Ecole Polytechnique and eventually at the College de France. As a professor he was extraordinarily successful, and his lectures, which have un- happily not been preserved, attracted mature men as well as the ordinary students. He was rigidly classical in his tastes, and an ardent opponent of romanticism, which tended in his opinion to the subversion of morals. Among his other plays are La Comedienne (1 816), one of his best comedies, and a tragedy, Lucius Junius Brutus (1830). Andrieux was the author of some excellent stories and fables: La Promenade de FSnelon, Le Bulle d' Alexandre VI. and the Meunier de Saint-Souci. In 1829 he became perpetual secretary to the Academy, and in fulfilment of his functions he worked hard at the completion of the Dictionary. He died on the 9th of May 1833 in Paris. See also A. H. Taillandier, Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages d' Andrieux (1850) ; Sainte-Beuve, Portraits litteraires, vol. i. ANDRISCUS, often called the "pseudo-Philip," a fuller of Adramyttium, who claimed to be a son of Perseus, last king of Macedonia. He occupied the throne for a year (149-148 B.C.). Unable to obtain a following in Macedonia, he applied to Deme- trius Soter of Syria, who handed him over to the Romans. He contrived, however, to escape; reappeared in Macedonia with a large body of Thracians; and, having completely defeated the praetor Publius Juventius (149), he assumed the title of king. His conquest of Thessaly and alliance with Carthage made the situation dangerous. Eventually he was defeated by Q. Caecilius Metellus (148), and fled to Thrace, whose prince gave him up to Rome. He figured in the triumph of Metellus (146), who received the title of "Macedonicus" for his victory. Andriscus's brief reign was marked by cruelty and extortion. After this Macedonia was formally reduced to a province. Velleius Paterculus i. 11; Florus ii. 14; Livy, Epit. 49, 50, 52; Diod. Sic. xxxii. 9. ANDROCLUS, a Roman slave who lived about the time of Tiberius. He is the hero of a story told by Aulus Gellius (v. 14), which states that Androclus had taken refuge from the cruelties of his master in a cave in Africa, when a lion entered the cave and showed him his swollen paw, from which Androclus extracted a large thorn. The grateful animal subsequently recognized him when he had been captured and thrown to the wild beasts in the circus, and, instead of attacking him, began to caress him (Aelian, De Nat. An. vii. 48). ANDROMACHE, in Greek legend, the daughter of Eetion, prince of Thebe in Mysia, and wife of Hector. Her father and seven brothers fell by the hands of Achilles when their town was taken by him; her mother, ransomed at a high price, was slain by Artemis (Iliad, vi. 414). During the Trojan War her husband was slain by Achilles, and after the capture of the city her son Astyanax (or Scamandrius) was hurled from the battlements (Eurip. Troades, 720). When the captives were allotted, Andro- mache fell to Neoptolemus (Pyrrhus), the son of Achilles, whom she accompanied to Epirus, and to whom she bore three sons. When Neoptolemus was slain at Delphi, he left his wife and kingdom to Helenus, the brother of Hector (Virgil, Aen. iii. 294). After the death of her third husband, Andromache returned to Asia Minor with her youngest son Pergamus, who there founded a town named after himself. Andromache is one of the finest characters in Homer, distinguished by her affection for her husband and child, her misfortunes and the resignation with which she endures them. The death of Astyanax, and the farewell scene between Andromache and Hector {Iliad, vi. 323), were represented in ancient works of art, while Andromache herself is the subject of tragedies by Euripides and Racine. ANDROMEDA, in Greek legend, the daughter of Cepheus and Cassiopeia (Cassiope, Cassiepeia), king and queen of the Ethio- pians. Cassiopeia, having boasted herself equal in beauty to the Nereids, drew down the vengeance of Poseidon, who sent an inundation on the land and a sea-monster which destroyed man and beast. The oracle of Ammon having announced that no relief would be found until the king exposed his daughter Andro- meda to the monster, she was fastened to a rock on the shore. Here Perseus, returning from having slain the Gorgon, found her, slew the monster, set her free, and married her in spite of Phineus, to whom she had before been promised. At the wedding a quarrel took place between the rivals, and Phineus was turned to stone by the sight of the Gorgon's head (Ovid, Metam. v. 1). Andro- meda followed her husband to Tiryns in Argos, and became the ancestress of the family of the Perseidae. After her death she was placed by Athena amongst the constellations in the northern sky, near Perseus and Cassiopeia. Sophocles and Euripides (and in modern times Corneille) made the story the subject of tragedies, and its incidents were represented in numerous ancient works of art. Apollodorus ii. 4; Hyginus, Fab. 64; Ovid, Metam. iv. 662; Fedde, De Perseo et Andromeda (i860). The Greeks personified the constellation Andromeda as a woman with her arms extended and chained. Its Latin names are Persea, Mulier catenata ("chained woman"), Virgo devota, &c; the Arabians replaced the woman by a seal; Wilhelm Schickard (1592-1635) named the constellation " Abigail "; Julius Schiller assigned to it the figure of a sepulchre, naming it the "Holy Sepulchre." In 1786 Johann Elert Bode formed a new constella- tion, named the " Honours of Frederick," after his patron Frederick II., out of certain stars situated in the arm of Ptolemy's Andromeda; this innovation found little favour and is now discarded. Twenty-three stars are catalogued by Ptolemy and Tycho Brahe; Hevelius increased this number to forty-seven, while Flamsteed gave sixty-six. The most brilliant stars are a Andromedae or " Andromeda's head," and j3 Andromedae in the girdle (Arabic mirach or mizar), both of the second magnitude; y Andromedae in the foot (alamak or alhames), of the third magnitude. Scientific interest centres mainly on the following : — • the nebula in Andromeda, one of the finest in the sky (see Nebula); y Andromedae, the finest binary in the heavens, made up of a yellow star of magnitude 2§, and a blue-green of magnitude Si, the latter being itself binary; Nova Andromedae, a "new" star, discovered in the nebula by C. E. A. Hartwig in 1885, and subsequently spectroscopically examined by many observers; R Andromedae, a regularly variable star; and the Andromedids, a meteoric swarm, associated with Biela's comet, and having their radiant in this constellation (see Meteor). ANDRON (Gr. avbpuv), that part of a Greek house which was reserved for men, as distinguished from the gynaeceum (yvvai- Kitov), the women's quarters. ANDRONICUS I. (Comnenus), emperor of the East, son of Isaac, and grandson of Alexius I. Comnenus, was born about the beginning of the 12th century. He was endowed by nature with the most remarkable gifts both of mind and body. He was handsome and eloquent, but licentious; and at the same time active, hardy, courageous, a great general and an able politician. Hisearly years werespentinalternatepleasureandmilitaryservice. In 1 141 he was taken captive by the Turks (Seljuks) and remained in their hands for a year. On being ransomed he went to Constan- tinople,where was held the court of his cousin, the emperor Manuel, with whom he was a great favourite. Here the charms of his niece, the princess Eudoxia. attracted him. She became his mistress, while her sister Theodora stood in a similar relation to the emperor Manuel. In n 52, accompanied by Eudoxia, he set out for an important command in Cilicia. Failing in his principal enterprise, an attack upon Mopsuestia, he returned, but was 976 ANDRONICUS II.— ANDROPHAGI again appointed to the command of a province. This second post he seems also to have left after a short interval, for he appeared again in Constantinople, and narrowly escaped death at the hands of the brothers of Eudoxia. About this time (T153) a conspiracy against the emperor, in which Andronicus participated, was discovered and he was thrown into prison. There he re- mained for about twelve years, during which time he made repeated but unsuccessful attempts to escape. At last, in 1165, he was successful; and, after passing through many dangers, reached the court of Yaroslav, grand prince of Russia, at Kiev. While under the protection of the grand prince, Andronicus brought about an alliance between him and the emperor Manuel, and so restored himself to the emperor's favour. With a Russian army he joined Manuel in the invasion of Hungary and assisted at the siege of Semlin. After a successful campaign they re- turned together to Constantinople (1168); but a year after, Andronicus refused to take the oath of allegiance to the prince of Hungary, whom Manuel desired to become his successor. He was removed from court, but received the province of Cilicia. Being still under the displeasure of the emperor, Andronicus fled to the court of Raymund, prince of Antioch. While residing here he captivated and seduced the beautiful daughter of the prince, Philippa, sister of the empress Maria. The anger of the emperor was again roused by this dishonour, and Andronicus was compelled to fly. He took refuge with Amalric, king of Jerusalem, whose favour he gained, and who invested him with the town of Berytus, now Beirut. In Jerusalem he saw Theodora, the beautiful widow of the late king Baldwin and niece of the emperor Manuel. Although Andronicus was at that time fifty-six years old, age had not diminished his charms, and Theodora became the next victim of his artful seduction. To avoid the vengeance of the emperor, she fled with him to the court of the sultan of Damascus; but not deeming themselves safe there, they continued their perilous journey through Persia and Turkestan,round the Caspian Sea and across MountCaucasus, until at length they settled among the Turks on the borders of Trebizond. Into that province Andronicus, with a body of adventurers, made frequent and successful incursions. While he was absent upon one of them, his castle was surprised by the governor of Trebizond, and Theodora with her two children were captured and sent to Constantinople. To obtain their release Andronicus made abject submission to the emperor; and, appearing in chains before him, implored pardon. This he ob- tained, and was allowed to retire with Theodora into banishment in the little town of Oenoe, on the shores of the Black Sea. In 1 180 the emperor Manuel died, and was succeeded by his son Alexius II., who was under the guardianship of the empress Maria. Her conduct excited popular indignation; and the consequent disorders, amounting almost to civil war, gave an opportunity to the ambition of Andronicus. He left his retire- ment, secured the support of the army and marched upon Constantinople, where his advent was stained by a cruel massacre ef the Latin inhabitants. Alexius was compelled to acknowledge him as colleague in the empire, but was soon put to death. Andronicus, now (1183) sole emperor, married Agnes, widow of Alexius II., a child eleven years of age. His short reign was characterized by strong and wise measures. He resolved to suppress many abuses, but, above all things, to check feudalism and limit the power of the nobles. The people, who felt the severity of his laws, at the same time acknowledged their justice, and found -themselves protected from the rapacity of their superiors. The aristocrats, however, were infuriated against him, and summoned to their aid William of Sicily. This prince landed in Epirus with a strong force, and marched as far as Thessalonica, which he took and destroyed; but he was shortly afterwards defeated, and compelled to return to Sicily. An- dronicus seems then to have resolved to exterminate the aristocracy, and his plans were nearly crowned with success. But in 1185, during his absence from the capital, his lieutenant ordered the arrest and execution of Isaac Angelus, a descendant of the first Alexius. Isaac escaped and took refuge in the church of St Sophia. He appealed to the populace, and a tumult arose which spread rapidly over the whole city. When An- dronicus arrived he found that his power was overthrown, and that Isaac had been proclaimed emperor. Isaac delivered him over to his enemies, and for three days he was exposed to their fury and resentment. At last they hung him up by the feet between two pillars. His dying agonies were shortened by an Italian soldier, who mercifully plunged a sword into his body. He died on the 12th of September 1185. ANDRONICUS II. (Palaeologus) (1260-1332), eastern Roman emperor, was the elder son of Michael Palaeologus, whom he succeeded in 1282. He allowed the fleet, which his father had organized, to fall into decay; and the empire was thus less able than ever to resist the exacting demands of the rival powers of Venice and Genoa. During his reign the Turks under Osman conquered nearly the whole of Bithynia; and to resist them the emperor called in the aid of Roger di Flor, who commanded a body of Spanish adventurers. The Turks were defeated, but Roger was found to be nearly as formidable an enemy to the imperial power. He was assassinated by Andronicus's son and colleague, the emperor Michael IX., in 1305. His adventurers (known as the Catalan Grand Company) declared war upon Andronicus, and, after devastating Thrace and Macedonia, conquered the duchy of Athens and Thebes. From 1320 onwards the emperor was engaged in war with his grandson Andronicus (see below). He abdicated in 1328 and died in 1332. ANDRONICUS III. (c. 1296-1341), eastern Roman emperor, was the son of Michael, son of Andronicus II. His conduct during youth was so violent that, after the death of his father Michael in 1320, his grandfather resolved to deprive him of his right to the crown. Andronicus rebelled; he had a powerful party, and the first period of civil war ended in his being crowned and accepted as colleague by his grandfather, 1325. The quarrel broke out again and, notwithstanding the help of the Bulgarians, the older emperor was compelled to abdicate, 1328. During his reign Andronicus III. was engaged in constant war, chiefly with the Turks, who greatly extended their conquests. He annexed large regions in Thessaly and Epirus, but they were lost before his death to the rising power of Servia under Stephen Dusan. He did something for the reorganization of the navy, and re- covered Lesbos and Chios from the Genoese. He died in 1341. ANDRONICUS OF CYRRHUS, Greek astronomer, flourished about 100 B.C. He built a horologium at Athens, the so-called " tower of the winds," a considerable portion of which still exists. It is octagonal, with figures carved on each side, repre- senting the eight principal winds. A brazen Triton on the summit, with a rod in his hand, turned round by the wind, pointed to the quarter from which it blew. From this model is derived the custom of placing weathercocks on steeples. ANDRONICUS OF RHODES (c. 70 B.C.), the eleventh scholarch of the Peripatetics. His chief work was the arrangement of the writings of Aristotle and Theophrastus with materials supplied to him by Tyrannion. Besides arranging the works, he seems to have written paraphrases and commentaries, none of which is extant. Two treatises are sometimes erroneously attributed to him, one on the Emotions, the other a commentary on Aristotle's Ethics (really by Constantine Palaeocappa in the 16th century, or by John Callistus of Thessalonica). .. ANDROPHAGI (Gr. for " man-eaters "), an ancient nation of cannibals north of Scythia (Herodotus iv. 18, 106), probably in the forests between the upper waters of the Dnieper and Don. They were most likely Finns (Samoyed has the same meaning) and perhaps the ancestors of the Mordvinians (q.v.). PRINTED IN U.S.A.